Die Creol taal
250 years of Negerhollands texts
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort
bron Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal. 250 years of Negerhollands texts. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam 1996
Zie voor verantwoording: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/ross026creo01_01/colofon.htm
© 2007 dbnl / Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort VII
Preface
The present book is an anthology of texts in Negerhollands, the now extinct creole language of the current US Virgin Islands (St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix) which must have been spoken for at least 250 years. In spite of the fact that the Virgin Islands (originally so named by Columbus) have been a Danish protectorate for over two centuries, their main inhabitants at the time of emergence of the Negerhollands language were Dutch plantation owners and their slaves, who were originally from West Africa. This explains why the largest part of the Negerhollands lexicon is of Dutch origin, and why in other components the language displays African traits, and characteristics that are similar to those of many other creole languages in the Caribbean. The Dutch-based creole language of the US Virgin Islands is referred to by several names. In The Netherlands it usually goes by the name of Negerhollands (‘Negro-hollandic’), as originally christened by van den Bergh in 1840, analogous to, for instance, Neger-Engels (‘Negro-English’) and Neger-Frans (‘Negro-French’), and used in the important publications of Hesseling and de Josselin de Jong. In works written in English, Creole Dutch or Virgin Islands Dutch Creole can also be found. As noted in de Josselin de Jong's publications, the native Virgin Islanders call the language die how Creol (Negerhollands for ‘the old Creole’), which means: the language of former days, which is not spoken any more. When in 1736 Negerhollands was first called Carriolse (‘Creole’) (see e.g. Stein 1982a), it became the first language to be called a creole language. Later on in the 18th century, Danish and German missionaries called it die Creol spraak or die Creol taal (both Negerhollands for ‘the Creole language’). Since the latter was the first one mentioned in the more significant translations, we have chosen it to be the main title of our book. Because of the association of this book with its predecessors, Hesseling's Het Negerhollandsch der Deense Antillen and de Josselin de Jong's Het Huidige Negerhollandsch, and because this name is already in use in the field of Creole linguistics, we have used the name Negerhollands for the language which is the subject of this publication. This anthology consists of a wide variety of texts from different periods in history. It grew originally out of a project to create a computerized databank of 18th-century manuscripts in Negerhollands. These manuscripts were produced by the Moravian mission and recently rediscovered in the Moravian archives in Herrnhut by Peter Stein. The project, which was carried out by the editors of this book, extended over more than two years, from September 1991 to December 1993, during which some 2000 manuscript pages and 500 printed pages were entered into the computer, in a diplomatic edition that stayed as close to the originals as possible. As these manuscripts are in a state of decay and will probably share the sad fate of innumerable documents in innumerable archives around the world, they have been put on microfilm. Photocopies made from these films formed the material that the editors used in the transcription. The reasons for building this digital database of Negerhollands are two-fold: first, the manuscripts themselves deserve preservation from total obliteration; secondly, the unique linguistic material that they contain has to be made accessible for research into
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal VIII creole languages. Preservation in a digital form has several advantages, the main one of which is that it makes possible automated search procedures. The outcome of the whole project also has its disadvantages, however. One important one is that a publication in a digital format is not as accessible to the wider public as a book can be. Furthermore, the database consists almost exclusively of bare 18th-century Negerhollands texts, which may be difficult to work with even for creole language specialists. These were the main reasons for the present annotated publication of a selection of these manuscripts in book format. Inspired by Creole Drum, the anthology of Surinamese Creole literature edited by Jan Voorhoeve and Ursy Lichtveld (1975) and now a collectors' item, we wished to place the Moravian texts in a wider linguistic and historical context. This resulted in a collection of material containing a great variety of texts from different historical phases. This volume can also be seen as a tribute to Dirk Christiaan Hesseling who in 1905 published the first anthology of Negerhollands texts, based on what was available at the time. This work consists of three parts: the introduction, the texts and the bibliography. In the introduction, edited by Pieter Muysken, Negerhollands and the interest in this language will be dealt with. The main subjects contain important historical and linguistic information like the genesis of the language, the 18th-century variety of Negerhollands and variation within the Negerhollands material. The main part of this publication consists of texts. The texts presented here cover nearly the whole period of existence of Negerhollands, and we hope that their chronological order reflects the historical development of the language itself. This anthology furthermore contains texts of as many different types as possible, with which we hope to have captured also the full range of actual stylistic and sociolinguistic varieties of the former Negerhollands language. Next to passages from manuscripts, we have also included sections from rare printed sources. At the end of the second part of this anthology, we present some field notes Frank Nelson made in the 1930s and some transcriptions of recordings Gilbert A. Sprauve and Robin Sabino made of stories told by the last native speaker of Negerhollands, Mrs. Alice Stevens. The third part of this book is the annotated bibliography of manuscripts and printed publications in and about Negerhollands. It is partly based on the bibliography Peter Stein published in Amsterdam Creole Studies (1986) and is an attempt to present as comprehensive a list as possible of publications and documents pertaining to the Negerhollands language. In the interpretation of the Negerhollands material in all its aspects, for example the etymology of the lexicon, phonological properties, historical development, etc., we have drawn extensively upon the expertise of Hans den Besten, as becomes apparent from the footnotes. Peter Stein, who is without a doubt the one who knows the most about the Negerhollands letters, selected some of them for this anthology and wrote the introductions in the pertinent section. All Negerhollands material that does not represent a literal translation of parts of the Bible is provided with an English translation at the end of each subsection. We regret that this sometimes necessitates leafing back and forth a bit, but it turned out to be unavoidable. The difficult work of rendering of the Negerhollands texts and the
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal IX glosses into free translations was done by Pieter Muysken. All texts are furthermore accompanied by literal morpheme-by-morpheme translations in English, placed directly under the corresponding Negerhollands morphemes. Many readers will ask why the Negerhollands language is not presented in Dutch, since this is its lexifier language which at the same time would allow us to leave many things untranslated. On the other hand one could think of German or Danish because those were the native languages of the people responsible for the documentation of the language, who also played an important role in the history of the Islands and their inhabitants. However, there are several reasons for presenting the Negerhollands language through the medium of English. In the first place, apart from the fact that a bare presentation of the texts would not contribute to their analysis in a consistent manner, we have personally experienced that leaving the Negerhollands untranslated would require too much of even the Dutch non-specialist. Secondly, few Dutch, or Danish, or German speakers understand the other two languages sufficiently well, while many know English. Furthermore, not many English-speaking creole linguists are familiar enough with Dutch to be able to interpret the Negerhollands material easily without a translation. Yet the most important reason for choosing English as the ‘meta-language’ is that Negerhollands is primarily part, of the cultural heritage of the Virgin Islands. The accessibility of the published Negerhollands material should therefore in the first place concern the inhabitants of the Virgin Islands, who display a great interest in their heritage and who mainly speak English Creole and English. Negerhollands being an extinct language, the Virgin Islanders deserve access to it in the language best known to them, which is English. The original database project of 18th-century Negerhollands manuscripts was financed by the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research (NWO, Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek) and the P.J. Meertens-Institute for Dialectology, Folklore/European Ethnology and Onomastics (P.J. Meertens Instituut voor Dialectologie, Volkskunde en Naamkunde), which is an institute of the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences (KNAW, Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen). The project was carried out at the Institute for General Linguistics of the University of Amsterdam, under the supervision of Hans den Besten (University of Amsterdam), Pieter Muysken (University of Amsterdam) and Peter Stein (University of Regensburg). It will be clear that the supervisors of the original project also played an essential role in the realization of the present anthology. For the acquisition of several sources of Negerhollands texts, we were additionally helped by Professors Frank Nelson, Robin Sabino and Gilbert A. Sprauve, who generously contributed their field notes to this anthology, and by Frau Pastorin Baldauf from the Archiv der Brüder-Unität in Herrnhut and Paul Olsen of the Rigsarkiv in Copenhagen, who pointed out the whereabouts of several documents to us and let us work in their archives. Furthermore, providing the Negerhollands texts with morphemic glosses was greatly facilitated by the interlinear text analysis programme ‘Shoebox’ developed by the Summer Institute of Linguistics. For realignment of the
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal X glosses after manipulation of character size we could turn to the software developed by Rolandt Tweehuysen of the Institute for General Linguistics in Amsterdam. Most of the illustrations were provided by the Public Record Office of Utrecht and the University Library of Amsterdam. We are grateful for the help we had in finding and photographing the originals. The University Library of Amsterdam supported the edition of this anthology by waiving the usual compensation for reproduction rights. Finally, the publication of this book also became possible through partial financial support from NWO, and technical assistance from the Institute for the Functional Study of Language and Language Use (IFOTT). We gratefully acknowledge the help of these people and institutions, and take the responsibility for all errors which may remain.
Amsterdam, 14 November 1995
The editors,
Cefas van Rossem Hein van der Voort
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XI
Abbreviations
Du. Dutch Eng. English Ge. German NH. Negerhollands Port. Portuguese Sp. Spanish
English glosses1
ACC Accusative suffix (non-Negerhollands forms) ASP Aspect particle (le, lo) BE Copular verb ‘to be’ (bin, wees) BAAS Usual form to address a minister of the Moravian Brethren. DAT Dative suffix (non-Negerhollands forms) DEM Demonstrative (deese) DET Determiner (die) DIM Diminutive (is not necessarily productive) DUR Durative marker (lo) EMP Emphatic element (da) FOR Complementizer, Purposive conjunction FUT Future tense (sal, sa, lo) GEN Genitive marker/affix (non-Negerhollands forms) HAB Habitual aspect (le) MOD Modality particle (lo, lolo, sa(l)) NA Multifunctional preposition NEG Negation (no) PL Plural (usually non-Negerhollands forms) PRF Perfective aspect (ka, kabba) PRG Progressive aspect (lo) PST Past tense (a) RED Reduplication TMA Tense, mood or aspect marker 1SG First person singular pronoun 2PL Second person plural pronoun
1 Between brackets examples of Negerhollands words which were represented in the interlinear translation by the abbreviations.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XII
3POS Third person singular possessive pronoun (si, sie, shi) 3REF Third person singular reflexive pronoun (si, sie, shi). (See Comments) - This represents the continuation of a word on the previous line. The proper gloss is generally under the first part of the word. *** Meaning of the form is unknown to us.
Diplomatic symbols
The Negerhollands material, whether printed or manuscript, is presented unaltered. We have stayed as close to the original as possible and have not corrected spelling mistakes, etc. In fact, we have attempted to make a diplomatic edition of the Negerhollands material. This implies that we did not omit any information which can be rendered in a printed form, e.g. corrections by the author, original footnotes, etc. We kept various types of information by way of a consistently applied system of diplomatic symbols. Below, we list the symbols used2:
1. Additions
a added on the line
2. Omissions
[-a] a deleted [-*.*] deleted and illegible [-a] a deleted, b added on line [-a]
2 These symbols are based on the ones proposed by Verkruijsse (1973-1974).
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XIII
3. Replacement
[a+] a is overwritten by b
4. Uncertain readings
*a* a is uncertain a*b* b behind a is uncertain *...(?)* uncertain whether something is written *word* whole word is uncertain A/a uncertain whether upper case A or lower case a is intended a/b uncertain whether a or b is intended ab\cd uncertain whether ab and cd are written as one
Because of the automatic glossing, if it was uncertain whether two words were written as one they were split apart. The diplomatic symbol is in those cases mostly added to the second part.
5. Other metagraphic notations and remarks
In case of uncertain readings, we used one dot per illegible character, and in case of doubt about the number of characters, a question mark is added.
Two horizontal bars with one space between symbolizes blank space on the line: ||.
If synonyms or alternative expressions are given in the manuscript by placing them over or under one another, we represented this as follows: na|in ‘NA|in’ (where na is the upper form and the alternative form in is the lower).
Remarks about torn paper, note reference symbols lacking a note, etc. are placed between dollar signs: $..$.
The symbol for ‘addition on a following page’ only occurs with footnotes which continue on the next page, so this symbol only occurs as embedded in another note sign:
Moravian missionary Böhner, who produced several large manuscript translations, sometimes makes use of asterisks and brackets. Also, he uses slashes in some cases. Our diplomatic use of slashes occurs only in between asterisks, and it can therefore be distinguished from Böhner's use.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XIV
Abbreviations in the manuscript: double characters are sometimes represented in the manuscript by a single character with a horizontal bar over it. Here, we wrote all abbreviated forms out in full, but we have kept the paleographic information by underlining the omitted parts, e.g. mamma ‘mother’.
We made use of underlinings in three different cases in the manuscripts: 1) In case of abbreviations like Johs: we write Johannes; 2) In case of double characters, often indicating lengthening, which is symbolized by Böhner as a horizontal bar above the character to be doubled, as in hop̄o ‘up’: we write the doubled character underlined: hoppo; 3) In case of umlaut which is often symbolized by Böhner with a small e over the concerned character, as in koenig ‘king’: we represent the umlaut by placing the small e underlined behind die concerned character: koenig. When the German umlaut sign is used, we did so as well: könig. There is no overlap between umlaut and lengthening (doubling): gemākt ‘made’ > gemaakt; Judaea > Judaea; but overlap between umlaut and abbreviation occurs sometimes: koenig > koenig; sendre > sender, but we did not regard this as problematic.
General conventions
We have chosen to leave intact the original size of the lines in the manuscripts. Also, we chose not to repair ‘broken off’ words, but we left hyphens or spaces in their original place as they may be useful in e.g. research of Negerhollands prosody. These decisions necessitated the use of the minus sign (-) in the glosses by which we want to indicate that the pertinent form belongs to the last ‘word’ of the previous one, under which the gloss can be found. In some cases, the gloss is put under the second part when it contains the stem of a form.
The translation of morphology
Especially in the early texts written by Europeans, bound morphemes (affixes) can be encountered that seem to be used productively. Here, we often find derivational affixes such as diminutive -je/-ki ‘little -’, superlative -st ‘most -’, nominalizing -heid/-skap ‘-ness, -hood’ etc. instead of the analytic creole forms. They are often identical to their Dutch equivalents, both in form and use. It is usually unclear whether they were productive in the variety of Negerhollands known to the authors, or that they came directly from the Dutch superstate model. In the same texts we often also encounter zero-derived (or, conveying the same sense: multifunctional) forms such as dood for ‘dead’ (adjective, Du. dood, dode, dooie), ‘death’ (noun, Du. dood) or ‘die’ (verb, Du. doodgaan, sterven). If Dutch affixes were really productive in Negerhollands, we would also have expected them in such cases.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XV
In this anthology, Dutch morphology is in principle regarded as fossilized, usually translated unanalyzed, and as such not treated as Negerhollands morphology; e.g. hoogste ‘highest’ and not: ‘high.SUP’. With this we did not necessarily mean to imply that Negerhollands should be a language without morphology, or that nothing of the grammar of Dutch could have been transferred to Negerhollands. We did analyze some morphology originating from Dutch, as if it were part of Negerhollands grammar. Especially in the plural formation of the nouns there is much variability. The Dutch inflectional plural markers -s/-en are as often present as they are lacking, and they are even used regularly in combination with the equally frequent Negerhollands analytical plural morpheme sender/sen ‘they’, e.g. die jüngers sender ‘DET apostle.PL 3PL’ (meaning ‘the apostles’). We have left it an open question whether plural inflection is productive in Negerhollands or not. Where English plural glosses are encountered, the Negerhollands word is not marked for plural itself, e.g. gebeente ‘bones’, or an equivalent expression, e.g. danki ‘thanks’. Of Negerhollands compositions which do not exist in English, the morphemes or words are bound by a point, e.g. voetbank is glossed as foot.stool. Negerhollands compositions of which the morphemes or words are bound by a hyphen, are glossed alike, e.g. quaat-doenders is glossed as evil-doer.PL.
The translation of prepositions
In particular, prepositions are often not easily glossed. Generally, Negerhollands prepositions have the same semantic properties as their formal equivalents in Dutch, e.g. op means both ‘up’ and ‘on’ in Negerhollands and Dutch. And both prepositions op and aan are represented in English by ‘on’, both for Negerhollands and Dutch. The situation is symbolized by the following figure:
Consequently, we provided these and other prepositions with only one translation, leaving the correct interpretations for future researchers to establish. The inventory of (ambiguous) prepositions encountered and the glosses we used is listed below:
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XVI
Preposition Meaning Gloss aan on, to on by with, at, by, through at bovo above, up, on, over above bovenst upper, top upper door by, through through om for, to to onder below, under, among under op on, up up over over, about, in (time) over ut out, out of out van of, from of
The preposition na is dealt with below.
The translation of homonyms
Negerhollands words of a bicategorical status, which is the usual case with lexical words, e.g. leev ‘live (verb), life (noun)’, are glossed only in one way, here ‘live’ (viz. our remark on dood under morphology). Another example is fraj ‘good, nice (ADJ), well (ADV)’, which we chose to gloss as ‘good’. True homonyms, such as lief ‘body, dear, love’, are translated in the sense corresponding with the context of their use. (As it was sometimes difficult to be strictly consistent in giving a single translation, we did the same with words like enigste ‘only, any’, leer ‘learn, teach, doctrine’, raad ‘advice, council’.) One exception is kom which means both ‘come’ and ‘become’: because word is also used for ‘become’, although often also as a passive auxiliary, we translated kom only as ‘come’. Since the productivity of word as a grammatical marker of the passive remains questionable, it is just translated as ‘become’ and not with an abstract grammatical symbol like ‘PASS’.
Expressions
The texts also contain many calques on Dutch expressions, e.g. woon onder, which apparently in both languages means ‘live among’. We opted for a literal translation, here ‘live under’, and made a comment on the expression in a footnote.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XVII
Comments on specific glosses a represents the indefinite article een, disregarding English morphophonology. Another meaning of een is ‘one’, either in the sense of a numeral or as an indefinite person pronoun. If the context did not help to solve the ambiguity, we translated een as ‘a’. as The word as was found in Negerhollands with three meanings: ‘as’ (Dutch als, as), ‘when’ (Dutch wanneer) and ‘than’ (Dutch als, as, dan). In combination with so it has the meaning ‘like’. We refrained from interpreting and translated it in all cases as ‘as’. (In Dutch, the word for ‘if’ is also als, as).
BE represents the verb ‘to be’ in its suppletive forms bin and wees and its spelling variants.
DEM is a demonstrative pronoun, usually deese, which in Negerhollands as well as in Dutch can have a singular or plural interpretation: ‘this, these’.
DET can be seen as determiner, representing Negerhollands di or die, which originates from the Dutch demonstrative and relative pronoun die ‘that (one), (relative) who, which’. DET abstracts over its possible use as a determinate article or relative pronoun, and it enables us to avoid the problem of its possible demonstrative sense, which is the only sense determiner die has in Dutch. In some cases, diegeen, diejeen ‘the one [+human]’ may have preserved a demonstrative sense, ‘that one, he’. Also, it may have a plural meaning in both cases: ‘those’. To stay away from speculations about the author's intentions, we translated NH diegeen, diejeen as ‘DET.one’.
FOR possibly comes from Dutch voor ‘for’, which can be used in substandard or dialectal Dutch as a purposive complementizer, normally in combination with the infinitival marker te: voor te ‘for to’ (rare in NH, only the early variants, as in the Poppo fragment (see section II, 1.1): vor tú). In Negerhollands, forms corresponding to for do not require such an extra complementizer to introduce a purposive clause. Other possible interpretations of NH for/vor/voor are as a modal auxiliary (ju no for du die ‘you are not to do that/it’) or prepositional, like locative ‘in front of’ or beneficial ‘for (someone)’. Unlike Du., but like Eng., NH for can also have the sense of ‘because’.
NA is from Dutch naar ‘to’ (historically also spelled na) or na ‘after’, perhaps Portuguese na, a contraction of em a ‘in the’, or it has an African origin. The Dutch preposition has several directional interpretations in Dutch, and in Negerhollands (as in West- and French-Flemish) its functional range is even wider, including directional as well as locative and non-prepositional uses, e.g. introducing a benefactive argument. To sum up, Negerhollands na has according to the context the following different equivalents; ‘to, on, in, at, after,
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XVIII
by’. This highly multifunctional preposition na also occurs in combination with localizers as inessive binne ‘(being) inside’, which sometimes gives it an illative sense: nabinne ‘(being or going) inside’. Because these parts also occur independently of each other, but with possibly the same meanings, we translated both either just for themselves (‘NA’ and ‘inside’), or when written together we analyzed it as ‘NA.inside’. In the same way all occurrences of na, either in a compound or not, are translated as ‘NA’.
NEG represents a negation either in the form of ‘no’ or ‘not’. The concept ‘nothing’ may be expressed in NH as no ... (een) ... goed ‘not (a) thing’, or as geen ‘not one, none’. We chose to translate geen as ‘NEG.one’, in analogy with diegeen ‘DET.one’. so The word so is found in Negerhollands with three meanings: ‘so’ (DU zo), ‘as’ (DU zo, as in zo gauw als ‘as soon as’) and ‘such’ (DU zo, as in zo als ‘such as, like’, zo een ‘such a’). Also this form is translated in an identical manner in all cases: ‘so’. Here, the Dutch form is also identical in all senses.
3PL not only represents the personal pronoun of third person plural, but also the analytical plural marker, which is etymologically derived from the former.
3POS 3REF is a form with different possible interpretations: the third person singular (reflexive) pronoun and the third person singular reflexive possessive pronoun (si, sie, shi). They were likely homonyms, and we have interpreted, i.e. translated, it depending on the context. Note that the form of the personal pronoun, for insta/nce, third person (NH. em), can also be used as a reflexive (Muysken & Van der Voort 1991, to appear). We glossed it always as 3SG however.
Orthography of the texts of de Josselin de Jong
Since the more or less phonetic orthography of de Josselin de Jong was hard to reproduce in this work, especially the combinations of different accents above one vowel, we have used some simplifications in the spelling as used in Ponelis (1988).
De Josselin de Jong Ponelis ā aa ē ee ī ii ō oo n dot above ng š sh ž zh
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XIX
List of illustrations
AU = Archiv der Brüder-Unität RAU = Public Record Office of Utrecht UBA = University Library of Amsterdam
1. p.1 An example of the first page of ms. 322 (± 1780). Xerox copy. Original: AU NB VII R3, 6f. 2. p.6 Map of the Caribbean. 3. p.24 Portrait of Count von Zinzendorf. RAU R46, 622b. 4. p.36 Friedensthal on St. Croix. From Oldendorp (1770). RAU. 5. p.49 An example of the first page of the manuscript of Zinzendorf's letter (1739). Xerox copy. Original: AU R15 Ba - 1.II.6. 6. p.70 Pages 486-487 of Zinzendorf (1742). 7. p.79 A School of the Moravian Brethren on St. Croix. RAU R46, 550. 8. p.90 Archiv der Brüder-Unität, Herrnhut. 1993. C. van Rossem 9. p.108 St. Thomas. RAU R46, 559. 10. p.119 Sugar. From Rochefort (1665). UBA 438 B 20. 11. p.144 Bethaniën on St. John. RAU R46, 560. 12. p.182 Fragment from ABC-boekje voor die Neger-Kinders. Barby: 1800. 13. p.201 Neu Herrnhut on St. Thomas. From Oldendorp (1770). RAU. 14. p.210 Cassave. From Du Tertre (1667). UBA 447 E 25. 15. p.224 Pages 233-234 of Samleren. Kjøbenhavn: 1788. 16. p.231 Emmaus on St. John. RAU R46, 555. 17. p.253 Sugar. From Du Tertre (1667). UBA 447 E 25. 18. p.266 Neu Herrnhut on St. Thomas. RAU R46, 554.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal XX
I Negerhollands: an introduction
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 1
1 Negerhollands1
Negerhollands is a creole language which emerged in the Virgin Islands around 1700 from the contact between varieties of Dutch and other (African and European) languages. It is now extinct, but it has been preserved in a remarkable collection of manuscripts, from the 18th century onwards. The following illustration represents a late 18th-century manuscript (no. 3.2.2 in Stein 1986b). It is a piece of commentary from an introduction to a Negerhollands creole translation of the Evangelienharmonie, a compilation of the four gospels. The translation was undertaken by Moravian missionary Johann Böhner of the Moravian Brethren, also known as the Herrnhut missionaries, or in German die Evangelische Brüdergemeine. The commentary was written around 1780 in a language he called Creole (Cariolsch, Criolisch or Creolisch), and which has been known as Negerhollands since van den Bergh (1840). In this text, which is addressed to the Moravian slave community of the Virgin Islands and precedes the translation, the writer explains his purpose.2
1. An example of the first page of ms. 3.2.2 (± 1780)
Die ben noe al sommig Jaar geleeden, dat ons DET BE now already some year ago, that 1PL
[Het is nu al enkele (sommige) jaren geleden, dat wij]
1 This introduction has been written conjointly by Hans den Besten, Pieter Muysken, Cefas van Rossem, Peter Stein and Hein van der Voort. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Frank Nelson, Robin Sabino and Gilbert Sprauve. Pieter Muysken edited this text. 2 Below, a transliteration, a morphemic gloss, a line by line Dutch translation to provide a contrast, and a free translation are given. For a list of the abbreviations used in this book, see the section after the table of contents.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 2 a ka Leveer jender een Creol Psalm -Boeki, dat PST PRF supply 2PL a creole hymn -book, that
[jullie een creools psalmboek hebben geleverd, dat] jender a sal kan help vor sing wanneer ons 2PL PST FUT can help FOR sing when 1PL
[jullie zal kunnen helpen zingen, wanneer wij] hab ons versammling -en, sooveel as van jender have 1PL meeting -PL, so.many as of 2PL
[onze bijeenkomsten hebben, zoveel als van jullie] ka leer vor lees, en vor mak gebruk van die PRF learn FOR read, and FOR make use of it
[hebben leren lezen, en om er gebruik van te maken] ookal, wanneer jender sett nabin jender Hoes also, when 2PL sit NA.inside 2PL house
[ook, wanneer jullie in jullie huis zitten] sonder, [-sonder] vor wees na Werk, vor kom be without [-without] FOR BE NA work, FOR come -
[zonder aan het werk te zijn, om bekend te raken] kent met die Psalm -en (of Liederen) known with DET hymn -PL (or song -PL)
[met de psalmen (of liederen)]
‘It has now already been several years since we provided you with a creole hymnal, that you could help sing when we hold our meetings, as so many of you have learned to read, and to make use of it also, when you are at home not being at work, to become familiar with the hymns (or songs).’
At first glance one is struck by the strong resemblance of the Negerhollands in this text to (older) Dutch. Still, a number of differences come to the fore, e.g. in the word order and the verbal system, which makes use of tense, mood and aspect particles instead of verb inflection. In the glosses we have sometimes used an abbreviation, such as DET ‘determiner’ or 1PL ‘first person plural’ because the Negerhollands forms do not always correspond directly to either an English or a Dutch form. Negerhollands ons, for instance, corresponds to Dutch wij/ons/onze ‘we/us/our’, and Negerhollands die corresponds to ‘it/the/that/which/etc.’, in short, the general notion of determination.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 3
Consider now a fragment from text 59, line 12-14, of the recordings by anthropologist de Josselin de Jong in the early 20th century3:
Am a ko a hus. Am a see a shi shishi, 3SG PST come NA house 3SG PST say NA 3POS sister,
[Hij is thuis gekomen. Hij heeft aan zijn zuster gezegd:] ju kaa trou een man, am mi een beefergi!Nu shi shishi a see 2SG PRF marry a man, 3SG BE a boar.pig Now 3POSsister PST say
[jij bent met een man getrouwd, hij is een varken. Nu zei zijn zuster] nu a waa! Di jung a see am: jaa, as ju nu gloo NEG be true. DET boy PST say 3SG yes, if 2SG NEG believe
[het is niet waar. De jongen zei haar: ja, als je me niet gelooft] mi sa wis ju wapi ju kaa trou een 1SG FUT show 2SG where 2SG PRF marry a
[zal ik je laten zien waar je een varken getrouwd hebt]
‘He came home. He told his sister: you married a man, who is a pig. His sister said to him: it is not true. The boy said to her: yes, if you don't believe me I will show you where you have married a pig.’
Here the resemblance to Dutch is much more remote, at first glance. Still, it is the same language as the one in the earlier fragment: we notice the same tense and aspect particles a and ka, for instance. As this book is an attempt to document the various phases of Negerhollands and to make texts accessible for those interested, we will return to the differences between these texts, and offer explanations, below in 7.5.
Negerhollands (lit. ‘Negro-Hollandic’) is the original creole language, lexically closely related to Dutch, of the Virgin Islands (St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix). Whereas previously these islands were under Danish rule and were referred to as the Danish Antilles, since 1917 they are a United States colony officially called the US Virgin Islands. Negerhollands emerged as a separate language around 1700 and died out completely only a few years ago, having been gradually replaced by English in the course of the 19th century. Because of the language contact due to the slave trade and plantation system, many creole languages have emerged in the Caribbean. These are characterized by lexicons of European origin: mostly French (e.g. Haitian) and English (e.g. Jamaican), but sometimes Portuguese or Dutch, as in the present case. It is somewhat ironical that in the colonies in the Caribbean that remained Dutch after the Napoleonic wars, the
3 The orthography which is used for the text of de Josselin de Jong is the somewhat normalized one by Ponelis (1988); cf. the section on abbreviations, orthography and notational conventions after the table of contents.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 4 creoles are not lexically related to Dutch. In Surinam the main Creole is Sranan, with an English lexicon, and in the Dutch Antilles Papiamentu, with a Portuguese and Spanish lexicon. Creoles with a Dutch lexicon emerged in (formerly British) Guyana -once a group of Dutch colonies - on the Berbice and Essequibo rivers (Berbice Dutch Creole and Skepi Dutch, respectively) and in the Virgin Islands. From the text cited at the beginning, it becomes clear that the necessity to treat Negerhollands as a separate language in its own right was felt at least as early as 1780.4 Because of missionary activity, it became necessary to study this language seriously. Consequently, its creole nature was noticed, and it was discussed by Moravian Mission historian Oldendorp (1777 [1987:251]), who describes the situation quite graphically:
By the term Creole language I mean the language that is spoken by the Negroes on St. Thomas and St. John and to a certain extent by those on St. Croix. The domain of this language extends not further than these islands. It is not the only Creole language because every European language which is spoken in a corrupted manner in the West Indies is called Creole. So it is that Creole English is spoken by the Negroes of English masters who have come to St. Croix with them from other English islands. The Creole language about which I speak here originated in St. Thomas where Dutchmen, Danes, Brandenburgers (most of whom spoke Low German), and Frenchmen lived among one another at the beginning of the Danish settlement. The Negroes learned the language of the masters.
Oldendorp denies, however, that Negerhollands is to be considered a separate language:
Thus, the elements of the Creole language have been drawn primarily from Dutch and Low German. The difference between the Creole and the latter two languages is in the mutilation and misplacement of words and generally in their foreshortening, which occurs primarily in the peculiar kind of alteration and adaptation of nouns and verbs. These characteristics do not seem quite far-reaching enough to cause the Creole to be considered a separate language. Since, however, it is now already so well-established to speak of the Creole as a separate language, it can do no harm to allow the use of that term in this context.
It is quite clear, in retrospect, that Negerhollands did become a separate language and is structurally quite different from Dutch. Before we come back to this matter, we will
4 Actually, the printing of the first booklet in Negerhollands indicates that the independent status of Negerhollands was already acknowledged by the Moravians by 1765 (see section II, 2.2.1). The manuscript evidence goes back even further, namely to 1736.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 5 introduce the islands, their people and their history, insofar as they concern our linguistic purpose.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 6
2 Early History and Demography of the Virgin Islands
To use a traditional opening, in 1493 Columbus gave the Virgin Islands their present-day name and met some Amerindians on St. Croix. The St. Croix Taínos were subsequently decimated by genocide and epidemics (see Sale 1991, Taylor 1977). A more comprehensive work on the Taínos was produced by Rouse (1992). From 1600 onward the islands were being populated by Europeans of various descent and slaves imported from Africa. The year 1653 marked the founding of the Danish West-Indian Company, and hence the (late) entry of Denmark into the European colonizing efforts.
2. Map of the Caribbean
In 1665 the first attempt was made by the Danish to settle on the island of St. Thomas, the most sought-after of the three Virgin Islands because of its natural harbour, but it was without success. In 1671 the Danish West-Indian Company obtained a monopoly over St. Thomas, and in 1672 the Danish colonization proper of the island began, with 113 inhabitants. The Danes surely were not the first European settlers of the island, but we lack precise information on what happened before their arrival. The island seems to have been abandoned and uninhabited when the Danish settlers arrived.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 7
The English had been raiding, among others, the Dutch Windward Antilles since 1666. Shortly afterwards a group of Dutch planters, who had fled from St. Eustatius to escape from the English (Goslinga 1971), settled on St. Thomas. According to Goodman (1985), they possibly brought a Dutch pidgin or creole with them, spoken by their slaves, although Sabino (1990) argues that the number of slaves brought along was probably very limited. It is also not unlikely that a pidgin or creole based on African, Dutch and other languages was used around the European forts on the West African coast (see Tonkin 1971). There the slaves were held in confinement by Dutch and other slave traders for some time up to six months or longer, until enough were gathered to fill a slave ship for the Caribbean. There are reports of West Africans who had learnt English and Dutch (Ardener 1968). However, no data of a possible Dutch-influenced contact language in West Africa have been found yet. At the height of Dutch activity in West Africa, the lingua franca was an already extant Portuguese pidgin. It was only replaced by West African Pidgin English when the English became dominant. Now consider for a moment the constitution of the European population of the Virgin Islands in what is taken to be the formative period of Negerhollands. In 1688, when the first official census was held, there were 422 slaves in St. Thomas, as noted above, and 317 whites, among which there were (see Arends & Muysken 1992, and for an inventory based on slightly different figures Stein & Beck forthcoming):
66 Dutch households 32 English 20 Danish 8 French 3 German 3 Swedish 1 Holstein 1 Portuguese
These figures show that the slaves were faced with a potentially very heterogeneous primary ‘target’ language, dominated by Dutch (mainly in Zealandic and Flemish varieties). We can also expect English and Danish (lexical) influences, and those turn out to be there as well. On the basis of archival research, Sabino concludes in her dissertation (1990) that in 1692 already a fifth of the slave population consisted of children born in St. Thomas. This is a relatively fast development, especially when considering that in Suriname for instance there was only a large group of locally born slaves after one century of colonization. We should also consider the homogeneity of the slave population of that time. Often they were abducted from various places far away from the West African coast. According to Feldbaek & Justesen (1980) the large majority of the slaves imported in the period between 1672 to 1739, the formative period of Negerhollands, consisted of Twi-speaking Akan. Nevertheless we do not find clear traces of this Akan influence.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 8
In fact, Sabino (1988) hypothesises that Ewe-speakers constituted the most important group in terms of African lexical substrate influence. One might assume that Negerhollands would become a creole language diverging rather strongly from Dutch, judging by the relatively short period between colonization and the emergence of a locally born slave community. There was no time for a very gradual acculturation of the imported slaves to the colonial languages and cultures. We should point to the fact, however, that apparently the natality figure (the number of children being born) of the population was so high (which also transpires from Sabino's data) that a creole emerged which was quite close to Dutch. It must have been the locally born slaves who created Negerhollands, and they would have learned better Dutch than the newly arrived. If we accept the theory of Goodman (1985) that Negerhollands perhaps emerged gradually in St. Eustatius before being taken to St. Thomas, then it is clear that internal migration (i.e. inside the Caribbean) played an important role in the genesis of Negerhollands. The sudden impulse of an established group of Negerhollands-speaking slaves at the beginning of the Virgin Islands colony could have been the decisive factor. We saw above that in 1688 the slave population in St. Thomas outnumbered the white population. In 1725 their number had increased to 4490. In 1717 St. John came under Danish occupation, but by 1721, 25 of 39 planters on St. John were Dutchmen, and only nine Danes (Hall 1992:11). It was reported quite soon that the slaves on that island also spoke Negerhollands, which is perhaps an indication that the creole must have already existed early in the 18th century. In 1733 St. Croix was bought by the Danes from the French, but by 1741 there were already five times as many English on the island as Danes (Hall 1992:13). The Danes asked the Herrnhut missionaries to participate in the colonization of St. Croix, but they were unable to do so; the majority of the settlers in 1733 were Moravians, but many became ill and soon passed away due to the climate. Thus, Negerhollands came to be used much less here than on the other two Danish Antilles, and an English creole emerged. Nevertheless, there are a few Creole slave letters from that island (see II, 1.2.6). Some decades later, the resulting language situation in the three Virgin Islands was summarized (in Negerhollands) by the Moravian missionary Auerbach (1774) as follows:
Die hab well twee drie onder die swart Volk, die sender a leer voor verstaan beetje van die hollandisch Taal, as sender woon na die Stadt, en hoor die ider Dag van die Blanko, maar die Plantey-Volk no kan vor verstaan die soo. Doch, die no sal maak een Verhinder, as die lieve Broeer will skriev eenmaal na sender, maski die ben Hollandisch of na die Hoogduytsch, soo die sal maak sender moeschi bli, en ons sal lees die Brief voor sender na Creol. Na St. Croix die hab meer van die Negers, die sender kan verstaan English, as na St. Thomas en St. Jan, maar doch sender English Praat ka mingel ook altoeveel met die Creol- en Guinee-taal... Da Neger-English die ben.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 9
‘There are some among the black people who have learned to understand a bit of the Dutch language, as they live in town, and hear it every day from the whites, but the plantation folk cannot understand it. This should not be an impediment if the dear brethren will write to them some time, albeit in Dutch or High German, for this will make them very happy, and we will read the letter for them in Creole. On St. Croix there are more blacks who can understand English than in St. Thomas and St. John, but still their English speech is mixed very much with the Creole and Guinea languages. It is Negro-English.’
We conclude our historical sketch at this point as the Negerhollands language is definitively established and documented. The history of the Virgin Islands after the formative period will be detailed in various places. It is related to the sociolinguistic development of Negerhollands in sections 5 and 7.4. It is also dealt with in relation to the history of the missions and their consequences in section 6. For further reading about the history of the Virgin Islands, we refer among others to Brøndsted (1953), Degn (1974) and Hall (1992).
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 10
3 Negerhollands and Creole studies
Unlike other languages, creole languages are by definition languages of which we know when and (in some cases) how they emerged as separate linguistic systems: that is, when peoples speaking mutually unintelligible languages come into contact, the possible creole emerging from this contact could not have existed before. This gives us a unique opportunity to study aspects of the process of language birth and its results, particularly in the case of the relatively recent creole languages, such as those that developed on plantations in the Caribbean under European occupation. The study of language birth can provide us with important insights into how linguistic systems in general are constituted and what is needed to make them function adequately as systems of human communication. In addition, the circumstances of language birth can tell us something about the drastic linguistic change and innovation which may take place in situations of language contact. Thus, many characteristics of the European languages which provided the vocabulary for creole languages are not at the same time reflected in the structure of these languages. So when creole languages came into being, only certain components of other languages were transferred, whereas particular other linguistic components of creoles do not originate from either one of the languages in contact. For this reason, creole languages cannot be seen as (defective) varieties of contributing other languages. This has been the reason for the emergence of a separate subdiscipline: creole studies. As language structure, function and ecology became central concerns of linguistics, creole studies moved from the not-quite-respectable fringes of historical linguistics at the beginning of this century towards the center of linguistic research. The creole languages do not constitute a family in the sense of historical linguistics, although some of them are clearly related. A common way to classify them is in terms of the language that has contributed most of the vocabulary. Thus, we have creoles based on African languages, and on the major colonial languages such as French, English, and Portuguese. Most of these languages are spoken in the Caribbean, West Africa, the Indian Ocean, South East Asia, and the Southern Pacific. There are several hundred pidgin and creole languages known. The term pidgin refers to a contact language that is not spoken natively in any speech community. Contrasting creoles with pidgins, we can define creoles as contact-induced languages which are spoken as the mother tongue of a speakers' community. Pidgins are by definition acquired as a second language. The theory that creole languages are the result of the acquisition of pidgins as a first language is widely accepted but hardly proven. While they are not related in historical terms, creole languages have often been thought of as belonging to one typological class. In the following section a number of ‘typical creole features’ will be mentioned. However, in recent years attention has shifted to the grammars of individual languages and to the study of areas in which the creole languages differ from each other structurally.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 11
While five major European languages have been involved in creole genesis, the Ibero-Romance (Portuguese and Spanish) and the Dutch-based creoles have been underrepresented in research. Most of the insights gained so far derive from English-and French-lexicon creoles. This bias has several serious consequences. First, the fate of a number of potentially very interesting grammatical features of Ibero-Romance and Dutch (e.g. word order, optional subject pronouns, verb clusters and verbal particles) under creolization has remained unstudied so far. Second, the groups of both Ibero-Romance and Dutch creoles are much less homogeneous, structurally, than the English and French creoles. Therefore, the fact that so many English and French creoles resemble each other may be due to accidental reasons of historical relatedness rather than to properties of the process of creole genesis as such. In addition, the field of creole studies has remained surprisingly a-historical, given its strong conceptual links with historical linguistics, and the consensus among creolists that the actual socio-historical circumstances of creole genesis must have been crucial for their formation. While it is clear that the earliest available documentary sources for creoles should be examined if we want to gain an insight into the field, these have remained relatively inaccessible and unstudied. In recent publications (e.g. Carden and Stewart, 1988; Arends, 1989) the question was brought up of whether creole genesis is a gradual or a single-generation phenomenon. The study of early texts makes it possible to be much more confident regarding statements about which grammatical structures early creoles did or did not have, and to what extent the stabilization of the creole languages was an extended process. The substantial collection of 18th-and 19th-century Negerhollands manuscripts and edited texts (Stein, 1982a,b, 1985, 1986a,b,c, 1989, 1991), the folk tales recorded at the beginning of this century (de Josselin de Jong 1926), and recent recordings of which this book gives an overview makes it possible to look at the language in its historical context and to study its development.
Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 12
4 Negerhollands: a brief sketch
Without pretending to be either complete or original we shall now illustrate a few features of Negerhollands, in part through the analysis of a few Negerhollands proverbs from Magens' grammar of 1770. Magens was a Danish citizen born on St. Thomas. His 80 page booklet is written in Danish and is the first ever printed grammar of a creole language. It follows the model of Latin grammar, and it gives a large number of sentence examples, fragments of everyday speech, and proverbs, e.g.:
(1) Pampuen no kan parie Kalbas (1770) Pumpkin NEG can bear Calabash
‘A pumpkin cannot give birth to a calabash.’ Dutch: Een pompoen kan geen kalebas voortbrengen.
Example (1) demonstrates the fixed Subject - Negation - Verbal Complex - Complement word order of Negerhollands. It contrasts with that of Dutch, where the auxiliary kan occupies the second position, and the main verb voortbrengen occurs at the end of the sentences, preceded by the object. There is also a difference with respect to the position of the negation. Generically used nouns, common in proverbs, do not get an article. Notice also the occurrence of both Spanish or Portuguese (together labeled as Ibero-Romance) elements: parie ‘give birth to’ (< parir), and Dutch ones: kan ‘can’. The form no ‘not’ can be both English and Spanish, but the latter is more probable.
(2) Branmierval na Malassie, da sut hem ha vind (1770) Ant fall NA molasses, becausesweet 3SG PST find
‘He gets what he deserves.’
Sentence (2) contains the all-purpose locative preposition na (probably Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 13 (3) am fo lo a hus lo du wa bin da lo wak fo am. (1926) 3SG FOR go NA housego do what be there go wait FOR 3SG ‘He has to go home to do what is there waiting for him.’ Consider now another 18th-century proverb: (4) Hunder wil si Kikkentje alteveel. Chicken want 3POS chick alltoomuch ‘(S)he loves her/his children.’ In (4) we encounter an example of the invariant possessive pronoun si (Negerhollands has no grammatical gender) ( (5) Hogo no hab Deer. eye NEG have door ‘I can't help seeing it.’ Example (5) is given here to illustrate two phonological features: the replacement of Dutch /ö:/ (in Du. deur [dö:r] ‘door’), a marked sound and therefore difficult to learn, by /e:/ in deer and the occurrence of, it appears, an extra vowel in hogo, which yields an (unmarked, i.e. easy to learn and to pronounce) CVCV-pattern5. Such vowels are termed epithetic. Later in this introduction we will return to the issue of whether, and to what extent, Negerhollands has epithetic vowels. (6) Als die Vier ka yt, klein Kint le jump na die Hassesje. When DET fire PRF out little child HAB jump NA DET ashes ‘They do with him/her as they please.’ Example (6) shows that the particle yt ‘out’ can be used as a verb, meaning ‘go out’, unlike Dutch. This type of reinterpretation from a particle to a verb is typical of the relation between a creole language and its lexifier. It is furthermore preceded by the perfective aspect marker ka ( 5 Incidentally, the initial h in hogo, absent in standard Du oog, may well be due to hypercorrection with relation to Zealandic or Flemish. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 14 (7) Gras le gruj na Dootman sie Door. Grass HAB grow NA dead.man 3POS door. ‘Nobody takes care of widows and orphans.’ Here we notice a typical creole possessive construction with both the possessor Dootman preposed to the noun and the resumptive third person possessive sie. While in an earlier example we had deer ‘door’ from Du. deur, here we have the more usual form door (20th century do:/do:r) possibly derived from English, or from the 17th century Du. variant form door. In both of the previous examples there is a particle marking duration or habitual, le, possibly from Dutch leggen ‘lay’. Many descriptions of Negerhollands mention a shift in the tense/mood/aspect system in the course of time, but concentrate only on a change in the lexical items involved. An example is the gradual replacement of the durative marker le by lo, which was accomplished at the beginning of the 19th century. Because of the association of lo with its original verbal meaning ‘go’ ( (8) mi lo lo mankan mi ju (1926) 1SG GO go together with 2SG ‘I will accompany you.’ Another proverb: (9) Mie jammerJu tee mie kries Ju, tee mie neem Steen veeg mie Hogo. 1SG bewail 2SG till 1SG cry 2SG till 1SG take stone wipe 1SG eye ‘I pity you to the point of crying for you, of wiping my eyes with a stone.’ In sentence (9) it is striking that the first person pronoun expressing the subject here, mie, is derived from Du. mij ‘me’, a non-subject form; it is furthermore also used possessively. The preposition or conjunction tee may well derive from Port. até ‘until’, and we see that the verbs jammer and kries can be used transitively (with a human object in this case), which they cannot in the language from which they are derived, namely Dutch. Many originally Du. verbs thus have acquired other syntactic properties. A remarkable feature is also the serial verb construction neem ... veeg ... ‘take ... wipe ...’, in which the object of the verb neem is marked as an instrument. Many researchers connect these constructions with West-African languages. Various authors have tried to argue against the existence of serial verb constructions in Negerhollands. Serial verb constructions do not seem to be used very often in earlier Negerhollands, but we did encounter some instances of it, for example in (10): Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 15 (10) sellie ha loop slaep mit tien yer (1770) 3PL PST walk sleep with ten hour ‘They went to bed at ten o'clock.’ In one reading of this example, ‘walking’ and ‘sleeping’ are to be regarded as separate actions whose sequence and consecutiveness is iconically represented by juxtaposition of the verbs (‘walk and then sleep’). In the more probable serial reading, however, walking has an inchoative meaning, and the construction indicates what in non-serializing languages would be expressed through subordination by means of complementizers and the like (‘start to sleep’). In example (11), different subjects are in play: (11) Em a roep een van die knechten kom bi em (±1780) 3SG PST call one of DET servants come at 3SG ‘He called one of his servants to him(self).’ Although we have not found abundant evidence so far for verb serialization in earlier sources, later sources such as de Josselin de Jong's texts (1926), in (12) and (13), and recent recordings (cf. Sabino, forthcoming) do abound with serial constructions: (12) Ju fo lo wapi di ‘lion’ sinu bi lo sini en fa shi klen 2SG FOR walk where DET lion 3PL BE walk cut one of 3POSsmall fingu, hal di brin ko gi mi (1926) finger get DET bring come give 1SG ‘You must go where the lions are (and) cut one of his little toes (and) bring it for me.’ (13) Am a see shi meester,də kiniƞ loo koo ki am (1926) 3SG PST say 3POS master, DET king ASP come see 3SG ‘He told his master that the king was coming to see him.’ In fact, when looking at these 20th century sources of Negerhollands, they give a much more Creole-like impression than the 18th-century sources do (although of course the fact that the 18th-century sources use Dutch orthography is very deceptive). We can at least distinguish ‘complementizer’ serial verbs roep ... kom in (11), aspectual loop ... slaep in (10), directional brin ... ko in (12), and benefactive ko ... gi in (12) serial verbs. Before we finish on the subject of serial verbs, however, we would like to point out that in the 18th century their existence was noticed by Oldendorp. In his manuscript dictionary of 1767-8 (published in Stein forthcoming b), he comments under the entry breng, bring ‘to bring’: ‘In general kom is added to it: Mi breng die kom “I bring it” [lit.: I bring DET come]. bring kom mi die hieso “bring it here to me” [lit.: bring come with DET here].’ [our translation]. Notice, by the way, that bring could also be used without kom, as in (14): Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 16 (14) di kining a fraa, apee fa am gut wa am kaa bring (1926) DET king PST ask where FOR 3SG thing what 3SG PRF bring ‘The king asked where is that thing that he has brought.’ The early writers of Negerhollands were European missionaries, who understood the sentences containing serial verbs, but they did not produce them because they may not have been aware of their peculiarity to creole languages. They possibly even avoided using them because they wanted to follow the European model, which lacks serial verb constructions. This was also the case in the letters written by slaves who were taught by the missionaries to write in Dutch. The rarity of occurrence of serial verbs in our 18th-century Negerhollands material may thus in the first place be due to the missionary factor. A proverb illustrating the use of ka again is: (15) Als Volk ka qwaet na Ju, sendergief Ju Makut for tap Water if peoplePRF angry NA 2SG, 3PL give 2SG basket FOR tap water ‘Your enemies will always find something to take revenge.’ Example (15) shows how an etymologically non-verbal element, qwaet ‘angry’, can be used as a predicate ‘become angry’, marked by the verbal particle ka. Literally it says ‘have gotten angry’. A similar example occurred with yt ‘out’ in (6) above. Furthermore, we see the Papiamentu word makut ‘bucket’, and the use of for to form infinitival complements. The forms om and te, characteristic of Dutch non-finite complement clauses, do not occur, and neither does English to. An element such as fu in many creoles is attested to have this function (see Bakker 1987). In example (16) the use of a conjunction meaning ‘for’ can be observed marking infinitive and purposive sentences in the same way: (16) vordaarommi a ka kom voor doop met Water (±1780) therefore 1SG PST PRF come FOR baptize with water ‘Therefore I have come to baptize with water.’ Another proverb illustrates the copular verb (bin), which has been studied in detail by Sabino(1988): (17) mie bin pover Kakelak, mie no hab Regt na Hunderkot 1SG BE poor cockroach,1SG NEG have right NA chicken.coop ‘I must suffer for my poverty.’ The area of copula constructions also relates to other parts of the grammar, such as topicalization (a topicalized constituent is introduced by a copula), tense (early Negerhollands had a past and a non-past form of the copula), and the issue of the distinction between verbs and adjectives. This distinction appears to be blurred in many creole languages which do not distinguish overtly between Mary work and Mary tall. The latter issue is all the more pertinent since in many West African languages which Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 17 may have played a role in the formation of creoles such as Negerhollands, verbs and adjectives belong to the same class. Negerhollands differs, however, from many of the Caribbean creoles (like Berbice Dutch Creole) in that it requires a copular verb (‘to be’) to introduce adjectives in predicative position: (18) a. Di gut mi frai (Negerhollands) DET thing BE nice ‘It is nice.’ b. Idri gu ... bam. (Berbice Dutch Creole. Kouwenberg 1994:118) every thing ... nice ‘Everything ... is nice.’ As mentioned before, Negerhollands follows the ‘creole’ pattern for the ordering of constituents, viz. SVO (Subject-Verb-Object). Surface word order may differ as a result of several processes, of which predicate cleft (verb doubling) is one. Fronted elements in focus constructions are usually introduced by the copula da or dat in Negerhollands, and this seems to be obligatory when the verb is fronted. (19) da slaep mie ka slaep (1770) EMP sleep 1SG PRF sleep ‘I really have slept.’ or ‘It is sleeping that I did (sleep).’ Note that none of the variant forms of the copula, i.e. neither the ‘present tense’ form bi(n)/mi nor the ‘infinitival’ form we:s, can be used to introduce fronted elements, although using a copula-like form in such a position is not unusual among Caribbean creoles. The optionality of plural marking is illustrated in the proverb in (20): (20) Twee slem no kan kook Boontje na een Pot Two smart NEG can cook bean NA one pot ‘No reason to get in each other's way.’ Important here is that two apparently plural nouns appear without overt plural marking, one preceded by a numeral and one used as a substance noun. It is possible to mark plurals in Negerhollands through the use of the third person plural pronoun sender (sinu in 20th century NH): (21) a. die kabaj sender ‘the horses’ b. mit die neeger sender ‘with the Negroes’ However, the plural is used in much more limited contexts than in Dutch: mostly with animates, and not after an explicit quantifying expression such as a numeral. It is important to note that in many 18th-century texts Dutch morphological plurals occur as well. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 18 The apparent resemblances with Dutch, which are emphasized by the spelling used in the proverbs, do not imply that Negerhollands is a sort of Dutch. Even a superficial glance brings to light a number of differences. What is needed is a systematic study of this 18th-century distant cousin of the Dutch dialects from Holland and Zealand, with special attention being paid to the differences that we find between different kinds of Negerhollands and the embedding of the language in the context of a slave society (cf. van Rossem Forthcoming a). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 19 5 The origin of Negerhollands After this short presentation of the main peculiarities of Negerhollands, we now return to its origin, history and development. In section I,2 we have already treated the formative period and the context of its emergence. Before we return to that context, the special multilingual setting of the slave society in a multilingual European settlement, we will discuss the influence of the different source languages and briefly consider the various features of Negerhollands in relation to possible scenarios for its emergence as a language. 5.1 West African influence The extent of West African influence on Negerhollands still needs to be established, but it probably was not as large as on some of the other Caribbean creoles, particularly those of Surinam. We pointed out the presence of serial verbs and predicate cleft constructions in the creole, constructions which are often claimed to be characteristic of West Africa. It also remains hard to estimate the extent to which slaves were induced by the missionaries to ‘de-africanize’ their language (Stein forthcoming a). 5.2 The genesis of Negerhollands and second language acquisition On the basis of what we know of the acquisition of Dutch as a second language by adults, we can explain a number of properties of Negerhollands and establish a plausible scenario for the genesis of the language. Given the demographic facts, we can establish that the first language or mother tongue of the majority of the slaves in the probably decisive initial phase was 17th century Twi and possibly Portugese pidgin and Papiamentu. The possible ‘target’ languages were primarily 17th century spoken Zealandic and Hollandic, and also Danish, English, and French. The resulting creole language shows mainly Zealandic and Hollandic lexical and phonological influence. The features of Negerhollands similar to those of Dutch as a second language are among others: (a) word order, in particular the rigid SVO order of Negerhollands and the absence of postpositions; (b) the choice and semantic features of the tense/mood/aspect particles and of auxiliary verbs; (c) the absence of Dutch er forms in Negerhollands. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 20 To exemplify the last point: in Negerhollands there is no reflex of the Dutch R-pronouns: (22) a. wagut ju wil du mit di what 2SG want do with DET ‘What do you want to do with it?’ cf. Du.: ‘wat wil je ermee doen?’ b. am no weet een gut fan di he NEG know a thing of DET ‘He does not know a thing of it’ cf. Du.: ‘hij weet er niets van’ One way of explaining this is by assuming that the er-pronouns, being phonologically weak, did not survive in the process of second language acquisition. On the other hand, the phonologically strong forms, the Dutch demonstrative R-pronoun daar and the interrogative R-pronoun waar, which are only used with non-human NPs, have also disappeared. This suggests that factors of morphological and positional markedness6 are involved as well. A tentative conclusion could be that the slaves only used those parts of Dutch that they understood, in building up their new language. 5.3 The Zealandic and Hollandic lexifier language An important issue is the precise characterization of the target language varieties. From the seminal work of Hesseling (1905) it appears that Negerhollands must have had Zealandic Dutch as its greatest target language, although Hesseling takes recourse now and then also to related West Flemish dialects (see van Rossem Forthcoming a). Just like Zealandic Negerhollands has /i/ for Du. ij, a diphthong (e.g. ki(k) ‘see, look’ 6 See also example 5 where the term ‘marked’ is used in the same sense as ‘out of the ordinary’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 21 development of the high front vowels from Middle Dutch to Zealandic as in Figure 1 below: 1. The development of the high front vowels from Middle Dutch to Negerhollands. The symbol [y] represents the IPA front round high vowel, and [ʌy] is a diphthong where the [y] is preceded by the centralized back vowel [ʌ], in Dutch orthography The Zealandic target language also explains the West Germanic /u/ in ju ‘you sing.’ and nu ‘now’ instead of the diphthong or /y/ of Standard Dutch jou and nou, nu resp., so that an English etymology for NH ju is unnecessary. Similarly, the West Germanic /u/ instead of regular Zealandic /y/ (or Negerhollands /i/) in words like hus ‘house’ and muši ‘mouse’ does not have to be ascribed to Danish since such irregular variant forms are also attested for Zealandic (cf. van Ginneken 1913). Finally, the Zealandic target language also explains the occurrence of southern Dutch words such as kot ‘cabin’, hofi ‘garden’ and rigibe:n ‘backbone’ (all examples from de Josselin de Jong) or, in the 18th century, kachel ‘foal’ and schuif ‘drawer’ (cf. van Ginneken (1913), who, however, was wrong about the status of neusdoek ‘handkerchief’). Furthermore, 18th-century keer ‘like’ may derive from Zealandic keuren ‘like, please’ rather than from Papiamentu ke(r), kie(r) ‘want, like, love’ (cf. den Besten 1989). Still we have to take into account Hollandic or Standard Dutch as an available target, perhaps in a later stage. The relevant words appear to have to do with town and harbour and with education and religion. De Josselin de Jong (1926) gives a number of words with initial /z/ and /v/ where we would have expected /s/ and /f/ due to Negerhollands devoicing rules, as in se: ‘say’ ( Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 22 texts often have the regularly derived creolized form sondo, with a devoiced s. This may suggest that changes in voicing reflect changes in the target over time.7 Initial /z/ and /v/ are lacking, however, in the list of cardinal numerals in de Josselin de Jong (1926) and Nelson (1936). In the latter source there is an unexpected vowel in the words fɛv ‘five’ and fɛvti:n ‘fifteen’. This corresponds with the use of ei in veif, etc. in Magens (1770) and feif in de Josselin de Jong (1926), which is in accordance with the diphthong.8 5.4 A Portuguese pidgin? In many creoles, even ones lexically unrelated to either Spanish or Portuguese, we find lexical items of Portuguese origin. Examples are the well-known pickaninny ( 5.5 The epithetic vowels: substrate or superstrate influence? A special problem in connection with the Dutch target dialect (the superstrate or main lexifier language) and with possible African (the substrate language) influences is the question of the so-called epithetic vowels in Negerhollands. In some creole languages (e.g. in Surinam) full vowels appear with great regularity at the end of ‘European’ words, and a very regular consonant-vowel-consonant-vowel-pattern emerges (e.g. buku ‘book’). This pattern could have a universal basis in laws of ease of pronunciation, but it is more likely that it is connected to African patterns. 7 Another explanation may be the fact that texts written by the Moravian missionaries reflect the Northern Standard German voiced [z], which at the beginning of the word is written Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 23 Negerhollands also seems to have such epithetic vowels, although we must exclude petrified diminutives as in hofi ‘garden’ ( Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 24 6 The further development of the language Perhaps the most interesting part of Creole languages is their genesis. Unfortunately, this often took place in the 17th century for the Atlantic Creoles, so there is no opportunity to consult recordings or informants, and the use of written material is limited to a small number of texts. Negerhollands is, thanks to the activities of 18th-century missionaries, an exception to this. The corpus the missionaries have left for us consists of a bulk of texts in which the oldest stage can be approached closer than is possible for 3. Portrait of Count von Zinzendorf Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 25 other Creole languages. The manuscripts are not always word by word translations of existing religious texts. Texts which are free compositions (in both the Danish and the Moravian tradition) show that the language is used in a quite natural way. These early sources may be especially helpful in the demystification of the early stages of creolization. We think that the material, in the near future accessible by computer, is very interesting for creolists as well as for linguists with interest in other subjects, like historical linguistics, sociolinguistics and Dutch dialectology. Most of our manuscripts have a religious background and are mostly written or translated by missionaries, particularly the Moravians. From 1765 until 1834 books were printed in Negerhollands. The collection includes various kinds of religious texts, from hymnbooks to catechisms, but also linguistic works. The writers and publishers were usually missionaries originating from Denmark or Germany. 6.1 The Moravian mission in the Virgin Islands The mission of the Moravian Brethren on the Virgin Islands started in 1732 and began to be successful in 1736. The Moravian Brethren originate from the Protestant movement of the Husites (followers of the reformer Jan Hus who was burnt at the Concilium in Konstanz in 1415). They were persecuted, but the movement never ceased completely. In 1722 a group of refugees came to Upper Lusatia, near the present-day borders of Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic, where they founded the town of Herrnhut. Count Zinzendorf, the owner of the land, offered them this opportunity; he then became the first leader of the young community. Herrnhut became and still is the center of the Moravian Brethren; they are therefore also called Herrnhuters or Herrnhuter (or Evangelische) Brüdergemeine (in Dutch Hernhutters and Evangelische Broedergemeente). They started their worldwide missionary work in 1732 on the Danish Virgin Islands; this work covers a wide range of countries, from Greenland to South Africa, from Surinam to the Himalayas (see Beck 1981). Several aspects of their missionary work have a great linguistic interest: (a) They taught the local new members of their community to read and to write (the latter not necessarily to all), so that they would be able to read the Bible, prayers and hymns, and to keep a diary, to communicate by letters with other Moravian communities, etc.; (b) They felt it to be their main task to translate the Bible and all kinds of hymns and prayers into the local language, even if this was not yet a written language; (c) To do this and to help subsequent missionaries to learn the local languages, they prepared dictionaries and grammars of these languages; in several cases those were the first descriptions of the languages ever made; (d) History and documentation of their work formed one of the important tasks. They not only kept regular diaries from the very beginning of their activities, they also preserved nearly all written documents they produced, however insignificant. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 26 The result of all this is that we have a large documentation of the early times of the Moravian mission, descriptions of the local languages and documents about their use. We also have good and valuable information of daily life and problems. For Negerhollands (or carriols, cariolisch, criolisch, creolisch, as they called the language in the first decades of their activities on the Virgin Islands), all of this this means that we have a good documentation in and about that language (cf. Stein 1986b). The documentation of Negerhollands starts with Friedrich Martin's (the leading missionary of the beginning mission) diary notice from 8 November 1736, i.e. only eight months after his arrival on the islands: ‘Br. Cars[tens] war fleissig wolt das neije testament ins carriolse bringen: es ist aber sehr schwer: den sie besteht in all zu vieler Sprachen.’ (Brother Carstens9 was industrious, wants to translate the new testament into the creole; it is very difficult, however, since it consists of too many languages.)10 (See Stein 1982a) This passage is intriguing for different reasons. First, of course, the mentioning of the creole (Negerhollands). This was the first time that the word creole is used anywhere for the language. Second, the suggestion is made that the creole was still very heterogeneons. The first letters written by slaves date from the year 1737; they are still written in Dutch, but with more or less strong creole interference. At the beginning of the year 1739 (30 January to 15 February), Count Zinzendorf visited St. Thomas to see the missionaries and their work. On his departure he addressed a letter to the slave community. This letter was written in creole, the first text we have in Negerhollands. We may assume that Zinzendorf did not write the letter in Negerhollands himself; it probabaly was a white settler, Carstens, in whose house Zinzendorf was staying on St. Thomas, who translated the text into Negerhollands. On his way back, Zinzendorf took with him two letters addressed to the Danish king and the Danish queen. The first was written by some male and female slaves, the second by a slave woman in the name of the female slaves; it is written in the African language of that woman11 and translated into Negerhollands. This was the first time that a creole language was used in diplomatic letters for political purposes. The three letters (including Zinzendorf's) were printed only three years later, in 1742 (Zinzendorf 1742). 9 Johann Lorenz Carstens was no member of the Moravian Brethren, but helped them in several ways. He was the owner of the plantation Muskietenbaai (Mosquito Bay). More about him can be read in Highfield & Barac (1987:285). It seems quite interesting that this man, who sometimes felt bothered by the Brethren's attempts to convert him, tried to translate the New Testament. 10 There are two possible interpretations for this note. In the first place the word Sprachen can be interpreted as ‘dialects’. In this case the interpretation would be ‘it consists of too many dialects [i.e. basilect, acrolect]. The other, more plausible interpretation, is ‘languages’. Now the translation could be: ‘it contains elements from several languages’. 11 As can be read, she was from Popo, which could have been Grand Popo or Little Popo, in the coastal area of today's Togo and Benin. The language of the letter has not been identified yet, but contains elements of the Phla dialect of Ewe (see section II, 1.1.3). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 27 Zinzendorf had provided the example, and the slave community followed him: they began to write letters, first to their ‘brethren and sisters’ in Europe, later on also to the Amerindian community in Pennsylvania. In the Unitäts-Archiv at Herrnhut, around 150 such letters written between 1737 and 1768 have been conserved. A large part of this collection is written in Negerhollands, but in many of the early letters a variety of Dutch with lots of creole elements is used. An annotated edition of these unique documents is now being prepared by Peter Stein and Hartmut Beck. Some of them can be found in section II, 1.2 of the present volume. They may prove to be of great interest in research on the first stages of the emergence of Negerhollands. Stein (forthcoming b) notes for example that the particles ka: ‘perfective aspect’ and le ‘progressive aspect’ were lacking in the slave letters from between 1740 and 1750. This could point to a process of gradual creolization, corresponding to the hypothesis of Arends (1989) and Carden and Stewart (1988). However, it could also reflect the development of a written tradition for Negerhollands as a language separate from Dutch. The early authors in Negerhollands did not know how to interpret Negerhollands particles. Since 1754, handwritten liturgical texts (see e.g. Stein 1982b), sermons and other religious documents in Negerhollands have been preserved. The history of printed Negerhollands starts in 1765 with a hymn-and-prayers booklet by the Moravian Brethren. The last Moravian work in the language, the Evangelienharmonie, was printed in 1833 in New York. The most important of the printed texts was the translation of the New Testament (1802). Besides the religious texts (catechisms, hymns, etc.), there are also a few ABC Boekjes. For a complete bibliography see section III and Stein (1986b). Not all translated texts were also printed. Between 1779 and 1785 the translation of large liturgical texts was carried out by the German missionary Johann Böhner, mentioned at the beginning of this introduction. He translated for instance the Old Testament, a compilation of the Gospel (Evangelienharmonie)12, and the theoretical foundation of the Moravian Brethren's community, Spangenberg's Idea Fidei Fratrum, only one year after its publication in Germany in 1779. In 1795 different manuscripts of the Evangelienharmonie13 and sermons, a catechism and an adaptation of the history of creation were produced, followed shortly after 1802 by a grammar of Negerhollands. It is unknown who exactly translated the Negerhollands New Testament printed in 1802. This Testament and the 1833 edition of the Evangelienharmonie may have been based on a translation by Böhner. In so far as we have more than one manuscript and/or printed version of a specific text, it is necessary to make all the variants available because of their potential linguistic interest. Variation between different editions can tell us something about variation in the spoken language. In 1767, 35 years after the beginning of the mission, Christian Georg Andreas Oldendorp was charged with writing a history of the mission on the Danish Virgin Islands. He spent about 18 months on the islands, which resulted, ten years later, in a 12 Böhner translated the Evangelienharmonie at least two times, probably in 1779 and in the early 1780s. 13 These manuscripts are not dated but look somewhat like the dated sermons with which they are kept in one folder (Archiv der Brüderunität NB VII R.3 6d ‘Übersetzungen ins Creolische’). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 28 manuscript of more than 3000 pages. It was much more than a history of the mission; it was a compendium of all that was known about the Antillean slave societies, with special emphasis on the Moravian missionaries' activities and the Danish Virgin Islands. In 1777 a shortened version of still more than 1000 pages was published by Bossart (Oldendorp 1777, English translation by Highfield & Barac in 1987). A critical edition of the complete manuscripts is now in progress at the Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde at Dresden. The manuscript is also of great linguistic interest, because Oldendorps presents a 60-page critical description of Negerhollands (‘criolisch’) and its use by the missionaries. Regretfully, this part was shortened to 11 pages in the 1777 edition. Oldendorp also discusses the African languages he encountered on the Islands. Oldendorp's visit to the Virgin Islands furthermore resulted in a large manuscript for a dictionary (1770). His Deutsch-criolisches Wörterbuch is a German-Negerhollands dictionary with more than 3400 entries and many examples and critical comments. An edition of the dictionary is in preparation by Peter Stein, and the grammatical section of the mission history will be published by Stein and Eroms. In the midst of the 19th century Negerhollands became increasingly replaced by English. This shift has also been documented in the Moravian materials: Heinrich Wied prepared a manuscript for a creole catechism and hymn book in 1842/43. When he became aware of the shift, he halted, and explained: ‘In den 40er Jahren des 19. Jahrh. verschwand auf den Westindischen Inseln die kreolische Sprache und wurde durch die englische verdrängt (In the 40s of the 19th century, the Creole language disappeared from the West Indian Islands, and became replaced by English)’.14 Then he went on with English hymns in 1847. 6.2 The Lutheran (Danish) mission in the Virgin Islands Already since the late 17th century, ministers of the Danish Lutheran State Church were active on the Virgin Islands, and although slaves were also baptized (at least since 1710, as attested in Lose 1891:1), the ministers primarily served Danish subjects like civil servants and soldiers, in the Danish language. In 1756 a proper Danish Lutheran mission was established for the Virgin Islands, since in the previous year the three islands St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix had been bought from the Danish West-Indian-Guinean Company by King Frederik V and become a Danish state colony. The mission was founded with the objective of converting the slaves. From then on, as it had done in Greenland and like the Herrnhuter mission used to do, the Danish Lutheran mission set itself the task to convert the local population of the colony through the medium of the local language, here Negerhollands. In the preface to Magens' New Testament (1781), the General Church Inspection College writes: 14 However, the actual shift took much longer; for further reading see among others Degn (1974) and Lawaetz (1980). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 29 Die Missioneers ha leer die Creol Tael tit aster tit, en ha begin nu for onderwies na die volgens die Order van Collegium. Dat ha hab deese gesegend Werking, dat die Negers die tevoorn ha how die Leering voor een hard Woord, door die Swaerigheid van die vreemd Tael, na die sellie ha mut ontfang Onderwiesing, ha vind sooveel meer Smaek na die nu, als sellie ha kan vat en verstaen die voorgehowen Leer meer ligt en meer gaw in sender eigen Muder Tael. ‘The missionaries learned the Creole language time after time, and have now begun to teach in it, according to the directive of the Collegium. That has had this blessed effect that the Negroes, who previously found the doctrine tough, because of the difficulty of the strange language in which they had to receive education, have found it so much more agreeable now, as they could grasp and understand the presented doctrine more easily and quickly in their own mother tongue.’ It was furthermore considered desirable that the slaves learn to read, but not necessarily to write (Koch 1905:147). Few of the representatives of the Lutheran Church in the Virgin Islands knew or learned Negerhollands, however. The relation between the Danish mission and the homeland was a different one than that between the Moravians and Germany. There was a chronic lack of funds and housing in the Danish mission, and it was more dependent on the goodwill of the state. The state, however, mainly looked to its commercial interests and did not cooperate much. All in all, as appears from Lose (1891) and Koch (1905), the success of the Danish mission depended less on its adaptability and determination as an organization, than on the character and spirit of its individual agents. The Danish mission was mainly active in the towns, and those who served the plantation population had to travel on foot for miles and therefore had often only access to their parish for one hour a week. The Danish mission ended in 1799. After that year, no new Danish mission ministers were sent to the Virgin Islands anymore, and the black missionary community was incorporated into the general Danish Lutheran parish on the Virgin Islands. Even though the Danish mission was less effective than the Moravian one, their production of documents in Negerhollands was almost as high. The first ten Danish missionaries landed in July 1757 on St. Croix. Most of them died soon, but one who survived was Johan Christopher Kingo, who would be missionary and later minister for more than 25 years. According to Lose (1891), Kingo is said to have compiled a dictionary soon after arrival. Perhaps the anonymous Danish-Negerhollands Vestindisk Glossarium, counting 338 entries, is meant by this work (see van der Voort forthcoming). Kingo is also supposed to have translated Luther's Catechism in 1764, and the Gospel according to Matthew in 1765. Of these works, only the catechism may have been printed as Anonymous (1770). In 1770 Kingo did publish a language primer-cum-catechism. A second group of Danish missionaries had arrived in April 1766, including Erich Röring Wold. Wold nearly starved to death on St. Jan, and he was taken into the house of Stadthauptmand/Stadhoofdman ‘city prefect’ Jochum Melchior Magens as a tutor of his children. Magens was a St. Thomas-born Danish citizen, scholar in philology Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 30 and Lutheran layman. He had already written the aforementioned Negerhollands Grammar (published in 1770, to be edited by Stein & Eroms) and had translated the New Testament before 1770, on which he worked with Wold and which circulated among the Danish missionaries (Lose 1891:23). Together with Wold he also worked on (supposedly) Kingo's catechism and on the translation of hymns which appeared in 1770. When Wold left, Magens refused to cooperate with the church any longer, but kept working on a translation of the Old Testament. In 1777 he was asked by the General Church Inspection College to make a revised edition of the New Testament. Instead he prepared a new translation of it, assisted by missionary Niels Olufsen Alling, who worked on St. Thomas. Alling had already translated 100 hymns, and in 1779 the hymns and the New Testament were in the hands of the College. With the help of Alling, who had returned to Denmark by then for health reasons, the New Testament was rapidly prepared for publication in 1781. The College also received the Old Testament manuscript that year, which, however, like the hymns, was never heard of again. Some works are mentioned in the introduction to the New Testament, to wit a dictionary, a primer-cum-catechism and songbook from 1770, and fragments of the Old Testament. It is certain that not all of them have ever been found. Later, other missionaries and clergy arrived in the Virgin Islands, and they produced a religious Creole reader (Lund 1798), a Bible for children (Oxholm 1822), Creole hymnals (Brandt 1799, Anonymous 1823, 1827, 1834) and a reader-cum-catechism (Praetorius 1827, 1834). It is likely that other manuscripts were also produced by others. For example, missionary August Krejdahl, who was a childhood friend of the linguist Rasmus Rask, had become a very proficient speaker of Negerhollands. Lose (1891:26) mentions the fact that he had also prepared an improved version of ‘the hymnal’. From documents in the Copenhagen State Archive it appears that another translation of the Old Testament was made by the missionary A.W. Volkersen. It is still unclear which works are re-editions or revisions of earlier ones, on which manuscripts they are based, and who the ultimate authors of these manuscripts were. The present whereabouts of several of these works is not known. Careful searching in archives and libraries in Denmark, and possibly Bible Society archives elsewhere, is needed. Thus, we also have a New Testament of Magens and other Danish Lutheran texts from the 18th and 19th century. For linguists and creolists, the competition between the Moravians and the Danish missionaries represents a very lucky circumstance. The existence of two different main sources reinforces the value of the 18th century texts, and at the same time it provides an interesting basis for comparison. 6.3 Interpreting the 18th-century materials Before we dismiss the variety of Negerhollands the manuscripts contain as artificial, it should be noted that the German Bible translators were very critical about the use of the ‘right’ language variety. This can be surmised from various letters written around 1770 in the Danish Antilles by German missionaries (amongst them C.G.A. Oldendorp), kept in Herrnhut. For example, the language used in the hymnbook of 1765 is called ‘far too Dutch-like’ by Oldendorp. Another point against the texts not Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 31 being representative is the fact that the quite independent German and Danish sources generally confirm each other. A first set of problems in interpreting these materials is philological: establishing dates, authorship, intertextual relations, deciphering the often complicated handwriting in poorly preserved manuscripts. Many comments on this can be found in the entries in the bibliography. Then we face variation in the texts. This could be due to a number of things, among which: (a) Audience design: was the material meant for a predominantly white urban population, or for the plantation slaves? (b) Linguistic competence and procedure: how well did the translator know Negerhollands, and which variety? How were native speakers involved in the translation process? (c) Translation practice and style: it is clear that sometimes not even an attempt was made to approach the spoken language, e.g. when the Latin accusative Jesum appears in the texts. Did the missionaries attempt to create a separate liturgical register, fit for the conveyance of religious feelings and ideas? Quantitative techniques derived from sociolinguistics and variation theory can help us study the types of variation (particularly morpho-syntactic) present in the texts, and to see whether it is possible to isolate the ‘deep’ creole features of the 18th century Negerhollands materials. Many of the documents, particularly from the Danish tradition, may tend to reflect a ‘high’ variety of the creole, contrary to Hesseling's (1905) interpretation, whereas the slaves may have spoken a ‘low’ or ‘deep’ variety. More on this variation in point 7 below. 6.4 Sociolinguistic development of the Virgin Islands society and the fate of Negerhollands Not enough is known about the linguistic development of the Virgin Islands yet, which was quite complex. What follows is a rough sketch (Fig. 2). Figure 2: The sociolinguistic situation in St. Thomas in four stages of the development of Negerhollands. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 32 The central fact is that Negerhollands only really flourished between 1730 and 1830. In 1833 the last text was printed in Negerhollands by the Moravian Brethren, and in 1834 the last printed texts in Negerhollands appeared in the Danish tradition. In 1848 slavery was abolished on the Virgin Islands, and this constituted, perhaps, the final death-blow to Negerhollands. From 1840 onwards Negerhollands was replaced more and more by English among the slaves, particularly when after emancipation the ex-slaves went to the towns. Because Negerhollands was a plantation language and only weakly represented in the towns, the language decayed. A telling testimony is the 1842-1847 manuscript by the German missionary Wied cited above: the first part is in Negerhollands, the second in English (‘Because no one uses Negerhollands anymore’). In 1839 the Moravians started to use English in their sermons and soon gave up Negerhollands in religious services. The Danes were first officially allowed to use English in religious services in 1844. A Danish letter from the West-Indian Government dated 1816, written in St. Croix and requesting more hymnals and prayer books from Denmark, stresses that they should be in Negerhollands, even though that language is rapidly going out of use. The reason given is that Negerhollands-speaking slaves are more obedient and more attached to their owners. Furthermore, keeping Negerhollands alive will keep out ideas circulating in English tracts and newspapers about ‘man's original equality, about the nullity of the colour difference, about the loathsomeness of slavery, etc.’ (Bentzon & Stabell 1816). In 1869 the American scholar Addison Van Name wrote about the extinction of Negerhollands. According to him, the Moravian missionaries had been preaching in Negerhollands until recently, and later on ‘broken English’ (Van Name 1869:160) was used more and more. In 1881 the Danish doctor Erik Pontoppidan published proverbs, a piece from the Bible and a short conversation. According to the latter, Negerhollands was still spoken on St. John and in the more remote corners of St. Thomas. He writes: Now Creole has almost totally disappeared on St. Croix, also in St. Thomas in town only sporadically elderly women are found who still are familiar with the language. Only in the more remote places on the countryside, like in the missions of the Moravian Brethren in ‘Neu Herrnhut’ and ‘Niesky’, and on the small, decayed and halfway neglected island of St. Jan it has maintained itself better. There it is mother- and daily tongue of the older generation, which speaks English poorly and with difficulty, but Low-Creole with fluency; the young on the other hand, have adopted English, and one can certainly say that the Creole Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 33 language will very soon be a dead language; in one generation one will hardly find anyone who can still speak it. (Pontoppidan 1881:131, our translation).15 In 1904 St. Thomas' Moravian Bishop E.C. Greider wrote to Hesseling that the younger generation speaks a strongly anglicized creole, but the text sent along contains many Negerhollands elements. Hesseling cites the following from Greider's letter of 31 January 1904: The language in its purity is now spoken by a very few old people, principally those living in the country districts. The younger generation speak a mixed dialect that is called Creole, but it contains very many English words...Our people [Hesseling adds: so the more civilized Blacks who do not live on the almost deserted country side] speak a comparatively pure English and there is no patois like in the French or Dutch islands. In fact, if any one wished to study the language as it now is spoken, it would be best to do it immediately. (Hesseling 1905:33-34, our translation). As mentioned before, in 1917 the United States acquired the Virgin Islands from Denmark, yet on the Danish-Dutch Archaeological Expedition to the Antilles of 1922/23, the Dutch anthropologist/linguist/archeologist J.P.B. de Josselin de Jong was able to collect fairy tales and fables in NH, which were published in 1926. Many of those stories feature the famous African-Caribbean practical joker and hero spider Anansi. The narrators and informants were all born between 1841 and 1863, and thus at least 60 years old at that time, which was a reason for de Josselin de Jong to speak of ‘presently rapidly dying Negerhollands’. Yet the death of a language can take a very long time. In 1936 the anglicist and philologist F.G. Nelson still encountered speakers of Negerhollands, and made field notes, some of which are first published in the present book. Negerhollands continued to have a handful of speakers until the late 1970s. In 1987 the (as far as is known) last speaker, Mrs. Alice Stevens, passed away. In an interview in St. Thomas' The Daily News of Monday 15 July 1985 she said: ‘I never let anybody know that I could speak it,’ Alice Stephens says. ‘I decided I wasn't teaching it to no one - not my children, nor my husband. Even my teachers an schoolmates didn't know I could speak Dutch Creole.’ - Why? Because she didn't want to be bothered, Stephens says. (Hewlett 1985). 15 Jetzt ist Kreolisch auf St. Croix fast ganz verschwunden, auch in St. Thomas werden in der Stadt nur noch sporadisch einige alte Weiber gefunden, denen die Sprache noch geläufig ist. Nur auf mehr entlegenen Plätzen auf dem Lande, wie in den Missionen der mährischen Brüder zu ‘Neu-Herrnhut’ und ‘Niesky’, und auf der kleinen, verkommenen und halb verwilderten Insel St. Jan hat sie sich besser erhalten. Sie ist da Mutter-und Umgangssprache der älteren Generation, welche schlecht und mit Schwierigkeit Englisch, aber Platt-Kreolisch mit Geläufigkeit spricht; die Jüngeren dagegen haben Englisch adoptirt, und man kann sicher sagen, dass die Kreolensprache sehr bald eine todte Sprache sein wird; in einem Menschenalter wird man schwerlich noch Jemand finden, der es sprechen kann. (Pontoppidan 1881:131). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 34 7 Variation in Negerhollands texts Part of the problem in dealing with historical materials is to determine exactly what type of speech is reflected by them. This problem is even greater in creole societies, where often dramatic linguistic differences occur within one speech community. The texts and word lists of 20th-century Negerhollands appear to represent one language type: the language of descendants of the old plantations slaves. In the 18th century both slaves and white creoles (the term ‘creole’ was used for all people born in the isles) spoke Negerhollands. 7.1 The diachronic dimension Looking at all the available texts, there is first of all a diachronic dimension. The language has undergone a number of changes in the more than two centuries of its recorded existence. These changes can be of different types: (a) grammatical expansion, in a gradual process of creolization; (b) a gradual drift away from varieties close to the Dutch superstrate to true slave speech, more heavily influenced by non-Dutch patterns; (c) increasing exposure to English lexicon and grammar; (d) natural changes, similar to those occurring in any language; (e) processes of language decay and language death, in the long period during which Negerhollands was used less and less; (f) decreolization, i.e. shift away from the forms of the emerging creole under the influence of the (Dutch) standard in the early period. We are just beginning to unravel these alternatives. 7.2 The stylistic dimension An important factor to take into account also is stylistic variation. We know the 20th-century material represents a certain ‘register’ (i.e. stylistic variety of a language) of spoken Negerhollands, whereas with the 18th-century material it is sometimes unclear whether the occurrence of certain linguistic phenomena was only limited to a specific register of written Negerhollands. We know that different registers existed. We can be certain, for example, that the liturgic style encountered in the Bible translations was not the daily spoken language of the majority. In many cases, our material reflects a superstrate-influenced variety of Negerhollands. The following factors contributed to this: Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 35 (a) our most important sources of Negerhollands are written documents; (b) most people who knew how to write were of European descent; (c) for many white people Negerhollands was a second language, or a first language in addition to other (esp. European) first languages; (d) many written texts were translations, i.e. texts with a direct model in a European language; (e) many of the texts we have are of an originally European type; (f) Negerhollands as a written language derived its standard orthography from Dutch, which is its superstrate language. This is not a guarantee for Dutch influence, but it certainly gives the material a Dutch impression; (g) the first language the slaves had learned to write was Dutch, which then served as a model. This points to the possibility that the linguistic data from the earlier phases of Negerhollands were in the main based on a superstrate example (see also 7.1.f and 7.4). In the present anthology, several different textual types are represented: letters, Bible texts, hymns, songs, monologue, dialogue, spoken narrative and more. With respect to the latter point (7.2.f), Oldendorp (original ms. p. 774, also quoted in Stein 1990:194-5) bases his decision for an etymological orthography (which was the usual case) instead of a phonetic one, on the following: because there are a lot of Dutch words present in the Creole which are completely mutilated and would not look alike anymore if one were to write them differently; primarily however because the blacks who are learning to read, learn it the Dutch way; who one does not confuse then - and correctly so - through another way of writing, especially through other vowels, and does not make reading, for which they have little time anyway, even more difficult for them, and embarasses them when they see Dutch words in a Creole writing which are immediately known to them according to Dutch orthography but completely foreign [to them, H.d.B.] in a modified appearance. Furthermore, this orthography has been used and introduced already a long time ago in the Creole hymn-book and other small printed pieces, and the blacks who can read are used to it and convey it to others according to the same [orthography, or, booklets, H.d.B.]. It is necessary that in the spelling of this language, as with all [orthographies, H.d.B.], something certain and constant be laid down as its basis, and that one always use the same vowels in particular. And because of the Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 36 4. Friedensthal on St. Croix reasons adduced Dutch orthography is best suited for that.16 [faulty style unchanged, eds.] In our material, the basilectal varieties of Negerhollands are certainly underrepresented. Its bias towards the acrolect (the variety closest to the European superstrate model) makes it difficult to obtain a picture of the exact positions of Negerhollands in the diachronic (7.1) and social (7.4) dimensions of its variation. 7.3 The geographical dimension Another area where very little is known so far is differences between Negerhollands of the three islands (St. John, St. Croix, and St. Thomas) and between e.g. the town 16 weil im criolischen eine Menge holländischer Wörter sich befindet, welche ganz verunstaltet werden und sich nicht mehr ähnlich sehen würden, wenn man sie anders schriebe; hauptsächlich aber deswegen, weil die Schwarzen, welche lesen lernen, es holländisch lernen; die man also billig durch eine andere Schreibart, sonderlich dutch andere selbstlautende Buchstaben, nicht irre, und ihnen das Lesen, wozu sie ohnedas wenig Zeit haben, nicht noch schwerer macht, und sie in Verwirrung setzt, wenn sie in einer criolischen Schrift holländische Wörter sehen, die ihnen nach der holländischen Orthographie gleich bekant, aber in einer veränderten Gestalt ganz fremd sind. Es ist auch diese Orthographie schon längst in dem criolischen Gesangbüchlein und anderen kleinen gedruckten Stücken gebraucht und eingeführt worden; und die Schwarzen, welche lesen können, sind daran gewöhnt, und bringen es andern nach derselben [denselben] bey. Es ist nothwendig, daß bey der Schreibung dieser Sprache, so wie bey allen, etwas gewisses und unveränderliches zum Grunde gelegt werde, und daß man sonderlich immer einerley Vocalen gebrauche. Und dazu schickt sich aus den angeführten Gründen die holländische Rechtschreibung am besten. [...] (Oldendorp, Rohmanuskript p. 774) Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 37 and the plantations in the countryside. More is known about differences in the importance of English: for example, St. Croix is the island where Negerhollands gave way to English (creole) earliest (Hesseling 1905). Auerbach paid some attention to this (see section 2) and confirms Oldendorp's observations in his Missionsgeschichte. The latter describes the language situation as follows (in Highfield & Barac's translation of Oldendorp 1777:263 = 1987:154) to which we have added portions from the manuscript of Oldendorp's publication: English, German, Danish, Dutch, French, Spanish, and Creole are spoken in these islands. English and High German are the languages with which one can get by everywhere. Creole is spoken by the Negroes, as well as by everyone who has to communicate with them, [in the manuscript furthermore: they however do not all like to speak it with Whites, because it is the Negro language at the same time.] Therefore, the majority of the white inhabitants of the islands, particularly those who were born there, understand this language. (...) The number of languages is the cause of many people mixing one with the others, as well as for speaking many languages, though none well nor with purity. A knowledge of the English language is especially necessary in the towns. Since the white children are taken care of by Negro women and grow up among the Negro children, they learn first of all Creole, the Negro language. Sometimes they learn no other language properly. However, this language is spoken with more refinement by the white Creoles than by the Negroes. [Manuscript: and have their own expression- and speaking styles.] The English, on the other hand, do not learn Creole for the most part, and their slaves have to adjust to them in this matter. There are, therefore, large areas on St. Croix where the Negroes speak nothing but English. 7.4 The social dimension Apparently, there was a great deal of variation in 18th-century Negerhollands even on St. Thomas; the newly emerged language had not yet crystallized. Still we find, starting in 1739, the first (dictated) letters in creole, but also in an African language. Anyhow, next to the creole of the slaves a type of ‘high creole’, spoken among the whites, emerged. Is the difference between the high creole and the slave language comparable with the difference between bakra tongo and nengre tongo in Surinam? The following preliminary discussion is mainly based on comments in the grammars. To begin with, it transpires from remarks of Magens (1770) that there was a large difference in pronunciation between slave and white creoles. Thus, the slaves were said to leave out the Litteras Gutturales, presumably first of all the /r/ at the end of the syllable, and they were said to simplify consonant clusters. Furthermore, it is quite possible that the Zealandic Dutch [y] of 18th-century Negerhollands, which is represented as Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 38 West-Germanic diphthong [iu], we can find in Magens (1770) i.a. Natier ‘nature’ (p. 43), natierlik ‘natural’ (p. 46), Diffie ‘dove’ (p. 13, 35, 67, 68), Bik, bik ‘belly’ (p. 35), Parik ‘wig’ (p. 62), (na) bittie ‘outside’ (p. 25, 70). These correspond to the Standard Dutch forms natuur, natuurlijk, duifje ‘little dove’, buik, pruik, and buiten, respectively. As regards morphology, the material we have is characterized by variability as well. Often one finds equivalent analytic and synthetic constructions, e.g. in plural formation, used at random, sometimes even in the very same sentence: die kind sender versus die kinders ‘the children’. Recall that documents often reflect white speech. It is worth noting that Magens (1770) explicitly ascribes the use of two Dutch endings to the whites: Diminutives were apparently expressed by whites and slaves with the adjective klein ‘little’, e.g. Die klein Kabaj ‘the little horse’. The ending -tje could be used as well, but mostly by the whites, e.g. Mie Montje ‘my little mouth’ (Magens 1770:11). See also kleentje ‘child’, a nominalizing diminutive of kleen/klein. In addition, both slaves and whites formed the degrees of comparison apparently without Dutch endings. An example: (23) Klein ‘small’ Meer klein ‘smaller’ Meest klein ‘smallest’ Alteveel klein ‘the very smallest (cf. Du. allerkleinst)’ Only in guut - Beeter - Best ‘good - better - best’ and veel - Meer - Meest ‘much/many - more - most’ have the Dutch forms been maintained. In some words the superlative could be expressed by the ending -ste, e.g. Die moojste ‘the handsomest’, but that was mostly done by the whites (Magens 1770:11-12). Magens (1770) furthermore suggests that the passive in Negerhollands was used only rarely. Passives marking an action in progress were avoided. Nonetheless, a passive could occur, and then mostly in white speech. The passive auxiliary verbs were wort and bin. The latter is a present tense form. In the other tenses the infinitive wees was used in its place in combination with a tense particle (Magens 1770:19-22). The exact nature of the bin/wees passive is not clear to us yet. Oldendorp (and to a certain extent Magens) treats it as a mere equivalent of the wort passive. Moreover, in view of the translations provided by Magens (1770) and certain grammatical properties of the bin passives that will be treated below, bin may very well (also) be the marker of a resultant passive. From the examples in Magens (1770), it is clear that the passive, when used at all (and one must wonder to what extent this was simply to translate a Dutch passive), was expressed by a passive auxiliary verb and a Dutch past participle: (24) a. Mie bin vervolgt. ‘I am persecuted’ (process.or.state) b. Mie wort vervolgt. ‘I am persecuted’ Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 39 This is explicitly confirmed by an earlier remark in Magens on p. 16 to the effect that the auxiliary verb wort, which is particularly used by the whites, was connected with a passive participle. Example: (25) Christus ha wort gebooren of die Maegt Maria ‘Christus was born from/by the Virgin Mary’. Striking is here the combination of Dutch morphosyntax with the Creole tense particle ha ‘past’. Magens' remarks are confirmed by the extensive grammatical description of Negerhollands in the Oldendorp manuscript (Stein & Eroms forthcoming). Here, several pages are devoted to the passive, and it appears that a wide range of combinations of participles, auxiliaries and particles was possible. Oldendorp also confirms what Magens says about the restricted use of passives in Negerhollands. Still there was a passive in the general creole of both whites and slaves, albeit only in the perfective form. On p. 16 of Magens it is noted that the perfective aspect marker ka regularly occurs in the creole instead of the passive auxiliary verb bin. In that case the verb stands i Praesenti Indicativi, in the uninflected stem form. Magens translates ka with ‘is’ in this case. From the examples it is clear that we could have both passives expressing a completed continuing action and passives expressing a state: (26) a. Die Man ka trou17 ‘the man is married’ b. Die Hus ka bou ‘the house has been built’ Magens does not mention, incidentally, that in the combination bin + adjective as well, bin could be replaced by ka, as appears from a grammatical remark in Oldendorp (1777), cited by Hesseling (1905:107). An example would be mi ka moe instead of mi ben moe. Hesseling interprets this ka as the description of a state resulting from an action in the past. See also (6) and (15) above. Thus, it is not impossible that all ka-passives must be interpreted as resultant passives (Bruyn and Veenstra, 1993). Another verb that is apparently used as a passive marker with the same meaning as the one with wort, but with a different meaning as the one with ka, is kom ‘come’ ( (27) die goed kom bederf die goed ka bederf ‘it is going to be rotten’ ‘it is rotten’ 17 See Stein's edition of the Oldendorp dictionary (Stein forthcoming a): n. 0559 ‘Man met Wief, die sender ka trouw’, ‘man and woman, who are married’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 40 (28) mi kom geliefd mi woor/ben geliefd ‘I am going to be loved’ ‘I am loved’ He stressed the fact that the passive is unusual in Negerhollands except in liturgic writings. In daily use, and especially in the slave variant, the passive can be done without, and an expression in the form of an active construction is preferred. Oldendorp also mentions in his manuscript different possibilities for conjunctive constructions in which moe(t) ‘must’ ( (29) O da mi moe wees/woor/kom geliefd! ‘O that I would be loved! (meaning: I wish I would be loved)’ (30) a. mi wensch, voor woor/wees/kom pardonneerd b. da mi ben/woor/kom pardonneerd c. dat mi moe woor/wees/kom pardonneerd ‘I wish I will be excused’ Bare conjunctive constructions, or those with ka, often require the use of as ‘if’: (31) as sender sal wees geliefd ‘if they would be loved’ as sender sal ka woor geliefd ‘if they would have been loved’ em sal ka woor/ka wees/ka kom pardonneerd as em sal ka bed voor die ‘he would have been excused if he would have asked for it’ Oldendorp says that ‘such’ passives (possibly referring to all complex passive constructions) are to be avoided when one intends to speak Creole. Also, one cannot form participles as one pleases, as they are uncriolisch (Ge.: ‘uncreole’) and are only understood by those who also speak Dutch or German. Instead of gedann, one should say ka doe ‘done’; gesprooken, ka praat ‘spoken’; gewaeld, ka vool ‘filled’ etc. This is a clear indication of the fact that those Dutch-derived participle verb forms we do encounter in the texts are not the result of a productive rule in Negerhollands. They were adopted from Dutch into Negerhollands in that form. They may have been part of a ‘mixed’ native variety of the creole, as spoken by whites. Finally, something has to be said about the use of personal pronouns in the 18th century. Magens (1770:12-13) provides two forms for the plural in the nominative: (32) 1st PL Ons Wellie 2nd PL Jender Jeliie 3rd PL Sender Sellie Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 41 The same holds for the vocative, which is equal to the 2nd person plural. In the other cases the first form is always used: Ons, Jender, Sender. The handwritten grammar of the Herrnhut missionaries assigns the use of the -lie forms, and then only for reference to persons, to one single dialect of Negerhollands without indicating which dialect it is (Ms. 1802:10, 20; Hesseling 1905:97-98). In Oldendorp's grammar manuscript (Stein & Eroms forthcoming), probably the model of the 1802 grammar, the same is said, and the alternative forms jelli and selli are traced back to Low German (although both forms are solidly Dutch in origin). Since the limitation in the use of the -lie forms betrays a Dutch perspective of form (-lie (33) Jender Blanko ‘you.PL, whites’ Jellie Neeger ‘you.PL, negroes’ According to Hesseling the -lie forms occur especially in the texts from the Danish sources (see below). We are dealing here with texts for people in town, sometimes produced by white speakers of the creole such as Magens himself. This is another indirect indication that the -lie forms may have been used mostly by the whites. In Böhner's translations (± 1780) sellie occurs twice, but both times it is corrected and changed into sender. Notice also that in the 20th-century texts we do not have the lie-forms. Unfortunately, we know hardly anything about linguistic variation within the two separate main groups themselves. Within the white group, variation may have been present between further subgroups, based on position in society, profession, and so on. For example, government officials were recruited especially from Danish families, and the majority of the planters were of Dutch descent. Not much is mentioned about this in the contemporary research literature, but it merits further investigation as white varieties are abundantly documented. In his research, Hesseling (1905) observed differences between the Danish and German missionaries. Some layers of society may not have used any creole at all. There are documents in European languages, to be sure, throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. Within the slave community, the variation may have been even greater. Oldendorp mentions this in connection with the different linguistic backgrounds of the slaves (many different West African languages) and with the differences between newcomers (Bussals), slaves from other Caribbean islands, and native Virgin Islands slaves. Apart from the as yet unpublished body of Negerhollands letters written around 1750 by literate slaves (some are included in sections II, 1.1 and 2.1), there is hardly any linguistic documentation on which research into this matter could be based. Important contemporary observers of the sociolinguistic context of late 18th-century Negerhollands were the white missionaries. In section 2 we saw Auerbach's comments, and throughout his grammatical study, Magens also took notice Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 42 of the social dimension of linguistic variation in the Negerhollands-speaking population. The most explicit reports come from Oldendorp, in the original manuscript of the Mission History. About the pronunciation of the slaves, he says (Oldendorp, ms. p. 808, also quoted in Stein 1990:195): It is as if this language had been deliberately invented to make speaking with the whites really easy for the newly arriving Guinean blacks, and to make them fit for that in a short time. They also pick it up very quickly, and they have a great ability for learning languages anyway. Yet there are many who came from Guinea when they were already very old, who never learn it well. Such people say that they do not have two tongues; they do learn some Creole, mix some Guinean through it, or pronounce the Creole according to their Guinean accent. (...) Many speak pure Creole, however immensely fast, and according to their heavy Guinean pronunciation. Most words they keep half in their mouths or they utter them so unclearly that one does not know what it should mean. It is for this reason that someone who can speak creole well does not for that reason really understand each black: that lengthy practice is required for that and yet sometimes the help of an interpreter is called for who has to explain the creole intermingled with Guinean.18 In general, Oldendorp seems to be conscious of the fact that he (like the missionaries) speaks and writes an idealized variety of Negerhollands, or at least one that closely approaches Dutch with respect to the representation of its pronunciation. 7.5 The focussing of the language While Negerhollands was probably highly variable in the 18th century, it gradually was used less and less by the upper and middle classes, and ultimately stabilized as the slave language recorded in the 20th century. A working hypothesis that so far has been profitable is that ‘high’ or ‘acrolectal’ variants have disappeared, and that ‘low’ or ‘basilectal’ variants have survived. A comparison of the 18th-century sources and the 20th-century materials suggests, to begin with: 18 Es ist als wäre diese Sprache mit Fleiß erfunden worden, den ankommenden guineischen Schwarzen das Reden mit den Blanken recht leicht, und sie in kurzer Zeit dazu geschickt zu machen. Sie fassen sie auch sehr geschwind, und haben überhaupt eine große Fähigkeit, Sprachen zu lernen. Indesse giebt es doch manche, die schon sehr alt aus Guinea gekommen sind, welche sie niemals recht lernen. Solche sagen, daß sie nicht zwo Zungen haben, lernen wol etwas criolisch, mengen aber guineisch hinein, oder sprechen das criolische nach ihrer guineischen Mundart aus. [...] Manche reden rein criolisch, aber ungemein geschwind, und nach ihrer schweren guineischen Aussprache. Die meisten Wörter behalten sie halb im Munde, oder bringen sie so undeutlich heraus, daß man nicht weiß, was es sagen soll. Es ist hieraus, daß jemand, der gut criolisch kann, deßwegen nicht einen jeden Schwarzen recht versteht: daß dazu eine lange Übung gehört, und dennoch bisweilen ein Dolmetscher zu Hülfe gerufen werden muß, der das mit guineischem vermischte criolisch erkläre. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 43 (a) the deletion of /r/ and consonant cluster reduction is also fully documented in de Josselin de Jong's (1926) texts, as well as in Nelson (1936); (b) apart from me:, ‘meer’, me:stə ‘most’, be:tə(r) etc. ‘better’, bes ‘best’, and also a -ste-form: gro:stə ‘greatest’ next to anglicized: hogis ‘highest’, di langis ‘longest (adv.)’ no other morphological comparatives and superlatives occur in de Josselin de Jong's (1926) texts. This question merits further research; (c) there are no morphological diminutives any more, except for fixed, petrified, diminutive forms (hofi ‘garden’, kalfi ‘calf’); (d) there is no longer a passive with wort, only with ka; (e) of the -lie-forms only sel appears in de Josselin de Jong's (1926) texts, and this is clearly an unusual form in these materials. However, it is still a daunting task to make sense of the variation in the earlier materials; the nature of the difficulties will become clear when we consider the missionary activities and writings more closely. One example of research recently undertaken in this domain has been the investigation of reflexive pronouns in 18th-century Negerhollands. This research was the first quantitative study on the 18th-century manuscript material. In van der Voort and Muysken (to appear) we looked for variation in reflexive usage. Until recently, it has been defended that, following its tendency as a creole to non-ambiguity, Negerhollands made a more consistent distinction between reflexive and non-reflexive use of pronouns (through the use of an exclusively reflexive pronoun sie and/or a reflexive disambiguating marker selv) than its potential non-creole superstrate models like Dutch, German and Danish. Part of the establishment of such consistency appeared to be due rather to the one-sidedness of the source material (mostly Danish Lutheran) that was available before the edition project started, than to the tendency to strict transparency in Negerhollands. We now have access to several different versions of texts derived from the New Testament, the Old Testament and others by the Moravian Brethren. It appears that there is considerable variation. One of the conclusions supported by the variance in the reflexives when compared to yet other sources of Negerhollands is that Negerhollands as a whole in time became more and more exclusively creole-like. Also, the Moravian documents are more basilectal than the Danish texts, as far as reflexives are concerned. Another example of research of a similar nature concerns plural marking in the Slave Letters (Stein forthcoming b, Stein & Beck forthcoming). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 44 8 The study of Negerhollands In some sense the study of Negerhollands starts in the 18th century, with the publication of Magens (1770), the first grammar written of any creole language, and perhaps the most important work about Negerhollands. In the same period C.G.A. Oldendorp, a German, printed a grammatical sketch of the language in his voluminous book ‘History of the Moravian Brethren in the Virgin Islands’ from 1777, which could have been written beforehand. Just after 1802 another grammar was written by the Moravian missionaries, but this one has never been published. In the 19th century, various scholars devoted some attention to the language: the Danish linguist R.K. Rask contrasted Greenland Inuit, a morphologically very complex language, with the morphologically extremely simple Negerhollands (± 1810). He argued against J.C. Adelung's claim (1809) to the effect that Negerhollands was nothing but corrupted Dutch. The American librarian and scholar Van Name compared Negerhollands with Papiamentu, Trinidad French Creole, and Sranan (1869-70) and noted many common features. Next is the study mainly based on written texts by the Danish doctor E. Pontoppidan in 1881. In 1905 the Dutch Hellenist and creolist avant la lettre D.C. Hesseling wrote his monumental Het Negerhollands, which is a comprehensive historical study. In this work material from the Herrnhut archive is used next to Danish printed material, which Hesseling prefers for its greater naturalness. The Austrian Romance scholar Hugo Schuchardt corresponded with a remote relative of the aforementioned J.M. Magens, namely A. Magens, who wrote to him in Negerhollands in 1883 and supplied a number of proverbs. Schuchardt (1914) was thus able to comment on Pontoppidan (1881) and Hesseling (1905). In 1926 de Josselin de Jong published the stories in Negerhollands collected in 1922/3, and more than a decade later in 1936 F.G. Nelson collected words and short texts on St. Thomas, which remained unpublished but appear here in print for the first time, revised in 1993/4 by Nelson himself. During the last two decades, the linguists A.V. Adams Graves, R. Sabino and G.A. Sprauve have published their research on the spoken language of the last native speakers. Graves worked with about five informants. In the period 1980-1987 many recordings were made by Sprauve and by Sabino of the last fluent speaker of Negerhollands, Mrs Alice Stevens. Since the beginning of the 1980s, P. Stein has been publishing articles on the material he discovered in 1982 in the Unitäts Archiv in Herrnhut. In about the same period, i.e. 1983-1987, T. Stolz published on Negerhollands, mainly on the basis of the de Josselin de long materials. Finally, since the mid-1980s H. den Besten, P. Muysken, C. van Rossem and H. van der Voort have been working on Negerhollands and the Negerhollands materials. A first product of their Negerhollands database project (in cooperation with P. Stein) appears in the present book. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 45 References References not found below are in the Bibliography (which forms part III of this book). Appel, René, & Pieter Muysken. (1987) Language Contact and Bilingualism, London etc.: Edward Arnold. Ardener, Edwin W. (1968) ‘Documentary and Linguistic Evidence for the Rise of the Trading Polities between Rio Del Rey and Cameroons 1500-1650’, in: I. Lewis (ed.) History and Social Anthropology, ASA Monograph 7, London: Tavistock. Arends, Jacques. (1989) Syntactic developments in Sranan. Dissertation Catholic University Nijmegen. Bakker, Peter. (1987) ‘A Basque Nautical Pidgin: a Missing Link in the History of FU’. In: Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages (JPCL), 2:1. p. 1-30. Beck, Hartmut. (1981) Brüder in vielen Völkern, 250 Jahre Mission der Brüdergemeine, Erlangen: Verlag der Ev.-Luth. Mission. Bentzon, Adrian Benjamin & J.C. Stabell. (1816) [Letter no. 1512 of Governor General Bentzon and Vice-Governor Stabell of 9 September 1816 from St. Croix to Det kongelige General-Toldkammer (the Royal General Customs Office). Rigsarkivet (State Archive in Copenhagen). Koloniernes Centralbestyrelse, Kolonialkontoret, gruppesager til Vestindisk Journal, sociale og kulturelle forhold, kirke og skole, II. 922 Salmebogssagen 1797-1920]. 2 pp. Carden, Guy and William A. Stewart. (1988) ‘Binding theory, bioprogram and creolization: Evidence from Haitian Creole’. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 3. p. 1-68. Du Tertre, Jean Baptiste. Histoire génér. des Antilles habitées par les François. 4 Tom. (3 Vol.). Av. cart. et fig. Paris: 1667-1671. Feldbaek, Ole & Ole Justesen. (1980) Kolonierne i Asien og Afrika. Copenhagen: Politiken. Goslinga, C.Ch. (1971) The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast 1580-1680. Assen: van Gorkum & Prakke. Hall, Neville A. (1992) Slave Society in the Danish West Indies. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press Highfield, Arnold R. and Vladimir Barac. (1987) A Caribbean Mission, C.G.A. Oldendorp's History of the Mission of the Evangelical Brethren on the Caribbean Islands of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John, edited by Johann Jakob Bossard. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers Inc. [cf. Oldendorp (1987) in the Bibliography, part III] Kouwenberg, Silvia. (1994) A Grammar of Berbice Dutch Creole. Berlin - New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Lieberkühn, Samuel. (1820) Die Geschichte unsers Herrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi aus den vier Evangelien zusammen gezogen. Gnadau: Buchhandlung der Evangelischen Brüder-Unität, Chr. Ernst Genft. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 46 [Rochefort, César de]. Histoire naturelle et morale des Iles antilles de l'Amérique. Enrich. de fig. Avec vocabulaire Caraïbe. 2me édit. Rotterdam: A. Leers, 1665. Rouse, Irving. (1992) The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. Sabino, Robin, (forthcoming) Serial verbs in Negerhollands. Sale, Kirkpatrick. (1991) The conquest of paradise, Christopher Columbus and the Columbian legacy. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Tonkin, Elizabeth. (1971) ‘Some Coastal Pidgins of West Africa’. In: Edwin W. Arderner (ed.), Social Anthropology and Language, London etc.: Tavistock Publications. p. 129-155. Verkruijsse, P.J. (1973-1974) ‘Over diplomatisch editeren van handschriften en het gebruik daarbij van diacritische tekens’. In: Spektator, 3 p. 325-346. Voorhoeve, Jan, and Ursy M. Lichtveld. (1975) Creole Drum. An Anthology of Creole Literature in Surinam. Edited by - with English translations by Vernie A. February. New Haven-Londen: Yale University Press. Caribbean Series 15. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 47 II Negerhollands texts Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 49 1 The first texts: letters In the first half of the 18th century, around 150 letters were written in Negerhollands. Only one was addressed to the slaves (see 1.1.1), while all of the others were written by slaves who were taught to read and write by the Moravian Brethren. In this section we only present a small selection; all known slave letters will be published in Stein & Beck (in preparation). Every letter presented here is accompanied by a separate introduction containing information about the letter, like the exact provenance in the Archive of the Moravian Brethren in Herrnhut (Germany), its date, its author and writer, and its addressee. 5. An example of the first page of the manuscript of Zinzendorf's letter (1739) 1.1 Three letters from the Büdingische Sammlung (1742) 1.1.1 Des Hrn. Grafen Zinzendorff Abschied-Schreiben an die Negers in St. Thomas, in Cariolischer Sprache. The first letter consciously and intentionally written in Negerhollands is not by a slave but by Zinzendorf. On leaving the Virgin Islands, he addressed a farewell letter to the slave community on 15 February 1739. This letter was printed in the Büdingische Sammlung in 1742 and thereby became the first printed Negerhollands text of some length. The printed version contains some transcription errors, which have been corrected here after the manuscript text in the Herrnhut Archive. Apart from typical creole structures, Zinzendorf's letter also contains many Dutch influences and ‘semantic incongruences’ (falsche Freunde). Its significance lies in the fact that, among Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 50 other things, he demonstrated to the slaves the possibility of writing in their own language. Zinzendorf may not have written the text entirely by himself. Probably he was assisted by one of the settlers who thought well of the Herrnhut missionaries, Carstens. Of interest is the justification of the existence of slavery and the enslaving of Black people, which Zinzendorf gives in the last part of the letter. For an honest evaluation of his arguments one has to take into account that the letter was also directed to the white slave owners, whose permission Zinzendorf needed for the mission among the slaves. Arch-nr.: R15Ba-1.II.6 List-nr.: 12 def.-nr.:014 Date: 15.02.1739 Author: Zinzendorf Owner:- Writer: unknown Recipient: Black community References: Found in Büdingische Sammlung I, p. 453-457 with a few errors, which have been corrected here; German translation in Oldendorp 1777:592-596. Remarks: Writer is possibly Carstens[en] (Degn 1974). The printing errors are visibly corrected here, according to the original1 manuscript, by Stein and van Rossem. Where a manuscript form differed from the printed form, the manuscript form is added between accolades. VII. Des Hrn. Grafen von Zinzendorff Abschied=Schreiben an die Negers in St. Thomas, in Cariolischer Sprache.2 1 Min hartlive Vrinde, my heart-loved friend.PL Mi a kom deze3 verr pad, vor kik yoe4, en 1SG PST come DEM far path FOR see 2PL and 1 We only know this manuscript, which is a rather fair one, and we think it may be a copy of an earlier original. 2 Des Hrn. (...) Sprache: German, meaning: ‘Count Von Zinzendorf's farewell letter to the negroes in St. Thomas, in the creole language’. 4 yoe: ‘you’, also you in this letter, is the Zealandic pronoun. Its spelling, with Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 51 bin bly vor kik een begin, dat mi a BE happy FOR see a beginning that 1SG PST wens over ses jaar di tit mi a Stier5 die eerste wish over six year DET time 1SG PST send DET first 5 van mi broeders voor leer yoe -Li6. of 1SG brother.PL FOR teach 2PL Gedankt bin onze Heere God, di a zegen thanked BE our Lord God DET PST bless yoe Bas7 Martinus, mi dierbaare Broeder, en 2PL BAAS Martinus 1SG dear brother and die help hem! DET help 3SG Di zal giv8 een groot blydschap na de Ko - DET will give a great happiness NA DET king 10 ning van Denemarken, as em hoor, dat in all - of Denmark when 3SG hear that in all zyn plaats heydenen leer kenen, zyn Maje - his place heathen.PL learn know his majesty.GEN steits9 God, die eenige en warachtige God. - God DET only and true God Maar o hoe groot zal wees di blydschap but o how great will BE DET happiness 5 Stier: Du. sturen. Seems to be the sole case of unrounding in this letter, which makes it more probable that it is a dialectal form with an [i] deriving from West Germanic [iu], which usually yielded [y] in Standard Dutch. 6 yoe-Li ‘2pl’: from yoe-lie(den) ‘you-people’, cf. Du. jullie ‘2 pl’. Its use as a direct object is not in accordance with the grammar of 18th c. NH as we know it but rather with the grammar of Dutch, since NH jellie could only be used as a nominative or a vocative. 7 Bas (elsewhere: Baas): Du. baas ‘boss’, here used as a title for the Moravian missionaries and preachers. In other Moravian texts it is also used as an appellative. Although it is reminiscent of Afrikaans Baas ‘Master, Massa’ it should be distinguished from it, because in this text a slave owner is referred to as Meester ‘Master’. Note that Magens (1770) does not make this distinction: in his conversations both slave owners and a Lutheran catechist are addressed with Meester. 8 giv: It is unclear whether this represents Du. geven ‘geven, yield’ or Germ. geben ‘give’ of the German existential construction. Elswhere in this text a Creole existential construction with hab ‘have’ is used. 9 zyn Majesteits God: first case of a Dutch possessive construction with the suffix -s in this text. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 52 voor onze Heere Jesus, de Verlosser van all FOR our Lord Jesus DET Saviour of all 15 die arme Moors10 siel met si eygen {e*g*gen}Bloed, voor DET poor black.PL soul with 3POS own own blood FOR dat hem kik all -gar goed voor -uyt, en wet all that 3sg see every things for -out and know already onder ginder die sal blyv getrouw, en zal under 2PL DET will stay faithful and will wor si zaligheit deelagtig? become 3POS salvation share Ik schey van yoe met soo veel beeven, als I part from 2PL with so much shaking as 20 blydschap: de reden van myn blydschap is die: happiness DET reason of my happiness BE DET Die Cruis van onze Heer Jesus bin nu all DET cross of our Lord Jesus BE now already bekennt op een en vyftig plantagies: as die known up one and fifty plantation.PL as DET a hab maar een11 op elk die blyv getrouw, he12 PST have but one up each DET stay faithful 3SG zou wees een Licht voor all zyn Meester - should BE a light FOR all 3POS master ...... Negers, 25 Negers13, en zyn Werk zouw wees een grot {groot} negro.PL and his work should BE a great great Zegen voor zyn Meester. blessing FOR his master 10 Moors: the -s could also be GEN. 12 he: typo for NH hem rather than a strange spelling of Du. hij ‘3sg masc’. 11 as die a hab maar een ‘if there were only one’: Creole existential construction with hab ‘have’. 13 all zyn Meester Negers ‘all his Master's Negroes’: first case of an unmarked possessive construction, in this text. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 53 Wa {Wat di mester nu win, die hab over die -gaid14 -*gud*} what what DET master now gain DET have over DET vyftig ia over de hondert, die loop naar Mar - fifty yes over DET hundred DET walk to - tinus skool voor leer, vor ken God, zoo aas {as} Martinus school FOR learn FOR know God so as as 30 Compagnie -Plantagie, Mr. Jan de Windt, Mr. Company -plantation Mr. Jan de Windt Mr. Adriaan Bever -hout, en ander. Adriaan Beverhout and other God zegen all met segen van boven, en God bless all with bless of above and met segen van beneden, die wel zyn grae15, dat with bless of below DET want his mercy? that die ziel van silli16 Negers uit de slaverey van DET soul of 3PL negro.PL out DET slavery of 35 Duivel wor gebragt tot Christus vryheit. devil become brought to Christ freedom Die vede {rede} om dat my beev {ben} voor yoe -lid17 DET *** reason for that 1SG shake BE FOR 2PL {yoe -lid[-en]} bin die: 2PL.PL BE DET De Duivel en de Wereld zal pass you op DET devil and DET world will watch 2PL up Gy18, as gy ni nu wandelt getrouw. 2PL when 2PL NEG now walk faithful 14 Wa-gaid: typo for Wa-goed ‘what stuff, what’. 15 grae may be a typo for g(e)nae, a shortened variant of genade ‘mercy’. 16 silli: In this case its use is not in accordance with the grammar of 18th c. NH as we know it because sellie is supposed to be restricted to the nominative and the vocative. Cf. n. 6. 17 you-lid: -lid represents Du. lie(den) ‘people’. Cf. n. 6. 18 Gy ‘2sg’ and ‘2pl’: Dutch rather than NH. Belongs to the written register of Dutch of that period. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 54 40 All die hoor de Evangelium, en liv het19, en all DET hear DET gospel and love DET and meest die bin gedoopt van Martinus in di most DET BE baptised of Martinus in DET naam van God Vader, Son en Heilig Geest, en name of God Father Son and Holy Spirit and di bin gesett voor leer die ander. DET BE put FOR teach DET other Zo de Wereld zal spot met ginder20, en die so DET world FUT mock with 2PL and DET 45 Duivel sal klag yoe {aan} na God en {den} Heere. devil FUT complain 2PL on NA God and DET Lord Ik21 a wes eerst verwondert, dat Martyn a 1SG PST BE first surprised that Martyn PST wes zo scherp, dat em a jaj {ja*g*} de Negers van de BE so sharp that 3SG PST chase chase DET negro.PLof DET Leer, wanneer em a hoor, dat zinder22 anneem23 teaching when 3SG PST hear that 3PL PST.take weer an iets van die oude manier; again on something of DET old way 50 Maar ik zie, em a ha glyk, voor di dat24 vor but 1SG see 3SG PST have right FOR DET that FOR 19 het ‘it’: Dutch pronoun 3sg. 20 ginder ‘2PL’: corresponds to NH jender. The spelling ginder is reminiscent of the West Flemish 2PL pronoun discussed by Hesseling (1905) as a possible source for jender. 21 Ik ‘1sg’: Dutch personal pronoun instead of NH mi. 23 anneem ‘PST.take’: the spelling seems to represent the Dutch particle verb aannemen ‘adopt, take up’ (litt. ‘on-take’). However, aan- must be NH a ‘PST’ here, since the pertinent particle shows up in postverbal position (-neem weer an) in accordance with NH grammar. This also implies that weer an is not Early Mod. Du. weeraan ‘again’. 22 zinder ‘3PL’: corresponds to NH sender. The spelling zinder is reminiscent of the West Flemish 3PL pronoun discussed by Hesseling (1905) as a possible source for sender. 24 voor di dat: probably ‘because’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 55 han25 de geveinste van Jesus Kerk af, voor be - *** DET feigned of Jesus church off FOR - lett zinder van zinder valsche gedachten, vo prevent 3PL from 3PL false thought.PL FOR wés gezien van ander, en vo {[-voor] ker in de Wereld, of no vo werk, of vo wor - in DET world or NEG FOR work or FOR become 55 vry, of wat mi kan zy meer. free or what 1SG can say more ...... Vor Vor dat i bin ook goed, dat Martinus no FOR that I BE also good that Martinus NEG leer you in di tyd, dat yoe mu werk; teach 2SG in DET time that 2PL must work Want as die bin yoe recht zin vor {vo} wor zaa - because when DET BE 2PL right sense FOR FOR becomeblessed lig, Jesus kan zegenen26 die klyn tyd die gu habt27 - Jesus can bless DET small time DET 2PL have 60 over van yoe zelfs voor leer. over of 2PL self FOR learn Een Heyden no mo hab ander reden voor a heathen NEG must have other reason FOR bekeer hem, als dat em geloov, dat Jesus Gods convert 3SG as that 3SG belief that Jesus God.GEN Zoon em a Herr {sterv} voor betaal voor, de mens son 3SG PST *** die FOR pay FOR DET man 25 han: probably typo for hau ‘keep’. 27 habt: Du. inflexional ending -t. 26 zegenen: Dutch infinitival form. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 56 Zonde, en dat hem nu waar leevt28 voor mag sin and that 3SG now true lives FOR may 65 de mens lev met hem: DET man live with 3SG Een Heyden no kan du van natuur zoo veel a heathen NEG can do of nature so much goed, als wel meenig mens, die bin van kleens good as well many man DET BE of small af geleerd voor du goed, en no kryg per - off taught FOR do good and NEG get - missie vo du quaed. permission FOR do evil 70 Want een Heyden bin vom29 klyn af gewent because a heathen BE of.the small off used vor du bosheit, en na leer beter. FOR do anger and NEG learn better Maar als een Heyden kryg die Genade van but as a heathen get DET mercy of de Heer Jesus, dat zyn Zonde word verge - DET Lord Jesus that his sin become forgiven ven, en em word gewaschen met Jesus Bloed; - and 3SG become washed with Jesus blood 75 soo em kryg die kracht om al quaed te laten, so 3SG get DET strength for all evil to leave en goed te doen30, en em haat de zonde so veel, and good to do and 3SG hate DET sin so much 28 leevt: Du. inflexional ending -t. 29 vom: German typo for van ‘of, from’. Germ. vom is a standard contraction of von ‘of, from’ and dative dem ‘the (masc. or neuter)’. 30 om al ... te doen: sudden interruption of Dutch infinitival OV order. This may be due to the use of the Dutch complementizer om plus infinitival marker te instead of NH vo(or). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 57 als em a had liev tevoor -en. as 3SG PST had dear before Dan em bin een van Christus sin Volk, zoo then 3SG BE one of Christ 3POS people so als yoe Bas Martinus zal leer yoe verder. as 2PL BAAS Martinus will teach 2PL furthermore 80 Nu me wens maar, dat ik wes verzekert now 1SG wish but that 1SG BE assured van yoe -Li, dan mi zal loop gerust van yoe, en of 2PL then 1SG will walk quiet off 2PL and denk op ginder met groot blydschap voor den think up 2PL with great happiness FOR DET Heere. Lord Voor -eerst dat gy dink altyd op de Heer first that 2PL think always up DET Lord 85 Jesus, dat ginder bid Hem altyd voor em Jesus that 2PL pray 3SG always FOR 3SG giv yoe de rechte geloov, dat de Heere mag give 2PL DET right belief that DET Lord may staan altyd voor ginder ziel, zoo of gy gik31 stand always FOR 2PL soul so if 2SG like ...... Hem Hem, zoo als Hem ha dot32 voor yoe aan het33 3SG so as 3SG PST die FOR 2PL on DET Kruis. cross 31 gik: may be Du. gek ‘mad, crazy’ used as a verb ‘to love’ here. 33 het: Dutch neuter article instead of NH die. 32 dot ‘die’ < Du. dood ‘dead’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 58 90 Voor die tvveede: dat yoe handel met Mar - FOR DET second that 2PL act with - tinus en die andere, die leer yoe, met een op - Martinus and DET other.PL DET teach 2PL with a - recht hart, en no toon yoe selfs beeter als yoe sincere heart and NEG show 2PL self better as 2PL bent.34 BE Voor die driede35: as yoe word weggejagt van FOR DET third when 2PL become away.driven of 95 de Leer, als gy ha doe quaed, dat yoe ma hab DET doctrine as 2SG PST do evil that 2PL may have een recht berouw, en hoop eenvoudig als een a sincere repentance and hope simple as a klyn Kind, vor wor aangenom, weer -aan36, en small child FOR become adopted again and bid Jesus vor Gnade en beterschap. pray Jesus FOR mercy and improvement Voor die vierde: dat yoe mo wés uwe37 mee - FOR DET fourth that 2PL must BE 2SG master.PL 100 sters en vrouwen getrouw, en uw Meester - - and women faithful and 2SG master Knechten en Bombas gehoorzaam: en dat servant.PL and overseer.PL obedient and that yoe doe al yoe Werk met Liefde en gauwig - 2PL do all 2PL work with love and speedi - 34 bent: Du. inflexional ending -t. 35 driede ‘third’: regularized ordinal number (drie ‘three’ + -de) instead of Du. derde. According to Magens derde is the correct form in Negerhollands. Therefore, driede may be due to interference from German (Germ. dritte ‘third’). 36 weer-aan ‘again’: Early Mod. Du. expression, literally ‘again-on’. 37 uwe, and uw: Du. possessive pronoun 2sg corresponding to gij, which belonged to the written register of Dutch in those days. Cf. n. 17. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 59 keit, zoo als ha wés yoe eygen; want yoe ness so as PST BE 2PL own because 2PL moet weeten, dat Christus Hell [stell] elk een van must know that Christ *** put every one of 105 syn Kind, selvst in het38 Werk, want de Heere 3POS child self in DET work because DET Lord a mak alles zelf, Koning, Heer, Knecht en PST make everything self king lord servant and Slaav. En yder moet blyv, zoo lang ons lev slave and everyone must stay so long 1PL live in de Wereld, in die Plek, da39 God ha zett em in DET world in DET place where God PST put 3SG in, en wés met Gods wyze raad te -Vreeden: in and BE with God.GEN wise advice satisfied 110 want de Heere ha zet de dood tot straff van because DET Lord PST put DET death to punishmentof di menschen allmaal, en di Kinder40 van God DET people all and DET child.PL of God ook moe sterven, maar di bin niet anders als also must die but DET BE NEG else as een slaap voor haar41, en loop met blydschap a sleep FOR 3PL and walk with happiness mit de lyf na de graf, en met de Ziel na bo - with DET body NA DET grave and with DET soul NA above 115 ven by de Heiland. - with DET Saviour 38 het: Dutch neuter article instead of NH die. 39 da: may be the Dutch relative R-pronoun da(ar) ‘there, where’, whose form is governed by the stranded preposition in. The absence of r may be due to the tendency to drop syllable-final r in the NH variety of the slaves combined with interference from German where da is a relative pronoun and adverb. 40 Kinder: in Dutch kinderen or kinders, plural of kind ‘child’. This abbreviated plural form may be due to interference from German (Germ. Kinder ‘children’). 41 haar ‘3pl’: Early Mod. Du. pronoun instead of NH sender. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 60 Behalven dit God ha straf de eerste Negers besides this God PST punish DET first negro.PL voor ém eygen sind van sinder42, en haar heel FOR 3SG own sin of 3PL and 3PL entire geslacht, dat sinder za wés slaven, en de generation that 3PL FUT BE slave.PL and DET Zieles -Zaaligheit, no mag43 ginder vry na de soul.salvation NEG may 2PL free NA DET ...... lichaam, 120 lichaam, maar neem weg al de booze gedach - body but take away all DET evil thoughts ten, quaedheit, luygkeit44, ongetroun {ongetrouw}, en al - anger laziness *** unfaithfullness and all wat mak yoe verdrietig vo wes slaav; want what make 2PL sad FOR BE slave because onze Heer Jesus, zoo lang em a wes in de our Lord Jesus so long 3SG PST BE in DET Wereld, em a giv sig zelfs vo wes een Knegt, world 3SG PST give 3RP self FOR BE a servant 125 en a wés een ambachtsmanntot een of twee and PST BE a artisan to one or two jaar voor dat em a loop uit die Wereld, en in year before that 3SG PST walk from DET world and in Gods Woord ons bin aangetoont als een ex - God.GEN word 1PL BE shown as a example 42 voor ém eygen sind van sinder ‘for his/her own sind of them’: difficult to interpret. ém seems anomalous here and may be a determiner. sind could be Germ. Sünde ‘sin’ in a southern truncated form with unrounded [y], which is somewhat unlikely given Count Zinzendorf's provenance. However we could also read eygen sind as Germ. Eigensinn ‘wilfulness, obstinacy, stubbornness’. 43 mag: may be ma(a)k ‘make’. 44 luygkeit: -keit instead of Du. -heit (-heid) may be German. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 61 empel voor al die Knegts. My zelf bin vvel - FOR all DET servant.PL 1SG self BE good vry gebooren, maar myn Heiland ha leer mi free born but my Saviour PST teach 1SG 130 voor Werk voor andere dag en nacht met FOR work FOR other.PL day and night with plesier. pleasure Voor die vyfde; dat ginder aan die andere FOR DET fifth that 2PL on DET other Negers of Wilden mo dink altyd, die door negro.PL or savage.PL must think always DET by de Broeders in zoo veele plaatsen tot Jesus ge - DET brother.PL in so many place.PL to Jesus - 135 roepen bin45: vvant vvy46 ha beginn hier eerst by called BE because 1PL PST begin here first at gy -Li47, en zoo veel van de Broeders en Zusters 2PL and so many of DET brother.PL and sister.PL hier onder dit Werk voor ginder sin48, en met here under this work FOR 2PL BE and with gebed voor ginder. prayer FOR 2PL Ginder die a vves die erst, ik hoop na sa vvor 2PL DET PST BE DET first 1SG hope NEG FUT become 46 vvy: Du. pronoun 1PL instead of NH ons. 45 die door de Broeders ... geroepen bin: relative clause with Dutch SOV word order and Creole auxiliary bin. 47 gy-Li: Du. nominative pronoun 2PL (with gy of the written register) governed by a preposition. May represent the NH pronoun jellie but its use is not in accordance with the grammar of 18th c. NH as we know it because jellie is supposed to be restricted to the nominative and the vocative. Cf. n. 5. 48 sin: Du. zijn ‘be (present pl.). In this case zoo veel van de Broeders ... sin follows the Du. subordinate SOV pattern, which is in accordance with the fact that historically want ‘because, for’ was a subordinator rather than a coordinator as it is in Modern Dutch. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 62 140 die leste. De Heere segne49 u -liede50 allemaal, en DET last DET Lord bless 2PL all and giv, dat ik ga bi -voor51 syn troon met blydschap, give that 1SG go before 3 POS throne with happiness en dat elk met myn52 en Martinus mag sing: De and that every with my and Martinus may sing DET Ziel van Christ ha segen my, sin Geest ha mak soul of Christ PST bless 1SG 3POS spirit PST make myn hert verbly, sin {syn} lichaam diep voor ons ge - my heart cheer 3POS 3POS body deep FOR 1PL - 145 vvond, ons gedaan maak Ziel en Lyf gezond53; wounded 1PL done make soul and body healthy zo als ons ha sing soo dikvvils hier op St. so as 1PL PST sing so often here up St Thomas. Vaar vvel! Thomas fare well Geschreeven op St. Thomas written up St Thomas den 15. Febr. 1739. DET 15 February 1739 150 De Grave Lodewyk.54 DET count Lodewijk 50 u-liede: Dutch 2nd p. pronoun u from the written register in its non-nominative form. The addition of liede(n) ‘people’ instead of -lie is again a feature of the written Dutch of that period. 49 segne ‘may bless’: cf. the Du. conjunctive zegene or its Germ, counterpart segne. 51 bi-voor: Engl. before? 52 myn instead of my ‘me’ may be dialectal Dutch. 53 ons ... gezond: gedaan, which does not fit into the iambic meter, may be a perfective marker and may be a substitute for ka. The true line may be *ka maak ons Ziel en Lyf gezond ‘PRF make 1pl soul and body healthy’. gedaan as a substitute for ka may then presuppose an auxiliary heeft ‘has’ so that ons, interpreted as an Indirect Object could shift to the left. 54 Geschreeven ... Lodewyk: Dutch. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 63 Translation From the Lord Count von Zinzendorf, a farewell letter to the negroes in St Thomas, in the creole language. My dear-loved friends I have come this long way to see you and I am happy to see a beginning that I wished six years ago, the time I sent the first of my brothers to teach you. Thanked be our Lord God, who blessed your master Martinus, my dear brother, and helped him! It will give a great happiness to the king of Denmark when he hears that in all his places heathens get to know his Majesty's God, the only and true God. But oh how great will be the happiness for our Lord Jesus, the Saviour of all the poor black souls with his own blood, so that He sees everything in advance, and knows all among you who will stay faithful, and will share in his salvation? I part from you with as much shaking, as happiness: the reason of my happiness is this: The cross of our Lord Jesus is now known on already fifty one plantations; if there would be just one on every one who remains faithful, he would be a light for all his master negroes and his work would be a great great blessing for his master. What does the master gain now, who has over fifty, yes over one hundred (slaves), who go to Martinus school to learn, to know God, just like Company-plantation, Mr. Jan de Windt, Mr. Adriaan Beverhout, and others. God bless all with blessing from above and with blessing from below, who well his grace, that the soul of you negroes from the slavery of the devil is brought to Christ's freedom. The reason for that I shake for you is this: The devil and the world will watch you, when you do not walk faithfully now. All that hear the gospel and love it and most who are baptised by Martinus in the name of God Father, Son and Holy Spirit, and who have been made to teach the other ones. So the world will mock you and the devil will complain about you to God and the Lord. First I was surprised that Martyn was so sharp that he chased the negroes from the doctrine, when he heard that they again took up something of the old ways; but I see, he was right, because to keep the hypocrite off from Jesus, to prevent them from their false thoughts, to be seen by others, and to have it easier in the world, or not to work or to become free, or what I can say more. For that it is also good that Martinus does not teach you in the time, that you must work; Because when it is your real wish to become blessed Jesus can bless the little time that you have for yourself to learn. A heathen should not have another reason to convert himself, than that he believes that Jesus God's son has died to pay for mankind's sin, and that he now truly lives so that man may live with him; A heathen cannot do by nature as much good, as any a human who has learned from childhood to do good, and does not get permission to do evil. Because a heathen is from childhood on used to do evil, and has not learned any better. But when a heathen gets the mercy of the Lord Jesus, that his sin is forgiven, and he is washed with Jesus' blood; so he receives the strength to leave all evil, and to do good and so he hates sin so much, as he had loved it before. Then he is one of Christ's people, so as your Master Martinus will teach you furthermore. Now I just wish, that I am assured of you, then I will go quietly from you, and think of you with great happiness for the Lord. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 64 First that you think always of the Lord Jesus, that you pray to him always, for him to give you the right belief, that the Lord may stand always for your soul, as if you are crazy about Him, the way he died for you on the cross. Second: that you deal with Martinus and the others that teach you, with a sincere heart, and do not show yourself better than you are. Third: when you are driven away from the doctrine, when you have done evil that you may have a sincere repentance, and hope simply as a small child, to be adopted again, and pray to Jesus for mercy and improvement. Fourth: that you must be faithful to your masters and mistresses and obedient to your master servants and overseers: and that you do all your work with love and quickness as has been proper for you; because you must know that Christ puts every one of His children, in his plan, because the Lord has made everything Himself, king, lord, servant and slave. And everyone must remain, so long as we live in the world, in the place, that God has put him in, and be with God's wise council satisfied: because the Lord has made death as the punishment of all people, and the children of God also must die, but it is nothing else as a sleep for them, and go with happiness with the body to the grave, and with the soul above with the Saviour. Besides this God has punished the first negroes for their own sins, and their entire generation, that they will be slaves, and the soul blessings does not make you free in the body, but takes away all the evil thoughts, anger, laziness, unfaithfulness, and all what makes you sad to be a slave; because our Lord Jesus, so long as he was in the world; he gave himself even to be a servant, and was an artisan up to one or two year before he went away from the world, and in God's word we are shown as an example for all the servants. I myself am free born, but my Saviour taught me to work days and nights for others with pleasure. Fifth: that you must always think of the other negroes or savages, who have been called to Jesus by the brothers in so many places; because we have begun here first with you, and so many of the brothers and sisters are here in this work for you, and with prayer for you. You who were the first, I hope will not become the last. The Lord bless you all and give, that I will go before His throne with happiness, and that each one with me and Martinus may sing: The soul of Christ has blessed me, His spirit has made my heart cheerful, His body deeply wounded for us, made our soul and body healthy; so as we have sung so often here on St. Thomas. Fare well! Written on St Thomas, 15 February 1739. The count Lodewijk. 1.1.2 Der erweckten Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an Jhro Majest. den König in Dännemarck. On the return journey, Zinzendorf brought two letters with him to Europe, one from the male slaves for the Danish king and one from the female slave Marotta, baptised Magdalena, for the Danish queen. The second letter (in 1.1.3) is in Marotta's African language, accompanied by a Negerhollands translation. Both letters - the first diplomatic correspondence in a creole language - were also printed in the Büdingische Sammlung (Zinzendorf 1742). Especially in the letter by the male slaves, the language Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 65 clearly is still influenced by Dutch, which shows the difficulties in the beginning of the employment of this spoken language as a written language. Arch-nr.: R15Ba-3.63.(2) List-nr.: 130 def.-nr.: 015 Date: 15.02.1739 Author: Pieter, Mingo et al. Owner: Writer: Domingo Gesoe Recipient: Dän.König References: Found in Büdingische Sammlung I:483-485; see letter nr. 125 (3.60) in Beck & Stein (forthcoming), which is a transcription/copy. Remarks: The text in the Büdingische Sammlung shows deviations from the manuscript. Here we give the original text. Language: NH/Du. XI. Der erweckten Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an Ihro Majest. den Koenig in Daen-nemarck55. An. 1739. 1 Gnadige Heer Koning! mercyful lord king Nú is ons hope, de Konings56 Majestait ons now BE 1PL hope DET king.GEN majesty 1PL sal die order geven57, dat ons durf58 FUT DET order give that 1PL dare ...... voort- voortgaan te leeren den Heere Jesus. Ons continue to learn DET Lord Jesus 1PL 5 staan vast tot noch toe, als het God den stand fast to yet till as it God DET 55 Der ...Daen-nemarck: German. 56 Note the use of the genitive here. 58 durf may be Du. durven ‘dare’ or otherwise Germ. dürfen ‘may, be allowed’. 57 Note the order Subj. - Obj. pronoun - Aux. - NP - V. This need not be an L2 acquisition mistake since the intrusion of phrasal material between verbs of the verbal cluster is known from older stages of Dutch as well as from dialects. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 66 Heere gelieft, schon ons seer gedrukt word Lord pleases though 1PL very oppressed become van all, en komen59 ons slagen60 en kappen, by all and come 1PL hit and hew as ons by den Heyland leert, en Boek ver - when 1PL by DET Saviour learn and book - branden, en doop Hon -de -Doop noemen, en burn and baptism dog -christening call and 10 Broeders Beesten, en Negér moet niet zaal -ig brother.PL beast.PL and negro must NEG blessed worden, een gedoopt Neger is Brandhout become a baptised negro BE fire.wood in de Hell. En hebben ons Broeders, son - in DET hell and have 1PL brother.PL - erlyk Bas Martinus, die God aan ons al especially BAAS Martinus DET God on 1PL already had gebrúikt, en die van twentig Broeders had used and DET of twenty brother.PL 15 overgebleven is, (die gestorven zyn,) met remained BE DET died BE with syn Broeders, over drie Maant op de Fort ge - 3POS brother.PL over three month up DET fort - sett, en wil sy van de land bannen. All put and want 3PL of DET country exile all beriepen sich nú op S. Majesteits61, en segge called 3RP now up 3PL majesty.GEN and say Gy heeft verboden, dat Negers niet mo - 2SG have forbidden that negro.PL NEG may 60 slagen instead of Du. slaan ‘beat’ (past participle geslagen) may be interference from German (Germ. schlagen ‘beat’). 59 Read zij komen ‘they come’. 61 Genitive unexplained. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 67 20 gen de Heiland leere kennen, en Gy sult - DET Saviour learn know and 2SG will Bas Martinus hast {krass} weg yagen. Maar we &c. BAAS Martinus soon severely away drive but 1PL etc. &c. {niet geloven dat en hebben twee broeder gesturt om etc. NEG believe that and have two brother sent for u te vragen,Jens Rasmus and Andries een Dienaar van de Neger 2SG to ask Jens Rasmus and Andries a servant of DET negro Gemeente} en bidden U. laat ons den Heere leeren congregation and pray 2SG let 1PL DET Lord learn 25 kennen, en by de Broeder -kerke{Broeders kerke} blyven: know and with DET Brethren Brother.GENchurch stay -church Want wy willen met haar tot den Hey - because 1PL want with 3PL to DET Saviour landt gaan. Ons wil ons Meesters in all - go 1PL want 1PL master.PL in all ding gehoorsam zyn, enkel ons siel na de thing obedient BE only 1PL soul NA DET Hemel by den Heer Jesus stúúren. Want heaven at DET Lord Jesus send because 30 ons heeft ons Heere {Herte} gestoolen62, Maron ge - 1PL has 1PL lord heart stolen maroon - loopen, na Porto Rico gegaan, vlaw63 ge - run NA Puerto Rico gone naughty - west, en de Heeren an d'leftogd bedrogen; been and DET master.PL on DET.daily.rationdeceived en nu is dat all anders by ons, so de mee - and now BE that all different with 1PL so DET master.PL 62 Heere may be plural: ‘masters’. gestolen may be bestolen ‘robbed’. 63 vlaw: Du.flauw, which can be translated into ‘weak’ or ‘naughty’. In this context ‘naughty’ seems the most correct. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 68 sters wool weeten. Menig Neger heeft - well know many negro has 35 overhed64 {over het} quad stand -fastigvoeten en handen because.of.DETover DET evil stead -fastly foot.PL and hand.PL sin65 laten afkappen. Wy sullen grac {grae} onsen 3POS let off.cut 1PL shall voluntarily gladly 1PL kop voor de Gemeente onder het buil66 {buyk} leg - head FOR DET community under DET axe belly lay gen, - voor den Heere Jesus, als ons Mee - FOR DET Lord Jesus as 1PL master.PL 40 sters ons dooden, soo als sy seg -gen. - 1PL kill so as 3PL say God den Heere segne ons Genaadigste God DET Lord bless 1PL most.blessed Koning duisendmaal. Geschreven in St. king thousand.times written in St Thomas, ten67 15. Febr. 1739. Thomas - 15 February 1739 Op naam van over de seshondert en up name of over DET sixhundred and 45 vyftig swarte scholieren van Jesus fifty black disciple.PL of Jesus Christus, die Bas Martinus leert, Christ DET BAAS Martinus teaches 64 overhed: over het ‘because.of DET’. 65 sin as as postnominal possessive is neither in accordance with Dutch nor with Negerhollands. It may be a typo for the reflexive indirect object zich as in text 1.2.2. 66 buil ‘bump’ may be a mistake for bijl ‘axe’, since bijl should be [bil] in NH whereas buil could be [byl] or [bil]. 67 ten is either the article den (non-nominative), which should be used here, or ten ‘at the’ (< te den). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 69 vornaamlyk van alle degeen die mainly of all those DET Hy al gedoopt heeft, 3SG already baptised has Pieter. Mingo. Andries. Abra-ham. Madlena. Rebecca, Malattinen {Malattine}. mulatto.woman.PL mulatto.woman Anna Maria.68 Translation The awakened negroes in St. Thomas write to their Majesty the king of Denmark. Merciful Sir King! Now it is our hope his majesty the king will give the order that we may continue to learn about the Lord Jesus. So far we have stood as firm as pleases God the Lord, although we are very much oppressed by all who come to beat and hew us when we learn about the Saviour, and who burn the books, and call baptism a baptism for dogs and call the brethren beasts, and say that negroes should not become blessed, and that a baptised negro is fire-wood in hell. And they have put our brethren, especially Reverend Martin, whom God had given to us already, and who has remained of 20 brethren, (who have died) with his brother, for over three months in the fort, and want to ban them from the land. All now called upon his majesty, and say you have forbidden that the Negroes learn to know the Saviour and that you will chase away Reverend Martin. But we do not believe this, and we have sent two brethren to ask you, Jens Rasmus and Andries, a servant of the negro community, and implore you. Let us learn to know the Lord, and remain with the brethren's church because we want to go with them to the Saviour. We want to be obedient to our masters in everything and only 68 In the manuscript version the names are placed in another order: Pieter, Madlena, Mingo, Rebecca, Malattine, Andries, Anna, Maria, Abraham. Malattine is not a name, but means ‘mulatto.woman’, which seems to refer to Rebecca. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 70 send our soul to heaven with Lord Jesus. Because we have robbed our lord, run maroon, went to Porto Rico, have been naughty and deceived our masters with our daily rations. And now this is all different with us, as the masters know well. Many negroes have got their hands and feet cut off because of the evil. We will gladly lay our heads for the community under the axe, for the Lord Jesus, if our masters will kill us, like they say. God bless our most merciful king a thousand times. Written in St. Thomas, the 15th February, 1739. On behalf of over 650 black pupils of Jesus Christ, whom are taught by Reverend Martin, especially of all those he has baptised already, Pieter, Mingo, Andries, Abraham, Madlena, Rebecca (mulatto woman), Anna Maria. 1.1.3 Der Ältestin der Gemeine der Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an die Königin von Dännemarck. 6. Pages 486-487 of Zinzendorf (1742). Arch-nr.: R15Ba-3.61.r. List-nr.: 126 def.-nr.: 017 Date: 1739 Author: Marotta, Owner: now Madlena (9) Writer: Recipient: Dä. Königin Format: References: In Büdingische Sammlung I:485-486 in which a NH translation of the African text is given also. There are 3 versions of the African text in the archive: 1. really unclear; 2. possible writer Domingo Gesoe; 3. copist. Here version 2, and the NH translation Remarks: It is still unclear which African language is used in this text. Language: African language; NH Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 71 XII. Der Aeltestin der Gemeine der Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an die Koenigin von Daenemarck. An. 1739.69 Ne acadda. [1] Cabe my le ad ga {adga} Tome {Tomas} minge bruhu {bruku} [2] mau, mi wago voltomé {votto mé}. Gewoma {Gew oma} [3] ...... dihé [4] dihé {diké}, na mangi Bruhu {brúku} Ajuba malle na ma do [5] wi tu ma gagni na mi, {mu} quassi nangi {mangi} netto [6] dy {dij} a Wo Du Gowo maja powo Dn. {Du.} Poppo [7] leosi, Mia meyi {meijji} diké bowo Dn {du} mille dikbe [8] migeé Meacadda nadak be no vo Dn {Du} Mau70 [9] e na dak bena Anibà dassi sala Martinus {Martinús} na [10] doclio {doch} {[-d]} na mi {mí} nassé na mi angé vo Dn. {Du.} na [11] cossi de tami, denikó {denikò} Do Batroe {Batröe} Mau {Man[-u]} sé {Sé} Mau [12] mé agnisà ne a cadda. [13] Minzu {Minzù} Gnonù [14] en ho ma {ma[-a]} poppo! [15] Damma {Damma}.71 Ubersetzung ins Cariolische.72 Groote Koninginne. great queen Die tyd mi a wes na Poppo op Africa, DET time 1SG PST BE NA Poppo up Africa doen mi a dint die Heer Mau, nu ko - then 1SG PST serve DET lord God now come 69 XII .... An. 1739.:German. 70 Mau: Ewe ‘God’. (p.c. Dr. F. Ameka) 71 Ne acadda ... Damma. As yet unidentified African language. 72 Übersetzung ins Cariolische German, meaning: ‘translation into Creole’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 72 me na blanco73 land74, mi no wilt gu din de - NA white country 1SG NEG want very.muchserve DET Heere. Mi no ha di grond vor tú dien die Lord 1SG NEG have DET ground FOR to serve DET 20 Heere; mi ben bedroev na min herte, voor Lord 1SG BE sad NA my heart FOR dat Negrinne no kan dien die Heere Jesus in that negress.PL NEG can serve DET Lord Jesus in Thomas, die Blanke no wil dien die Heere. Thomas DET white NEG want serve DET Lord Lat so as sili75 wil, maar soo de povre swarte let so as 3PL want but so DET poor black Broeders en susters wil dien de Heer Jesus, brother.PL and sister.PL want serve DET Lord Jesus 25 so moet zilli doen, as76 si bin maron volk. As so must 3PL do as 3PL BE maroon people when Neacanda belyv, gy77 moet bidde de Heere Je - Neacanda please 2SG must pray DET Lord - sus voor ons, en bidd ook A -Niba, voor la Jesus FOR 1PL and pray also A -niba FOR let ...... stan stan78 Bas Martinus prek de Heere woord, stand BAAS Martinus preach DET Lord word voor ons moe leer voor kenn de Heere, en FOR 1PL must learn FOR know DET Lord and 74 blanko land: blanko probably is an unmarked possessive. 73 blanco derives from Du. blanke ‘white person’. Dutch or Zealandic word-final schwa becomes a full vowel in NH. Usually the stressed vowel determines the quality of the word-final vowel. However, in the case of stressed a the default option o/u is chosen. Cf. NH krabo/krabu ‘crab’ < Zealandic kraabbe (Du. krab). 75 sili: sellie instead of the more usual sender. Compare the introduction. 76 as: here in sense of ‘as if’. See free translation. 77 gy: pronoun from the Dutch written register. 78 la stan ‘let’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 73 30 voor Doop ons Negers, op Naam des Va - FOR baptise 1PL negro.PL up name DET.GEN Father.GEN ders, Sons en Hilig Geest79. Die Heer be - - Son.GEN and Holy Spirit DET Lord - waar sinder, en seegene sinder, son en doch - keep 3PL and bless 3PL son and daughter.and ter*s*en, heel Familie, en mi sal bid den Heer - entire family and 1SG FUT pray DET Lord Jesus voor sinder. Jesus FOR 3PL 35 Ob naam van over Tweehondert en up name of over twohundred and Vyftig Negerssen Zrouwen80, die fifty negress.PL woman.PL DET den Heere Jesus beminnen, ge - DET Lord Jesus love - schreven door written by Marotta nú now Madlena 40 van Poppo uyt Africa81. of Poppo out Africa 79 op Naam ... Geest: sudden intrusion of written Dutch genitives. However the Dutch formula (in de naam des Vaders, des Zoons en des Heiligen Geestes) is not completely followed. 80 Typo for Vrouwen ‘women’. 81 Ob naam van ... uyt Africa: Dutch. Ob may be Du. op ‘at, up’, as it is in the manuscript version. This may be interference from German (cf. Germ. ob ‘because of’) due to the use of op (naam van) instead of regular uit (naam van) ‘in (name of)’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 74 Translation Great Queen. At the time I lived in Poppo in Africa I served Lord Mau and when I came to the whites' land, I did not very much want to serve the Lord. I did not have a reason to serve the Lord; I am sad in my heart that Negroe women cannot serve the Lord Jesus in St. Thomas. The Whites do not want to serve the Lord. Let it be as they want, but if the poor black brethren and sisters want to serve the Lord Jesus, they have to do as if they are maroon people. If it pleases the Queen, you should pray to the Lord Jesus for us, and implore also A Niba (the King) to let Reverend Martin preach the Lord's word and baptise us Negroes, in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. May the Lord protect them and bless them, son and daughter and the whole family, and I will pray to the Lord Jesus for them. On behalf of two hundred and fifty Negro women, who love the Lord Jesus, written by Marotta, now Madlena of Poppo from Africa 1.2 The slave letters (1737-1767) The earliest written documentation of the slaves' language is formed by letters. Since 1736, the missionaries had been teaching the slaves to read and some of them also to write, and indeed, the slaves soon began writing letters, the first one dating from January 11, 1737. A large amount of information about this stage of Negerhollands can be found in Stein's works (especially in those from 1984, 1985a, 1989 and 1991). On the whole, there are about 150 letters in the Herrnhut Archives; they were written between 1737 and 1768. These letters are mostly in Negerhollands, but one part was also in Dutch. In this chapter, we will present a selection of letters in diachronical order; Dutch letters will not be included here. There is some difficulty in discovering the sentence boundaries. The comma sometimes seems to have the function of period, but may also be absent. When it is not clear what it does, and it therefore remains unclear to which (part of) sentence another sentence belongs, we treated it in the free translation as an independent sentence, i.e. between periods. 1.2.1 The first letter in Negerhollands At the time the first letters were written, Negerhollands was not yet a ‘written language’. Therefore, the earliest letters were based on Dutch. Such a letter should represent the first document of our selection: Peter's letter to Friedrich Martin of 21 and 24 January 1738. In this letter, Dutch and Negerhollands structures alternate. On the one hand, it shows Peter's effort to write Dutch, and on the other, his difficulties with this language and the ensuing Creole influences. When one accepts the possibility of linguistic blending, this text may be an example of it (cf. Stein (1989) for the same letter). The letter is dated in German by someone else, and Friedrich Martin has added a comment in German in the right margin, at 90° to the text. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 75 Arch-nr.: R15Ba-10.62 List-nr.: 138 def.-nr.: 003 Date: 21/24.01.1738 Author: Pitrus Owner: Writer: Peter Recipient: Fr. Martin Format: 15.0 × 19.2; only recto used Language: NH/Du. 1 [-an de Lifde82 broeders Maertijn to DET dear brother.PL Martin De gemijnte en alle de broeders DET congregation and all DET brother.PL en diensdag] avondt de vir broeders and Tuesday evening DET four brother.PL en de Susters en de oud man Saca and DET sister.PL and DET old man Saca 5 ons hebt samen met maerkanner 1PL have together with each.other neder geval op de kneij om bed an down fallen on DET knee to pray on De heere en lof de heere en vriedag83 DET Lord and praise DET Lord and Friday avondt ons hebt an de heere wederan evening 1PL have on DET Lord again Gebed en ons hebt met maerkanner prayed and 1PL have with each.other 10 GeEten en ons hebt De heere gedaanckt eaten and 1PL have DET Lord thanked Jck hebt mijn84 broeder gevrag hoe 1SG have 1SG.GEN brother asked how 82 Lifde: looks like Du. noun liefde ‘love’ but may be geliefde ‘beloved’. 83 vriedag: Zealandic [i] instead of Du. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 76 staet met sijn85 hert hem seg ben sijn stand with 3SG.GEN heart 3SG say BE 3SG.GEN hert86 noe87 wel van de heere sijn woordt heart now positive of DET Lord 3SG.GEN word Jck hebt andrijs88 gevrag hoe ben sijn 1SG have *** asked how BE 3SG.GEN 15 hert hen89 Seg ben Sijn hert blie -Schep90 heart 3SG say BE 3SG.GEN heart happy.ness van De Lif des heer91 Maar sijn vrou of DET love DET.GEN Lord but 3SG.GEN woman kan sijn hert soo boos maken daarom can 3SG.GEN heart so angry make therefore hem ben ongesaem92 Joannis seg hem hebt 3SG BE disobedient Johannes say 3SG have soo wel gevon -en sijn hert maer niet so well found 3SG.GEN heart but NEG 20 veel pitrus much Pitrus Vom Januari 21 und 24 1738 teure brider hier ist daß erste brieflein waß broeder Petris von seiner bande mich bericht er hats auch selbst geschrieben93 85 See footnote 3. 87 noe: Zealandic noe ([nu]) instead of Du. nu ([ny]). 86 ben sijn hert: note the inversion of subject and finite verb. 88 andrijs: proper name, but not spelled with a capital. 90 blie-Schep: Zealandic [i] instead of Du. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 77 Translation To the dear brethren Martin, the congregation and all the brethren. One Tuesday evening the four brethren and the sisters and the old man Saca, we knelt together and prayed to the Lord and praised the Lord, and Friday evening we prayed again to the Lord and we ate together and we thanked the Lord. I asked my brother how his heart fared, and he said his heart now belongs to the word of the Lord. I asked Andrijs how his heart was and he said his heart feels the happiness of the love of the Lord, but his wife can sometimes make her heart so angry, which is why she is disobedient. Johannes says he found his heart so well, but not very much. Pitrus. From January 21 and 24, 1738 Dear brethren, here is the first small letter which Peter sent to me from his group. Also, he has written it himself. 1.2.2 The early 1740s. The early letters indicate that Zinzendorf's letter stimulated further writing in Negerhollands. During the subsequent years more letters followed, of which especially the one from 1741 is important. Among them the first slave letters in Negerhollands are encountered, and Dutch was no longer used exclusively. Again, the initiative for this apparently did not come from the slaves but from the missionaries. One must keep in mind that not all slaves could write; indeed, during the first years only two of them could, Peter and Domingo Gesoe. As there are more senders of letters than different types of hand-writing, the letters were apparently dictated. This is supported by the fact that often several letters appear after each other on the same sheet of paper. Mostly they were small notes, from which one can conclude that paper was not available in abundance. Furthermore, Peter and Domingo mainly wrote Dutch letters; missionary Löhans, on the other hand, wrote almost exclusively in Negerhollands. Here we included a letter from Löhans. The contents of these letters does not display much variation; they represent declarations of faith with only very scanty reference to daily life. Arch-nr.: R15Ba-15.5a.l5 List-nr.:018 def.-nr.: 048 Date: 01.02.1740 [1741?] Author: Lenathge Owner: Hans Claß Writer: Löhans Recipient: Format: 9.8 × 11.5 cm; verso References: Büdingische Sammlung 15 Remarks: Baptised on 26 February 1741: Milka: the letter is probably from 1741, thus shortly before baptism. 1740 is not very likely Language: NH Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 78 1 de grutniß94 an alle de Schüsters95 DET greetings to all DET sister.PL Mi a -was96 en arem verloren Mensch. 1SG PST -was a poor lost person nu97, mi.a.kom fin de heijland sein blut now 1SG.PST.come find DET Saviour 3POS blood die blut.a.kom wasch mi hart. DET blood.PST.come wash 1SG heart 5 mi.a.was so lang dit vor hor de heere 1SG.PST.was so long time FOR hear DET Lord sein wort. mar mi nu98 a.frag na die 3POS become but 1SG NEG PST.ask NA DET mar dun mi a.kom vul de heijland but then 1SG PST.come feel DET Saviour sin kracht. na mi hart. da mi a.krisch 3POS strength NA 1SG heart then 1SG PST.cry na em bardon.bardon. en so mi fin die NA 3SG pardon.pardon and so 1SG find DET 10 genade.a.kom oover mi, mi nu ka mercy.PST.come over 1SG 1SG NEG PRF danck de heijland genug vor der99 sien thank DET Saviour enough FOR that 3POS blut.a.wasch mi hart. mi glof fast blood.PST.wash 1SG heart 1SG believe fast 95 Schüsters: Du. zusters. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 79 na die heijland. em.a.hang an die hout NA DET Saviour 3SG.PST.hang on DET wood vor mi arm sonder100. FOR 1SG poor sinner 15 Lenathge101 vonn Hans Claß Lena.DIM of Hans Class S. Thomas den 1. feber 1740 Translation Greetings to all sisters. I was a poor and lost person. Now I came and found the Saviour's blood. The blood came and cleansed my heart. I waited so long time before hearing the Lord's word. Without asking for it. But then I came to feel the Saviour's strength, in my heart, then I cried to him for forgiveness. And so I find the mercy has come over me. I now cannot thank the Saviour enough because his blood cleansed my heart. I believe firmly in the Saviour. He hung on the cross for me poor sinner. Lenathge of Hans Claß. St. Thomas, February the first, 1740 7. School of the Moravian Brethren on St. Croix. 100 sonder instead of the irregular Du. form zondaar ‘sinner’ may be due to interference from Germ. Sünder ‘sinner’. 101 Lenathge: Lena-tje, diminutive of Lena. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 80 1.2.3 Letters to Bethlehem (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) From the following years only very few and then almost exclusively Dutch letters have been preserved. Starting in 1752 and 1753 we find a larger number of letters again. They are predominantly written in Negerhollands, their size has increased, and the texts are longer. Furthermore, a new addressee appears: the Indian congregation in North America (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania). From the language in the letters one senses increasing experience with the Negerhollands language, the number of Dutch interferences is low, and in their place new structures are employed (see several publications of Stein, for instance Stein forthcoming b). The following letter is by Domingo Gesoe to the Indian congregation. Domingo Gesoe, one of the two writers from the early years, disposed of a good knowledge of Dutch and always wrote his own letters in this language, while for others he also wrote in Negerhollands. This letter is the only one known to us which he wrote in Negerhollands himself. Apparently, for him the addressee plays a role in this linguistic choice. Arch-nr.: R15Ba-15.18.r List-nr.:072 def.-nr.: 094 Date: 30.05.1752 Author: Domingo Gesoe Owner: Carstens Writer: Domingo Gesoe Recipient: Bethlehem Format: Double sheet folded 2 × A4, 1.1 cm less wide, 0.7cm shorter; front page bears the address. Remarks: Brought by Oldendorp to Bethlehem, Penn., as are the following letters of the bundle. Language: NH 1 En de genade van ons lieve heijland and DET grace of 1PL dear Saviour Lieve broeders alle -mael, ons alle -mael dear brother.PL all 1PL all Jender arme, swaerte Broeders op St Thomas 2PL poor black brother.PL on St Thomas Lee groet Jender alle veel veel diesen102 mael, en - ASP greet 2PL all much much thousand time and 5 De bloetige wonden van ons zoed Lam, die a DET bloody wound.PL of 1PL sweet lamb DET PST 102 diesen: Du. duizend ‘thousand’ with unrounded [y]. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 81 Dood en betaeld103 voor ons zonden an de Chroshoud104 die and pay FOR 1PL sin.PL at DET cross.wood Ja ons danck hem voor sie bloedige zweet en yes 1PL thank 3SG for 3POS bloody sweat and ook voor die wonden an hand en voet Ja also for DET wound.PL at hand and foot yes Die grood Zieholleje105, die waer ons alle -mael DET great side.hole.DIM DET where 1PL all 10 zal zet als dietje, voor alle quadt, hem zal FUT sit as animal.DIM for all evil 3SG FUT Bewaer ons, ons kan noe kan gie een goed keep 1PL 1PL can NEG can give a thing Maer ons danck hem voor die liefde die Em but 1PL thank 3SG For DET love DET 3SG a gie Jender na bennen Jender hart dat ook PST give 2PL NA inside 2PL heart that also Jender moe dinck op ons arm pover volck 2PL must think on 1PL poor poor folk 15 En doe soo veel moeijten voor ons hem selfs and do so much trouble for 1PL 3SG self sal betael Jender voor die, en gie jender FUT pay 2PL for DET and give 2PL Meer kracht en liefde voor Wandel na more strength and love FOR walk NA bennen Sie paet die hem ka mack open inside 3POS path DET 3SG PRF make open 104 Chros-: English cross or a variant of a NH form kroes ‘cross’ with an Old West Germanic (Latin) [u] (Du. kruis). Cf. the introduction on the use of [u] instead of [y] in some Zealandic etyma. 103 betaeld: Dutch past participle with ending -d or spelling variety of expected Dutch present tense marker -t? 105 Zieholleje: an innovative compound plus diminutive, if our interpretation is correct. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 82 voor ons, en voor de he[-l]le Weereld, dat ons for 1PL and for DET whole world that 1PL 20 kan kom vrie van alle sonden, door sie can come free of all sin.PL through 3POS bloed en dood, ons allemael lee groet blood and dead 1PL all ASP greet Jender veel veel diesen mael en ook 2PL much much thousand time and also an ons lieve broeders die amerikanner106 on 1PL dear brother.PL DET American.PL Die ook, die hae de lieve heijland lief, ons DET also DET have DET dear Saviour dear 1PL 25 Ben moeSe blie voe hoor van Sender, ons BE much happy FOR hear of 3PL 1PL noe kan voe kiec hier So met makander NEG can FOR see here so with each.other maer ons hoop voe kiec makander bij de but 1PL hope FOR see each.other at DET Lieve heijland, ons Groet weer -an en de dear Saviour 1PL greet again in DET Naem van alle onse Swaerte broeders name of all 1PL black brother.PL 30 En het Laeste ook van uwe arme and DET last also of 2SG.GEN poor Broeder Domingo Gesoe brother Domingo Gesoe 106 amerikanner: older Dutch (and German) Amerikaner ‘American’ with -aner instead of more normal Du. -aan. Can be interpreted as singular or as plural. In this context a plural seems more likely. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 83 Translation And the grace of our dear Saviour. Dear brethren, all of us, your poor Black brethren on St. Thomas, we greet you all many thousand times. And the bloody wounds of our sweet Lamb, who died and paid for our sins on the cross. Yes we thank him for his bloody sweat and also for the wounds on his hands and feet. Yes the large side-hole, which is where we all will sit as little animals. We cannot repay him in any way, he who will keep us from all evil. But we thank him for the love which He has given you in your hearts, so that you must also think of us poor piteous people and take so great pains for us. He Himself will pay you for it, and give you more power and love to walk his path which he has opened for us, and for the whole world, so that we can become free of all sins, through his blood and death. We all greet you many thousand times, and also to our dear brethren the Americans. Them too, who love the Saviour, we are very happy to hear from them. We cannot see each other here, but we hope to see each other with the dear Saviour. We greet again on behalf of all our Black brethren, and finally also from your poor brother. Domingo Gesoe. 1.2.4 A letter from Cornelius The following is a letter from Cornelius to Spangenberg, the principal assistant and later successor of Count Zinzendorf in the leadership of the Moravian congregation. Cornelius was the decisive personality in the slave congregation of the ‘second generation’; his portrait is found among the important Moravian personalities in the Unitäts-Archiv in Herrnhut. Like Domingo Gesoe he used both Dutch and Negerhollands in his letters. Spangenberg visited St. Thomas as early as 1736, three years before Zinzendorf. Arch-nr.: R15Ba-15.16 List-nr.: 071 def.-nr.: 107 Date: 06.07.1753 Author: Cornelius Owner: Compagnie Writer: Cornelius Recipient: Spangenberg Format: 19.8 × 32.2 cm; recto: text, verso: address + seal Language: NH 1 Mijn zeer hertelijk Broeder 1SG.GEN very dear brother Spaningberg Spangenberg Mi le groet en kus joe muschie Muschie Duijsend 1SG ASP greet and kiss 2SG much much thousand Maal ujt gnade in Jesus wonden en mi no wet time out grace in Jesus wound.PL and 1SG NEG know Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 84 5 as107 joe sal kend/ mi voor di -j tijd joe a weest108na as 2SG FUT knows 1SG before DET time 2SG PST BE NA St Thomas mi no a kan loop [-na] vor hoort St Thomas 1SG NEG PST can walk NA FOR hears van de heijland en mi a weest [-fl] heel jong of DET Saviour and 1SG PST BE *** very young na bennen de weereld sonde. mi no a weet NA inside DET world sin 1SG NEG PST know Die hab soo en heijland maar nu mi noo DET have so and Saviour but now 1SG NEG 10 kan leeft zonder de heijlan want as mi can lives without DET Saviour because as 1SG hert no sal voelt Si bloed alle Dagen na ben heart NEG FUT feels 3POS blood all day.PL NA inside mi hert ziek van bedroeft maar mi hert kan ill of sad but 1SG heart can ander die ben hel zeer over de Heijland met other DET BE very sore over DET Saviour with 15 allemal Si wonden na Si Lief voor mi son- all 3POS wound.PL NA 3POS body FOR 1SG sin -De want mi hert le brand allen na hem - because 1SG heart ASP burn only NA 3SG van liefde :o: mi live broeder mi no kan joe of love o 1SG dear brother 1SG NEG can 2SG 108 Despite the clearly creole features of this letter, verbal stems (‘infinitives’) often are written as Dutch 3SG finite forms (with -t, sometimes written as -d). 107 as instead of of ‘if, whether’ can also be found in Dutch dialects. 109 mi: may be mi ‘(fin.) be’. In the 20th century mi ‘be’ appears quite often. See vocabulary of De Josselin de Jong (1926). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 85 no moet vergeet mi Ja joe no moet vergeet ons NEG must forget 1SG yes 2SG NEG must forget 1PL want mi ben die Aarmste verloor voelk di because 1SG BE DET poorest lose folk DET 20 a maak de Heijland Sweet bloed vor mi PST make DET Saviour sweat blood FOR 1SG maar de Heijland no Rekend mi hem hab but DET Saviour NEG counts 1SG 3SG have mi goe muschie lief Ja hem hab ons goe 1SG very much love yes 3SG have 1PL very en mi hab joe ook goe muschie liev na and 1SG have 2SG also very much love NA mi hert en [-m] niet meer mi le groet joe van mi 1SG heart and *** NEG more 1SG ASP greet 2SG of 1SG 25 Moeder ook Sooe en na almal broeder en Suste en buijsonder110 na di briend111 broeder en suster and especially NA DET brown brother and sister [-a] van ons almal 1 swart broeder en suster *** of 1PL all *** black brother and sister hier na St. Thomas en mi ben joe [-M] Aarme here NA St Thomas and 1SG BE 2SG *** poor Swart broeder Cornelius van de Companie black brother Cornelius of DET company 30 St. Thomas den 6 Julij Ao 1753 St Thomas DET 6 July A.D. 1753 111 briend: probably a hypercorrection. Dutch consonantal sequences in the rime of a syllable could be reduced in NH. This means that there may be an alternative, phonological explanation for the -t/-d ending on the verbal stems in this letter. 110 buijsonder: Du. bizonder. This spelling mistake indicates that Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 86 Translation My very cordial brother Spangenberg, I greet and kiss you many a thousand times from the grace of Jesus' wounds. And I do not know whether you will know me. Before the time you were in St. Thomas I did not come to hear about the Saviour, and very young I was within the world's sins. I did not know there was such a Saviour, but now I cannot live without the Saviour, because if my heart does not feel His blood every day within my heart, O I become very sad and I am ill from sadness. But my heart can change. It is very sore over the Saviour with all His wounds over His body for my sins, because my heart burns of love only for him. O my dear brother I do not know (?) you. You must not forget me. Yes you must not forget us because I am the poorest lost person who made the Saviour sweat blood for me, but the Saviour does not hold it against me. He loves me very much. Yes he loves us much, and I also love you very much in my heart and nothing else I greet you, from my mother also, and to all brethren and sisters and especially to the brown brethren and sisters from all of us Black brethren and sisters in St. Thomas, and I am your poor Black brother Cornelius of the Company. St. Thomas, the sixth of July, anno 1753. 1.2.5 The copies of Oldendorp Oldendorp had been conducting fieldwork on St. Thomas for his Missionsgeschichte for 17 months. On the return journey from St. Thomas, during his stay in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, Oldendorp copied a number of letters written by the St. Thomas slave congregation to the Indian congregation. One of these letters is also included here. Arch-nr.: R15Ba-15.25.21/22 List-nr.: 089 def.-nr.: 127 Date: ca. 1753 Author: Catarina Owner: Linberg Writer: Copist-Oldendorp Recipient: Format: see letter 118 in Beck & Stein (forthcoming) Remarks: see letter 118 in Beck & Stein (forthcoming) Language: NH 1 Mi groet de Heer Graav en Baas Johanes en 1SG greet DET lord count and reverend Johannes and Zuster Maria en Judit muschi, mi bin heel sister Maria and Judith much 1SG BE very bli over de gnade van de Hyland, De Heer Graav happy over DET grace of DET Saviour DET lord count Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 87 de ha gi mi de Hand een maal hieso, as mi no DET PST give 1SG DET hand one time here as 1SG NEG 5 sal kik hem hieso, mi hoop mi zal kik hem bi FUT see 3SG here 1SG hope 1SG FUT see 3SG at de Hyland; Mi groet Baas Johanes ook all112, mi DET Saviour 1SG greet reverend Johannes also already 1SG dank hem muschi voor de gnade hem ka bring thank 3SG much FOR DET grace 3SG PRF bring na ons, Ons voel de nogal, mi no voorget broeder NA 1PL 1PL feel DET quite 1SG NEG forget brother Bruker, mi groet de heel gemeente, so groet113 Bruker 1SG greet DET whole congregation so great 10 di gnade bin na mi hart, so groet bin de gemeete DET grace BE NA 1SG heart so great BE DET congregation ook all, also already Catarina van H Linberg Catharina of Mr. Linberg P.S. mi Mama Ruth groet muschi muschi hem P.S. 1SG mother Ruth greet much much 3SG bin heel bli na de gnade van ons Hyland David BE very happy NA DET mercy of 1PL Saviour David 15 mi Man van Compani groet di heel gemeente 1SG man of company greet DET whole congregation hem weet de Heere Graav en groet hem ook all. 3SG know DET lord count and greet 3SG also already 112 ook all: Du. ook al ‘also’ (lit. ‘also already’). The NH use of it is often not in accordance with Dutch usage. 113 groet: why the spelling groet is chosen here (instead of Du. groot ‘great, big’) is unclear. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 88 Translation I greet the lord count and reverend Johannes and sister Maria and Judith much. I am very glad for the grace of the Saviour. The lord count once shook my hand here. If I will not see him here anymore I hope I will see him with the Saviour. I greet reverend Johannes also. I thank him much for the grace he has brought to us. We feel it strongly. I do not forget brother Bruker. I greet the whole congregation. As large as the grace is inside my heart, so as large be the congregation too. Catharina of Mr. Linberg. P.S. My mother greets very much. She is very happy in the grace of our Saviour. David, my husband of the Company greets the whole congregation. He knows the lord count and greets him as well. 1.2.6 Letters from St. Croix At the outset, the centre of the Moravian slave congregation was St. Thomas. In the course of time, however, small new communities emerged on St. John and St. Croix. From St. Croix, letters have been preserved, but none from St. John. The conclusion of our selection concerns two letters from St. Croix, both written after 1760. The first one is written by Davis Messelaar, a member of the slave congregation, the second one by a missionary who is recognizable from the occasional German styling in his writing. Arch-nr.: R15Ba 15.28.2 List-nr.: 093 def.-nr.: 132 Date: Author: Nathaniel Owner: Koning Writer: David Messelaar Recipient: Format: see letter 131 in Beck & Stein (forthcoming); letter 132 commences recto and ends verso (3 lines) Remarks: see letter 131 in Beck & Stein (forthcoming) Language: NH (St. Croix) 1 O mi Lieve Br mi le dank di Lieve heijland voor di Groet114 o 1SG dear brother1SG ASP thank DET dear Saviour FOR DET great genadedi hem laat mi voel na ben mi hert voor Dink op [-Si] mercy DET 3SG let 1SG feel NA inside 1SG heart FOR think on 3POS Si Dood en Lijden 114 Groet: why the spelling groet is chosen here (instead of Du. groot ‘great, big’), is unclear. 115 Grieg: read Crieg or Krieg (Du. krijgen ‘get’). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 89 di mi wel bed hem voor voel lievft en wes gelovf116 na DET 1SG will pray 3SG FOR feel love and BE belief NA 5 Hem Maar mi le bied Joe Lieve Br dat jender ook mo dink 3SG but 1SG ASP pray 2SG dear brotherthat 2PL also may think Blef na hem en di alleenzal wes mi di Groostegoed na ben remainNA 3SG and DET only FUT BE 1SG DET biggest good NA inside Nathanielen almaalander 10 Nathaniel van zijn Koning Nathaniel of 3POS Koning Translation O my dear brother I thank the dear Saviour for the great mercy He lets me feel inside my heart to think of His death and suffering, which He endured at the cross. And because of that I want to pray to Him to feel love and have faith in Him. But I pray you dear brother that you all will also think of me poor piteous person and I do not know anything else but only to remain with Him and that alone will be to me the highest good inside my heart. Nothing else but greetings to my dear brother Nathaniel and all other brethren and sisters in the whole congregation, out of the wounds of our God and Saviour. I am your poor brother Nathaniel of his king. Arch-nr.: R15Ba-15.31.8 List-nr.: 107 def.-nr.: 143 Date: 20.04.1762 Author: Mari Magdalene Owner: Princess/King Writer: [N.N., Missionary] Recipient: Bethlehem Format: see letter 100 in Beck & Stein (forthcoming); last letter, written in another hand, not D. Messelaar Remarks: see letter 100 in Beck & Stein (forthcoming) Language: NH (St. Croix) 116 gelovf: may be Du. gelovig ‘faithful’ rather than Du. geloof ‘belief, faith’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 90 The German missionary who wrote this letter for Mari Magdalene had a reasonable command of Dutch orthography. Thus, he occasionally used 1 mij live bruder en sisters118 allgar. mij lee grud jender allgar 1SG dear brother and sister.PL all 1SG ASP greet 2PL all muschijmuschijvan all mij hart. wad mij sal see na jender,mij VUl much much of all 1SG heart what 1SG FUT say NA 2PL 1SG feel mij arm en boven119na bin mij hart, en unwürdigvor die gnade, 1SG poor and poor NA inside1SG heart and unworthyFOR DET mercy 8. Archiv der Brüder-Unität, Herrnhut. 117 auf Der ... 1762: German, however with NH plantai ‘plantation’ instead of Du. plantagie/plantage ‘id.’. The participle genam could be Du. genaamd ‘called’ unless it represents Germ. genannt ‘id’. 118 Sisters: this ‘English’ spelling (instead of Du. zuster or semi-German süster) may be another early indication for a high front vowel in the NH word for ‘sister’. 119 boven ‘above’ must be a misspelling for *bover, i.e. pover ‘poor’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 91 die mij lifte Heilanddu vor mij. en mij verlangbin vor kom mehr DET 1SG dear Saviourdo FOR 1SG and 1SG long BE FOR come more 5 tieper na binne sie bludig wunden. wand mij vul die. mij deeper NA inside 3POS bloody wound.PLbecause1SG feel DET 1SG ha die gu mahtig.en mij bit jender,vor tienck na mij vor die have DET very mighty and 1SG pray 2PL FOR think NA 1SG FOR DET lifte Heiland. mij grud noch apart. die lieve baas Nathanael dear Saviour 1SG greet yet separatelyDET dear reverendNathanael en baas Philippus.En Sister mari. M. en Sister Susanna,die mij and reverendPhilippus and sister Mari M and sister Susanna DET 1SG kenn En mij bin en blif die arm unwürdige,med lifte na jender know and 1SG BE and stay DET poor unworthy with love NA 2PL 10 mari magdalene v. König Mari Magdalene of King Translation On the royal plantation named Princess, St. Croix, the 20th of April 1762. My dear brethren and sisters all together. I greet you all very much from my whole heart. What will I say to you. I feel poor and piteous inside my heart, and unworthy of the grace which my dear Saviour is doing for me. And I long to come deeper into his bloody wounds. Because I feel them. It overcomes me. And I beg you to think of me for the dear Saviour. And furthermore I greet the dear reverend Nathaniel and reverend Philippus, and sister Mari M. and sister Susanna, who knows me. And I am and remain the poor unworthy, with love to you. Mari Magdalene of the king. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 93 2 Religious Material: translations and transliterations 2.1 The first religious manuscripts The earliest of religious texts in the tradition of the Moravian Brethren is ms. 333 from 1754. It forms the annex to Christmas day in Samy Isles' diary kept from 1754-55. It represents the translation of a hymn as sung by the children of the congregation that day. It was published in Stein (1982b). In this section we present ms. 334 instead, which is part A of an annex to an anonymous diary kept by one of the Moravian missionaries, dated 1755. 2.1.1 Several creole hymns (ms. 334) The following texts come from Herrnhut manuscript 334, called ‘Annex to the St. Thomas diary of the month of August 1755’. This manuscript contains two parts: part A, which is called ‘Several creole hymns’, and part B, which is a list in German of names of 48 women. Here, only part A is given: Beylage zum Diario von St. Thomas vom Mon. August. 1755. 1 Jesoe Angesightes Sweet2 Jesus face.GEN sweat maek ons Hertje natt en heet make 1PL heart.DIM wet and hot Joe Bloed bliv met Goddes Maght 2SG blood remain with God.GEN might na ons Hert en gi ons Kraght. NA 1PL heart and give 1PL strength * 1 Beylage ...Lied*e*r: German. 2 Jesoe Angesightes Sweet: note the German genitive ending on Angesight and the Latin-Greek genitive of Jesus. Note as well the Dutch orthography for [u]: Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 94 1. 5 Een kleentje Kind mi weet mi ben, a small.DIM child 1SG know 1SG BE en mi Kraght di ben swak, and 1SG strength DET BE weak voor wees een vry3 Kind mi ha Sinn FOR BE a good child 1SG have desire maer no weet hoe vor maak. but NEG know how FOR make 2. 10 Mi Heiland ka Uyt Lievd vor mi 1SG Saviour PRF out love for 1SG wees ook een Kindje kleen BE also a child.DIM little en ka verloss door si schoon Blood and PRF redeem through 3POS beautiful blood mi uit all Nodh en Pien. 1SG from all need and pain 3. Mi lievste Heiland sei mi noe 1SG dearest Saviour tell 1SG now hoe mi reght dankbar bedd how 1SG really gratefully pray 15 voor all mi lievd mi wies na joe for all 1SG love 1SG show NA 2SG dumm mi ben en noe weet. stupid 1SG BE and NEG know 3 vry: most probably this is not Du. vrij ‘free’ but rather NH fraai, fri ‘good’. The 18th century NH texts sometimes use Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 95 4. Maer mi le dink, mi [-power] [- so as mi offd ka hoor so like 1SG often PRF hear voor en Geschenk joe ha begeert for a gift 2SG PST desired 20 en di mi dink ben waar. and DET 1SG think BE true 5. So neem na joe mi Hert en Sinn so take NA 2SG 1SG heart and mind nim doe4 lievst Jesoelein take do dearest Jesus.DIM mi weet well, dat van joe mi ben 1SG know well that of 2SG 1SG BE joe allerlievste Mann 2SG most.beloved man 6. 25 En noe mi arem hertje kleen and now 1SG poor heart.DIM little van elk vüll goed bewaar of every filthy thing preserve joe a ka wasch di, hou die schoon 2SG PST PRF wash DET keep DET clean van Schad en elk gevaar. of damage and every danger 4 Although doe can be interpreted as ‘do’ (or as Du. toe ‘please’) the partly ‘German’ syntax of these hymns as well as the form nim instead of neem ‘take’ could induce one to interpret this word as Germ. du ‘2SG’ in the normal inverted position for subjects in German imperatives. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 96 Melod. O Haupt voll Blut u. *Wunde...*.5 1. Kom't6 hie met mi en kik di come here with 1SG and see DET 30 hoe hem naben'n si Boet how 3SG NA.inside 3POS penance die Aard'e met Sweet makt natt hi DET earth with sweat makes wet here vat all si Traanen goet seize all 3POS tear.PL good met mi na jender Herte with 1SG NA 2PL heart.PL versiemt geen Oogenblik fail no moment 35 want allemaal si Smerte because all 3POS pain meen't onse eywig Glük. means 1PL eternal happiness 2 Kom't hie met lievde Traanen come here with love tear.PL en kik di Smertens -Mann and see DET pain.PL.GEN -man na all di Leydens Schoone NA all DET suffering.GEN beauty 5 Tune: O Haupt ... *Wunde...*: German, meaning: ‘O head, covered with blood and wounds’. 6 The apostrophe used in this hymn seems to indicate that the following segment should not be pronounced as is clear from the forms naben'n and Aard'e since only this way these words fit the meter. This would imply that the writer wants to indicate that the plural imperative ending -t of German and older Dutch should not be pronounced in NH. Kom't should be read as kom. A rather complicated way to write NH kom. An alternative interpretation could be that the function of the apostrophe is ambiguous between indicating apocope (as in the case of Aerd'e) and syncope. In that case Kom't may be the syncopated variant of the plural imperative kommet of older German and the t should be pronounced. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 97 40 naben'n si Bloed reght an7 NA.inside 3POS blood straight on waneer mi Hert si Leyden when 1SG heart 3POS suffering so kraghtig onderfind't so strongly experiences ...... mi mi passeer Ewighee -den 1SG pass eternity.PL na di Gedaght aleen. NA DET thought alone 3. 45 O Hoofd voll Wond'n en Schwüiren8 o head full wound.PL and ulcer.PL voll Smert en Pien en Bloed, full pain and pain and blood O Hoofd voll Gaat en Swieren o head full hole and ulcer.PL van Dornen steekel Hoet of thorny prickle hat Eertit ka wees voll Zierad formerly PRF BE full adornment 50 en Heerlyk -heyt heel groot and glory very great noe jammerlyk schuimpeeret now woefully scorned willkomm'n met moeschi Groet. welcome with many greeting 7 an: particle of the particle verb kik an ‘look at’ (Du. aankijken ‘id.’). Kik ... reght an is then equivalent to Du. recht aankijken. 8 Schwüiren ‘ulcers’, a variant of Swieren (< Du. zweren ‘id.’), seems to be influenced by the vowel of Germ. Geschwür ‘ulcer’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 98 4. Wat joe mi Heer ka drag hie what 2SG 1SG Lord PRF bear here ka wees alleen mi Goed PRF BE alone 1SG good 55 die Schuild di mi ka maek hie DET guilt DET 1SG PRF make here joe ka betaald met Bloed 2SG PRF paid with blood Kik hie mi staen mi pover look here 1SG stand 1SG poor joe Toorn mi ka verdien 2SG wrath 1SG PRF deserve Maer gi mi Saaligmaaker but give 1SG Saviour 60 vor kik joe Gnad alleen. FOR see 2SG mercy only * Jesoe God en Lam Jesus God and lamb ka dod na Krüs Stam PRF die NA cross stem mi joe Ziel mi po[w+] dank joe vor joe Dod en Smerte thank 2SG for 2SG death and pain 65 hie na voor joe voet here NA before 2SG foot wand di ben heel Soet. because DET BE very sweet * Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 99 O wat voelt mi Hert o what feels 1SG heart over si grot Smert. about 3POS great pain Na di Crus vor kik him bludig NA DET cross FOR see 3SG bloody 70 o di ben mi moschi Soete o DET BE 1SG very sweet elke wond mi groet every wound 1SG greet na joe Hand en Voet. NA 2SG hand and foot * O mi Hert le sink o 1SG heart ASP sink waneer mi bedink, when 1SG consider 75 hoeso üt si Zie le Stroomen how out 3POS side ASP stream Goed di mak mi Herte Vlammen thing DET make 1SG heart flame di Versoenings Bloed DET reconciliation.GEN blood van mi Lam en God. of 1SG lamb and God * O joe Man vol Smert o 2SG man full pain 80 bloed9 op joe volk Hert blood up 2SG people heart 9 bloed: ambiguous between Du. bloed ‘blood’ and bloeden ‘bleed’. Here it may be a verb. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 100 maak ons altit nogh mehr Voelbar make 1PL always even more perceptible bliev na ons Hert en Hogo klaar remain NA 1PL heart and eye clear dat elk Oogenblik that every moment joe Beeld ons kan kik. 2SG image 1PL can see * 85 Di ben mi Plesie DET BE 1SG pleasure na Dagh Doenker10 hie NA day dark here voor Dinkop di Lams si Traanen FOR think.up DET lamb.GEN 3POS tear.PL Pien en Smert en bloedig Stroom -en pain and ache and bloody stream -PL da mi Hert le Vlam then 1SG heart ASP flame 90 en sing Lamm o Lamm! and sing lamb o lamb ** * ...... Sondaars * Sondaars lopt na Jesus Wonden sinner.PL walk.IMP NA Jesus wound.PL di ons altit open find DET 1PL always open find da di hab na allgaar Stonden EMP DET have NA all hour.PL 10 Dagh Doenker: It seems as if this composition, literally ‘day dark’, has the meaning ‘night’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 101 Plek voor so een pover Kind. place for such a poor child * 95 Lat staan noe dat allgar Herten let stand now that all heart.PL di hier voor joe Anschein ben DET here before 2SG face BE voel joe bloedig Dod en Smerten feel 2SG bloody death and pain.PL scriv di diep na Hert en Sin. write DET deep NA heart and sense * Lat stan na ons Hert en Gronde let stand NA 1PL heart and ground 100 en diep naben ons gemoed and deep NA.inside 1PL mood allmal Sondaers ondervind di all sinner.PL experience DET joe so dierbar Wonden Bloed. 2SG so dear wound.PL blood * En als Kleentje pover Wormtje and as small poor worm.DIM di ben maer lelk Goed aleen DET BE just ugly thing only 105 altit na joe soete Gnade always NA 2SG sweet mercy Bloed en Wonden ons verbly -en. blood and wound.PL 1PL gladden Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 102 Sein Feuer hize durch uns hin Sein blutigs Bad soll uns durchziehn weil ihr seid sein ererbtes Gut und kostet Ihm sein theures Blut11 * Joe Crües joe Groot benaut en Smert 2SG cross 2SG great anxiety and pain joe Sweet en allemael Wonden 2SG sweat and all wound.PL di ka trek wey mi heele Hert DET PRF pull away 1SG whole heart 110 en ha di vast gebonden. and have DET fast bound * Di ben di Vüer di na mi vlammt DET BE DET fire DET NA 1SG flames en roer mi Hert na Gronde and move 1SG heart NA ground ...... vor vor -door12 na mo ja13 ka dod vor mi Sonde. yes PRF die for 1SG sin * 115 Joe14 Hert na mi, mi Soon noe gi 2SG heart NA 1SG 1SG son now give di ben mi Grood en Waard DET BE 1SG great and worth Geen rüst joe Vind ander Plek hie NEG.one rest 2SG find other place here 11 Sein Feuer ... Blut: German. 12 vordoor ‘because’ 13 ja: maybe ju ‘2SG’, although the usual spelling is joe. 14 In this stanza Jesus addresses the sinner. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 103 na di geheel Aerd. NA DET entire earth * So neem mi Jesus Christus aan so take 1SG Jesus Christ on 120 grav mi diep na joe Bloed dig 1SG deep NA 2SG blood mi Glov dat joe na Crüs ka hang 1SG believe that 2SG NA cross PRF hang mi en de wereld te Goed. 1SG and DET world to good * Joe Gottlyk Liev na mi goy üit 2SG divine love NA 1SG throw out Joe heel schoon lievde Vlam 2SG very beautiful love flame 125 maer Cabba Duijster, Spitt, Valskeet but finish darkness evil falseness Joe Sinn schenk mi o Lamm. 2SG sense give 1SG o lamb * O God maak mi Hert tot joe Hüss15 o God make 1SG heart to 2SG house hiso na deese titt here NA DEM time Ja latstaan joe woonhüss, die wees yes let 2SG home DET BE 130 ook na di Ewigheit. also NA DET eternity 15 Hüss ‘house’ and woonhüss ‘house, home’ two lines below demonstrate that Du. huis could be both [hus] (the normal form) and [hys] in 18th century NH. This confirms the use of his- in A. Magens' letter of 1883. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 104 Translation Annex to the diary of St. Thomas of the month of August 1755. Several Creole hymns. Jesus face's sweat Make(s) our little heart wet and hot Your blood remain(s) with God's might In our heart and give(s) us strength. * 1. A small child I know I am And my strength is weak. To be a free child I have desire But do not know how to do it. 2. My Saviour has out of love for me Also been a little child. And has through his beautiful blood redeemed Me from all need and pain. 3. My dearest Saviour tell me now How to pray really gratefully. For all my love I show to you Stupid I am and I don't know. 4. But I think my poor heart As I often have heard. You have desired for a gift And that I think is true. 5. So take to you my heart and mind Take it, do dearest little Jesus. I know well that yours I am You most beloved man. 6. And now my poor little heart Preserve it from every filthy thing Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 105 You have washed it, keep it clean Of damage and every danger. Tune: O head covered with blood and wounds. 1. Come here with me and look How he in his penance Makes the earth wet with sweat. Seize all his tears good With me in your hearts Do not miss any moment Because all his pain Means our eternal happiness. 2. Come here with tears of love. And straight at the man of pains In all the beauty of suffering, Inside his blood, When my heart experiences His suffering so strongly I pass eternities In the thought alone. 3. O head full of wounds and ulcers Full of pain and ache and blood. O head full of holes and ulcers From a thorny hat. Formerly [you] were full of adornment And glory very great Now woefully scorned Be welcome with many greetings. 4. What you my Lord have borne here Has been only for my good. The guilt which I have made here You have paid with blood. Look here I stand, me poor one Your wrath I have deserved. But give me, Saviour That I may see your mercy alone. * Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 106 Jesus God and Lamb [You] have died at the cross's stem. With your soul. My poor heart Thanks you for your death and pain, Here in front of your foot Because it is very sweet. O what does my heart feel About his great pain. At the cross to see him bloody O it is very sweet for me. Every wound I greet In your hands and feet. * O my heart sinks When I consider How out of his side is streaming Some thing which makes my heart flame. The blood of expiation Of my Lamb and God. * O you man full of pain Bleed on your people's heart. Make us always even more perceiving Remain clear in our hearts and eyes. That every moment Your image we can see. * It is my pleasure In the night here. To think of the lamb's tears Pain and ache and bloody streams. Then my heart is a flame And sings Lamb o Lamb. ** * Sinners go in Jesus' wounds Which we always find open. They have at every moment Place for such a poor child. * Let it be now that all hearts Which are here before your face Feel your bloody death and pains And write these deep in heart and sense. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 107 * Let it be that in our heart and ground And deep inside our mind. All sinners experience it: The blood of your dear wounds. * And as small poor little worm It is only an ugly thing. Always in your sweet mercy Blood and wounds gladden us. May his fire burn right through us His blood should run through us. Because you are his inherited things And are costing him his precious blood. * Your cross your great anxiety and pain Your sweat and all wounds. They have pulled away my whole heart And have bound it fast. * It is the fire which flames in me And stirs my heart profoundly. Because in much pain and shame You have died for my sin. * My son, now give your heart to me It is great and worthwhile for me. No rest you find in another place here On the entire earth * So take me up Jesus Christ Bury me deeply into your blood. I believe that you have hung on the cross For the good of myself and the world. * Throw out your divine love to me Your very beautiful love flame. But finish darkness, evil, falseness Give me your sense o lamb. * O God make my heart of your house Here in this time. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 108 Yes let it be your home, Also in eternity. 2.2 Printed work In the period 1765-1834 several hymnals were published. The first one of those was Gebeden en Liederen voor die swart Broeder-Gemeenten na S. Thomas, S. Croix en S. Jan., the hymnal of the Moravian Brethren. In 1770 the Danish missionaries published their first printed hymnals. The last printed work was the Danish Creol Psalm-Buk, of een Vergaedring van Oûwe en nywe Psalmen na Creol-Tael. The printing history of the Danish hymnals is quite complex, and we have tried to clarify the situation somewhat in the bibliography in this volume. In this section we present some examples from the 1765 edition of the hymnal for the Moravian Brethren and from the 1823 edition of the hymnal for the Danish mission. 9. St. Thomas 2.2.1 The Herrnhuter Hymnal of 1765 (3.1.3) According to Oldendorp's history of the Moravian mission, some hymns were already translated into creole in 1749 (Oldendorp 1987:454). Although he also mentions a publication from 1761 (p.540-541), Oldendorp (1987:573) writes: Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 109 ‘In order to promote liturgical singing, the first Creole hymn booklet was published in Europe in 1765. It reached the island the following year and it was put to use in the service of the Negro congregation. No matter how rudimentary it was, this first effort provided the impetus for the consideration of the compilation of a more complete and articulate hymn book in the Creole language.’ The translator of the hymnal was possibly Johann Böhner, who also translated large parts of the Bible into Negerhollands (Oldendorp 1987:540-541). Here is one example from this first printed hymn booklet. 6. 1 En breng goei Nuws, Gemeent! na Joe: and bring good news congregation NA 2SG Die heel fraai Nuws so veel mi breng, DET very good news so much 1SG bring Van die mi le praat en le sing. of DET 1SG ASP talk and ASP sing Voor jen ie16 heilig Meid Marie for 2PL *** Holy maid Mary 5 Een Kindje van -daag ka pari17, a child.DIM today PRF give.birth Een Kind so teer en soet, da die a child so tender and sweet EMP DET Sal maak jender goe moeschi bli. FUT make 2PL very much happy Da Hem ben Jesus die Heer God, EMP 3SG BE Jesus DET Lord God Em wil help jen ut all'maal Nood, 3SG will help 2PL out all need 16 ie: probably die ‘DET’. 17 Voor jen ... ka pari: SOV sentence without Verb Second. Such an archaic order can sometimes be found in German hymns and songs. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 110 10 En wees jen Heiland en maak vri and BE 2PL Saviour and make free Jen Sondaars van die sondo hie. 2PL sinner.PL of DET sin here ...... Em 28 Em breng die Saligheid all'gaar, 3SG bring DET salvation all Die God Vader18 ka gie waar -waar, DET God Father PRF give truly -RED Dat jen mee Jesu19 na si Rik that 2PL with Jesus NA 3POS kingdom 15 Sal leef na Bliskap eewiglik. FUT live NA happiness eternally So merk die Teken mi gie noe: so notice DET sign 1SG give now Na Doekoe slecht, na Beest -Canoe NA cloth bad NA crib Jender sal vind een Kindje daar, 2PL FUT find a child.DIM there Die onderhou Skepsels all'gaar. DET support creature.PL all 20 Laatstaan ons wees goe moeschi bli let 1PL BE very much happy En loop mee Beest -Wachtman na die, and walk with animal -keeper NA DET 18 Vader does not easily fit the iambic meter of this hymn. The basilectal NH form pupa ‘father’, with stress on the final syllable, would have been more apt. 19 The Latin case form Jesu indicates that mee is meant to be a preposition rather than a coordinator. This means that Dat jen ... eewiglik more or less follows the rules of subordinate SOV word order of German and Dutch. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 111 En kik wa God ons ka vereer20, and see what God 1PL PRF honour si lieve Soon, ons Hert -Begeer. 3POS dear Son 1PL heart -desire (Mal. 3. 1. Hag. 2. v.v. 8.) Maleachi 3 1 Haggai 2 v.v. 8 Hoppo mi Hert! en kik daso rise 1SG heart and look there 25 Wagoed lee na die Beest -Canoe, what lie NA DET crib Van wie die mooje Kindje ben; of who DET beautiful child.DIM BE die ben die liefste Jesus kleen! DET BE DET dearest Jesus little Wees welkom Joe, ons dierbaar Vrind BE welcome 2SG 1PL dear friend Joe no veracht ons sondig Kind', 2SG NEG despise 1PL sinful child 30 Maar kom na Jammer na ons hie: but come NA misery NA 1PL here Hoe ons sal see Joe Dank voor die! how 1PL FUT say 2SG thanks for DET O Heer en Skepper van all'gaar! o Lord and Creator of all Heel pover Joe ka kom waar -waar, very poor 2SG PRF come truly -RED Da21 Joe na die droog Gras lee noe, EMP 2SG NA DET dry grass lie now 20 German-Dutch subordinate SOV order in combination with a Creole TMA particle. 21 Da: In view of the SOV word order and the context one might also analyze Da as older German da ‘where’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 112 35 Die Boerrik22 sender jeet en Koei23. DET mule 3PL eat and cow ...... Of- 29 Ofskoon die Wer'ld was24 nog so groot although DET world were still so great Vol Goud en ander kostlik Goed, full gold and other costly thing All'maal die altoveel kleen ben25 all DET very small BE Voor wees voor Joe een Samba kleen. FOR BE for 2SG a bed small 40 Die Fluweel en die Sie van Joe DET velvet and DET silk of 2SG Ben grof Gras en slecht doekoe noe, BE coarse grass and bad cloth now Op die Joe, Koning groot en rik, up DET 2SG king great and rich Prajier lik na joe Hemelrik. splendor like NA 2SG Kingdom.of. Heaven Mi kleen Jesu! die mi lief ha26, 1SG little Jesus DET 1SG dear have 45 Maak mi Hert wees joe skoon Samba, make 1SG heart BE 2SG clean bed 23 Koei: This is NH kui, which derives from dialectal Du. koei. The translator must have had Standard, Du. koe ‘cow’ in mind because that rhymes with noe ‘now’. 22 Boerrik: NH burika ‘mule’. 24 Wer'ld was: Wer'ld instead of Wereld (or: Grond) may render Welt ‘world’ in the German original, while Du. was ‘was’, which is not NH, may render G. wär(e) ‘were (conjunctive)’. 25 die altoveel kleen ben: German-Dutch subordinate word order. 26 die mi lief ha: German-Dutch word order due to rhyme. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 113 Voor rust altid heel soet nabin, FOR rest always very sweet NA.inside Dat Joe moe nooit kom ut mi Sin. that 2SG must never come out 1SG sense Translation 6. From heaven on high it is I come now And bring good news, congregation!, to you. The very good news so much I bring Of it I talk and sing. For you the Holy maid Mary A little child today has borne, A child so tender and sweet, that it Will make you very much happy. It is Jesus the Lord God. He will help you out of all need, And is your Saviour and make free You sinners from the sin here. He brings the salvation to all, The God Father has given very truly, That you with Jesus in His kingdom Will live in happiness eternally. So notice the sign I give now: In bad cloth, in a crib You will find a little child there, Who supports creatures all. Let us be very much happy And go with the animal-keeper to it, And see what God has honoured us with, His dear Son, our heart-desire. Open my heart! and look there What lies in the crib Of who the beautiful little child is. It is the dearest little Jesus! Be welcome you, our dear friend You do not despise us sinful child[ren] But come to misery with us here How we will say you thanks for it! O Lord and Creator of all! Very poor you have come very truly It is you that in the dry grass lies now, Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 114 The mules and the cow eat. Although the world was still so great Full of gold and other costly things, It all is very small To be for you a little bed. The velvet and the silk of you Is coarse grass and bad cloth now, On which you, king great and rich, Sleep like in your heaven kingdom My little Jesus! whom I love dearly, Make my heart be your clean bed, To rest always very sweet inside, That you must never come out of my mind. 2.2.2 A Danish hymnal (1823) The history of the Danish translations of hymns is rather complex. Some of the works were re-editions of others, and for others it is quite hard to say who is the composer. In the bibliography of the present work, more information about each publication can be found. In this section is an example from Creol Psalm-Buk of een Vergaedring van Oûwe en nywe Psalmen na Creol-Sprack (1823). According to Lund's correspondence with the Danish Missionary Society kept in RA (RA, Privatinstituter. Det Danske Missions Selskab. Privatarkiv nr. 10.162. Pk. 324.), this hymnal is a re-edition of the 1770 one, enlarged with 30 hymns written by him in 1797. Strangely enough, Lund says in a letter of 12 December 1822 that he does not know of any other hymnal than the 1770 edition (see Wold). Yet the 1823 one corresponds in several ways to the 1799 one by Brandt. In an 1827 edition, hymn 17 agrees completely, except for minor spelling differences, with the text supplied in a letter by Lund of 3 June 1823. Here we print the hymns 79 and 80. 98 No. 79. Mel. I Jesu Navn27. 1 Wa mi bin blie, what 1SG BE happy 27 Mel. (...) Navn: Danish, meaning ‘tune: In Jesus' name’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 115 O Jesu! mi ka doop28 o Jesus 1SG PRF baptise En ka kom vrie yt van die Slaverie and PRF come free out of DET slavery Door die saelig Gloov en Hoop; through DET blessed belief and hope 5 Door die Waeter mi ka skoon29, through DET water 1SG PRF clean Krieg Pardoon, get Pardon En ons ka maek Kontragt and 1PL PRF make contract Na Jesu Bluet en Kragt; NA Jesus blood and strength Self die Dievel mut neem Pad self DET devil must take path 10 Ju mit mi. ons ka maek Maet, 2SG with 1SG 1PL PRF make mate door ju bluedig Sie sie Gat. through 2SG bloody side 3POS hole 2. O! help Ju mi,30 2 o help 2SG 1SG Mi draeg mi Kristen Naem 1SG carry 1SG Christian name Heel stil en fraej, en noojt for gooj mi wej; very silent and good and never FOR throw 1SG away 28 ka doop: passive. 29 ka skoon: passive or a copular construction with perfective marker ka instead of copula bin ‘(fin.) be’. 30 Imperative with Germanic V1 word order. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 116 15 No for maek ju Spor31 en Skaem; NEG FOR make 2SG mock and shame Yt mi doop no lat mi stap out 1SG baptism NEG let 1SG step En for slaep: and FOR sleep As mi sal kom for val, as 1SG FUT come FOR fall Hoppo mi daen nog eenmael; raise 1SG then still once 20 Leer mi elke Dag denk op teach 1SG every day think up Ju ka skoon mi na die Doop 2SG PRF clean 1SG NA DET baptism Door die Waeter na mi Kop through DET water NA 1SG head Translation Number 79. tune: In Jesus' Name What I am happy O Jesus! I have been baptised And have come free out from the slavery Through the blessed belief and hope; Through the water I have cleaned, Gotten forgiveness, And we have made a contract In Jesus' blood and strength; Even the devil must take the path. You with me. We have made friendship, Through your bloody side's hole. 31 Spor: Seems a printing error for spot. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 117 2. O! help you me, I carry my Christian name Very silently and well, and never to throw me away; Not to make you mockery and shame; Out of my baptism do not let me step And to sleep: As I will come to fall, Raise me then once more; Teach me every day to think of it. You have cleaned me in the baptism Through the water on my head. 99 No. 80. Mel. Guds Søn er kommen32. 1 Elkeen, die gloof en word gedoop, everyone DET belief and become baptised Sal ontvang waer die Leeven. FUT receive true DET life Want hem mit Iesus Bluet ka hoop, because 3SG with Jesus blood PRF hope Bin een van Iesus Leeden. BE one of Jesus limbs 5 Word onder Godt sie Kinders Tall, become under God 3POS child.PL number For eer die Lam mit Engels all FOR honour DET lamb with angel.PL all Na Leevens Buk geskreeven33. NA life.GEN book written 2. Ons almael sygt heel hertelig: 2 1PL all sigh very hearty 32 Mel. (...) kommen: Danish, meaning: ‘Tune: God's Son has come’. 33 na Leevens Buk geskreeven: Dutch word order with Du. past participle geschreven ‘written’ which is required in the presence of the passive auxiliary word ‘be’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 118 O Iesus! gyn ons Gnaede! o Jesus allow 1PL mercy 10 Dat door die Doops Kragt waerdelig34 that through DET baptism.GEN strength worthily Ons wandel mut35 op Arde, 1PL walk must up earth Nabinn' die sut en gloovig Hoop NA.inside DET sweet and believing hope Dat ju ka bring ons door die Doop. that 2SG PRF bring 1PL through DET baptism Na eewig Heemels Ere. NA eternal heavenly honour Translation Number 80. tune: God's son has come. Everyone, who believes and is baptised, Will receive truly the life. Because he with Jesus' blood has hoped, Is one of Jesus' limbs. Become one among God's children's number To honour the lamb with Angels all In life's book written. 2. We all sigh very heartily: O Jesus! allow us mercy! That through the baptism's strength worthily We must walk on earth, Inside the sweet and religious hope That you have brought us through the baptism. In eternal heavenly honour. 34 waerdelig: may be Du. waardig ‘dignified(ly), worthy/worthily’ or waardiglijk ‘dignifiedly, worthily’. -lig is reminiscent of Danish. 35 Ons wandel mut: Dutch archaic subordinate word order probably due to the iambic meter. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 119 3 Bible texts No creole language can boast of such a wealth of written sources from its early years as Negerhollands. Especially during the period beginning around half a century after its first attestation, the late 18th century, Negerhollands was preserved in thousands of pages of manuscript and printing. The largest single works preserved are Bible translations. Of course, the stylistic variety of biblical and other Christian religious texts is hardly equivalent to the daily spoken language of the plantation slaves. Still, these documents represent a valuable source, especially since we sometimes have several independent translations of the same texts at our disposal. Within certain obvious limits, they offer an opportunity to conduct research into synchronic variation in late 18th-century Negerhollands, which at that time had developed into a fully fledged native language and which was at the height of its use. In the introduction we discussed the problems concerning the religious sources of Negerhollands and presented some contemporary metalinguistic remarks. Here we present sections from the Old Testament, and also contrast different versions especially of sections from the New Testament. 10. Sugar Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 120 3.1 Translations of the Old Testament The first excerpt from the Old Testament is from a Herrnhut manuscript of over 1000 pages, ms. 325, large parts of which are hard to read due to their state of decay. The text is not dated, but it must have been written between 1780 and 1785 by Johann Böhner. The only printed version of the Old Testament in Negerhollands is a children's Bible by the Danish missionary Oxholm (1822). There may have been more Danish manuscript versions of the Old Testament, but they were never found, e.g. those by Volckersen and Magens (see the bibliography). 3.1.1 Joseph and the Pharaoh's Dreams [Genesis 40] (±1780-1785) §. 37. Cap. 40, v. 1=23. Cap. 41, v. 1=13. 1 Na aster die die a gebuir1, dat die Mond van -Schenk2 NA after DET DET PST happen that DET cupbearer of die König3 na Egypten en die Hofbakker, a ver\sondi DET king NA Egypt and DET court.baker PST offend sender na sender Heer, die Konig na Egypten. En 3PL NA 3PL lord DET king NA Egypt and Pharao a kom quaat op si twee Kammereer4,op die pharaoh PST come angry up 3POS two chamberlain up DET 5 Amtmann5 over die Mond -Schenksender, en op die civil.servant over DET cupbearer 3PL and up DET Amtmann over die Hofbakker. En a leveer sender civil.servant over DET court.baker and PST deliver 3PL na die Captain van die Trabant6 sender tot bewaaring, NA DET captain of DET body -guard 3PL to protection 2 Mond-Schenk: adaptation of Ge. Mundschenk ‘cupbearer’ (Du. schenker). 1 The spelling gebuir instead of gebeur (Du. gebeuren ‘happen’) seems to indicate a pronunciation with [y] instead of [ø]. 3 König ‘king’: Ge. (Du. koning). 4 Kammereer: adaptation of Ge. Kämmerer ‘chamberlain’. 5 Amtmann: Ge. Amtmann ‘higher official’. 6 Trabant: Ge. Trabant ‘body-guard’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 121 en die a doe sender nabin die Arest Hoes, na die Plek, and DET PST do 3PL NA.insideDET jail house NA DET place Harmoni Cap. 40, v. 1=[-13.] 23...... 129. waar Joseph a wees na arest. En die Captain van where Joseph PST BE NA jail and DET captain of 10 die Trabanten a gie Joseph na sender en sender a wees sommig {Tid |Dagen} na die Gevangnis. and 3PL PST BE some time day.PL NA DET prison En sender twee, die Mond en die Oberst7 Bakker -Schenk and 3PL two DET cupbearer and DET supreme baker van die Konig na Egypten,die sender a leei na die Ar= of DET king NA Egypt DET 3PL PST lay NA DET jail est Hoes, a hab na een Donker een Droom; [-na] na elk - house PST have NA a night a dream NA NA every 15 een a droon een appart goed, en elke Droom a hab si one PST dream a separatething and every dream PST have 3POS eigen Bedeuding8. En as Joseph Vroe -vroe a kom na own meaning and as Joseph morning PST come NA binne tot sender, en a kik, dat sender awees bedroef; inside to 3PL and PST see that 3PL PST.BE sad em a vrag die twee Kammerir9 van Pharao, en a see: 3SG PST ask DET two chamberlainof pharaoh and PST say vorwaaromjender ben vandag soo bedroefd|true En sender -rig? why 2PL BE today so sad/mournful and 3PL 20 a see: Een Droom a ka droom ons, en ons hab nimand PST say a dream PST PRF dream 1PL and 1PL have no.one 7 Oberst ‘supreme’: Ge. adjective instead of the Du. prefix opper ‘id.’. 8 Bedeuding: superficial adaptation of Ge. Bedeutung ‘meaning’. 9 Kammerir: attempt at a better adaptation of Ge. Kämmerer ‘chamberlain’. In fact it should have been Du. kameraar or kamerheer. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 122 vor lee ons die ut. Staan die niet bi Godt, dat em kan FOR lay 1PL DET out stand DET NEG at God that 3SG can gie die Deuding10? Da die Oberst Mond -Schenk a verthel na Joseph then DET supreme cupbearer PST tell NA Joseph si Droom, en a see na em; die a ka droom mi, een 3POSdream and PST say NA 3SG DET PST PRF dream 1SG a 25 Wien Stok a staan na voor mi. Na deese Wien Stock wine stalk PST stand NA before 1SG NA DEM wine stalk a wees drie Tacken, en die a wees as of em a ka bloei PST BE three branch.PLand DET PST BE as if 3SG PST PRF blossom kaba, en die Druifi11, die a wees na die, a hab riepe finish and DET grape DET PST BE NA DET PST have ripe Baier. Maar mi a hab die Drink beerk ra*o*na mi Hand, en a neem die Baier 30 *sen*der ut na die Drinkbeekervan Pharao, en a gie 3PL out NA DET cup of pharaoh and PST give d*ie* Beeker na die König si Hand. En Joseph a see DET cup NA DET king 3POS hand and Joseph PST say n*a* em, die Bedeuding van die ben deese: Drie Tacken NA 3SG DET meaning of DET BE DEM three branch.PL *ben* drie Dag, over drie Dag Pharao sal verhogh BE three day in three day pharaoh FUT promote joe Hoofd en sal set joe weeraan na joe Dienst, dat 2SG head and FUT put 2SG again NA 2SG service that 10 Deuding: mixture of Ge. Deutung and Du. duiding. 11 Druifi: Du. diminutive of druif. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 123 35 joe gie em die Drink beeker na si Hand, 2SG give 3SG DET drink cup NA 3POS hand ...... na 130. I Boek Mose Cap. 40, na die Manir van voor, toen joe a wees si Mond -Schenk. NA DET fashion of before when 2SG PST BE 3POS cupbearer Maar dink na mi, wanneer die loop fraai na joe, but think NA 1SG when DET walk good NA 2SG en doe Baermhertigheitna mi, en breng mi na die and do mercy NA 1SG and bring 1SG NA DET Gedachtnis bi Pharao, en help mi ut van die Hoes. remembranceat pharaoh and help 1SG out of DET house 40 Want mi ben gediefd12ut die Land van die Ebraeeen op because1SG BE stolen out DET country of DET Hebrew.PLup verborg manir; en ook hier mi a ka doe niet die hidden manner and also here 1SG PST PRF do NEG DET mindste As noe die Oberst Hof bakker a kik, dat die as now DET supreme court baker PST see that DET Deuding a wees goet, em a see na Joseph: Die a meaning PST BE good 3SG PST say NA Joseph DET PST 45 droom mi ook, dat mi a drag drie Magoeto op mi dream 1SG also that 1SG PST carry three basket up 1SG Hoofd. Nabin die bovenst Magoeto a wees all sort head NA.inside DET top basket PST BE all kind 12 gediefd: past participle governed by the passive auxiliary ben (cf. the introduction). It is based upon the creole verb dif ‘steal’ (< Du. dief ‘thief’). In Du. the verb dieven ‘steal’ is nearly nonexistent. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 124 gebakken Goed, wat Pahrao ben gewee en die Vogel sender a jett die ut van die Magoete, and DET bird 3PL PST eat DET out of DET basket die a wees op mi Hoofd. En Joseph a antwort en DET PST BE up 1SG head and Joseph PST answer and 50 a see, die Bedeudinge ben die: Drie Magoete PST say DET meaning BE DET three basket ben drie Dag, aster drie Dag Pharao sal slaa BE three day after three day pharaoh FUT strike joe die Kop af, d*ein Haupt van dir nehmen, von dir herunter, welches anders nicht kan verstanden werden als von einer en sal lat Enthauptung>14 and FUT let 55 hang joe na een hang 2SG NA a Hout; da die Vogel sender sal jett joe Vleesch wood then DET bird 3PL FUT eat 2SG flesh van joe. of 2SG En die a ge Gebord en a maak een Maaltid voor si Hofbed*ien*de -dag, birthday and PST make a meal for 3POS court.servant 13 geweent: superficial adaptation with unrounded [ø] of Ge. gewöhnt ‘used’ (Du. gewoon) or from seventeenth century Dutch geweente ‘usage’. 14 Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 125 60 sender.En as sender a wees bi malkander,da em *a* lat 3PL and as 3PL PST BE with each.other then 3SG PST let haal die Oberst Mond en die Oberste Harmoni. Cap. 41, v. 1=13...... 131. na [-na]boven; en a set die oberst Mond -Skenkweeraan NA NA.above and PST put DET supreme cupbearer back in na si Skenkdienst, dat em gie die Drink na die König|Pha= -beeker in NA 3POSpouring.servicethat 3SG give DET cup NA DET king/pharaoh rao si Hand: Maar die oberst Hof bakker em a lat hang - 3POS hand but DET supremecourt baker 3SG PST let hang 65 op, glik Joseph a ka verklaar sender. Maar die up like Joseph PST PRF explain 3PL but DET Oberste Mond no a dink na Joseph, maar a ver -Skenk supreme cupbearer NEG PST think NA Joseph but PST for- geet em. -get 3SG Maar na aster een Tid van twee Jaar Pharao a but NA after a time of two year pharaoh PST hab een Droom,as of em a staan bi die RevierNilus 70 Nilus, welk parti em na Egyptenna seven Arm, en so as die ben Nile which split 3SG NA Egypt NA seven branchand so as DET BE bekent da*t* em door si overloopdong15 die geheeleLand, en ben known that 3SG by 3POSoverflowmanureDET entire countryand BE die reeden dat die Gronddrag fraai. Vordaaromdie a droom die DET reason that DET soil carry good therefore DET PST dream DET 15 dong: probably an English loan. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 126 König, dat sendr a klim op ut die Revier Nilus.> king that 3PL PST climb up out DET river Nile en a kik vor klim op ut die Revier seven mooie en fett and PST see FOR climb up out DET river seven beautifuland fat 75 Koehi16,die sender a weid na die Biesem17gras. En aster cow DET 3PL PST graze NA DET rush grass and after die em a kik ander seven Koehi a klim op ut die Re= DET 3SG PST see other seven cow PST climb up out DET river vier, die a wees haatlik18 en mager; en sender a staan - DET PST BE ugly and skinny and 3PL PST stand neven die ander Koehien na die Kant van die Revier. beside DET other cow.PL NA DET side of DET river En die haatlike en mager Koehien a jett die seven mooie and DET ugly and skinny cow.PL PST eat DET seven beautiful 80 en fette Koehien. Da Pharao a kom waker. and fat cow.PL then pharaoh PST come awake En em a slaap in weeraan, en die a droom weeraan, and 3SG PST sleep in again and DET PST dream again en a kik, dat seven Kopp Korn a groei ut na een Stock, and PST see that seven head corn PST grow out NA a stalk die a wees deck en mooi. (voll met Saad) Darnah em DET PST BE thick and beautiful full with seed there.after3SG a kik seven Kopp a kom op, die sender a wees denn PST see seven head PST come up DET 3PL PST BE thin 85 en paschima van die Ostwint. En die seven mager and scorched of DET east.wind and DET seven skinny Kopp a swalg in die seven decke en (van Saad) volle Kopp. head PST swill in DET seven fat and of seed full head 17 Biesem with an m instead of Du. biezen- ‘rush’ is unexplained. 16 Koehi: unusual orthography for koei ‘cow’. 18 haatlik: adaptation of Ge. häßlich ‘ugly’. Du. hatelijk means ‘hateful, nasty, spiteful’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 127 Da Pharao a kom waker, en a kik, dat die a wees een Droom. then pharaohPST come awake and PST see that DET PST BE a dream 132. I Boek Mose En as die ka kom Morg, da si Geest a wees verlegen, and as DET PRF come morningthen 3POSmind PST BE embarrassed? en em a stier ut, en a lat roep allemaalwaarsegers and 3SG PST send out and PST let call all fortune.teller.PL 90 na Egypten, en alle Geleerde sender, en a verhaal sen= NA Egypt and all learned 3PL and PST tell 3PL der si Droom; maar niet een a wees, die a kan lee - 3POS dream but NEG one PST BE DET PST can lay die ut na Pharao. Da die Oberste Mond -Skenka DET out NA pharaoh then DET supreme cupbearer PST praat met Pharao, en a see: Mi le dink vandag na talk with pharaoh and PST say 1SG ASP think today NA mi Sondo. Pharao a wes Kuaat op si Hofdienaers, en 1SG sin pharaoh PST BE angry up 3POS court.servant.PLand 95 a leei mi en die Oberste Hofbakker na die Arest, na PST lay 1SG and DET supreme court.bakerNA DET jail NA bein die Hoes van die Captain over die Trabanten sender. inside DET house of DET captain of DET body.guard.PL3PL Da die droom ons twee na een Donker na elkeen een there DET dream 1PL two NA a night NA everyone a aparte Droom, en ijder19 Droom a hab si eigen Bedeu= separate dream and every dream PST have 3POS own meaning ding. En een Ebraeeisch Jongmann a wees bi ons, een - and a Hebrew young.man PST BE with 1PL a 100 Dienaer van die Captain over die Trabanten sender, die servant of DET captain of DET body.guard.PL3PL DET 19 ijder: Du. ieder ‘each’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 128 a lee ons ons Droomen ut, toen ons a verthelem die; em PST lay 1PL 1PL dream.PLout when 1PL PST tell 3SG DET 3SG a lee die ut na ijder een soo, as si Droom a wees.En soo PST lay DET out NA every one so as 3POSdream PST BE and so as em a verklaardie na ons, soo die a ka loop; mi, die as 3SG PST explain DET NA 1PL so DET PST PRF walk 1SG DET König a ka set weeraanna mi Dienst, en die ander em king PST PRF put back NA 1SG service and DET other 3SG 105 a ka hang op. PST PRF hang up §. 38. I Boek Mose Capit. 41, v. 14=46. Da Pharao a stier hen, en a lat roep Joseph: en then pharaoh PST send away and PST let call Joseph and sendera lat em gau, gau ut die Gatt. En em a lat skeer 3PL PST let 3SG quick quick out DET hole and 3SG PST let shave em, en a doe ander kleer aan, en a kom nabinne na 3SG and PST put other clothes on and PST come NA.insideNA Pharao. En Pharao a spreek tot Joseph, die a ka pharaoh and pharaoh PST speak to Joseph DET PST PRF 110 droom mi, en daer ben niemanddie kan lee die ut. En dream 1SG and where BE no.one DET can lay DET out and mi a ka hoor see van joe, dat wanneerjoe hoor een Droom 1SG PST PRF hear say of 2SG that when 2SG hear a dream soo joe kan lee ut die. En Joseph a antwort na Pha so 2SG can lay out DET and Joseph PST answer NA pharaoh ...... rao Harmoni Cap. 41, v. 14=46...... 133. rao, en a see: Niet mi; maar Godt selv sal antwort, wat - and PST say NEG 1SG but God self FUT answer what Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 129 ben goet en fraai voor Pharao. BE good and nice for pharaoh 115 En Pharao a praat met Joseph: Die a droom mi20, as of and pharaoh PST talk with Joseph DET PST dream 1SG as if mi a staan na die Kant van die Revier. En a kik seven 1SG PST stand NA DET side of DET river and PST see seven Koehi a klim op ut die Water, sendera wees mooi en fett, cow PST climb up out DET water 3PL PST BE beautifuland fat en sender a weid na die Biesem Gras. En aster sender and 3PL PST graze NA DET rush grass and after 3PL mi a kik seven ander, goe mager en haatlike Koehien 1SG PST see seven other very skinny and ugly cow.PL 120 a klim ut; na die geheeleEgyptenLand mi no a ka kik PST climb out NA DET entire Egypt country1SG NEG PST PRF see die soo haatlik, glik die sender a wees. En die seven DET so ugly like DET 3PL PST BE and DET seven mager en haatlike Koehien a vreet op die erste seven skinny and ugly cow.PL PST eat up DET first seven mooie en fette Koehien. En as sender a ka vreet die na= beautiful and fat cow.PL and as 3PL PST PRF eat DET NA binne, die no a wees vor bemeerk na sender, dat sen= inside DET NEG PST BE FOR notice NA 3PL that 3PL 125 der a ka vreet die; en sender ansien a bliev so haatlik - PST PRF eat DET and 3PL look PST remain so ugly as die a wees toevoor. Da mi kom waker. as DET PST BE before then 1SG come awake En mi a kik nochmaal na droom dat seven Kopp and 1SG PST see again NA dream that seven head 20 Die a droom mi: It is unclear whether this is true creole or just a literal translation of older German Es träumte mich ‘(lit.) It dreamed me, I dreamed’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 130 a groei na een Stock (Halm) die a wees vo[o+] mooi. Darnah a kom op seven droge Kopp (of: Spuir21) beautiful there.after PST come up seven dry head or spur 130 die a wees denn en paschima. En die denne Spuiren DET PST BE thin and scorched and DET thin spur.PL a swalg die seven mooie Spuiren; die mi a ka verthel PST swill DET seven beautiful spur.PL DET 1SG PST PRF tell na die Waarseegers, maar niemand ben, die sal kan NA DET fortune.teller.PLbut no.one BE DET FUT can lee mi die ut. lay 1SG DET out Joseph a see na Pharao: Alltwee wat a ka d 135 na Pharao ben eenderley;Godt a mak bekent na Pha= NA pharaoh BE alike God PST make known NA pharaoh rao wat em hab voor. Die seven mooie Koehi ben - what 3SG have for DET seven beautiful cow BE seven Jaar, en die seven goeie Spuiren ben ook seven year and DET seven good spur.PL BE also seven Jaar; die ben eenderley Droom. Die seven seven year DET BE alike dream DET seven mager en haatlike Koehien, die a ka klim ut aster skinny and ugly cow.PL DET PST PRF climb out after ...... die 134. I Boek Mose 140 die -jene22 dat ben ook seven Jaar; en die seven\mageren DET -one that BE also seven year and DET seven\skinnyand 21 Spuir: The source of this noun is probably English: spur. 22 die-jene ‘that one’: a mixture of Du. diegene and Ge. derjenige. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 131 van die Ostwint verbrante Spuiren desgeleiks: want een of DET east.wind burned spur.PL as.well because a seven\jaarig hongertid sal kom. seven -year famine FUT come Dat ben noe die Saak, die mi a ka praat na Pharao; that BE now DET case DET 1SG PST PRF talk NA pharaoh namlik Godt wies na Pharao, wat em hab voor23. Kik, namely God show NA pharaoh what 3SG have before look 145 seven Jaar sal kom, na die sal wees groote Overvloed seven year FUT come NA DET FUT BE great abundance na geheel Egypten Land, En na aster die selve een hon= NA entire Egypt country and NA after DET same a - ger -Tid sal kom die sal hou aan seven Jaar; da Volk famine FUT come DET FUT keep on seven year then people sal vergeet na Egypten Land allegaar die Overvloed; FUT forget NA Egypt country all DET abundance en die Honger sal jett die Land. Volk no sal weet meer and DET hunger FUT eat DET country people NEG FUT know more 150 van die Overvloed,die a wees na die Land, voor die Hong= of DET abundanceDET PST BE NA DET country before DET - ersnood, die sal kom aster -aan;want die sal wees goe famine DET FUT come later.on because DET FUT BE very groot. En dat die a ka droom Pharao tweemaal, die great and that DET PST PRF dream pharaoh two.times DET le bedeut24,dat die bi Godt ben vast toef vor doe die. tarry FOR do DET 23 hab voor: from Du. iets voorhebben or German etwas vorhaben ‘to have in mind something’. 24 bedeut: Ge. bedeuten ‘mean’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 132 155 Noe Pharao kik na een verstandig en wies Mann, now pharaoh look NA a sensible and wise man en set em over Egypten Land; en Pharao maak, dat and put 3SG above Egypt country and pharao make that deese Mann bestell Amtlieden, en neem die tiende ge DEM man appoint civil.servant.PLand take DET tenth - dobbelt, na die Land, wanneer die seven Jaar van O= doubled NA DET country when DET seven year of - vervloed sal kom. En gaader alle Kost na die Goeie abundance FUT come and gather all food NA DET good 160 Jaaren, die sender sal kom; en dat die Korn word na year.PL DET 3PL FUT come and that DET corn become NA Hoop gegooit, dat Pharao hab een Voorrath na si Hand pile thrown that pharaoh have a stock NA 3POS hand nabin die Staeeden,en dat die selve word goet bewaard NA.insideDET town.PL and that DET same become well preserved na die Kornhoesen van Pharao; dat volk vind jett ver NA DET granary.PL of pharaoh that people find food - ordinirt na die seven Honger jaaren, welk sal kom ordained NA DET seven hunger year.PL which FUT come 165 over Egypten Land, dat niet die geheele Land bederv van over Egypt country that NEG DET entire country decay of Harmoni Cap. 41, v. 14=46...... 135. Die Praat a behaag Pharao (goet) wehl25, en allemaal DET talk PST please pharaoh good well and all 25 wehl: looks like a mixture of Du. wel and Ge. wohl. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 133 si Hof\bedieners En Pharao a spreek tot si Hofbedien= 3POS court.servant.PLand pharaoh PST speak to 3POS court -servant.PL ers: Sal wel een Mann word gevonden,g 170 welk die Geest Godts ben? En Pharao a spreek na Jo= which DET Spirit God.GENBE and pharaoh PST speak NA Joseph [ seph: Derwiel Godt na joe a ka maak bekent soo -seph] - - because God NA 2SG PST PRF make known such goed allemaal,soo ben niet een so verstandig en wies good all so BE NEG one so sensible and wise glik joe. Joe sall wees over mi Hoes, en na joe Mond like 2SG 2SG FUT BE over 1SG house and NA 2SG mouth sall allemaal mi Volk26 wees gehoorsam; mi will maar FUT all 1SG people BE obedient 1SG want only 175 die Koniklike Troon wees hogher, a27 joe. DET royal throne BE higher NA 2SG En Pharao a spreek tot Joseph: Kik, mi a ka and pharaoh PST speak to Joseph look 1SG PST PRF set joe vor wees Heer over geheel Egypten Land. En Pha= put 2SG FOR BE lord over entire Egypt country and pharaoh rao a neem si Ring van si Hand, en a gie die na Joseph - PST take 3POSring of 3POShand and PST give DET NA Joseph si Hand; en a kleed em met kostlike wite Kleeding, en 3POS hand and PST dress 3SG with costly white clothes and 180 a doe een Goude Ketting rond si Hals. En a lat vaar em PST put a golden chain around3POSneck and PST let travel 3SG op si tweede Carosch,en a lat na voor em roep ut: Die up 3POSsecond carriage and PST let NA before 3SG call out DET 26 na joe Mond ... Volk: German main clause word order with inversion. 27 a: Reduced form of na. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 134 ben die Land si Vader, en dat Volk sall boek28 die Knie na BE DET country3POSfather and that peopleFUT bend DET knee NA voor em en bekenn em voor die Heer over geheel Egyp= before 3SG and acknowledge3SG before DET lord over entire Egypt ten Land. En Pharao a see verder na Josph: - country and pharaoh PST say further NA Joseph 185 Soo waar as mi ben Pharao; soo sall sonder joe so true as 1SG BE pharaoh so will without 2SG will, niemand Lecht op si Hand of Voett na geheel win no.one raise up 3POS hand or foot NA entire Egypten Land. En Pharao a gie Joseph die Naam Egypt country and pharaoh PST give Joseph DET name Zophna=Paneah, da heit. En a gie em Assenathvor wees si Wief, die a wees - and PST give 3SG Asnath FOR BE 3POSwife DET PST BE 190 die Dochter van Potiphera, die Priester na On. En so DET daughter of Potiphera DET priest NA On and so Joseph a trek ut na die Land Egypten; dertig Joseph PST move out NA DET country Egypt thirty Jaar oud a wees Joseph, as em a staan navoor die year old PST BE Joseph as 3SG PST stand NA.front DET ...... Konig I Boek Mose Konig Pharao, en vaar ut van Pharao, en reis door die king pharaoh and travel out of pharaoh and travel through DET geheele Egypten Land. (En a maak Anstalt.) entire Egypt country and PST make preparations 28 boek: seems to be Du. buigen ‘to bend’ or Du. bukken ‘stoop, bend (intr.)’ with the German grapheme <ö. or Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 135 3.1.2 Genesis 1-4 in ms. 3313 (1795) This second example is taken from A free translation of Genesis 1,16-4,26. As this title, which was given to the manuscript in Stein (1986b), says: it is a free and interpretative translation, without the structure of the original Bible verses. The entire original manuscript contains only 32 pages, and it may have been used as a sermon or as part of one. It is not likely that a complete Old Testament translation, like manuscript 325, was intended by the writer. 1 VI Kain en Abel 1 Mos. 4. VI Cain and Abel 1 Book.of.Moses 4 Die eerste Ouders sen a krieg DET first parents 3PL PST get Kinders, die a glik sender, die ben, child.PL DET PST resemble 3PL DET BE sondige en sterflike Menschen. Sender sinful and mortal people 3PL 5 eerste Soon sen a gie em die Naam first son 3PL PST give 3SG DET name Kain, die ben so veel as ontvangen, Cain DET BE so much as conceived ...... derwil derwill sen a dink altomets by si because 3PL PST think already at 3POS Geboort, die sal wees die Saat van birth DET FUT BE DET seed of die Wif, welk sal drap29 die Slang si DET wife which FUT cut.off DET snake 3POS 10 Kop; en so die Naam a wees een head and so DET name PST BE a Bewies van sender Gloof na die proof of 3PL belief NA DET 29 drap: probably Du. draf < d'r af ‘off’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 136 Beloofnis van God, met die sen a promise of God with DET 3PL PST troost sender nabinne sen Elend30. console 3PL NA.inside 3PL misery Sender tweede Soon si Naam a wees 3PL second son 3POS name PST BE 15 Abel. Deese si Werk a wees voor Abel DEM 3POS work PST BE FOR quek Vee; maar Kain a werk na raise cattle but Cain PST work NA Grond. Die ben also die twee soil DET BE thus DET two oudste {Manier vor lev |Ambach en ook die breng -ten}, oldest way FOR live craft.PL and also DET bring die meeste Profit. Alltwee die DET most profit both DET 20 Broeders a wees geweent31, vor br*e*ng brother.PL PST BE used FOR bring een Vereering na God, na die rechte a sacrifice NA God NA DET right Tid, vor bewies sender Danki vor time FOR prove 3PL thanks for si Weldaaten32. Die sen a roep 3POS benefaction.PL DET 3PL PST call een Offer. Kain a breng Offer van a sacrifice Cain PST bring sacrifice of 30 Elend: Ge. Elend ‘misery’ (Du. ellende). 31 geweent: superficial adaptation with unrounded [ø] of Ge. gewöhnt ‘used, accustomed to’ (Du. gewoon) or from seventeenth century Dutch geweente ‘usage’. 32 Weldaaten: should be Du. weldaden ‘benefactions’. The [t] may be due to interference from Ge. Wohltaten ‘benefactions’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 137 25 si Vrüchten na si Plantey; maar 3POS fruit.PL NA 3POS plantation but Abel a breng [ -van] die Vee a breng em.|| Derwil Abel cattle PST bring 3SG because Abel a doe die nabinne Gloof na die PST do DET NA.inside belief NA DET ...... toekomstighe Verlossing, die God a be= coming redemption DET God PST - 30 loof na die eerste Ouders; (Ebr. 11, 14.) so promise NA DET first parents Hebr. 11 14 so God a kik gnadig na si Offer. Maar God PST look merciful NA 3POS sacrifice but na die Offer van Kain Em no a hab geen NA DET sacrifice of Cain 3SG NEG PST have NEG.one Welbehaagen; want em no a Gloof, en pleasure because 3SG NEG PST belief and sonder Gloof die ben onmooglik vor be= without belief DET BE impossible FOR - 35 haag God. Ebr. 11, 6. Na Plek van die please God Hebr. 11 6 NA place of DET dat Cain a sal [ -soek Gnade] verneeder em that Cain PST FUT seek mercy humiliate 3SG vor God vor die, en soek Gnade by Em, for/before God for DET and seek mercy at 3SG em a kom jalous na si Broeder Abel, 3SG PST come jealous NA 3POS brother Abel en a kom na so een Boosheid, dat si Torn and PST come NA such a anger that 3POS wrath Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 138 40 a wees vor kik na em. God a waar= PST BE FOR look NA 3SG God PST - skou em vor die Sondo na die em sal warn 3SG for DET sin NA DET 3SG FUT vall, as em no laatstaan die bitter fall as 3SG NEG leave DET bitter Veyandskap; toen si Broedr hab hostility when 3POS brother have 45 die no a help; Kain a bewaar die DET NEG PST help Cain PST keep DET der no sal bemerk die, em a praat met - NEG FUT notice DET 3SG PST talk with em so glik as toevoorn ook aster die Waar= 3SG so same as before also after DET - skouwing van God; tee sen a wees warning of God until 3PL PST BE 50 eenmaal nabutte met malkander once NA.outside with each.other na die Field: da em a hoppo na NA DET field then 3SG PST stand.up NA ...... em, em, en a slaa em dood. So quaat 3SG and PST strike 3SG dead so evil en bederf die mens -chlik Hert a kom and rotten DET human heart PST come eenrees aster die Vall. So gauw once after DET fall so soon Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 139 55 ook die Veyandskap van die Slang si also DET hostility of DET snake 3POS Saat a wees vor kik teegen die Wif si seed PST BE FOR see against DET wife 3POS Saat, die ben, die Ongloofigen teegen seed DET BE DET unbelieving.PL against die Gloofigen. En deese Veyandskap DET believing.PL and DEM hostility düer tee van -Dag. last until today 60 God a sal kan straaf deese Moord God PST FUT can punish DEM murder eenrees met die Dood. Maar Em no once with DET death but 3SG NEG a doe die, maar Em a soek volgens si PST do DET but 3SG PST seek following 3POS groote Goedheid, [-en *E Soe*] vor breng die great kindness and 3SG seek FOR bring DET Quaatdoener tot Bekennis van si evil.doer to confession of 3POS 65 Sondo, en tot een geneessame Berouw. sin and to a healing repentance [-van si Sondo]. Voordaarom Em a see of 3POS sin therefore 3SG PST say na em wagoed em ka doe, en a vraag NA 3SG what 3SG PRF do and PST ask em: Waar joe Broeder ben? Kain 3SG where 2SG brother BE Cain Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 140 a soek vor maak em skoon met Lüge33, PST seek FOR make 3SG clean with lie 70 en a antwoord: Mi no weet die. and PST answer 1SG NEG know DET geheel Stoud em a see, mi sal wees entirely bold 3SG PST say 1SG FUT BE Wachman vor mi Broeder dan? keeper for 1SG brother then God a breng em na si Cons*c*ienci, God PST bring 3SG NA 3POS conscience en a see: Wat joe ka doe? Mi and PST say what 2SG PRF do 1SG ...... 75 ka hoor die Bloed van joe Broeder PRF hear DET blood of 2SG brother koerri, welk sk[*..*+] Aarde. - Maar die Bloed van earth - but DET blood of Jesus praat beeter noe as die van Abel Jesus talk better now as DET of Abel (Ebr. 12, 24) - Aster die God a maak Hebr. 12 24 - after DET God PST make 80 bekent na Kain die Vloek en Onsegen, known NA Cain DET curse and unblessing dat em sal vlücht noe voll van Onge= that 3SG FUT flee now full of uneasiness rüst en Bangachtigheid en wandel - and fear and walk 33 Lüge: Ge. Lüge ‘lie’ instead of Du. leugen ‘id.’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 141 na Mispat. Door die Kain a sal NA wrong.track by DET Cain PST FUT 85 vor Vergeeving nabinne Gloof na die be= for forgiveness NA.inside belief NA DET - loofde Verlosser. || Maar die a wees promised Saviour but DET PST BE vor kik all, na deese eerste Soon van FOR see all NA DEM first son of Adam, hoe stoud en bang -achtig die Adam how bold and fearful DET menschlike Hert ben so well voor as human heart BE so well before as 90 aster die Quaat die em ka doe. (Jer. 17, 9.) after DET evil DET 3SG PRF do Jeremiah 17 9 Die Broeder - Mordnaar a bliev nabinne DET brother - murderer PST remain NA.inside si ongloofig en verhardte Sinn, 3POS unbelieving and hardened mind a dink, die geskied Onrecht na em, PST think DET happen injustice NA 3SG en a see na God, voll van kleengloof and PST say NA God full of little.faith 95 en [-Ver][t+] all toe hard, mi no kan draag die. far too hard 1SG NEG can carry DET ...... Joe ka verstoot mi, God en Menschen 2SG PRF repudiate 1SG God and people Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 142 ka verlaat mi; die eerste Creatür, PRF leave 1SG DET first creature die gemoet mi, sal mattaan mi. DET meet 1SG FUT kill 1SG 100 Maar God die Heere a wees so but God DET Lord PST BE so gnadig, en a verseeker em door een merciful and PST ascertain 3SG by a Teeken, dat so Goed no sal geskied. sign that such thing NEG FUT happen Maar Kain a bliev doch dieselvde but Cain PST stay yet DET.same en a wandel met een quaaije Consci= and PST walk with a evil conscience 105 enci, tee op -latst, [-em a bou] veer - until finally 3SG PST build far wee van die Familie van die Gloovigen away of DET family of DET believer.PL em a bouw die eerste Stadt tot 3SG PST build DET first city to si Sekürheid, welk em a gie die Naam 3POS security which 3SG PST give DET name Hanoch. Hanoch By deese Geskiednis ons a will by DEM story 1PL PST will merk ons die Vermaaning van die emphasize 1PL DET admonition of DET Apostel; dat ons sal hab lief apostle that 1PL FUT have dear Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 143 malkander, en no wees so glik Kain, each.other and NEG BE so like Cain die a wees van die Quaaije, en a DET PST BE of DET evil and PST vermoord si Broeder, en voorwaarom? murder 3POS brother and why derwill si Werken a wees quaat, because 3POS work.PL PST BE evil en die van si Broeder a wees and DET of 3POS brother PST BE gerecht. right 3.2 Fragments from the New Testament In chapter 2 and section 3.1 we have seen some religious and biblical documents. They were either manuscripts or printed texts, and mostly translations of parts of the Old Testament. These Negerhollands translations are unique because they are the only extant versions and because of their age. In the following sections, translations of the New Testament are presented. They are unique documents as well, but not in the sense that there is only one version of each. In fact, there is a considerable number of early Negerhollands translations of the same texts. This has enabled us to arrange them for comparison with each other in several ways. The two main combinations that provide interesting contrasts are those of: a) different variants of the same texts from the same group, in some cases even by the same translator. They could give us a closer look at synchronic linguistic variation within a certain speech community. In this category we find e.g. four manuscript versions of Jesus' first miracle, translated by Böhner, or possibly based on a translation by Böhner; b) different variants of the same texts from different societal groups. This could throw extra light on linguistic variation between and across these groups, in particular on the question of differences between the missionaries from Danish and German backgrounds. To this end one could contrast Magens' New Testament translation with that by Böhner and others. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 144 11. Bethaniën on St. John. We have also tried out these combinations in the stylistic dimension. As the New Testament contains different types of speech, we contrast the different versions of the Negerhollands New Testament with respect to narrative (e.g. Jesus' first miracle) and elevated style (Sermon of the Mount). As to looking at possible variations of the language for one speaker or one text, one should turn to larger texts, for which there is obviously not enough space in the present book. As pointed out above, Bible translations of both Danish and German origin have appeared in print around the turn of the 18th century, but these works are very rare. The Böhner manuscripts from Herrnhut have been made more accessible by the Negerhollands data project referred to in the Preface. 3.2.1 Contrasting Moravian variants of Jesus' first miracle From ms 321. §. [-16]<15.> Joh. 2, 1=11. Evang. am 2 Sonnt. p. Epip-han.34 34 German. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 145 1 En na die derde Dag a wees35 een Bruil\loof na Cana na and NA DET third day PST BE a wedding NA Cana NA Galilea: en die Mama van JESu a wees daar. En JEsus Galilea and DET mother of Jesus PST BE there and Jesus en si Jüngers36 ook a word geinviteert n*a* die and 3POS disciple.PL also PST become invited NA DET Bruiloofd. wedding 5 En toen Wien a mankeer,da JESus Si Mama a see tot and when wine PST fail then Jesus 3POS mother PST say to Em: Senderno hab Wien (meer) JESus a see tot em: Vrouw, 3SG 3PL NEG have wine more Jesus PST say to 3SG woman wagoed mi hab met joe toe doen?37Mi Uhr38 no ka raak what 1SG have with 2SG to do 1SG hour not PRF arrive? noch= yet al Op die si Mama a see na die Dienaar sender: Wat - on DET 3POS mother PST say NA DET servant 3PL what 10 Em sal see na jender, jen doe die. En daar a wees ses 3SG will say NA 2PL 2PL do DET and there PST BE six Water Pott van Steen geset39na die manir van die Hodio sen= water pot of stone put NA DET fashion of DET Jew 3PL der vor wasch sender skoon: en elkeen a hau twee tee drie - FOR wash 3PL clean and everyonePST hold two till three 35 a wees: European way of expressing an existential. In the version from ms. 322 we find the creole existential construction die a hab. 36 Jüngers: German word Jünger ‘disciple’ with Dutch plural ending -s. 38 Uhr: German spelling of Du. uur ‘hour’. 37 Dutch-German expression with the meaning ‘what are you of my concern’, with the Dutch infinitival marker te (here toe with [u] instead of schwa) and an OV ordering of the prepositional object and the main verb. In the other versions we find vor instead of toe and in the version from ms. 3232 the PP is put after the verb. 39 En daar ... geset: More or less literal translation of what can be found in the German or Dutch Bible, with NH a wees ‘PST BE’ instead of waren ‘were’. In the versions from the other manuscripts we find attempts to give this sentence a more creole outlook. Important for the comparison is that there is a deictic locative in the original text and so that daar is not the dummy pronoun of Dutch existentials. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 146 met Water. En sender a Vull die tee na die Mond. En with water and 3PL PST fill DET till NA DET mouth and Em a see na sender:Tap noe, en breng die na die Feesa 3SG PST say NA 3PL tap now and bring DET NA DET party 15 proef die Water, die a ka draai na Wien: en em no a taste DET water DET PST PRF turn NA wine and 3SG NEG PST weet, van waar die a kom, maar die Dienar sender know of where DET PST come but DET servant 3PL a weet die, die sendera ka tap die Water: Soo die Feesa PST know DET DET 3PL PST PRF tap DET water so DET party ...... Ba Joh. 2, 12=25...... 27. Baas a roep die Briudig\om en a see tot em: ijder40 master PST call DET bridegroomand PST say to 3SG every een gie vor -eerst goeie Wien, en wanneer sender ka one give for -first good wine and when 3PL PRF drink sender bekomst, als dan41 die slechte; maar joe drink 3PL satisfaction as then DET bad but 2SG 20 ka behou die goeie Wien tee noe. Die ben die eerste PRF keep DET good wine until now DET BE DET first Wonder=Teikendie JESus a doe, ka geskied na Cana miracle -sign DET Jesus PST do PRF happen NA Cana na Galilea, en Em a op\en\baar si Heerlikheit, NA Galilea and 3SG PST reveal 3POS glory en si Jünger sender a gloov na Em. and 3POS pupil 3PL PST belief NA 3SG From ms. 322 40 ijder ‘every’ (= Du. ieder) indicates that Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 147 §.15. Joh. 2, 1=11 (Evang. na die 2 Sonnt, p. Epiphania.)42 Gospel NA DET 2 Sunday after Epiphany 25 En na die derde Dag die a hab een Bry= and NA DET third day DET PST have a wedding loft43 na Cana in Galilea; en die Moe= - NA Cana in Galilea and DET mother der ...... der en Heiland op Aerden...... 43 der a ka nooi Jesus en si Jüngers na - PST PRF invite Jesus and 3POS pupil.PL NA die Bryloft ookal. En toen sender a mank DET wedding also and when 3PL PST fail 30 eer Wien, da die Mama van Jesus a see - wine then DET mother of Jesus PST say na Em: Sender no hab Wien (meer). Jesus NA 3SG 3PL NEG have wine more Jesus a see na em: Vrow! Wat mi hab met joe PST say NA 3SG woman what 1SG have with 2SG vor doe? mi Uur no ka kom nogal. FOR do 1SG hour NEG PRF come yet Si Mama a see na die Dienaas: Wat em sal 3POS mother PST say NA DET servant.PL what 3SG will 35 see na jender, jender doe die. En die a say NA 2PL 2PL do DET and DET PST 42 Superficial NH version of the German line in ms. 321 with the German word Sonnt[ag] ‘Sunday’. 43 Bryloft: The Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 148 hab ses [ -steen] Water Potten da soo, aster die Manier van die Hodio there so after DET way of DET Jew vor skoon| Wasch sender; en elk een a kan hou FOR clean wash 3PL and every one PST can keep der: Vull die Water -Potten met Water. - fill DET water -pot.PL with water 40 En sender a vull die op tee na die Mond. and 3PL PST fill DET up up.to NA DET mouth En Em a see na sender: tap noe, en breng and 3SG PST say NA 3PL tap now and bring die na die jeet -Meester. En sender a breng DET NA DET eat -master and 3PL PST bring die. Maar as die jeet -Meester a proev die DET but when DET eat -master PST taste DET Wien, die ka wees Water; en no a weet, wine DET PRF BE water and NEG PST know 45 van waer die ka kom, maar die Dienaars, of where DET PRF come but DET servant.PL die a ka tap die Water, a weet die, soo DET PST PRF tap DET water PST know DET so die Spiesmeester a roep die Brydigom, DET food.master PST call DET bridegroom en a see na em: ijeder volk gie eerst die and PST say NA 3SG every people give first DET ...... goeie ...... 44 Goeie Wien; en wanneer sender ka drink good wine and when 3PL PRF drink Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 149 50 sender bekomst, a[s+] maar joe a ka behow die goeie Wien tee but 2SG PST PRF keep DET good wine until noe. Die ben die eerste Teeken die Jes= now DET BE DET first sign DET Jesus us a doe, die a ka geskied na Cana in Ga= - PST do DET PST PRF happen NA Cana in Galilea lilea, en a openbaar si Heerlikheid; - and PST reveal 3POS glory 55 en si Jüngers a gloov na Em. and 3POS pupil.PL PST belief NA 3SG From ms 3231 §:15. Johann:2, 1=11. En na die derte Dag a wees een Bruiloft na and NA DET third day PST BE a wedding NA Cana, na Galilea, en die Mamma van Jesus a Cana NA Galilea and DET mother of Jesus PST wees daar. Maar Jesus en si Jungers ook a BE there but Jesus and 3POS pupil.PL also PST wees genooit tot die Bruiloft. En toen die a hab BE invited to DET wedding and when DET PST have 60 mankement na Wien, soo die Mamma van Jesus lack NA wine so DET mother of Jesus a see na Em: Sen no hab Wien. Jesus a see PST say NA 3SG 3PL NEG have wine Jesus PST say na em: Vrouw, wagoed mi hab vor doe met joe? NA 3SG woman what 1SG have FOR do with 2SG Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 150 Mi Uur no ka kom nogal. Si Mamma a see na 1SG hour NEG PRF come yet 3POS mother PST say NA 65 die Dienaars: Wat Em see na jender, die DET servant.PL what 3SG say NA 2PL DET jender sal doe. En daar a wees ses Water= 2PL will do and there PST BE six water ...... Pot= Potten van Steen, om die Will van die Hodio sen= pot.pl of Stone for DET reason of DET Jew 3PL der Skoon en elkeen Pott a hou omtrent -maaking, - cleaning and every pot PST keep about twee of drie Tobbo. 70 Voell die Water -Potten met Water. En sender a fill DET water -pot.PL with water and 3PL PST voell die tot boven toe. En Em a see na sender: fill DET to above until and 3SG PST say NA 3PL Tapp noe, en breng die na die Hofmeester en tap now and bring DET NA DET court.master and sender a breng die na em. Toen noe die Hofmee= 3PL PST bring DET NA 3SG when now DET court.master ster a proef die Water, die ka word tot Wien, - PST taste DET water DET PRF become to wine 75 en no a weet, van waar die a kom, (:maar die and NEG PST know of where DET PST come but DET Dienaar sender a weet die, welk a ka tapp die servant 3PL PST know DET which PST PRF tap DET Water,:) soo em a roep voor die Bruidegom en water so 3SG PST call for DET bridegroom and 44 The Greek (Athenian) measure of liquid capacity metritis equals about 39 litre. In English Bibles it used to be translated as firkin, equalling about nine gallons. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 151 a see na em. Idereen gie voor eerst die goeje PST say NA 3SG everyone give for first DET good Wien, en wanneer sender ka drink sender Bekomst, wine and when 3PL PRF drink 3PL satisfaction 80 dan em gie die, welk ben minder; maar joe ka then 3SG give DET which BE less but 2SG PRF bewaar die goeje Wien tee noe. Die ben noe die save DET good wine until now DET BE now DET eerste (Wonder:) Teeken, die Jesus a doe na Cana, first wonder sign DET Jesus PST do NA Cana na Galilea, en a openbaar si Heerlikheid,en si NA Galilea and PST reveal 3POS glory and 3POS Junger sender a gloof na Em. pupil 3PL PST belief NA 3SG From ms 3232 § 15. 85 Jesus Si eerste Wonderwerk in Cana Jesus 3POS first wonder.work in Cana van Galilea. of Galilea Joh. 2, 1-11. En na die derde Dag a wees een Bruiloofd in and NA DET third day PST BE a wedding in Cana van Galilea, en die Moeder van Jesus a Cana of Galilea and DET mother of Jesus PST wees daar. Maar Jesus met Si Jungers ookal BE there but Jesus with 3POS pupil.PL also 90 a wees genooit na die Bruiloofd. En toen die PST BE invited NA DET wedding and when DET Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 152 hab Mankement van Wien, soo die Moeder have lack of wine so DET mother van Jesus a see na Em: Sender no hab Wien of Jesus PST say NA 3SG 3PL NEG have wine ...... Jesus Jesus a see na em: Vrouw, wat mi hab vor doe Jesus PST say NA 3SG woman what 1SG have to do met joe? Mi Uur no ka kom nochal. Si Moe= with 2SG 1SG hour NEG PRF come yet 3POS mother 95 der a see na die Dienaars: Wat Em see na jender, - PST say NA DET servant.PL what 3SG say NA 2PL doe die. En daar a wees gestel*[-lt]* Ses Wa -ter=Pot= do DET and there PST BE placed six water -pot.PL ten van Steen, na die Manier van die Joden, vor - of stone NA DET fashion of DET Jew.PL FOR Wasch sender skoon: en elkeen a hou twee of drie wash 3PL clean and everyone PST keep two or three Maat. Jesus a see na sender: Voell die Water= measure Jesus PST say NA 3PL fill DET water 100 Potten met Water. En sender voell die tee boven pot.PL with water and 3PL fill DET until above op. En Em a see na sender: Tap noe, en breng up and 3SG PST say NA 3PL tap now and bring die na die Meester van die Feest, en sender a DET NA DET master of DET party and 3PL PST breng die. Toen noe die Meester van die Feest bring DET when now DET master of DET party a proef die Water, die a ka kom Wien, da em no PST taste DET water DET PST PRF becomewine because3SG NEG 105 a weet van waar die a kom, maar die Dienaars PST know from where DET PST come but DET servant.PL Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 153 a weet die, welk a ka tap die Water: Soo die PST know DET which PST PRF tap DET water so DET Meester van die Feest a roep die Bruidegom, en master of DET party PST call DET bridegroom and a see na em: Elkeen gie vooreerstdie goeje Wien, en PST say NA 3SG everyone give first DET good wine and wanneer sender ka drink wel, dan die, welk ben when 3PL PRF drink good then DET which BE 110 minder; maar joe ka bewaar die goeje Wien tee noe. less but 2SG PRF save DET good wine until now Die ben die eerste Won die Jesus a doe, -der=Teeken, DET BE DET first miracle -sign DET Jesus PST do die a geskied in Cana van Galilea, en a openbaar DET PST happen in Cana of Galilea and PST reveal Si Heerlikheid,en Si Jungers a gloof na Em. 3POS glory and 3POS pupil.PL PST belief NA 3SG 3.2.2 The Sermon of the Mount The next section contains the Sermon of the Mount, which makes up § 25 of the Evangelienharmonie, and of which parts are found in three of the four Gospels. Because of the length of this paragraph, we chose one version, Böhner ms. 321. The text is a translation of the verses Matth 5, 6, and 7, Mark, 3:13-19 and Luke 6:12-17; 20-49. §. 25. Matth. 5, 6. 7. Marc. 3, 13=19. Luc. 6, 12=17. 20=49. 1 En as Em a kik die (grootHoop)Volk, Em a loop na bovo een and as 3SG PSTsee DET large.group people3SG PSTgo NA above a Berg vor beed:en Em a bliev die Donkerdoor na die Gebedtot mountainFOR pray and 3SG PSTstay DET night throughNA DET prayer to Godt. En as die a ka kom Dag, Em a roep si Jüngervor kom God and as DET PSTPRF come day 3SG PSTcall 3POSpupil FOR come Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 154 na Em, welk Em a will: en die sendera loop ook na Em. En NA 3SG which 3SG PSTwant and DET 3PL PSTgo also NA 3SG and 5 Em a kies Twaelfut van sender,die Em ook a gie die Nam, A= 3SG PSTchoosetwelveout of 3PL DET3SG also PSTgive DETnameapostle postel:die sendera sall wees bij Em, en die Em a will stier - DET 3PL PST FUT BE at 3SG and DET 3SG PST will send ut vor predik; en ook sall hab die Macht, vor genees die out FOR preach and also FUT have DET power FOR cure DET Siekten, en vor jag ut die booseGeesten.En die Na[-*.*] Apostel sender a wees Simon welken Em a ka roep Petrus, apostle 3PL PST BE Simon who 3SG PST PRF call Peter 10 en si Broer Andreas; en Jacobum die Soon van Zebedei, and 3POS brother Andreas and James DET son of Zebedei en si Broer Johannes,na welk twee Em a gie die Nam, Don= and 3POSbrotherJohn NA which two 3SG PSTgive DET name thunder ners Kinder Bartolomaeus; en Thomas Bartholomew and Thomas en Mattheus die Tollenaar; Jacobum die Soon van Alph= and Matthew DET publican James DET son of Alphaei 15 aei, Simon, genamt Zelo -tes, Judam Thadeum (die Broer) - Simon named Zelotes Judam Thadeus DET brother ...... van 46. Matth. 5, 6. 7. Marc. 3, 13=19. Luc. 6, 12=17. 20=49 van Jacobi; en Judas Ischarioth, die a verrath Em. of James and Judas Ischarioth DET PST betray 3SG En Em a loop na molee met sender,en a staan op een Plek na and 3SG PSTgo NA down with 3PL and PSTstand up a place NA Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 155 die Feld, (Plain|Sawan) daer die Hoop van si Jüngersendera wees, DET field plain|savannahthere DET group of 3POSpupil 3PL PST BE en die moeschiVolk die a ka kom vor hoor Em, en lat ge= and DET many peopleDET PST PRF come FOR hear 3SG and let - 20 nees sender van sender Siekten. En as Em a ka sett neer, heal 3PL of 3PL illness.PLand as 3SG PST PRF sit down da Si Jüngera staan tot Em, en Em a lecht si Oogoover sender, then3POSpupil PSTstand to 3SG and 3SG PSTraise 3POSeye over 3PL en a open si Mond, en a leer sender en a see*./:* and PST open 3POS mouth and PST teach 3PL and PST say Salig ben, die sender ben aerm na Geest: want die He= blessed BE DET 3PL BE poor NA mind because DET - melriek ben voor sender.Salig ben, die sender drag Be= Kingdom.of.HeavenBE FOR 3PL blessedBE DET 3PL carry - 25 rouw: want sendersall word vertroost.Salig ben die Sach moedige:want sender sall beerf die Aerde. Salig ben, - because 3PL FUT inherit DET earth blessed BE die sender hab Honger en dorst nah die Gerechtigheit: DET 3PL have hunger and thirst NA DET justice want sender sal krig bekomst. Salig ben die Barm= because 3PL FUT get satisfaction blessed BE DET merciful hertige: want sender (ook) sal ontfang Bar 30 Salig ben, die sender ben skoon na Hert: want sender blessed BE DET 3PL BE clean NA heart because 3PL sal kik Godt. Salig ben die Vredemaaker:want sender FUT see God blessed BE DET peace.maker because 3PL sal hab die Nam Kinderen Godts. Salig ben, die sender FUT have DET name child.PL God.GENblessed BE DET 3PL Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 156 word vervolgt om die will van Gerechtigheit:want die become persecutedfor DET reason of justice because DET Hemelriek ben voor sender. Kingdom.of.Heaven BE for 3PL 35 Salig jender ben, as die Menschenhaat jender, en parti blessed 2PL BE as DET people hate 2PL and cut jender af en vloek jender en vergooi jender Nam as een 2PL off and curse 2PL and throw.away2PL name like a boosagtige om die will van die Menschen Soon; en as evil.one to DET reason of DET people son and as sender om die will van mi skimpeer jender en vervolg 3PL to DET reason of 1SG abuse 2PL and persecute jender, en praat all sort quaat van jender, as sender 2PL and talk all sort evil of 2PL as 3PL 40 luig met die. Wees froolik en wel gemoeth45,wees blie lie with DET BE happy and good hearted BE happy en tjomp op, na die Hemel jender sal krieg een goeie and jump up NA DET heaven 2PL FUT get a good betaal voor die. Want alsoo sender ka verv ...... die Matth. 5, 6. 7. Marc. 3, 13-19. Luc. 6, 12= ...... 47. die Propheten, die a ka wees voor jender Tid. DET prophet.PL DET PST PRF BE for 2PL time Maar darte -gen Ongeluk voor jender rieke: want jender but on.the.other.handbad.luck FOR 2PL rich.PL because 2PL 45 hab al jender Troost wee. Ongeluk voor jender, die le have all 2PL console PRF bad.luck for 2PL DET ASP hab alles voll op: want jender sal wees na honger. have everythingfull up because 2PL FUT BE NA hunger 45 wel gemoeth: ‘cheerful’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 157 Ongeluk vor jender, die jender lach noe (soo moeschi:) bad.luck for 2PL DET 2PL laugh now so much want jender sal traa en Kruisch. Ongelukig ben because 2PL FUT weep and scream unhappy BE jender, as allemaal Volk praat fraai van jender: want 2PL as all people talk nice of 2PL because 50 soo a ka doe sender Vadern ook na die ValscheProphe= so PST PRF do 3PL father.PLalso NA DET false prophet.PL ten sender. - 3PL Jender ben die Sout op Aerden: as noe die Sout ver= 2PL BE DET salt up earth as now DET salt - lies si Kracht, met wat die sall word gesouten?vorder lose 3POS strength with what DET FUT become saltened therefore die no ben vor gebruk meer, as dat Volk stort die na DET NEG BE FOR use more as that people dump DET NA 55 buten, en latstaan Volk trap die naonder Voet. outside and let people kick DET NA.under foot Jender ben die Licht na die Werld. Die Stadt welk lee 2PL BE DET light NA DET world. DET city which lay naboven een Berg no kan wees verborg. Volk ook no NA.above a mountainNEG can BE hidden people also NEG steck op en Kers, en doe46 die na onder een (Tobo) Skoep= light up a candle and do DET NA under a bucket bushel - el=Meet: maar op een Kandelaar, soo die gie Licht -measure but up a candlestick so DET give light 60 na allemaal die -jeen welk ben nabin die Hoes. NA all DEM.one which BE NA.inside DET house Alsoo latstaan jender Licht skien na voor die Volk thus let 2PL light shine NA before DET people 46 Dutch doen ‘to do’ can also have the meaning ‘to put’, like Negerhollands doe has here. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 158 sender: dat sender kik jender goeie Werken, en 3PL that 3PL see 2PL good work.PL and pries jender Vader nabin die Hemel. Jender no moet praise 2PL father NA.inside DET heaven 2PL NEG must dink, dat mi ka kom voor loss die Wet of47 die Propheten 65 die wee>. DET away Mi no ka kom vor loss die maar vor voll -doe die. 1SG NEG PRF come FOR put.awayDET but FOR settle DET Want mi le see jender waarlik: tee Hemel en Aerd because 1SG ASP say 2PL truly until heaven and earth sal vergaan, sall niet ver -gaan die Kleenste Letter, FUT perish will NEG perish DET small.SUP letter noch een Streekje van die Wet, tee die alles geskied. neither a stroke.DIMof DET law until DET everythinghappen ...... wie 48. Matth. 5. 6. 7. Marc. 3, 13=19. Luc. 6, 12=17. 20=49. 70 Wie noe loss Een van deese kleenste Gebo -ten, en leer die who now put.awayone of DEM small.SUPcommand.PLand teach DET Volk alsoo,die sal weesgeroependie Kleenste na die Hemel= peoplethus DETFUTBE called DETsmall.SUPNA DETKingdom.of.Heaven riek: maar wie doe en leer die, die sal hab een groot Nam - but who do and learn DET DET FUT have a great name nabin die Hemelriek. NA.inside DET Kingdom.of.Heaven (Ev. am 6. Sonnt. nach Trinita -tis) ‘Gospel on.the 6th Sunday after the.Day.of.the.Holy.Trinity’ Want mi le see jender: as jender Gerechtigheidno wees because 1SG ASP say 2PL as 2PL justice NEG BE 47 It seems as if English of is used, which is not the case. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 159 75 (meer) beeter, as die van die na Skriftgeleerdeen Phariseen more better as DET of DET NA scribe and pharisee sender; soo jender no sal kom na bin die Hemelriek. 3PL so 2PL NEG FUT come NA inside DET Kingdom.of.Heaven Jendera ka hoor, dat na die Volk na Oudtid a ka see: Joe 2PL PST PRF hear that NA DET peopleNA old.timePST PRF say 2SG no sal mattaan;maar wie mattaan (maak dood) die sall NEG FUT kill but who kill make dead DET FUT wees skuldig vor kom na die Recht. Maar Mi le see jen= BE guilty FOR come NA DET justice but 1SG ASP say 2PL 80 der: wie bliev quaat op si Broer, die ben skuldig vor kom - who remain angry up 3POSbrother DET BE guilty FOR come na die Recht; maar wie see tot si Broer: Racka, die ben skul= NA DET justice but who say to 3POSbrother rascal DET BE guilty dig vor kom na voor die (groot)Rath. Maar wie see (tot em) joe - FOR come NA beforeDET great councilbut who say to 3SG 2SG Sott, die ben skuldigvor kom nabin die Hell Fijer. dat em word verbrannd na die Valley Hinom.> Vor -daar= that 3SG become burned NA DET valley Hinom therefore 85 om wanneerjoe ofer joe Gav op die Altar; en die kom daa na - when 2SG sacrifice2SG gift up DET altar and DET come there NA joe Gedachten,dat joe Broer hab een goed tegen joe: soo latstaan 2SG thought that 2SG brotherhave a thing against2SG so let joe Gave na voor die Altar, en loop eerst hen, en maak af met 2SG gift NA before DET altar and go first away and make off with joe Broer; en als dann kom, en na acord met joe verklager,derwiel joe noch ben na Pad met NA agreementwith 2SG accuser while 2SG still BE NA path with Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 160 90 em: dat die Verklager (of: Tegenparteyder)noleveer joe 3SG that DET accuser or opponent NEG.deliver 2SG na die Rechtmaakermet der48 Tid, en die Rechtmaakerleveer NA DET justifier with DET.GENtime and DET justifier deliver joe na die Wach,en joe kom nabin Arest.Mi le see joe waar= 2SG NA DET guard and 2SG come NA.insidejail 1SG ASPsay 2SG true lik: joe no sal kom van daar nabuten, tee joe betaal ook -ly 2SG NEG FUT come of there NA.outsideuntil 2SG pay also die laatste quart Stieber.]49 DET last quarter penny 95 Jendera ka hoor, dat a ka see tot die Volk na Ouwtid: 2PL PST PRF hear that PST PRF say to DET people NA old.time ...... Joe ...... 49. Joe no sell breek die Echte. Maar Mi le see jender: wie 2SG NEG FUT break DET marriagebut 1SG ASP say 2PL who kik na eenWief Volk en lust na em; die a ka breekal Ech= marriage te /met em nabin si Hert. Maar as joe rechtr Oogo Aerger joe; - with 3SG NA.inside3POSheart but as 2SG right eye annoy 2SG 100 soo treck die üt en gooi die (wee) van joe. Die ben beeter vor so pull DET out and throw DET away of 2SG DET BE better for joe, dat een van joe Leden bederv,en niet die heele Lif word 2SG that one of 2SG limb.PLdecay and NEG DET whole body become gegooit nabin die Hell. En as joe rechtr Hand Aerger joe; thrown NA.insideDET hell and as 2SG right hand annoy 2SG 48 Dutch/German genitive form. 49 Bracket in manuscript. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 161 soo Cap die af en gooi die wee van joe. Die ben beeter voor so cut DET off and throw DET away of 2SG DET BE better for joe, dat een van joe Leden bederv,en niet die heele Lif word 2SG that one of 2SG limb.PLdecay and NEG DET whole body become 105 ge nabin die Hell. En die ook a ka see: Wie Skeid em -gooit thrown NA.insideDET hell and DET also PSTPRF say who divorce3REF van si Wief, die sall gie em een Skeidebrief. Maar Mi le of 3POSwife DET FUT give 3SG a divorce.letterbut 1SG ASP see jender: wie skeid em van si Wief, (of die wees dann om say 2PL who depart 3SG of 3POSwife or DET BE then to die will van Overspel)die maak, dat em breek die Echte: DET reason of adultery DET make that 3SG break DET marriage en wie neem soo een van die si Mann ka breek af, die breek and who take such one of DET 3POSman PRF break off DET break 110 die Echte (ook.) DET marriage too Verder jender a ka hoor, dat na die Volk na ouwe tid a further 2PL PST PRF hear that NA DET people NA old time PST ka see: Joe no sall {sweer |doe een ValscheEed, en joe sall hou PRF say 2SG NEG FUT swear do a false oath and 2SG FUT keep na Godt joe Eed. Maar Mi le see jender, dat jender no sall NA God 2SG oath but 1SG ASP say 2PL that 2PL NEG FUT sweer int geel niet; noch b[e+][-*i*]die Hemel; want die ben swear in.DETwhole NEG nor by DET heaven becauseDET BE 115 Godt God Si Troon; noch bi die Aerde; want die ben Godt Si Voetbank: 3POSthrone nor at DET earth becauseDET BE God 3POSfoot.stool noch bi Jerusalem; want em ben die Stadt van een groot nor at Jerusalem because 3SG BE DET city of a great Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 162 Konig. Joe ook no sell sweer bi joe Hoofd; want joe no ben king 2SG also NEG FUT swear by 2SG head because2SG NEG BE Capabel vor maak (maar) een enkel Haar witt of swart. capable FOR make but one single hair white or black 120 Maar lat jender Praat wees Ja, as die ben Ja; en Neen,as die but let 2PL talk BE yes as DET BE yes and no as DET ben Neen: wat ben boven die, dat ben van die Quaat. BE no what BE above DET that BE of DET evil Jendera ka hoor, dat a ka see: Oogo voor Oogo; Taand voor 2PL PST PRF hear that PST PRF say eye for eye tooth for Taand. Maar Mi le see jender: dat jender no sall loop aan tooth but 1SG ASP say 2PL that 2PL NEG FUT walk on tegen die Quaat:maar as ijmand gie joe een Lapp50 na joe rech= againstDET evil but as someonegive 2SG a slap NA 2SG right ...... ter 50. Matth. 5. Marc. 3, en Luc. 6. 125 ter Kaak, hou em die ander ook daar. En as ijmand wil - cheek keep 3SG DET other also there and as someonewant maak proces met joe vor neem joe die Rock: lat em ook make process with 2SG FOR take 2SG DET skirt let 3SG also hab die Mantel. En as ijmand ver -soek joe vor loop een have DET coat and as someonerequest 2SG FOR walk one Miel met em; soo loop twee met em. En as ijmand bedd mile with 3SG so walk two with 3SG and as someonepray joe voor een Goed soo Gie em, en no drey joe wee van em, die 2SG for a thing so give 3SG and NEG turn 2SG away of 3SG DET 130 will leen van joe. want borrow of 2SG 50 It is unclear to us whether Lapp originates from Dutch klap ‘slap’, English slap or another etymon. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 163 Jendera ka hoor, dat a ka see. Joe sall liev joe Nah= 2PL PST PRF hear that PST PRF say 2SG FUT love 2SG neighbour ste, en haat joe Vyand. Maar Mi le see jender: hab jender - and hate 2SG enemy but 1SG ASP say 2PL have 2PL Vyanden liev; seegen sender die vloek jender; doe fraai enemy.PL dear bless 3PL DET curse 2PL do good na die -jeen, die haat jender; bedd voor die -jeen, die sender NA DET.one DET hate 2PL pray for DET.one DET 3PL 135 doe quaat en vervolg jender: op dat jender wees Kinders do evil and persecute 2PL up that 2PL BE child.PL van jender Vader nabin die Hemel. Want die selve ben of 2PL father NA.insideDET heaven because DET same BE goetig, ook na die ondankbareen Boosagtige,en lat -staan kind.heartedalso NA DET ungrateful and evil and let si Sonn hoppo over Quaadeen over die fraai Volk sender, 3POS sun rise over evil and over DET good people 3PL en maak Reegen vall over Rechtveerdigeen onrechtveer= and make rain fall over righteous and unjust 140 dige sender. Want as jender hab maar liev, die sender -one 3PL because as 2PL have but dear DET 3PL hab jender liev; wat voor een Betaal jender sal krieg? da have 2PL dear what for a pay 2PL FUT get EMP no die Tollenaar ook doe die selvde? en die Sondaars hab NEG DET publican also do DET same and DET sinner.PL have ja ook sender Lievhebbersliev. En as jender doe jender yes also 3PL lover.PL dear and as 2PL do 2PL maar Vrindskaplik tot jender Broeders sender; wat but friendly to 2PL brother.PL 3PL what 145 vor apart goed jender doe dan? da no die Tollenaarsen= FOR separategood 2PL do then EMP NEG DET publican 3PL Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 164 der ook doe soo? En as jender maar doe Goets na die -jeen, - also do so and as 2PL but do right.GENNA DET.one die sender doe fraai na jender; wat Danki jender hab DET 3PL do good NA 2PL what thanks 2PL have van die? want die Sondaars doe ook die selvde. of DET because DET sinner.PL do also DET same En as jender leen maar na Volk, van die jender verwacht and as 2PL borrow but NA people of DET 2PL expect 150 vor krieg die weer -aan;wat Dank jender hab van die? FOR get DET again what thank 2PL have of DET want die Sondaars leen ook malkander,op dat sender even becauseDET sinner.PL borrow also each.other up that 3PL equally ...... soo ...... 51. soo veel doe goets en leen waar jender no verwachteen goed voor die: do right.GENand borrowwhere 2PL NEG expect a thing for DET dann jender Loon sal wees groot, en jender sal wees Kinders then 2PL reward FUT BE great and 2PL FUT BE child.PL 155 van die Allerhochste. Vordaarom jender sall wees voll= of DET most.High therefore 2PL FUT BE perfect kom, glik ook jender Vader nabin die Hemel ben vollkom: - like also 2PL father NA.insideDET heaven BE perfect en jamerhertig, glik ook jender Vader (nabin die Hemel) and pity.hearted?like also 2PL father NA.inside DET heaven ook ben jamerhertig. also BE pity.hearted? Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 165 160 voor die Volk sender, dat sender moet kik jender: op soo before DET people 3PL that 3PL must see 2PL up such manir jender hab geen Loon bi jender Vader na Hemel. fashion 2PL have NEG.onereward at 2PL father NA heaven wanneer joe gie Allmoesen, joe no sall lat blaas met when 2SG give alms.PL 2SG NEG FUT let blow with een Trompet na voor ut joe, glik as die Heuchelaarsen= a trumpet NA before out 2SG like as DET hypocrite 3PL der doe nabin sender Skoelhoesen en na Strat, dat - do NA.inside 3PL school.house.PLand NA street that 165 Volk moet kik en pries sender. Waarlik, mi le see people must see and praise 3PL truly 1SG ASP say jender: sender hab al sender Loon wee51. Maar wann= 2PL 3PL have already 3PL reward away but when eer Joe gie Allmoesen, soo joe no latstaan joe Slinker - 2SG give alms.PL so 2SG NEG let 2SG left Hand weet, wagoed die Rechter (hand) le doe, ob dat hand know what DET right hand ASP do on that joe Allmoesen wees verborg; en joe Vader, die le 2SG alms.PL BE hidden and 2SG father DET ASP 170 kik nabin die verborg, sal ver -gelt joe die opentlik. look NA.inside DET hidden FUT repay 2SG DET publicly En wanneer joe beed, joe no sall wees glik die and when 2SG pray 2SG NEG FUT BE like DET Heuchlaar, die sender staan grag vor beed na bin die hypocrite DET 3PL stand willingly FOR pray NA inside DET Kerk en na die Hoeken na Strat, dat Volk moet kik church and NA DET corner.PL NA street that people must see 175 sender. Waarlik, mi le see jender*:/,* sender hab al 3PL truly 1SG ASP say 2PL 3PL have already 51 The word wee is functioning as a PRF marker. another form is kabba, which is also used in this text. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 166 sender Loon kabba. Maar wanneer joe beed, soo 3PL reward PRF but when 2SG pray so loop na bin joe Kamertie en Slott die Dhor toe [-joe] en bed go NA inside 2SG room.DIMand lock DET door shut 2SG and pray ...... Vor 52*.* Matth 6. Verborg, sal ver -gelt joe die opentlik. hidden FUT repay 2SG DET publicly En wanneer jender beed, jender no sall maak veel and when 2PL pray 2PL NEG FUT make much 180 praatje, glik die Heiden; want sender dink dat sender talk.DIM like DET heathen because 3PL think that 3PL word verhoort, as sender maak moeschi Woorten. Vor= become heard as 3PL make many word.PL - daarom jender no sall wees glik sender: Jender Vader therefore 2PL NEG FUT BE like 3PL 2PL father le weet, wat jender mankeer,eerder as jender bedd Em. ASP know what 2PL lack before as 2PL pray 3SG Vordaarom jender sall beed soo: Onse Vader nabin therefore 2PL FUT pray so 1PL father NA.inside 185 die Hemel, Joe Nam word gehei -lig; Joe Konigriek DET heaven 2SG name become holy 2SG Kingdom Kom; Joe Will geskiede op Aerden glik nabin die He= come 2SG will happen up earth like NA.insideDET Heaven mel; Ons daglik Brood gie ons vandag; en ver -gie - 1PL daily bread give 1PL today and forgive ons onse Skülden, glik ons ver -gie ons Skuldenaa 1PL 1PL debt.PL like 1PL forgive 1PL debtor.PL [ en ley ons nie na Probeeringe; maar verloss -*e/a*]ren; - and lead 1PL NEG NA temptation but redeem Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 167 190 ons van die Quaaie. Want van Joe ben die Konink= 1PL of DET evil because of 2SG BE DET king= riek, en die Kracht, en die Heerlikheit na Eewig= empire and DET strength and DET glory NA eternity heit, Amen. Want as jender ver -gie die Menschen - amen because as 2PL forgive DET people sender miss; soo sal ook jender Vader na Hemel ver 3PL wrong so will also 2PL father NA heaven for gie jender. Maar as jender no ver -gie die Menschensen= give 2PL but as 2PL NEG for -give DET people 3PL 195 der Miss; soo jender Vader ook no sal vergie jender jen= - wrong so 2PL father also NEG FUT forgive 2PL 2PL der Miss. Jender no sall gaader jender Skatten voor jender op 2PL NEG FUT gather 2PL treasure.PL for 2PL up Aerden,waar die Motten en Roest jett die, en die Dief volk dig earth where DET moth.PLand rust eat DET and DET thief peopledig aster en dief die. Maar gaader jender Skatten nabin die after and thief DET but gather 2PL treasure.PLNA.insideDET 200 Hemel; waar die Motten en die Roest no kan bederv die, heaven where DET moth.PL and DET rust NEG can decay DET ...... en ...... 53. en die Diefvolk no kan kom toe vor dief die. Want na waar and DET thief.peopleNEG can come to FOR thief DET becauseNA where jender Skatt ben, nadaar ben ook jender Hert. 2PL treasure BE NA.there BE also 2PL heart 52 Den ... Egypten: German, ‘I want to omit the sentence about fasting, because it is something which is not usage among the negro people, as it is among the Copts in Egypt.’ Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 168 Die Oogo ben die Lif si Licht: as joe Oogo ben eenvoudig; DET eye BE DET body 3POSlight as 2SG eye BE simple soo joe geheele Lif sal wees Licht. Maar as joe Oogo ben so 2SG entire body FUT BE light but as 2SG eye BE 205 bederv; soo joe geheele Lif sal wees duister. Maar as die decay so 2SG entire body FUT BE dark but as DET Licht, welks ben nabin joe, ben Duisternis; hoe groot die light which BE NA.inside2SG BE darkness how great DET Duisternis selv sal wees dann? darkness self FUT BE then Niemand kan dien NEG.one can serve twee Meester: of die sal wees dat em two master or DET FUT BE that 3SG 210 haat die een en hab die ander Liev; of em sal hang aan hate DET one and have DET other dear or 3SG FUT hang on die een, en veracht die ander. Jender no kan dien Godt DET one and despise DET other 2PL NEG can serve God en ook die Mammon.(die Geld) Vordaarommi le see jen= and also DET Mammon DET money therefore 1SG ASP say 2PL der: no wees verlee -gen(of na overleging) voor jender Leef, - NEG BE worried or NA considerationfor 2PL life wat jender sal jet en drink; ook niet voor jender Lief, what 2PL FUT eat and drink also NEG for 2PL body 215 wat jender sal doe aan. Ben niet die Leef meer, as die what 2PL FUT put on BE NEG DET life more as DET jett? en die Lif mee[n+] na onder die Hemel; sender no plant, sender no maak NA under DET sky 3PL NEG plant 3PL NEG make Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 169 Crop, sender no gaader nabin Magazin; en jender Hem= crop 3PL NEG gather NA.inside warehouse and 2PL heavenly elsch Vader gie doch Nahring na sender. Ben jender dann - father give yet trade NA 3PL BE 2PL then 220 niet veel meer as sender?Wie ben onder jender, die sal NEG much more as 3PL who BE among 2PL DET FUT kan maak em een Ell meer lang, maski em maak overlee can make 3SG a ell more long although3SG make consideration over[-*t*] die? En waarom jender ben verleegen voor Kleding? over DET and why 2PL BE worried for clothes Kik die Lilien na Savan, hoe sender groei. Sender no werk, see DET lily.PL NA savannahhow 3PL grow 3PL NEG work sender ook no spinn. En Mi le see jender, dat ook Salomo 3PL also NEG spin and 1SG ASP say 2PL that also Salomo 225 na allegaarsi Heerlikheitno a ka wees bekled,as Een van NA all 3POSglory NEG PST PRF BE clad like one of die selve. As noe Godt keed53 die Gras alsoo na Savan, die wel DET same as now God dress DET grass thus NA savannahDET well vandag staan, en morg, volk gooi die nabin die Füer: today stand and tomorrowpeople throw DET NA.insideDET fire sall Em dann no doe v[ -*i*]eelmeer na jender?O jender Kleen FUT 3SG then NEG do much more NA 2PL o 2PL little ...... glov 54. Matth 7. Luc. 6. gloovige! Vordaarom jender no sall wies verleegen en believer therefore 2PL NEG FUT BE worried and 230 see: wagoe ons sal jett? wagoed ons sal drink? met wa say what 1PL FUT eat what 1PL FUT drink with what goed ons sal kleed ons? Want allegaar soo goed, die - 1PL FUT dress 1PL because all so good DET 53 Keed: probably a writing error for kleed ‘dress, to dress’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 170 Heiden sender soek: Want jender Hemelsch Vader le heathen 3PL seek because 2PL heavenly father ASP weet, dat jender die allegaar hab van nooden. Soek vor - know that 2PL DET all have of need seek for - eerst die Koningriek van Godt en na si Gerechtigheit; first DET kingdom of God and NA 3POS justice 235 dann sal die Goed allegaar vall jender toe. Vordaarom then FUT DET thing all fall 2PL to therefore no sorg voor die ander dag, want die Dag morg sal neem NEG care for DET other day becauseDET day tomorrowFUT take Gedachten voor die goed van elk -een Dag hab si eigen Plaag.) every day have 3P0S own plague Cap. 7. Oordeel Chapter 7 judge 240 niet; soo jender ook no word geoordeelt. NEG so 2PL also NEG become judged Verdoem niet; soo jender ook no sal word verdoemd. damn NEG so 2PL also NEG FUT become damned Ver -gie; soo jender ook sal krieg vergeevnis. Gie; soo for -give so 2PL also FUT get forgiveness give so sal ook na jenderword gegeeven.Want met wat vor een oor FUT also NA 2PL becomegiven becausewith what kind a judgement deel jender Oordeel, met die jender (ook) sal word geoor -deelt: - 2PL judge with DET 2PL also FUT become judged 245 En met even die Meet, met die jender meet, Volk ook sal and with equallyDET measurewith DET 2PL measurepeoplealso FUT meet na jender weeraan: Een voll, gedaude, gerüppeldeen measure NA 2PL again a full pushed *** and Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 171 over -vloedig Meed jender sal krieg na jender Skoot. abundant measure 2PL FUT get NA 2PL lap En Em a see sender een Glijknis: Kan ook een Blin= and 3SG PST say 3PL a parable can also a blind de wies die Pad na een ander Blinde? sender no all= - show DET path NA a other blind 3PL NEG both 250 twee sal vall nabin die Gaat? - FUT fall NA.inside DET hole Die Jünger no ben boven si Baas: Wannee Jünger ben glik si Baas; dann em ben vollkomm. pupil BE equal 3POS master then 3SG BE perfect Maar vorwaaromjoe kik die Splinter nabin joe Broe= but why 2SG look DET splinter NA.inside 2SG brother er si Oogo, en joe no bemerk die Balk nabin joe Oo= - 3POSeye and 2SG NEG notice DET beam NA.inside2SG eye 255 go? Of, hoe daerf joe see tot joe Broer: Hou still, Broer, - or how dare 2SG say to 2SG brother keep quiet brother mi [-so] will trek joe die Splinter ut joe Oogo? en kik, 1SG so want pull 2SG DET splinter out 2SG eye and see een Balk ben nabin joe Oogo. Joe Heuchelaar, trek a beam BE NA.inside 2SG eye 2SG hypocrite pull ...... vor ...... 55. vor -eerstdie Balk ut joe Oogo: dar -nah kik, hoe joe sal for -first DET beam out 2SG eye there see how 2SG FUT -after kan trek die Splinter üt joe Broer si Oogo. can pull DET splinter out 2SG brother 3POS eye 260 Jender no sall gie die Heilig goed na die Hond sender, 2PL NEG FUT give DET holy good NA DET dog 3PL Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 172 en jender Perlen jender no sall gooi na voor die Varki sen= and 2PL pearl.PL2PL NEG FUT throw NA before DET pig 3PL der; dat sender no vertrap die met sender Voet, en dreij - that 3PL NEG trample.downDET with 3PL foot and turn om en skeur jender. Bedd; soo jender sal krieg: Soek; around and tear 2PL pray so 2PL FUT get seek soo jender sal vind: Klopp aan; soo die sal word geopent so 2PL FUT find knock on so DET FUT become opened 265 voor jender. Want wie bedd, die ontfangt; en wie soek, for 2PL because who pray DET receives and who seek die vind; en wie klopp aan, na em die (Dhor) word geopent. DET find and who knock on NA 3SG DET door becomeopened Of welk Mensch ben onder jender, die, as si Soon bedd or which human.beingBE among 2PL DET as 3POS son pray em voor Brood, dat em sal lang em een Steen? of as em 3SG for bread that 3SG FUT give 3SG a stone or as 3SG bedd voor een Visch, en em lang em een Slang? As noe pray for a fish and 3SG give 3SG a snake as now 270 jender, die jender ben bederv, nochtans kan gie goeie 2PL DET 2PL BE decay neverthelesscan give good Gaven na jender Kinders; hoe veel meer sal jender Vader gift.PL NA 2PL child.PL how much more FUT 2PL father nabin die Hemel gie fraai Goed na die -jeen,die sender bedd NA.insideDET heaven give nice good NA DET.one DET 3PL pray Em? Alles noe, wat jender will, dat Volk sall doe na jen= 3SG everythingnow what 2PL want that people FUT do NA 2PL der;d[at+] 275 en die and DET Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 173 Prophten. (sender Leer) prophet.PL 3PL doctrine <§ol•Ev. 8 Sonnt. p. Trinit.> Loop nabin door die walk NA.inside through DET naue Poort. Want die Poort ben wiet, narrow gate because DET gate BE wide en die Pad ben breed, we 280 ben moeschidie loop op die. En die Dhor ben nauw, en die BE many DET walk up DET and DET door BE narrow and DET Pad ben smaal, welk draag na die Leef; en sender ben wei= path BE narrow which carry NA DET life and 3PL BE few nig, die vind die. Maar pass op jender, van die ValschePro= - DET. find DET but watch up 2PL of DET false prophet.PL pheten,welk k*a/o*m na Skaap kleern tot jender: maar van - which come NA sheep clothes to 2PL but of binen sender ben skeurende Wolven. Na sender Vruch= inside 3PL BE ferocious wolf.PL NA 3PL fruit.PL 285 ten jender sall be[ -r]kennsender. (dat ben, na sender leev - 2PL FUT know 3PL that BE NA 3PL life en wandel) and walk ...... Kan 56. Matth. 7, Kan Volk ook pek (Wien) Druif*i/e* van Stee -kel=Hasche, can people also seize wine grape of prickle -bush of Fiegi van Ste*e/c*kelGras? Alsoo ijder goeie Boom drag or fig of prickle grass thus every good tree carry goeie Vrucht, maar een slechte Boom drag slechte Vrucht. good fruit but a bad tree carry bad fruit Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 174 290 En goeie Boom no kan drag slechte Vrucht, en een slechte and good tree NEG can carry bad fruit and a bad Boom no kan drag goeie Vrucht. Een elke Boom word tree NEG can carry good fruit a every tree become gekent na si Vrucht. ijder Boom, die no drag goeie Vrucht, known NA 3POS fruit every tree DET NEG carry good fruit die word af ge -Capt, en na die Füer gegooit. Vordaarom DET become off chopped and NA DET fire thrown therefore jender sall bekenn sender na sender Vruchten. 2PL FUT acknowledge 3PL NA 3PL fruit.PL 295 Een goeie Mensch breng goeie Saaken navoor ut die goeie a good human.beingbring good case.PL NA.FOR out DET good Skatt nabin si Hert; en een Quaat Mensch breng quaaje treasure NA.inside3POS heart and a evil human.beingbring evil Saaken navoor ut die quaaie Voorraat nabin si Hert. thing.PL NA.for out DET evil stock NA.inside 3POS heart Want van wat die Hert ben voll, van die die Mond loop over. becauseof what DET heart BE full of DET DET mouth run over En vor jen\der roep mi HEER, HEER: en jender no doe, -waar\om and FOR -why 2PL call 1SG lord lord and 2PL NEG do 300 wagoedmi see jender?Nie HEER, HEER, sal[ -l] kom nabin die Hemeriek: maar, die lord lord FUT come NA.insideDET Kingdom.of.Heavenbut DET sender doe die will van mi Vader nabin die Hemel. 3PL do DET will of 1SG father NA.inside DET heaven Moeschi sender sal see tot mi na die -jen (laatst) Dag: HEER, many 3PL FUT say to 1SG NA DET.one last day lord HEER,ons no a ka predik na die Nam van Joe? Ons no a lord 1PL NEG PST PRF preach NA DET name of 2SG 1PL NEG PST Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 175 305 ka doe veel daaten na die Nam van Joe? Ons no a ka PRF do many deed.PLNA DET name of 2SG 1PL NEG PST PRF gooi boose Geesten ut na die Nam van Joe? Dann mi throw evil spirit.PL out NA DET name of 2SG then 1SG sal beleyd na sender: Mi no a ka bekenn jender noch -al, FUT profess NA 3PL 1SG NEG PST PRF know 2PL yet wiek van mi, allemaal, jender quaat -doenders. recede of 1SG everyone 2PL evil -doer.PL Vordaaromwie le \hoor die mi Praat, en em doe die; em mi therefore who ASP hear DET 1SG talk and 3SG do DET 3SG 1SG 310 verglik met een verstandigMann, die a bau een Hoes, compare with a wise man DET PST build a house en a dieg diep, en a lee die Fondamentop een Klpp; en toen and PST dig deep and PST lay DET foundation up a rock and when een swaar Regen a vall en groot Water a stroom sterk, a heavy rain PST fall and great water PST stream strong en slaa tegen die Hoes; en doch die no a vall, want si and strike againstDET house and yet DET NEG PST fall because3POS ...... Fon ...... 57. Fondament a lee op een Klipp; en die Winden a waij foundation PST lay up a rock and DET wind.PL PST blow 315 en a stoot na die Hoes; maar die n*o* vall. En wie le and PST push NA DET house but DET not fall and who ASP hoor die mi Praat, en em no doe die: die ben glik hear DET 1SG talk and 3SG NEG do DET DET BE like een [ -gli] domme Mann, die a bauw si Hoes op die a like stupid man DET PST build 3POS house up DET Sand sonder Fonda -ment. En as een swaar Regen sand without foundation and as a heavy rain Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 176 a vall, en die Water a kom groot, en die Wint PST fall and DET water PST come great and DET wind 320 a wey, en a stoot na die Hoes, da die vall, en a PST blow and PST push NA DET house then DET fall and PST doe een groot vall. En die a gebuir, as JESus [ -si] do a great fall and DET PST happen as Jesus 3POS a ka vollend deese Reden, die Volk a kom ontstelt PST PRF finish DEM speech DET people PST come dismayed over si Leer. Want Em a predik met Kracht, en about 3POS doctrine because 3SG PST preach with strength and niet Glik die na Skrift -geleerde sender. NEG like DET NA scribe 3PL Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 177 4 Lay material 4.1 The ABC booklets (1770, 1770 and 1800) This section deals with a specific category of printed work: language primers. Language primers, in Negerhollands AB(C) boekjes ‘AB(C) booklets’, were usually produced by missionaries for education of the illiterate converts. Three have survived. As they were meant to help teach reading and writing, they also represent a source of metalinguistic information. They may furthermore contain reading material of edifying calibre, often taken from Luther's catechism, like the Ten Commandments, the Lord's and other prayers, hymns and songs, verses from the NT, sacraments. Interestingly, we have both Moravian and Danish primers. The Moravian primer appears to be the more pedagogical one. Apart from the alphabet and a character combination table for the possible ‘syllables’, which are found in all three, it also gives numbers, lists of proper names, etc. The Danish give more pieces of textual reading material. Another interesting factor is the time of publication of the two Danish primers; they are both from 1770 and may as such shed light on a part of the synchronic variation in NH at the time. First, we will treat the metalinguistic information that these books contain and, if possible, make a comparison. Thereafter, certain textual parts will be dealt with. We will only look at those texts they have in common, and in such a way that they can easily be compared. The following language primers are treated here: Kingo: Kreool A, B, buk. by: Johan Christopher Kørbitz Thomsen Kingo at: St. Croix 1770 16 pages Wold: Creool A B Buk voor die Deen Missioon na Westindien by: Erich Röring Wold at: Unknown place 1770 16 pages Anon.: A B C-BOEKJE voor die Neger-Kinders na St. Thomas, St. Croix en St. Jan. by: Unknown member of the Moravian Brethren at: Barby 1800 12 pages According to Reinecke et al.'s (1975) bibliography, another Moravian primer with the same title as Anonymous was printed in 1825, but we did not have access to it. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 178 Questions about authorship It is claimed in Lose (1891), on the basis of his archival research of the correspondence of the Danish mission, that Kingo had translated Luther's Smaller Catechism into Negerhollands by 1764. It was, according to Lose's sources, sent to Copenhagen for printing, but it remained in Denmark for several years, before being sent to Magens on St. Thomas in 1769. Magens and Wold would have revised Kingo's translation and prepared it for printing in 1770. All of this has never been confirmed by another independent source, or by a check of Lose's sources. All other publications that witness or imply this reconstruction base themselves on Lose. Because of a lack of immediate access to the documents consulted by Lose and others, there is at the moment only one other way that may enable us to ascertain the plausibility of Lose's reconstruction: the comparison of sources of whose authenticity we are certain. As for Kingo, only one printed work bears his name as author: the Kreool A, B, Buk from 1770. It is a 16-page Negerhollands primer, with combinatory tables of vowels and consonants, the Lord's Prayer, the first two Articles of Faith, the Ten Commandments, and some sacraments and prayers. Finally, it contains the hymn O! Planter-Man and some verses from the New Testament. The same can be said about Wold. His 1770 Creool A B Buk does not contain the Hymn nor the verses, however. This copy of Wold, which was kept in Copenhagen University Library in the Fiolstraede (which in 1992 was incorporated into the Royal Library in Copenhagen), is part of a volume containing two further works, in exactly the same type, with the same decorations, also issued at an unknown place in 1770. They are D. Martin Luther sie klein Catechismus and Creool Psalm-Buk, but they lack reference to an author, and they are separately paginated. The third part, Creool Psalm-Buk, is also found as a single volume in the Royal Library in Copenhagen. They are identical in all respects, and among the hymns O! Planterman is also included. Lose ascribes this work to Wold and Magens. About D. Martin Luther sie klein Catechismus, the Smaller Catechism, it could be said that according to Lose it has three authors; Kingo, Magens and Wold. To find out if there is some truth in this claim, one could compare Kingo's and Wold's primers, and then compare (Wold's?) the Smaller Catechism with both, as partially the same material forms their contents (namely: the Smaller Catechism contains the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, the first two Articles of Faith, the Sacrament of Baptism, the Table Sacrament, and some prayers). If Kingo and Wold both wrote a primer, independently of each other, and if Wold and Magens revised a Catechism originally translated by Kingo, then one would expect that this Catechism would have certain traits in common with Kingo's primer, but not necessarily with Wold's primer. Apart from the whereabouts of certain Negerhollands works, also the authorship of several known texts may continue to present the students of Negerhollands with puzzles in the future. In relation to these questions, it may be worthwhile to note that Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 179 Kingo also contains material from the New Testament, but nothing from Matthew. For additional details, see the bibliography. Linguistic instruction All three primers contain tables with the alphabet and the syllables that may be formed by combining characters. Only in Kingo do we find some explicit instructions for the interpretation of the characters: Elke Letter ha di self Naem, so as every character have DET self name so as na di Deen of Latiin Tael, en di Voort NA DET Danish or Latin language and DET word le praet yt1, so as di stan skrif2 hi-so, so ASP speak out so as DET stand write here-so so di no ha nit een svaer for les of for spel DET NEG have NEG one difficulty FOR read or FOR spell di. vant ju nem di Voort so as di stan. DET because 2SG take DET word so as DET stand Translation Every character has the same name as in Danish or Latin, and the words are pronounced like they are written here, so there will be no difficulties in reading or spelling them, because you take the words according to how they are written. In Anon. we find no such remarks, but on the other hand we find a list of example words for every character. They appear to be carefully chosen to illustrate the orthographic representation of vowel quantity, diphthongs, voice, etc. The first examples are easy monosyllabic words, but later examples are words of increasing syllabic and derivational complexity. Anon. also gives the numbers, both in Arabic and Roman style, gives an additional version of the alphabet in italic type, and even introduces some linguistic terms. Anon. seems to be pedagogically the most sophisticated of the three primers and must have been especially designed for reading classes. Wold only gives an alphabet and a syllable scheme, next to his religious texts. Below, we have given the sections containing linguistic instructions from all primers. 2 stan skrif ‘stands written’: no participial morphology. Cf. note 1. 1 preat yt is a hidden passive: ‘be pronounced’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 180 Alphabets Kingo A a, b, d, e, f, g, A, B, D, E, F, G, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, H, I, J, K, L, M, o, p, q, r, s, s, t, N, O, P, Q, R, S, u, v, x, y, ö. T, U, V, X, Y, Ö. ai. au. ei. oi. ou. Wold A. B. C. D. E. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. F. G. H. I. J. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. K. L. M. N. O. q. r. s. s. t. u. v. w. U. V. W. X. Y. x. y. z. ö. Z. OE. Anon A B C D E F G H I a b c d e f (ff) g h J K L M N O P Q R i j k l m n o p q r S T U V W X Y Z. s (s ss) t u v w x z. Anon further divides the characters into phonetic categories and gives Arabic and Latin numbers: Vocalen. a e i (y) o u. (‘vowels’) Consonanten.b c d f g h j k l m (‘consonants’) n p q r s t v w x z. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 20. 30. 40. 50. 60. 70. 80. 90. 100. 200. 300. 400. 500. 600. 700. 800. 900. 1000 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. XII. XX. L. C. D. M. 12. 20. 50. 100. 500. 1000. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 181 Anon also gives examples to illustrate how the alphabet should be used3. a (enkel4 aa (dobbel5) e (enkel) ee (dobbel) lat laat en een al maal Vel veel dan staan Wet weet sap Slaap ben Been Man Maan best Beest o (enkel) oo (dobbel) u (enkel) uu (dobbel) vor voor ut Uur word Woord Nut Vuur Kop Koop Stut Skot Skoot ea ei (ey) eu ie oe au aerm leid Deugd die doe Faut waerd skey gie goe gauw ley hier Hoes flauw reyel niet toen blauw ou ui aai ooi oei ieu (uy) (aay) (ooy) (oey) dou huichel draai gooy groey nieuw bouw fraai mooj Koei koud saay nooit Moei Vrouw waay rooy foey 3 These words are translated in this footnote, according to the order of their occurrence from top to bottom: a (single): slath, already, then, juice, man. aa (double): late, times, stand, sleep, moon. e: and, skin, law, be, best. ee: one/a, much/many, know, leg, animal. o: FOR, become, head, shot. oo: in front of, word, buy, lap. u: out, use, sustain. uu: hour, fire. ea: arm, worth. ei: lead, separate, lay swap. eu: virtue. ie: DET, give, here, not. oe: do, very, house, then. au: mistake, quick, bland/unconscious, blue. ou: push, build, cold, woman. ui: pretend. aai: turn, well, sow, blow. ooi: throw, beautiful, never, uproot. oei: grow, cow, mother, reject. ieu: new. ch: Christ, yet. ph: pharaoh. th: door(?). qu: evil/angry. B: tray, best, board. P: paquet, pest, gate. D: descend, dirt, through (or door). T: language, pull, wrath. 5 dobbel: ‘double’. 4 enkel: ‘single’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 182 ch ph th qu Christ Pharao Thoor quaad noch B P D T Bak Pak Daal Taal Best Pest Drek trek Boord Poort door Toorn Fragment from ABC-boekje voor die Neger-Kinders. Barby: 1800.6 6 1: earth, break, day, oath, party, great, heart, 2SG, cross, live, power, name, 1PL, part, evil, fame, jump, throne, fear, which. 2: arm, bring, think, one/a, mistake/fault, luck, help, 2PL, child, light, milk, night, too/also, plague (or: tease), advice/counsel/council, mind/desire, heavy/difficult, consolation, fruit, world. 3: position, blind, thing, honour, form, faith, dog, side, knock, praise, human being, take, ear, place, vine, clean, time, flame, feel, wish. 4: image/statue, naked, animal, every, God, hand, head, like, lamb, wage, courage, not, old, psalm, right, get frightened, until, people, because, wine. 5: pale, thank, dead, first, grave, lord, year, strength, land, man, mouth, need, path, speak, ring, son, wrath, friend, be, reside. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 183 al le7 an der, a ster, Ar beid, A vend, Broe er, Be geer, be hou, Bli skap, be waar, Dan ki, don ker, dier baar, der wil, Du vel, ee nigst, eer der, En gel, Ei land, En de, fro lik, Fi gur, Gna de, Goed heid, Ge taal, God heid, gloo fig, Hei land, Her der, He mel, Hoop ning, Je sus, Jong vrouw, Jo den, jen der, Ja mer, Ket ting, Ken nis, Kin ders, Krup pel, Ko ning, Lief de, Li chaam, Lee ring, Lug naar, Led maat, Morgsteer, Mod der, Moe der, Mee ster, moe schi, Naa ring, Na tie, nie mand, na by, na voor, On skuld, on der, o ver, Oor deel, Ou ders, Par don, Person, Pen ning, Ple si, po ver, Quaa je, Quaat doen, quaa lik, Quar tier, Rant soen, Re gen, re geer, Rech ter, Rik dom, Son do, Ska de, Skan de, such ten, Sus ter, Tee ken, Tem pel, Troo ster, Toe komst, Va der, Ver stand, Vleerken, Voor hoofd, Voet-bank, Waar heid, Wan del, waar schouw, Won der, Woo ning,8 7 a: all, other, after, work, evening. b: brother, desire, keep, happiness, protect. d: thanks, dark/night, beloved, while/because, devil. e: only, earlier, angel, island, end. f: happy, figure. g: mercy, goodness, number, divinity, believing. h: Saviour, shepherd, heaven, hope. j: Jesus, virgin, Jews, 2PL, pity. k: chain, knowledge, children, lame, king. l: love, body, teaching, liar, member. m: morning star, mud, mother, master, much/very. n: nourishment, nation, no-one, close, in front of. o: innocence, under, over, judgement, parents. p: forgiveness, person, penny, pleasure, poor. q: angry one, do evil, bad, quarter. r: ration, rain, govern, judge, wealth. s: sin, damage, shame, sigh, sister. t: sign, temple, comforter/paracleter, future. v: father, wits, wing, fore head, foot bench. w: truth, walk/go, warn, wonder/miracle, house. 8 The following comments are in order: (a) Broe er: instead of the written Dutch form broeder which appears in the letters. (b) En de ‘end’: looks like Ger. Ende ‘id.’ but may be a genuine form. (c) Hoop ning: a Dutchified version of Germ. Hoffnung ‘hope’. (d) (Morg) steer: looks like a compromise between Du. ster ‘star’ and NH stêre ‘id.’. (e) Naa ring: may be a Dutchification of Germ. Nährung ‘nourishment’. (f) Son do: creolized version of Du. zonde ‘sin’. Cf. the Introduction. (g) Vleer ken: although this is a plural in Dutch, the form flegn ‘wing’ in De Josselin de Jong's glossary suggests a singular interpretation. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 184 Aster aan9 Avend maal, allee nig, Aange sicht, Bruide gom, Benauwt heid, barmher tig, Betaa-ling, Christen dom, Christen heid, Cheru bim, Crea-tur, Drink beeker Duster nis, Dankbaar heid, Die-naa rin, Eigen dom, Eewig heid, Evan gelium, Even beeld, Farin ge, Fami lie, Fonda ment, Genees man, Gemeen skap, Gesond heid, Gedach ten, Heerlik heid, hooghei lig, Hemel rik herte lik, Jong heid, jamer voll, Je mand, In druk, Koning rik, Kerken raad, Liefde voll, Lita ney, Loof psalmen, lang moedig, Manke ment, Mis handling, mal kander, Maje-steit, Na bovo, Na binne, noodzaak lik, Nabi heid, Onder skeid, onge recht, Op passer Ouder ling, Patien tie, Priester dom, Pro feten, Panne koek, Quaat doener, Quantiteit, Roenkert je, Regen back, Regee ring, recht-vaerdig, Salig heid, sacht moedig, Sera phim, Sacra ment, Testa ment, Timmer man, Toevre denheid, Voor daarom, Verster king, Verle genheid, Weeraan komst, waar achtig, Welbe hagen, Zeba oth.10 9 a: behind, (Lord's) supper, alone, face. b: bridegroom, suffocation/fear, merciful, payment. c: Christianity, Christendom (people), Cherubim, creature. d: cup/chalice, darkness, gratefulness, female servant. e: property/possession, eternity, Gospel, image/likeness. f: groundcorn, family, foundation. g: healer, community, health, thoughts. h: delight, very holy, kingdom of heaven, heartily. j: youth, compassionate, someone, impression. k: kingdom, church council. l: loving, litany, hymns of praise, bearing with patience. m: lack/deficiency, mistreatment/wrong action, each other, majesty. n: up(wards), in(wards), necessary, closeness. o: distinction, unjustice, caretaker/keeper, elder. p: patience, priesthood, prophets, pancake. q: evil doer, quantity. r: buzzer (humming-bird, bee), rainbarrel, government, just. s: salvation, meek, Seraphim, sacrament. t: testament, carpenter, contentment. v: therefore, strengthening, shyness. w: return, truthful/truly, satisfaction. z: Zebaoth. 10 The following comments are in order: (a) Evan gelium: this is German (Evangelium) rather than Dutch (Evangelie). (b) Farin ge: may be NH faria ‘corn meal’ which De Josselin de Jong relates to Portuguese farinha ‘flour’. (c) (Na) bovo: Creole vowel system. Not visible in (Na) binne. (d) Roenkertje: is a Zeelandic word. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 185 Combinations Kingo Ab, eb, ib, ob, ub, yb, Öb, Ba, be, bi, bo, bu, by, bö, Ad, ed, id, od, ud, yd, öd, Da, de, di, do, du, dy, dö, Af, ef, if, of, uf, yf, öf, Fa, fe, fi, fo, fu, fy, fö, Ag, eg, ig, og, ug, yg, ög, Ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, gö, Ak, ek, ik, ok, uk, yk, ök, Ka, ke, ki, ko, ku, ky, kö, Al, el, il, ol, ul, yl, öl, La, le, li, lo, lu, ly, lö, Am, em, im, om, um, ym, öm, Ma, me, mi, mo, mu, my, mö, An, en, in, on, un, yn, ön, Na, ne, ni, no, nu, ny, nö, Ap, ep, ip, op, up, yp, öp, Pa, pe, pi, po, pu, py, pö, Ar, er, ir, or, ur, yr, ör, Ra, re, ri, ro, ru, ry, rö, As, es, is, os, us, ys, ös, Sa, se, si, so, su, sy, sö, At, et, it, ot, ut, yt, öt, Ta, te, ti, to, tu, ty, tö, Av, ev, iv, ov, uv, yv, öv, Va, ve, vi, vo, vu, vy, vö, Wold Spel-Taefel. Ab. eb. ib. ob. ub. yb. öb. Ba. be. bi. bo. bu. by. bö. Ac. ec. ic. oc. uc. yc. öc. Ca. ce. ci. co. cu. cy. cö. Ad. ed. id. od. ud. yd. öd. Da. de. di. do. du. dy. dö. Af. ef. if. of. uf. yf. öf. Fa. fe. fi. fo. fu. fy. fö. Aj. ej. - oj. - - öj. Ja. je. ji. jo. ju. jy. jö. Ak. ek. ik. ok. uk. yk. ök. Ka. ke. ki. ko. ku. ky. kö. Al. el. il. ol. ul. yl. öl. La. le. li. lo. lu. ly. lö. Am. em. im. om. um. ym. öm. Ma. me. mi. mo. mu. my. mö. An. en. in. on. un. yn. ön. Na. ne. ni. no. nu. ny. nö. Ap. ep. ip. op. up. yp. öp. Pa. pe. pi. po. pu. py. pö. Ar. er. ir. or. ur. yr. ör. Ra. re. ri. ro. ru. ry. rö. As. es. is. os. us. ys. ös. Sa. se. si. so. su. sy. sö. At. et. it. ot. ut. yt. öt. Ta. te. ti. to. tu. ty. tö. Av. ev. iv. ov. uv. yv. öv. Va. ve. vi. vo. vu. vy. vö. Aw. ew. iw. ow. uw. yw. öw. Wa. we. wi. wo. wu. wy. wö. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 186 Anon Syllaben. Ab eb ib ob ub Fa fe fi fo fu Ac ec ic oc uc Ga ge gi go gu Ad ed id od ud Ha he hi ho hu Af ef if of uf Ja je ji jo ju Ag eg ig og ug Ka ke ki ko ku Ak ek ik ok uk La le li lo lu Al el il ol ul Ma me mi mo mu Am em im om um Na ne ni no nu An en in on un Pa pe Pi po pu Ar er ir or ur Ra re ri ro ru As es is os us Sa se si so su At et it ot ut Ta te ti to tu Ba be bi(by) bo bu Va ve vi vo vu Ca ce ci co cu Wa we wi wo wu Da de di do du Za ze zi zo zu Religions instruction Here, the situation is the inverse of that in the linguistic section. Apparently, the Danish booklets were primarily meant for religious instruction. Their major parts, in both cases pages 6 to 16, therefore consist of spiritually edifying material. Wold contains the majority of this, Kingo has basically the same material, but in some cases only gives excerpts, and Anon, contains the least. Below, we reprint the sections that are identical among the primers. Through research on possible alternative ways of expression and on the value of orthographic variants, the differences between our sources may be related to dialectal variation in Negerhollands. Apart from this, the material is also of importance in the quest to establish the authorship of other Danish works and to discover the identity of Danish works that we only know of through mention. This issue is discussed to some extent at the end of this section. Note that the hymn O! Planterman is not found in Wold's primer, but it is found in the Psalm-Buk of 1770 which is attached to the primer. Furthermore, a fourth version of the Lord's Prayer was found in the Klein Catechismus of 1770, also attached to Wold's primer. Even though they do not belong to Wold's primer, we included both these texts here to facilitate comparison, and because they may be from Wold's hand. Note also that everywhere in the Anon A B C-Boekje, polysyllabic words are systematically split up into syllables by spaces. This was obviously done out of pedagogical considerations. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 187 Kingo 1770 Wold 1770 1 Di Heer si Gebet. Di Heer sie Gebet. DET Lord 3POS prayer DET Lord 3POS prayer Ons Fader, Ons Vaeder, 1PL father 1PL father ju di bin na di Hemel senner,Ju di bin na binne die Heemel. 2SG DET BE NA DET heaven3PL 2SG DET BE NA inside DET heaven ju Naem kom heilig11, Ju Naem wort geheiligt. 2SG name come holy 2SG name become hallowed 5 ju Konig -Rik kom, Ju Kooningrik kom. 2SG kingdom come 2SG kingdom come ju Vil geskiet Ju Wil geskiet 2SG will happen 2SG will happen lik na die Hemel, so ok na di Gront12,na Aerdeglik na binne die Heemel. -al likeNA DETheaven,so also NA DETearth NA earth like NA insideDETheaven gif ons fan Dag, ons daglik Broot, Gief ons van Dag ons daglik Broot. give 1PL of day 1PL daily bread give 1PL of day 1PL daily bread en gif ons, ons skylt as -ter13, Vergeef ons ons Skylt, and give 1PL 1PL guilt after forgive 1PL 1PL guilt 10 lik ons soo glik ons like 1PL so like 1PL le gif ons Skyldenarsenner aster, vergeef ons Skyl sender. -denaer ASP give 1PL debtor 3PL after forgive 1PL debtor 3PL 11 ju Naem kom heilig: This sentence is ambiguous between ‘may Thy name become holy’ (cf. Du. heilig ‘holy’) and ‘Hallowed be Thy name’ (cf. Du. heiligen ‘hallow, sanctify’), where the other versions use the unambiguous ‘Dutch’ passive wort/word geheiligt. Cf. the Introduction on the various passive constructions of 18th century Negerhollands. 12 As for Gront ‘ground, field, earth’ ( Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 188 en no bring ons na binne die Pro En no lej ons na binno Versukking, -beer; and NEGbring 1PL NA insideDETtry and NEGlead1PL NA insidetemptation ma trek ons yt fan di Qvaet, maer verlos ons van die Qwaet. but pull 1PL out of DET evil but deliver 1PL of DET evil vant fan ju bin di Konig Want fan Ju bin die Kooningrik, -Rik, becauseof 2SG BE DET kingdom becauseof 2SG BE DET kingdom 15 di Kragt en di Eer die Kragt en die Heerligheit DET power and DET glory DET power and DET glory na Evigheit. Amen. tee na die Ewigheit. Amen. NA eternity amen until NA DET eternity amen Anon Catechismus 1800 1770 Die Gebed van die Heere. Die Gebet van ons Heilant. DET prayer of DET Lord DET prayer of 1PL Saviour Ons Va.der Ons Vaeder, 1PL father 1PL father na die Hemel! Ju die bin na binne die Heemel NA DET heaven 2SG DET BE NA inside DET heaven 20 Joe Naam word ge hei ligt; Ju Naem wort geheiligt. 2SG name become hallowed 2SG name become hallowed Joe Ko ning rik kom; Ju Kooningrik kom. 2SG kingdom come 2SG kingdom come o dat Joe Will sal ge skied Ju Wil geskiet o that 2SG will FUT happen 2SG will happen op die Aar.de,soo as na die He mel;na Aerdeglik na binne die Heemel. on DET earth so as NA DET heavenNA earth like NA insideDET heaven Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 189 Gie ons van Dag ons daag Brood,Gief ons van Dag ons daglik Broot. lik give 1PL of day 1PL daily bread give 1PL of day 1PL daily bread 25 en ver gie ons on se Skul -den, Vergeef ons ons skylt, and for give 1PL 1PL fault.PL forgive 1PL 1PL fault soo as ons glik ons so as 1PL like 1PL ver gie ons Skul de le vergeef ons Skyldenaarsender. naars; for give 1PL debtor.PL ASP forgive 1PL debtor 3PL en ley ons niet na Ver soe En no lej ons na binne Ver king, -sueking. and lead 1PL NEG NA temptationand NEG lead 1PL NA inside temptation maar ver -lossons van die Quaa Maer verlos ons van die Quaet. je. but deliver 1PL of DET evil but deliver 1PL of DET evil 30 Want van Joe ben die Ko ning Want van Ju bin die Ko rik, -ningrik, becauseof 2SG BE DET kingdom becauseof 2SG BE DET kingdom en die Kracht, en die Heer -lik die Kragt en die Heerlikheit heid and DET power and DET glory DET power and DET glory na Ee wig heid. Amen. tee na die Eewigheit. Amen NA eternity amen until NA DET eternity amen Kingo Wold Di Tien Got Gebot. Godt si tien Gebot DET ten God commandment.God 3POS ten commandment DI ERSTE. Die Eerste. DET first DET first Mi bin di Heer ju Got, Mie bin die Heer, Ju Godt, 1SG BE DET Lord 2SG God 1SG BE DET Lord 2SG God ju no sa ha ander Got sennerJu no sa hab niet een ander Godt 2SGNEGFUT haveother God 3PL 2SG NEGFUT have NEG one other God Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 190 bitten mi. meer as mie. outside 1SG more as 1SG DI TVEDE. Die Tweede. DET second DET second Ju no sa gebryk Ju no sa gebryk 2SG NEG FUT use 2SG NEG FUT use 40 di Heer, ju Got Naem die Heer Ju Godt sie Naem DET Lord 2SG God name DET Lord 2SG God 3POS name for soso, na een wissie wassie Ma -nier; FOR so -so NA a wishy washy manner vant di Heer Fordiemaek die Heer because DET Lord therefore DET Lord em sa straf di senner, hem sa straf sender, 3SG FUT punish DET 3PL 3SG FUT punish 3PL di le gebryksi Naem so -so. die le gebryksie Naem voor soso. DET ASP use 3POSname so -so DET ASP use 3POSname FOR so -so 45 DI DERDE. Die Derde. DET third DET third Denk op, Dink op think up think up da ju le hou die Rees heilig.die Rest dat Ju hou hem heilig. -Dag -Dag, that 2SGASPkeep DET rest holy DET rest that 2SG keep 3SG holy -day -day DI FIIRDE. Die Vierde. DET fourth DET fourth Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 191 Hou ju Tatta mit ju Mammana Respekt,RespecteerJu Tata mit Ju Mama, keep2SGfatherwith2SGmother NArespect respect 2SGfatherwith2SGmother 50 da di kan kom for lop ju frei14, dat die kan loop Ju fraej, that DET can come FOR go 2SG well that DET can walk 2SG well en ju kan leef langna di Verel.en dat Ju kan leef langna bobo die Aerde. and2SGcan live longNA DETworld andthat2SGcan live longNA aboveDETearth DI FEIFDE. Die Veifde. DET fifth DET fifth Ju no sa mattanit een Folk. Ju no sa martaeniet een Volk. 2SG NEG FUT kill NEG one folk 2SG NEG FUT kill NEG one folk DI SESDE. Die Sesde. DET sixth DET sixth 55 Ju no sa huur. Ju no sa huur. 2SG NEG FUT whore 2SG NEG FUT whore DI SEVENDE. Die Seevende. DET seventh DET seventh Ju no sa dif. Ju no sa dief. 2SG NEG FUT steal 2SG NEG FUT steal DI AKSTE. Die Agtste. DET eighth DET eighth Ju no sa praet fals GetygenJu no sa praet vals Getiegen 2SG NEG FUT speak false witness 2SG NEG FUT speak false witness 60 tegen ju Naeste. teegen Ju Naeste. against 2SG neighbour against 2SG neighbour 14 ‘That you may prosper’. For lop ju frei ‘(lit.) go you (ind. obj.) well’ compare Du. goed gaan ‘(litt.) well go’ plus indirect object. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 192 DI NEGENDE. Die Neegende. DET ninth DET ninth Ju no sa begeer Ju no sa hab sin 2SG NEG FUT desire 2SG NEG FUT have desire ju Naeste Hus. na Ju Naeste sie Hus. 2SG neighbour house NA 2SG neighbour 3POS house DI TIENDE. Die Tiende. DET tenth DET tenth 65 Ju no sa hab sin Ju no sa ha Sin 2SG NEG FUT have desire 2SG NEG FUT have desire na ju Naeste si Vif, na Ju Naeste sie Wif, NA 2SG neighbour 3POS wife NA 2SG neighbour 3POS wife si Jong,si Meisi,si Os,si Borika,sie Jong,sie Meisje,sie Os,sie Borika, 3POSboy 3POSgirl 3POSox 3POSdonkey3POSboy 3POSgirl 3POSox 3POSdonkey of eniste gut, fan allema di*,* en na niet een gut, or any thing of all DET and NA NEG one thing di fan em. die bin van hem. DET of 3SG DET BE of 3SG 70 Fan allema di Gebot senner Van almael die Gebot, of all DET commandment3PL of all DET commandment da so Got le praet da soo Godt le praet EMP so God ASP speak EMP so God ASP speak na 2 Mos. 20 Kp. 5,6, v. na Mosessie tweedeBuk 20 Cap. 5.6.Vers. NA 2 Mos. 20: Ch. 5 -6, v. NA Moses3POSsecondbook 20 Ch.5th.6th.Verse Kingo Wold Gebetfor sei opfru asju le hoppo.Gebetfor vruvrue, asJu hoppovan Slaep. fru, prayerFORsayupearly as2SGASPup prayerFORearly.REDas2SGup fromsleep -RED Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 193 Mi le sei ju mussi groot Danki, O! Mie seg Ju groot Dankie O 1SG ASP say 2SG much big thanks o 1SG say 2SG big thanks o 75 Fader en Heer fan di Hemel Vaeder, Heer van Heemel Father and lord or DET heaven Father Lord of heaven en di Gront door Jesum Kristum15en Aerde, door Jesus Christus and DET earth throughJesus Christ and earth throughJesus Christ ju lief -de Soon, ons Heilant, Ju lieve Soon, ons Heilant, 2SG dear Son 1PL Saviour 2SG dear Son 1PL Saviour da ju ka bevaermi na di Donker, dat Ju ka be mie fraejna die Donker, -waer that2SGPRFsave 1SGNADETdarknessthat2SGPRFsave 1SGwell NADETdarkness en ka parra allegaQvaetfan mi, en ka parae almaelqwaetvan mie: and PRF keep all evil of 1SG and PRF keep all evil of 1SG 80 mi le bet ju mussi, Mie bidt Ju, 1SG ASP pray 2SG much 1SG pray 2SG dat ju vil bevaermi okal fan Dag, dat Ju wil bewaermie ookalvan Dag, that 2SGwill keep 1SGalso of day that 2SGwill keep 1SG also of day da mi no sa kom for fal dat mie no sa val that 1SG NEG FUT come FOR fall that 1SG NEG FUT fall na binne di Sondo16,of an -der Qvaet, na Sonde of ander Qwaet, NA inside DET sin or other evil NA sin or other evil 15 Jesum Kristum is a Latin accusative. Also the dative Jesu Kristo and the Latin-Greek genitive Jesu can be found. The use of Latin cases for the names Jesus, Christus and Jesus Christus is (was) not uncommon in Danish and German religious speech. 16 Sondo: compare what the remarks about the forms sondo and zonde in the Introduction. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 194 ma gif! da allemami Ge maer gief, dat almaelmie Gedagten, -dagten, but give that all 1SG thought.PLbut give that all 1SG thought.PL 85 Voort en Verk senner mie Woort en mie Werk sender word and work 3PL 1SG word and 1SG work 3PL mut ves frei for ju, mut wees fraej na Ju; must BE well FOR 2SG must BE well NA 2SG vant mi le betrou mi self Want mie le be -trou mie self, because1SG ASP entrust 1SG self because1SG ASP entrust 1SG self mit Leggom en Siel mie Likam en Siel mit almael gut with body and soul 1SG body and soul with all thing na ju Hant, na ju Hant: NA 2SG hand NA 2SG hand 90 no la stan ju heilig Engel sennerNo la -staenJu heilig Engel sender NEG let stand 2SG holy angel 3PL NEG let 2SG holy angel 3PL -stand lop nit een Plek fan mi, loop niet een Plek van mie, walk NEG one place of 1SG walk NEG one place of 1SG da di Divel no sa for du mi dat die Die no sa due mi -vel that DET devil NEG FUT FOR do 1SG that DET devil NEG FUT do 1SG een Qvaet. Amen. niet een gut. Amen. Ons Vaeder &c. one evil amen NEG one thing amen 1PL Father etc. Kingo Wold Gebet for di Skoolkint senner. Gebet voor en Skool -Kint. prayer FOR DET schoolchild3PL prayer FOR a school -child 95 O! Ju eene Almagtig Got O Ju eewig en eene almagtig Godt, O 2SG one almighty God O 2SG eternal and one almighty God Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 195 Fader; Soon en Heilig Gees, Vaeder, Soon en Heilig Geest, Father Son and holy Spirit Father Son and holy Spirit ju di bin een Fader over alle=madi, Ju die bin Vaederover al, 2SG DET BE one Father over all DET 2SG DET BE Father over all di ha kint Naem fan di Hemel die hab Naem van Kint na Heemel DET have child name of DET heavenDET have name of child NA heaven en di Gront, help mi pover Kint en Aerde,help mie, mie pover Kint, and DET earth help 1SG poor child and earth help 1SG 1SG poor child 100 en stier17 mi di Heilig Gees en styer mie die Heilig Geest and send 1SG DET holy Spirit and send 1SG DET holy Spirit for braek mi Haert, for breek mie Hart, FOR break 1SG heart FOR break 1SG heart en for gif mi Hon na ju Voort,en gief mie Hongerna Ju Woort, -ger and FORgive 1SG hunger NA 2SGword and give 1SG hunger NA 2SG word di bin di ret Pat for kom viis, die bin die regt Begin for kom wies; DETBE DETrightpathFORcomewiseDETBE DETright beginningFORcomewise bevaer mi fan al fals leer, Bewaermie van al vals Leer, save 1SG from all false teachingsave 1SG from all false teaching 105 en la stan mi grui -j op en Lastaen mie gruj op and let stand 1SG grow up and let.stand 1SG grow up na di ene vare Glof, na die een waer Gloof, NA DET one true belief NA DET one true belief en hou stif na di te mi laste,en hou vast na die tee mie leste: and hold rigid NA DETuntil 1SG last and hold fast NA DET until 1SG last 17 Kingo's stier vs. Wold's styer with Danish Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 196 plant na mi die vare Liefdena ju, Plant na mie die waer Liefdena Ju, plant NA 1SGDET true love NA 2SGplant NA 1SG DET true love NA 2SG da ju Voort mut kom for fas Vorteldat Ju Woort mut wortelvast that 2SG word must come FOR seize root that 2SG word must root fast 110 na mi Haert, na mie Hart, NA 1SG heart NA 1SG heart en di mi mut drag mi self frei18;en dat mie mut draegmie self fraej; and DET1SGmust carry 1SGself well and that 1SG must carry 1SG self well help, da di Divel, di Verel,Help mie, dat die Die die Weerelt, -vel, help that DET devil DET world help 1SG that DET devil DETworld mi eigen Fleis en Blut mie eigen Vleis en Bluet, 1SG own flesh and blood 1SG own flesh and blood en qvai Geselskap en qwaej Geselskap and evil company and evil company 115 no sa bedrig en fer -lei mi, no sa bedrieg en verlej mie; NEG FUT deceive and tempt 1SG NEG FUT deceive and tempt 1SG da mi kan kom for grui-j op Dat mie kan gruj op that 1SG can come FOR grow up that 1SG can grow up as een frei Plantki19 as een fraej Plantje, like a nice plant.DIM like a nice plant.DIM en blui -j na al Rektfer en bluj na al Regtveerdigheit, -digheit, and blossomNA all righteousnessand blossomNA all righteousness 18 Read ‘and that I must behave myself well’. In view of de Josselin de Jong's bidraag one would expect bedrag (cf. Du. zich gedragen, Germ. zich betragen). 19 Plantki: a Danish spelling for something like [plAntši]. Cf. the phonology of the petrified Dutch diminutives in de Josselin de Jong's NH vocabulary. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 197 na Ferstant en gui -j Maneren na al fraej Verstanten guej Manier NA understandingand good manner.PLNA all good sense and good manner 120 for Got en ider Mens; voor Godt, en ieder Mens. FOR God and every human.beingFOR God and every human.being hoor mi, mi Tat -ta Hoor mie mie Vaeder, hear 1SG 1SG Father hear 1SG 1SG Father na di Hemel Ju die bin na binne die Heemel NA DET heaven 2SG DET BE NA inside DET heaven na Jesu, mi Heilant si Naem. Amen. &c. NA Jesus 1SG saviour 3POS name amen etc. Kingo Psalm-Buk 1770 Melodi: na Jesu Naem. Melodie. J. Jesu Navn20, tune NA Jesus name tune in Jesus name 1. 1. 125 O! Planter -Man O! Planterman, o planter -man o planter.man Ju frei en sutto21 Got, Ju fraej en sutte Godt, 2SG good and sweet God 2SG good and sweet God Di alle Lan En elke na si Stan Die alle Lant, en elke na sie Stant, DETall land and each NA 3P0Sclass DET all land and each NA 3P0Sclass Rup door ju Voort en Gebot: Rup door Ju Woort en G'bot; call through2SG word and commandcall through2SG word and command Help mi, da mi hoor ju Rup Help mie, dat mie hoor Ju Rup help 1SG that 1SG hear 2SG call help 1SG that 1SG hear 2SG call 20 J. Jesu Navn: Danish. 21 sutto: Dutch inflected adjective zoete with coloring of the schwa. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 198 130 En kom klug, En kom kluk, and come alert and come alert Da ju krig Sin na mi, Dat Ju krieg Sin na mie, that 2SG get desire NA 1SG that 2SG get desire NA 1SG Vant ju ka kop mi Fri: Dat Ju ka koop mie vrie; because2SG PRF buy 1SG free that 2SG PRF buy 1SG free Stier mi lop na ju Plantaj, Stier mie loop na Ju Plantaj send 1SG walk NA 2SG plantationsend 1SG walk NA 2SG plantation Da for plant, for verk en sai, Daer for plant, for werk en saej, EMP FOR plant FOR work and sow there FOR plant FOR work and sow 135 Brek mi Haert, as di bin tai. Breek mie Hart, as die bin taej. break 1SG heart as DET BE toughbreak 1SG heart as DET BE tough 2. 2. Vaneer ju ma Wanneer Ju maer, when 2SG but when 2SG but Self le deel yt di Loon, Self le partie die Loon; self ASP part out DET wage self ASP part.out DET wage Denkmi op da Mi Verkbenpassima22;Ju denkop daer,mie Werkka pasima, think 1SGup that1SGworkBE skinny 2SGthinkup while1SGwork PRFskinny Ju fan Gnade skenk Pardoon; Ju van Gnaede skenk Pardoon; 2SG of mercy grant pardon 2SG of mercy grant pardon 140Vant as mi kik, en le suk Want, as mie kik, en le suk, becauseas 1SG look and ASPsearchbecauseas 1SG look and ASPsearch 22 Both this line and the corresponding line in Psalm-Buk 1770 seem to be corrupted. daer ‘there’ in the Psalm-Buk version should be da(t) ‘that’. In Kingo's versoon mi ’1SG’ does not make sense unless Denk mi op da ... is a corruption of Denk op mi da ... ‘remember (think of) me, that ...’. Alternative emendations are En denk op da ... ‘and (if you) remember that ...’ or Ju denk op da ... ‘You remember that ...’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 199 Na mi Dag Va Gut mi ka ferdinNa mie Dag Wagut24mie ka verdien, -Buk, -Buk, NA 1SGday whatthing1SGPRFearn NA 1SGday what 1SGPRFearn -book23 -book Di no bin na ju Sin: DET NEG BE NA 2SG desire Di mak25! Jesu denk op mi, Die maek Jesu denk op mie DET make Jesus think up 1SG DET make Jesus think up 1SG Nit een Gut, mi ha for kri, Niet een gut mie hab voor krieg, NEG one thing 1SG have FOR get NEG one thing 1SG have FOR get 145 As ju no le jammer mi. As Ju no le jammer mie. as 2SG NEG ASP pity 1SG as 2SG NEG ASP pity 1SG Joh. 6 Kp. 54, 55, 56 v. John 6 Ch. 54, 55, 56 v. Em, di le jet mi Fleis, en drink mi 3SG DET ASP eat 1SG flesh and drink 1SG Blut, em ha een evig Lif, en mi sa mak blood 3SG have a eternal life and 1SG FUT make em hoppo na di laste Dag; vant mi Fleis 3SG up NA DET last day because 1SG flesh 150 bin vaer jet, en mi Blut vaer Drink. BE true eat and 1SG blood true drink Di geen jet mi Fleis, en drink mi Blut DET one eat 1SG flesh and drink 1SG blood em blif na mi, en mi na em. 3SG stay NA 1SG and 1SG NA 3SG 1 Petr. 1 Kp. 13, 14, 15, v. 1 Peter 1 Ch. 13, 14, 15, v. 24 Wagut: literally ‘what thing’, means ‘what’. 23 Dutch: dagboek ‘diary’. 25 Di mak ‘therefore’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 200 So mak jenner Sin los fan di Verel ves so make 2PL desire loose from DET world BE 155 nykter, en set jenner Hoop heel heel na sober and place 2PL hope very very NA di Gnade, di nu le kom for offereer jenner na DET mercy DET now ASP come FOR offer 2PL NA di Kennis fan Jesu Kristo: ves so as gehoorsam DET knowledge of Jesus Christ BE so like obedient Kinder, da jenner no hou an na di sondig Lust, child that 2PL NEG keep on NA DET sinful desire senner, Velke jenner ka ha te foren na jenner 3PL which 2PL PRF have before NA 2PL 160 Blinheit; ma evenso em bin heilig, di ka rup blindness but equal.so 3SG BE holy DET PRF call jenner, so jenner okal ves heilig na jenner 2PL so 2PL also BE holy NA 2PL Vandle. walk Ebr. 13 Kp. 20, 21, v. Hebr. 13 Ch. 20, 21, v. Di Got fan di Frede, em, di ha bring yt DET God of DET peace 3SG DET PST bring out 165 fan di doot veran di grooto26 Baes over di of DET dead again DET big boss over DET Skap senner, ons Heer Jesum Kristum, door sheep 3PL 1PL Lord Jesus Christ through een evig Testament27 Blut, Em mak jenner be - one eternal testament blood 3SG make 2PL competent 26 grooto: Dutch inflected adjective grote with coloring of the schwa. 27 Testament ‘testament’, i.e. ‘covenant’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 201 qvaem na al frei Verk for du si Sin; en Em {-} NA all good work FOR do 3POS desire and 3SG Verk na binne jenner di gut, di bin frei for work NA inside 2PL DET thing DET BE good FOR 170 Em self, door Jesum Kristum, Velke ves Eer 3SG self through Jesus Christ which BE honour na al Evigheit. Amen. NA all eternity amen FIN. end 4.2 Dialogues and proverbs Like the primers, the ‘ABC booklets’, the grammars cannot be said to have strictly secular contents. Yet we have put any material from these sources in a chapter titled ‘Lay material’. The edifying aspect of the contents of the material was not, we believe, the main objective of the authors. The ABC booklets were principally intended to 13. Neu Herrnhut on St. Thomas. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 202 further the acquisition of literacy by (native) Negerhollands speakers. The grammars principally analyzed and classified the structures of Negerhollands according to the classical Latin mould. They were also used for second language acquisition by missionaries and by other literates as well (at any rate, Magens, the author, was a layman himself). The target audience probably consisted of literate Europeans who had not been in contact with the language before. This may be one of the reasons why all grammars contain conversations which were obviously intended to illustrate Negerhollands in its daily spoken form. In this chapter we present text samples from all three known grammars: two Moravian manuscript grammars, one of which is a part of Oldendorp's Missionsgeschichte of the early 1770s, and the other the Herrnhut grammar of around 1802; and the famous printed grammar of 1770 by Magens. From Magens, we also took a number of proverbs, including some of their Danish translations. 4.2.1 Dialogue from Oldendorp's Missionsgeschichte The following dialogue passage is from the grammar part of the fair manuscript copy of Oldendorp's Missionsgeschichte. From several conversations in Oldendorp's manuscript it becomes clear that many slaves, especially the married ones, bring their arguments before the congregation's Minister for judgement. 1.) Gespräch zwischen Baas nebst seiner Frau und einem ungetauften Ehepaar.28 ‘Conversation between the Minister with his wife and an unbaptized married couple.’ 1 Baas. Wagoed jender ha voor praat mee malkander. Laatstaan Minister what 2PL have FOR talk with each.other let ons hoor jender na voor malkander. Koffee! joe begin voor 1PL hear 2PL NA FOR each.other Koffee 2SG start FOR praat. Koffee. Baas! da mi wief ben da. Em no doe niemetal talk Koffee MinisterEMP 1SG wife BE there 3SG NEG do nothing voor mi: em no kook pot, em no soek hout, em no gie mi water FOR 1SG 3SG NEGcook pot 3SG NEGseek wood 3SG NEGgive 1SG water 5 voor waschmi hand en mi voet, em no gie mi vuur voor stek op29 FOR wash 1SG hand and 1SG foot 3SG NEGgive 1SG fire FOR stick up mi pipe, em no werk mee mi na plantij30. Voor sosoo mi ha em, 1SG pipe 3SG NEGwork with 1SG NA plantationFOR nothing1SG have3SG 28 Gespräch (...) Ehepaar: German. 29 Stek op: from Dutch opsteken ‘to light’. 30 plantij instead of plantai: In this text Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 203 mi no weet, dat mi ha wief self. Da no waar? 1SG NEG know that 1SG have wife self EMP NEG true B. Noe, Tetee!, praat joe reden. Wagoedjoe ha voor praat? B now Tetee talk 2SG reason what 2SG have FOR talk Die ben waar, wat Koffee praat? DET BE true what Koffee talk 10 Tetee.Die no ben waar.Die tied, mi a neemem, em no a ha Tetee DET NEGBE true DET time 1SG PSTtake 3SG 3SG NEGPSThave doeki na si lief. Da mi a maak em voor Man. Mi a koop doeki cloth NA 3POSbody EMP 1SG PSTmake 3SG FOR man 1SG PSTbuy cloth voor em, mi nij em broek, en kamisol, en hemmede,karpoes FOR 3SG 1SG sew 3SG trousers and camisole and shirt cap ookal.Van sens mi ha em, em no a gie mi niet een goed.Mi ha also from since 1SGhave3SG 3SG NEGPSTgive 1SGNEGone thing 1SGhave soo moeschiKinders van em: em no gie mi jeet voor mi en mi so many child.PLof 3SG 3SG NEG give 1SG food FOR 1SG and 1SG 15 Kinders.As mi no werk, voor koop brood, ons no sal ha jeet. child.PLas 1SG NEG work FOR buy bread 1PL NEG FUT have food Em ha soo veel kassau na si plantij. Wanneerem trek die, da 3SG haveso many cassaveNA 3POSplantationwhen 3SG pull DET EMP mi moe krou die, da mi moe bak die, da mi moe verkoopdie 1SG must rasp DET EMP 1SG must bake DET EMP 1SG must sell DET ookal,en mi moe gie die Man die stuver.Baas! em no gie mi also and 1SG must give DET man DET penny Minister3SG NEG give 1SG soo - em no gie mi een stuver van die. Wanneermi vraag -veel31, so -much 3SG NEG give 1SG a penny of DET when 1SG ask 20 die Man, em sal gie mi een stuver:em le quaat,em le see, mi DET man 3SG FUT give 1SG a penny 3SG ASPangry 3SG ASPsay 1SG 31 Read: ‘He does not even give me THAT much’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 204 no ha. Baas! die loop soo -Mi no weet, wat plek em doe si NEG have MinisterDET walk so 1SG NEG know what place 3SG put 3POS stuvers. Mi moe vind die kleer mee die jeet voor mi mee mi penny.PL1SG must find DET clotheswith DET food FOR 1SG with 1SG Kinders,en voor die Man ookal.En as mi no gie em, em no ha child.PLand FOR DET man also and as 1SG NEGgive 3SG 3SG NEGhave doeki voor draag. Koffee. Die no ben waar, wat joe praat. cloth FOR wear Koffee DET NEG BE true what 2SG talk 25 Tetee. Gie mi tied voor praat,mi ook a gie joe tied. Da no Tetee give 1SG time FOR talk 1SG also PST give 2SG time EMP NEG allegaarvan mi sweet, wagoedmi ha?32 Mi werk, tee die sweet all of 1SG sweat what 1SG have 1SG work until DET sweat drup na grond. Baas! van sens mi ha em, em no a gie mi sije, drip NA groundMinisterof since 1SG have3SG 3SG NEGPSTgive 1SG skirt em no a gie mi japoenje, em no a gie mi naesdoek33,em no ben 3SGNEGPSTgive1SGdress.DIM3SGNEGPSTgive1SGnose.cloth 3SGNEGBE kapabelvoor merteneer34si kinders.As mi kook jeet voor em, em capableFOR maintain 3POSchild.PLas 1SG cook food FOR 3SG 3SG 30 le see, die jeet no fraai. En mi moe koop die vleesch.As mi ASP say DET food NEG well and 1SG must buy DET meat as 1SG no tek hand na mi sak, voor koop die jeet, ons no ha jeet. Mi NEG put hand NA 1SG sack FOR buy DET food 1PL NEG have food 1SG wasch voor em, mi nij voor em, mi doe allegaargoed voor em. wash FOR 3SG 1SG sew FOR 3SG 1SG do all thing FOR 3SG Mi moe koop die garn, mi moe vind die lap, voor lap si doeki. 1SG must buy DET yarn 1SG must find DET cloth FOR patch3POScloth 32 The emphatic expression Da no allegaar van mi sweet, unlike Da no ander dag below, is difficult to translate. The wh-word wagoed ‘what?’ makes it impossible to render it as ‘Isn't it all through my sweat that ...’. Therefore, read: ‘unless all through my sweat’. 33 naesdoek, literally ‘nose-cloth’, derives from Du. neusdoek (obsolete) ‘kerchief’ (not necessarily ‘handkerchief’). 34 Probably a writing error for menteneer. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 205 Em no weet,van waar die kom. Koffee.Baas! die no waar,em praatlug. 3SG NEGknow of whereDETcomeKoffee MinisterDETNEGtrue 3SGtalk lie 35 Tetee. Baas! die ben waar, mi no sal lug na voor em. Tetee Minister DET BE true 1SG NEG FUT lie NA FOR 3SG Koffee.Die no waar, em lug. Mi no weet, wagoedmi sal doe mee Koffee DET NEG true 3SG lie 1SG NEG know what 1SG FUT do with em. Da no ander dag35 em a sal bring water voor waschmi voet? 3SG EMP NEG other day 3SG PSTFUT bring water FOR wash 1SG foot Em no a doe die, em a ha goe asserantmond.Mi no daerf praat 3SG NEGPSTdo DET 3SG PSThavevery bold mouth1SGNEGdare talk een woord na em, em vlieg eenrees op. one word NA 3SG 3SG fly once up 40 Tetee. Mi no a maak heet water voor joe? mi no a bring die Tetee 1SG NEG PSTmake hot water FOR 2SG 1SG NEG PSTbring DET kom? Baas! die ben waar, mi no a wil waschsi voet, em kan come MinisterDET BE true 1SG NEG PSTwant wash 3POSfoot 3SG can wasch sender self. Baas! die no genoeg? Baas! die Man ben wash 3PL self Minister DET NEG enough Minister DET man BE altoeveelstout. As mi maak mi altoeveelkleentje na onder em, very naughty as 1SG make 1SG very small NA under 3SG em meermi. Baas! Ons a ha eenvarki.Da mi a queekem, da mi 3SGmore1SGMinister1PL PSThavea pig EMP1SGPSTfoster 3SG EMP1SG 45 a soek jeet en drink voor em, mi a pina mee em soo lang, tee PSTseek food and drink FOR 3SG 1SG PSTworry with 3SG so long until die varki a kom groot. Da mi a maak em vet. Ons matandie DET pig PST come great EMP 1SG PST make 3SG fat 1PL kill DET varki, voor verkoopdie vleesch,die a maas 16 stuk. Baas! em pig FOR sell DET meat DET PST make? 16 piece Minister3SG 35 Da no ander dag: ‘Wasn't it the other day that ...’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 206 no a gie mi soo - veel van die.36 NEG PST give 1SG so -much of DET Koffee. Baas! mi bewaardie stuvers tee na skaars tied, dan mi Koffee Minister1SG save DET penny.PLuntil NA scarce time then 1SG 50 koop jeet en kleer voor die. As mi gie em die mee een37,em maak buy food and clothesFOR DET as 1SGgive 3SG DET with one 3SG make wee mee die, em morssdie, en die tied ons mankeerdie, ons no away with DET 3SG spoil DET and DET time 1PL lack DET 1PL NEG ha. En as mi ook koop em een dobbelsteensije, die no genoeg have and as 1SG also buy 3SG a dice skirt DET NEG enough voor em: em ha goe groot hoogo. FOR 3SG 3SG have very great eye Tetee.Die no ben waar. Em no a gie mi sije, van sens mi ha Tetee DET NEG BE true 3SG NEG PSTgive 1SG skirt of since 1SG have 55 em. Baas! em droenk.As em ook ha stuvers, em koop soopi voor 3SG Minister3SG drunk as 3SG also havepenny.PL3SG buy brandyFOR die. En as mi praat over die, em gie mi bangele38. DET and as 1SG talk over DET 3SG give 1SG slap Baas. Noe mi ka hoor jender,en mi bemerk,jender all twee ha Ministernow 1SG PRF hear 2PL and 1SG notice 2PL all two have faut. En mi no wil neem idereen si skuld, en lee na gewicht, wrong and 1SG NEG want take everyone3POSguilt and lay NA weight voor kik, wie ha meer faut. Jendermoe maak die af mee malkan FOR see who have more wrong2PL must make DET off with each.other 60 der. Koffee ben groothert, en Tetee ben asserant:die maak - Koffee BE arrogant and Tetee BE bold DET make niet een kan verdraageen goed van die ander. Maar as jender NEG one can stand one thing of DET other but as 2PL 36 Read: ‘He did not give me even THAT much of it.’ 37 mee een ‘with one’, i.e. ‘at once’. Cf. Du. meteen ‘id.’. 38 Cf. banggalá/bangglá ‘club’ in de Josselin de Jong's vocabulary. It is unclear whther this is a plural form. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 207 pover sal leer voor ken jender bederf hert, en kik, na wat poor FUT learn FOR know 2PL spoil heart and see NA what voor39 een slecht omstandigkeetjender ben: dan idereen sal vind FOR a bad circumstance 2PL BE then everyone FUT find si eegen faut. Jenderben Heiden nochal,en jender no ken God, 3POSown wrong 2PL BE heathenstill and 2PL NEG know God 65 die maak, dat jender moe handel na jender bederf natuur. Dan DET make that 2PL must act NA 2PL spoil nature then die loop soo, as die ben tuschen jender twee. En die reden DET walk so as DET BE between 2PL two and DET reason ben, die liefde mankeerna onder jender. Maar jender doch kom BE DET love lack NA under 2PL but 2PL yet come na kerk, en hoor die soet woord van die liefe Heiland.Da die NA church and hear DET sweet word of DET dear Saviour EMP DET maak ons praat mee jender, en gie jender goeje raad. make 1PL talk with 2PL and give 2PL good advice 70 As jender bed die liefe Heiland, voor verklaar jender die as 2PL pray DET dear Saviour FOR explain 2PL DET woord jender le hoor, dat jender hert kom verander40,en as word 2PL ASP hear that 2PL heart come change and if jender sal krieg die Heiland lief: soo jender ook sal krieg 2PL FUT get DET Saviour dear so 2PL also FUT get meer liefde tegen malkander. more love towards each.other Koffee en Tetee. Danki Baas! danki Vro! Koffee and Tetee thanks Minister thanks woman 75 Baas. Laatstaanons hoor, hoeso die loop verder mee jender. Minister let 1PL hear how DET walk further with 2PL 39 wat voor ‘(lit.) what for’: ‘what kind of’ (Dutch). 40 kom verander: passive. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 208 Wanneer jender ha tied, jender kan kom weeraan. when 2PL have time 2PL can come again Koffee en Tetee. Ja Baas! ons sal kom. Koffee and Tetee yes Minister 1PL FUT come Translation Conversation between (the) Minister with his wife and an unbaptized married couple. Minister: What do you have to argue about with each other. Let us listen to you in the presence of each other. Koffee! You start talking. Koffee: Minister! There is my wife. She does nothing for me: she does not cook meals, she does not gather wood, she does not give me water to wash my hands and feet, she does not give me fire to light my pipe, she does not work with me on the plantation [Oldendorp notes: ‘namely on their own Negro-plantation’]. I have her for nothing, I do not even know that I have a wife at all. Isn't it true? Minister: Now Tetee!, give your argument. What do you have to say? Is it true what Koffee is saying? Tetee: It is not true. At the time I took him, he did not have a rag to wear. I made a man of him. I bought fabric for him, I sewed trousers for him and a camisole and shirts, caps too. Since I have him, he has not given me a thing. I have so many children of him: he does not give me food for me and my children. If I do not work to buy bread, we will not have anything to eat. He has so much cassave on his plantation. When he pulls it out, I have to rasp/grate it, I have to bake it, then I have to sell it too and I have to give the money to that man, Minister! he does not give me THAT much, he does not give me a penny of it. When I ask that man to give me a penny: he gets angry and says ‘I don't have any’, Minister! It goes like this - [Old.: ‘It goes so - away’]. I do not know where he puts his money. I have to get clothes and food for myself and my children, and for that man also. And when I don't give it to him he has no clothes to wear. Koffee: It is not true what you are saying. Tetee: Give me time to speak, I also gave you time. Unless all through my sweat, what do I have? I work until the sweat is dripping on the ground, Minister! Since I have him, he has not given me a skirt, he gave me no dress, he gave me no kerchief, he is not capable of taking care of his children. When I cook for him, he says the food is bad. And I have to buy the meat. If I do not pay from my own purse to buy food we do not have anything to eat. I wash for him, I sew for him. I do everything for him. I must buy the yarn, I must find the fabric to patch up his clothes. He does not know where it is from. Koffee: Minister! It is not true, she is lying. Tetee: Minister, it IS true, I will not lie in his presence. Koffee: It is not true. She is lying. I don't know what I should do with her. Is it not the other day that she would bring water to wash my feet? She did not do it, she had a real insolent mouth. I do not dare to say one word to her, she flares up immediately. Tetee: Did I not heat up water for you? Did I not bring it over? Minister! It is true, I did not want to wash his feet, he can wash them himself. Minister! Is it not enough, Minister! That man is far too tough on me. If I humiliate myself for him too much, he will overpower me. Minister! We have a pig. I brought it up, I gathered food and drink for it, I have strained myself with it so long until the Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 209 pig grew up. I have fattened it. We killed the pig to sell the meat, it measured 16 pieces [Old.: 16 Stück von Achten ‘16 pieces of eight’]. Minister! He has not given me even THAT much of it. Koffee: Minister! I save the money until scarce times, then I buy food and clothes for it. If I give it to her at once, she wastes it, she spoils it and when we need it we have nothing. And when I also buy her a dice skirt, it is not enough for her: she is very greedy. Tetee: It is not true. He has not given me a skirt, since I have him. Minister! He is a drunkard. If he has money, he buys brandy with it. And if I say anything about it he gives me a thrashing. Minister: Now I have listened to you, and I notice you are both wrong. And I do not want to take the guilt of each of you and put it on the scales to see who has most of it. You will have to sort it out with each other. Koffee is arrogant and Tetee is insolent: that makes that no-one of you can stand a thing of the other. But when you poor people will learn to know your own spoiled hearts, and see what bad circumstances you are in: then each will discover his own fault. You are still heathens, and you do not know God, which is the reason that you have to act according to your spoilt nature. Then it goes as it is between the two of you. And the reason is that there is no love between you. Yet you do come to church, and hear the sweet words of the dear Saviour. That is why we talk with you, and give you advice. When you pray to the dear Saviour, to explain to you the words that you are hearing, so that your heart will change, and when you begin to love the Saviour: then you will also get more love for each other. Koffee and Tetee: Thank you Minister! Thank you Madam! Minister: Let us know how you will be doing. When you have time, you can come again. Koffee and Tetee: Yes Minister! We will come. 4.2.2 Proverbs and dialogues in Magens' grammar In the grammar of J.M. Magens (1770) more than just a grammatical description of Negerhollands is presented. The final parts of the book consist of a section of proverbs and one with several colloquies. In this paragraph we would like to reproduce the proverbs and sayings and a selection of the conversations in order also to present some examples of secular texts, since most of the material in the 18th century has a religious character. The content of the three conversations we included tells us something about the life of slaves and masters in St. Thomas in the 18th century. We include all the sayings which are presented in Magens (1770). It is interesting to see how local animals and plants are the subjects in these sayings. These texts were also included unchanged in Hesseling (1905). We took over his version. B. Teksten ontleend aan de Spraakkunst der Denen. (G.D.)41 ‘Texts borrowed form the Grammar of the Danes. (G.D.)’ 41 Dutch titles are from Hesseling (1905). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 210 14. Cassave Spreekwoorden en zegswijzen. ‘Proverbs and sayings’ 1 Pampuen no kan parie Kalbas. pumpkin NEG can give.birth gourd Branmier val na Malassie, da sut hem ha vind ant fall NA molasses EMP sweet 3SG PST find Hunder weet sie Nest. hen know 3POS nest Hunder wil si Kikkentje alteveel. hen want 3POS chicken.DIM too.much 5 Mie bin pover Kakelak, mie no hab Regt na Hunderkot. 1SG BE poor cockroach 1SG NEG have right NA chicken -house Hogo no hab Deer. eye NEG have door Leelik Volk hab fraej gut. ugly people have beautiful thing Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 211 Mie jammer Ju tee mie kries Ju, tee mie neem Steen veeg 1SG regret 2SG until 1SG cry 2SG until 1SG take stone wipe mie Hogo. 1SG eye 10 Hont hab vier Vut, no kan loop twee Pat. dog have four foot NEG can walk two path As Ju no ha loop na KrabboGat, Ju no sa hoor Krabbo as 2SG NEG PST walk NA crab hole 2SG NEG FUT hear crab Nyws. news As Ju suk gut, gut sa due Ju. as 2SG search thing thing FUT do 2SG As pover Volk doot, Guwerneerno hoor, as rik Volk dood, as poor people die governor NEG hear as rich people die 15 Guwerneer ka hoor. governor PRF hear No na eenmael alleen Man kan suk Wief. NEG NA once only man can search wife Één Finger no kan vang Lues. one finger NEG can catch louse As Ju no kan krieg Kaneel, neem Mapua. as 2SG NEG can get cinnamon take mapua As Ju no ha kik mie, Ju no sa weet mie ha kik Ju? as 2SG NEG PST see 1SG 2SG NEG FUT know 1SG PST see 2SG 20 Altit Ju praet qwaet na bobo sie Kop. always 2SG talk angry NA above 3POS head Als die Vier ka yt, klein Kint le jump na die Hassesje. as DET fire PRF out small child ASP jump NA DET ashes As Pussie ka slaep, Rotto le kurrie na Vluer. as pussy -cat PRF sleep rat ASP run NA floor Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 212 As Volk ka qwaet na Ju, sender gief Ju Makut for tap as people PRF angry NA 2SG 3PL give 2SG basket FOR tap Water. water 25 Twee Hont vekkete voor een Been. two dog fight FOR one bone Twee slem no kan kook Boontje na een Pot. two clever NEG can cook bean.DIM NA one pot Finger seg Ju, no seg mie. finger say 2SG NEG say 1SG Hangman no sa verloor sie Regt. hangman NEG FUT lose 3POS right Diefman no betrou sie Maet draeg groot Sak. thief NEG trust 3POS mate carry great bag 30 Hem no kan help, da sie hou sik die bin. 3SG NEG can help EMP 3POS old illness DET BE Da no eenmaelVolk kan snie Haer, Haer sa gruj weeran. EMP NEG once people can cut hair hair FUT grow again Katje no vraeg na Diffie, Diffie no vraeg na Katje. cat.DIM NEG ask NA pigeon pigeon NEG ask NA cat.DIM As Kukkuba vlieg, hem weet na welk Boom hem sa vlieg. as sparrow fly 3SG know NA which tree 3SG FUT fly -hawk Makaku42 weet na wat Boom hem sa klem. monkey know NA what tree 3SG FUT climb 35 Die gut kan due Stok, kan due Tou. DET thing can do stalk can do rope Die gut bin Slang Bik, bin na Kakketis Bik ook -al. DET thing inside snake belly inside NA lizard belly also Pover Volk no mut hab wil. poor people NEG must have want 42 The word makaku originates from Portuguese/Spanish macaco ‘monkey’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 213 Sie Boja ka draej Steen. 3P0S tutelary.spirit PRF turn stone Gras no le gruj na sie Door. grass NEG ASP grow NA 3POS door 40 Gras le gruj na Dootman sie Door. grass ASP grow NA dead.man 3POS door Ju Mont sa koop Kabaj for Ju rie. 2SG mouth FUT buy horse FOR 2SG ride Mie Mont ha slip. 1SG mouth PST slip Ju suk for pik Haer na mie Nees. 2SG search FOR pick hair NA 1SG nose As mie Hogo tengel mit sie Hogo. as 1SG eye tangle with 3POS eye 45 Hem bin sender Funje Pot. 3SG BE 3PL cornmeal pot Ju suk Tant na mie Mont. 2SG search tooth NA 1SG mouth Ju suk for skraep mie Tong. 2SG search FOR scrape 1SG tongue Samenspraken. ‘Dialogues’ Tussen twee slaven. ‘Between two slaves’ Dag, Carabeer! day comrade Dag, wat ju le loop? day what 2SG ASP walk 50 Mie loop na ons Plantaj. 1SG walk NA 1PL plantation Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 214 Da wa gut ju sa due daso? EMP what thing 2SG FUT do there Mie sa seg na die Meesterknegtfor lastaen maek Jeet klaer. 1SG FUT say NA DET foreman FOR let.stand make food ready Ju Meester le loop na Plantaj? 2SG master ASP walk NA plantation Ja, en Ju Meester sa rie mit hem. yes and 2SG master FUT ride with 3SG 55 Da diemaek mie Meester ka stier mie for hael sie Kabaj, EMP therefore 1SG master PRF send 1SG FOR get 3POS horse en for lastaen beslae die. and FOR let shoe DET Da Ju sa loop mit hem? EMP 2SG FUT walk with 3SG Neen, mie mut blief na Hus for pas op. no 1SG must remain NA house FOR watch on Dat wie sa loop mit hem? that who FUT walk with 3SG 60 Die ander Vutbaj. DET other servant Mie wens da Ju ha mut loop mit, fordiemaekmie no keer 1SG wish that 2SG PST must walk with because 1SG NEG care for maek Maet mit die ander. FOR make mate with DET other Adjoe. goodbye Tussen twee vrienden. ‘Between two friends’ Hueso, Ju no ka hoppo nogal? how.so 2SG NEG PRF stand.up yet Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 215 65 Neen, maer mie ka wees wakker lang Tit. no but 1SG PRF BE awake long time Wat maek Ju slaep soo laet van Dag? what make 2SG sleep so late of day Mie ha loop lej neer for lo slaep gue laet gester 1SG PST walk lay down FOR ASP sleep good late yesterday Donker. night Da wat Ju ha due dan, aster Ju ha ka jeet? EMP what 2SG PST do then after 2SG PST PRF eat 70 Aster Ju ka loop wej, die ander ka blief hiesoo, en soo after 2SG PRF walk away DET other PRF remain here and so sender ha wil speel Kaert. 3PL PST want play cards Jender ha speel? 2PL PST play Ju, mie ookal. yes 1SG also Dat wat Speel Jender ha le speel? that what play 2PL PST ASP play 75 Ons ha speel drie Kaert. 1PL PST play three cards Jellie almael ha speel? 2PL all PST play Ju, maer ons ha wees alteveel, soo die Speel no ha wees yes but 1PL PST BE too.much so DET play NEG PST BE sut. sweet Da wie ha win? EMP who PST win Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 216 80 Da mie alleen. EMP 1SG only Hueveel Ju ha win? how.much 2SG PST win Tien Stik mit half. ten piece with half Ju no bin gewent for win. 2SG NEG BE used FOR win Mie kan verloor altit. 1SG can lose always 85 Hue laet Jellie ha speel? how late 2PL PST play Ons ha speel tee twee Yer. 1PL PST play until two hour Wat Tit Ju ha loop slaep? what time 2SG PST walk sleep Die Tit die Klok ha slae drie. DET time DET clock PST strike three Dan die no bin Wonder, Ju le lej soo laet. then DET NEG BE wonder 2SG ASP lay so late 90 Hue laet die bin? how late DET BE Neegen yer ka slae. nine hour PRF strike Dan mie mut hoppo nunu. then 1SG must stand.up now.RED Voor wagut? FOR what Sender ha seg sender sa kom jeet Vrukost na mie. 3PL PST say 3PL FUT come eat breakfast NA 1SG Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 217 95 Da diemaek Ju ha win sender Gelt. EMP therefore 2SG PST win 3PL money Mie gloof soo. 1SG belief so Ju mut wees gau for hoppo. 2SG must BE quick FOR stand.up Hueso? how.so Da sender le kom. EMP 3PL ASP come 100 Due43, loop beetje na sender. please walk little NA 3PL Seg mie Neegerin for maek die Vrukost klaer. say 1SG negress FOR make DET breakfast ready Mie sal. 1SG will Maer Ju no mut blief lang weg. but 2SG NEG must remain long away Tussen een vrouw en haar slavin. ‘Between a woman and her female slave’ Na wa Ju blief? NA where 2SG remain 105 Mie le krieg skoon Kleer voor Vrou. 1SG ASP get clean clothes FOR woman Wa Ju klein Vrou bin? where 2SG small woman BE Hem bin hieso. 3SG BE here 43 From Dutch toe ‘please’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 218 Krieg een Paer skoon Kous. get a pair clean stocking Ju ka krieg skoon Kleer? 2SG PRF get clean clothes 110 Ja, Vrou. yes woman Wa mie blau Sie Skuen mit die Silver Galoon? where 1SG blue silk shoe with DET silver lace Gief mie een van die Onder Saja mie ha maek lest. give 1SG one of DET under skirt 1SG PST make lately Gief mie een Hemete mit Bordier -Lobbetje. give 1SG a chemise with embroidered.side.DIM Ju mut neem die Kap, en die Neesduk van die selfde 2SG must take DET cap and DET handkerchiefof DET same 115 Sort. Ju hoor? Kind 2SG hear Wat Japuen Vrou wil heb? what dress woman want have Die roo Damast. DET red damask Wat lent Vrou wil hab? what ribbon woman want have Die blau sender, en die blau Kalala en OorhangerJu DET blue 3PL and DET blue necklace and earring 2SG 120 hoor? hear Kom, bind mie Haer! come tie 1SG hair Wa mie Kap? where 1SG cap Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 219 Gief mie Spel. give 1SG pin Die no hab meer groot? DET NEG have more big 125 Die no hab. DET NEG have Kik na die Skiffie, die hab daeso. look NA DET drawer DET have there Veeg die Spiegel. wipe DET mirror Hoppo die Venster. open DET window Mie Kap sit fraej na aster? 1SG cap sit well NA behind 130 Spel die Lent na aster. pin DET ribbon NA behind Die Strikkie no ka maek fraej. DET bow.DIM NEG PRF make well Ja, nu die bin guet. yes now DET BE good Wa mie Hemete bin? where 1SG undershirt.DIM BE Hieso. here 135 Sender no ha plooj die klein genug. 3PL NEG PST fold DET small enough Gief mie mie onder -Saja. give 1SG 1SG under -skirt Wa die gestigte Keers? where DET stiched bodice Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 220 Gief mie die blaue. give 1SG DET blue Wa mie Sak sender bin? where 1SG pocket 3PL BE 140 Geef mie die Japuen. give 1SG DET dress Wa mie Borsje bin? where 1SG under.bodice BE Kik, as mie Japuen sit glat na aster. see as 1SG dress sit smooth NA behind Hael mie Hemete beetje na molee. pull 1SG chemise little NA down Da alteveel, mie geloof Ju bin sot. EMP too.much 1SG believe 2SG BE foolish 145 Ja, nu die bin fraej. yes now DET BE well Wa mie Hals -Neesduk? where 1SG neck -kerchief Spel die na aster. pin DET NA behind Na wa Ju blief mit die Spel sender? Ju no hoor? NA where 2SG remain with DET pin 3PL 2SG NEG hear Mie le kom. 1SG ASP come 150 Mie gloof Ju wil hab mie sa kom haal Ju. 1SG belief 2SG want have 1SG FUT come get 2SG Die no hab meer van die groot Spel sender. DET NEG have more of DET big pin 3PL Gief mie van die kleintje. give 1SG of DET small.DIM Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 221 Bind mie Kalala. tie 1SG necklace Due die Oorhanger na mie Hoor. do DET earring NA 1SG ear 155 Ju due mie Seer. 2SG do 1SG pain Mie no kan help. 1SG NEG can help Gief mie mie Hantskuen sender. give 1SG 1SG glove 3PL Gief een beetje Waeter. give a little water Hueso Ju ka spel die Kap na aster? how.so 2SG PRF pin DET cap NA behind 160 No steek mie. NEG stab 1SG Wa mie Vlyveel Bangres? where 1SG velvet hooded.cloak Mie ha denk Vrou sa gebryk die Hutje. 1SG PST think woman FUT use DET hat.DIM Wa die Paresol? where DET parasol Kik as die Kas sender ka tue. see if DET closet 3PL PRF close 165 Due die Magasien Sleetel na die Kas. do DET warehouse key NA DET closet Gief mie die Kas -Sleetel sender. give 1SG DET closet -key 3PL Pas op, tee mie le kom na Hus. watch on until 1SG ASP come NA house Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 222 Seg ju Meester, mie ka klaer, mie le wag hem. say 2SG master 1SG PRF ready 1SG ASP wait 3SG Da waer, gief mie mie Nees -duk, mie Snif en mie -Doosie EMP where give 1SG 1SG nose 1SG snuff -box and 1SG -kerchief 170 Wajer. fan Kaj! Vrou ka sjansee gue mooj. kaj woman PRF change very beautiful Translation Texts taken from the grammar of the Danish. Proverbs and sayings. A pumpkin cannot give birth to a gourd. / An ant falls into the molasses, very sweet it finds it. / A hen knows its nest. / A hen like its chick very much. / I am a poor cockroach, I do not have a right to be in the chicken-coop. / An eye does not have a door. / Ugly people have beautiful things. / I lament you until I cry for you, until I take a stone and wipe my eye. / A dog has four feet, it cannot go on two paths. / If you did not go into the crab hole, you will not hear the crab news. /If you look for thing, thing will do you. / When poor people die the governor does not hear it, when rich people die the governor has heard it already. / Not once only can a man look for a wife. / One finger cannot catch lice. / If you cannot get cinnamon, take mapua. / If you did not see me, you will not know that I saw you? / Always you talk scandal over his head. / When the fire has gone out, a small child jumps on the ashes. / When the pussy-cat has fallen asleep, rats are running on the floor. / When people have become angry with you, they give you a basket to tap water. / Two dogs fight for one bone. / Two clever ones cannot cook a little bean in one pot. / The finger says you, it does not say me. / The hangman will not lose his right. / A thief does not trust his mate to carry a large bag. / He cannot help, it is his old illness again. / It is not once people can cut their hair and the hair will grow again. / The little cat does not ask the pigeon, the pigeon does not ask the little cat. / When the sparrow-hawk flies, it knows which tree it will fly to. / The monkey knows into what tree it will climb. / The thing that can do stalk, can do rope. / The thing that is in a snake belly, is in a lizard belly as well. / Poor people must not have wishes. / His tutelary spirit has turned a stone. / Grass does not grow at his door. / Grass is growing at the dead man's door. / Your mouth will buy a horse for you to ride. / My mouth slipped. / You aim to pull hair out of my nose. / When my eye tangles with his eye. / It is their cornmeal pot. / You look for a tooth in my mouth. / You try to scrape my tongue. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 223 Colloquies. Between two slaves. - Good day, comrade. - Good day, what are you up to? - I go to our plantation. - What is it you will do there? - I will tell the foreman to have food prepared. - Is your master going to the plantation? - Yes, and your master will ride with him. - It is for that reason my master has sent me to get his horse and to let them shoe it. - Will you go with him? - No, I must remain at home to keep watch. - Who then will go with him? - The other servant. - I wish that you had to accompany, because I do not care to befriend the other person. - Goodbye. Between two friends. - How come you have not gotten up yet? - No, but I have been awake a long time. - What makes you sleep so late today? - I went and laid down to sleep very late yesterday night. - What then did you do, after you had eaten? - After you had gone away, the other ones remained here, and so they wanted to play cards. - Did you play? - Yes, I also did. - What game did you play? - We played three cards. - Did you all play? - Yes, but we were too many, so the game was not agreeable. - Who won? - Only me. - How much did you win? - Ten pieces and a half. - You are not used to winning. - I normally always lose. - Till how late did you play? - We played until two o'clock. - What time did you go to sleep? - The time the clock struck three. - Then it is no wonder you are in bed so late. - What time is it? - Nine hours have struck. - Then I must get up this very moment. - For what? - They said they will come and eat breakfast with me. - It is because you have won their money. - I believe so. - You must be quick in getting up. - Why? - They are coming. - Please go a little way to meet them. - Tell my negress to make the breakfast ready. - I will. - But you must not stay away long. Between a woman and her female slave. Where were you? - I was getting clean clothes for madam. - Where is your little woman? - She is here. - Get a pair of clean stockings. - Did you get clean clothes? - Yes, madam. - Where are my blue silk shoes with the silver lace? - Give me one of the underskirts I have made lately. - Give me a chemise with an embroidered side. - You must take the cap and the kerchief of the same kind, you hear? - What dress does madam want? - The red damask one. - What ribbon does madam want? - The blue ones, and the blue necklace and earrings, you hear? - Come, tie my hair! - Where is my cap? - Give me my pin. - There is no bigger one? - No, there is not. - Look at the drawer, it is there. - Wipe the mirror. - Open the window. - Is my cap correct from behind? - Pin the ribbon at the back. - The bow has not been tied well. - Yes, now it is good. - Where is my chemise? - Here. - They did not fold it small enough. - Give me my under skirt. - Where is the stitched bodice? - Give me the blue one. - Where are my bags? - Give me the dress. - Where is my under bodice? - See if my dress fits smoothly from behind. - Pull my chemise down a little. - It is Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal too much, I believe you are foolish. - Yes, now it is good. - Where is my scarf? - Pin it at the back. - Where then are you with the pins? Don't you hear? - I am coming. - I believe you want to have me come and get you. - There are no more of the large pins. - Give me some of the small ones. - Tie my Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 224 necklace. - Put the earrings in my ears. - You hurt me. - I cannot help it. - Give me my gloves. - Give me a little water. - How have you pinned the cap from behind? - Do not stab me. - Where is my velvet hooded cloak. - I thought madam would use the little hat. - Where is the parasol? - See if the closets are closed. - Do the warehouse key in the closet. - Give me the closet keys. - Keep watch until I am coming home. - Tell your master I am ready, I am waiting for him. - Where then, give me my kerchief, my snuff box and my fan. - Kaj! Madam has changed very prettily! 4.3 Short secular texts As can be seen in the previous sections (except for 4.2.2), most of the texts written and published at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century have a religious character or were written by missionaries. However, in a few sources short texts are presented which have a secular content. Since these texts are quite rare and not well studied, we will present a few samples. In Schmidt (1788) a rebellious slave song was published. Although the song does not appear to be particularly incomplete, in Vibaek (1953:350) it is called ‘fragments of a rebel song’. The text is spelled rather phonetically, and not according to Dutch or German spelling. Another curious aspect is the origin of the text. According to Schmidt it is from St. Croix, but several sources state that on this island, at least at the end of the 18th century, hardly any Dutch-based Creole was spoken. 15. Pages 233-234 of Samleren (1788) Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 225 1 Adjo my Mester Neeger, e -Samja44 goodbye 1SG master negroe *** Da lob my lo lob, e -Samja EMP go 1SG ASP go *** My nöy kan hau di uit mer, e -Samja 1SG NEG can hold DET out more *** Di Blanco no frey, e -Samja DET white NEG good *** 5 Adjo my Syssie, e -Samja goodbye 1SG sister.DIM *** Van -Dag du Mandag, e -Samja today EMP Monday *** Adjo my Mama, e -Samja goodbye 1SG mother *** Da lob my lo lob, e -Samja EMP go 1SG ASP go *** Adjo my beer45 Maade46, e-Samja goodbye 1SG bed friend.PL *** 10 Adjo my gud Friende, e -Samja goodbye 1SG good friend.PL *** Adjo my Tata, e -Samja goodbye 1SG father *** Di Land no frey, e -Samja DET country NEG good *** Adjo my Viefe, e -Samja goodbye 1SG wife *** 44 According to the Danish translation of this text in Samleren the expression e-Samja means ‘I unhappy one’. It is not Negerhollands. 46 beer Maade: Literally ‘bedfellows’, but according to the Danish translation (see 15) the meaning of these words is ‘stable brothers’, which also means ‘close friends’. 45 beer, bere ‘bed’ in vocabulary of de Josselin de Jong (1926). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 226 Lef frey met my Mama, e -Samja live good with 1SG mother *** 15 Dunk op my altyd, e -Samja think on 1SG always *** My nu sae ferjet jou, e -Samja 1SG NEG FUT forget 2SG *** Translation Farewell my Master-slave, I unhappy one. I am going to leave, I unhappy one. I can't stand it anymore, I unhappy one. The whites are not good, I unhappy one. Farewell my sister, I unhappy one. Today it is Monday, I unhappy one. Farewell, my mother, I unhappy one. I am going to leave, I unhappy one. Farewell my bedfellows, I unhappy one. Farewell, my good friends, I unhappy one. Farewell, my father, I unhappy one. This country isn't good, I unhappy one. Farewell, my wife, I unhappy one. Live good with my mother, I unhappy one. Always think about me, I unhappy one. I will not forget you, I unhappy one. One of the most well-known and important slaves to the mission of the Moravian Brethren was Cornelius to whom a chapter is dedicated in Degn (1974). He was one of the Moravian Brethren and was buried in Neu-Herrnhut, St. Thomas. In Degn (1974) his gravestone text is reproduced: 1 Hieso rust die Gebeente here rest DET bones van die getraue Dienaar en Friend Jesus of DET faithful servant and friend Jesus Em ka loop na si Liefde Heere 3SG PRF go NA 3POS love Lord Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 227 Translation Here rest the bones of the faithful servant and friend of Jesus. He has gone to his beloved Lord. In the Royal Archives in Copenhagen, Denmark, the so-called Politiprotokoller (police reports) are stored. These are the reports of the interrogation of suspects and prosecutors at the St. Jan police court. They are almost wholly written in Danish, fraktur script, yet in some of them, words and short sentences in Negerhollands and English are found in Latin script, when direct speech is quoted untranslated. The quotations are sometimes marked by: /:quotation:/. Parts in Latin script are here represented underlined. To give some examples, the following words and sentences were found in volumes 40 and 41 of the reports: I. volume 40, p.93b ... at lade Negerhollands: wa ma senne self ne a kom dick die why 3PL self NEG PST come dig DET Translation ... to let the negro boy Jacob work in the field, the following words: ‘Why did they not come to dig it themselves’, being [=meaning] why she /:Sarah Elisabeth Martin:/ not came herself and dug the field. II. volume 41, p.120 ... gik *Vogt* manden Christopher forbi ham; *dey* huus op til sit Eget, og sagde de, saadan hen for sig: ‘Mr Matheus Duvergie ka wees hieso gester dunko!’; men eller sagde han intet. Negerhollands: Mr Matheus Duvergie ka wees hieso gester dunko Mr Matheus Duvergie PRF BE here yesterday night Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 228 Translation ... went the guard Christopher past him *his* house up to his own, and they said, for themselves: ‘Mister Matheus Duvergie has been here yesterday night!’, but otherwise he said nothing. III. volume 41, p.121 de som gik hjem til sit huus paa Plantagen, og passerede de andre Negerhuse, kalte som *seet med* sig selv, om hvad han forrige Aften havde seet, og sagde: Mr Duvergie ka wees hieso gesterdunko met die twe Jung sender; mi ka rick kowtobak heel fray en die bin die ma*n*er dat die ducko ka[-n] lo[-op] Negerhollands: Mr. Duvergieka wees hieso gesterdunko met die twe Jung Mr Duvergie PRF BE here yesterday.nightwith DET two Young sender; mi ka rick kowtobak heel fray en die bin 3PL 1SG PRF smell chew.tobaccovery good and DET BE die ma*n*er dat die ducko ka[-n] loop way DET way that DET night HAB go away Translation those, who went home on the plantation, and passed the other negro houses, spoke, as mentioned, for oneself, about what he had seen the other evening and said: Mr. Duvergie has been here yesterday night with the two boys; I have smelled chewing tobacco very well and that is the way to pass the night47.; but he did not speak to David nor to anyone in particular. IV. volume 41, p. 126b det var da mörkt /:di ka wees dyst*a/o/er* frey:/ mussie Dunko:/ Negerhollands: di ka wees dyst*a/o/er* frey mussie Dunko it PRF BE dark well very dark 47 This seems the most plausible interpretation, provided that ka is interpreted as the habitual marker derived from kan ‘can’ (see Bruyn & Veenstra 1993 and Bakker, Post and Van der Voort 1994), and the word ducko as dunko ‘night’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 229 Translation after all it was dark: it has been dark, very very dark. V. volume 41, p.127 i en spørgende Tone: ‘Massa, no ka frag me na di twe Hautoobak met duiko?’ Negerhollands: Massa, no ka frag me na di twe Hautoobak met duiko? master NEG PRF ask 1SG NA DET two chew.tobaccowith night Translation in an interrogative voice: master did not ask me for the two chewing tobaccos at night? VI. volume 41, p. 127b Malene, som er Grootmoi Negerhollands: grootmoi great.aunt Translation Malene, who is grandmother Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 231 5 The late 19th century 5.1 Pontoppidan (1881) The material in this section is from Dr. Erik Pontoppidan, a Danish physician who lived on St. Thomas and wrote an article about Negerhollands in the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. Although it is rather obvious from his remarks about Negerhollands that he was not a linguist, his article is very valuable because it contains, apart from a copy of the 14th chapter of Matthew taken from Magens (1781), two other sections which were recorded from late 19th-century Negerhollands speakers of St. Thomas by Pontoppidan himself, proverbs (that were copied in Adams 1977) and an informal conversation. Here, we only present the Negerhollands texts, and we leave out Pontoppidan's German translations. 16. Emmaus on St. John 1 -Kaker -laker1 no ha bestel na hundu sji cot cockroach NEG have business NA chicken 3POS run 1 Kaker-laker: Danish graphemic interpretation of NH kakalaka ‘cockroach’. Da. kakerlaker means ‘cockroaches’, however, and in Pontoppidan's German translation NH Kaker-laker is rendered as an indefinite plural: Kakerlaken. In all the other proverbs the NH animal names without determiners are translated as definite singular NPs. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 232 -Hundu suk makūtu, makūtu tu him chicken search basket basket lock.in 3SG -Pad mi long, geambó drog na sji boom road BE long ochre dry NA 3POS tree -Een finger no kan fang lus one finger NEG can catch louse 5 -Blau diffie seg: wen regen caba, mi sal bau mi eigen hus blue pigeon say when rain finish 1SG FUT build 1SG own house -Pobre folluk no fo ha hart bran poor people NEG FOR have hearth burn -Hundu seg: mi kan sweer for mi eju, mo no fo mi chicken say 1SG can swear for 1SG egg but NEG FOR 1SG kikin -sji chick-DIM -Na guj hart mak cabrita sji gat bin nabit-ti NA good herd make goat 3POS bottom BE outside 10 -Pobre no bin fraj. poor NEG BE nice -Wanneerde wind ris, dan ju fo kik hundu sji gat when DET wind rise then 2SG FOR see hen 3POS bottom -Na groot geest mak Crab -bo no ha kop EMP great mind make crab NEG have head -Wanneerjekké sji flegon ha breek, dan him suk fo when guinea.fowl3POS wing PST break then 3SG search FOR how geselskap mit hundu hold company with hen 15 -Cocro no bang Slang, Slang no bang cocro crocodile NEG afraid snake snake NEG afraid crocodile -Water kok fo fes, fes no weet water boil FOR fish fish NEG know Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 233 -Kuj sji horn noit sal ben swar for him drag cow 3POS horn never FUT BE heavy FOR 3SG carry -Brambi fal na molassi, da sut him ka fen ant fall NA molasses EMP sweet 3SG PRF find -Bergi mit Bergi no kan tek, ma twee mens sal tek mountainwith mountainNEG can touch but two people FUT touch 20 -Mata mumma, du die before die kint, him sal jeet; ma kill mother do DET in.front.ofDET child 3SG FUT eat but mata kint, du die before mumma, him no sal jeet, him kill child do DET in.front.ofmother 3SG NEG FUT eat 3SG sal kris FUT cry -Wat ple ju bottle bin, mi glas bin. what place 2SG bottle BE 1SG glass BE -Een man dodt een ander man brod. a man death an other man bread 25 -Ekke man suk sji eigen wif every man search 3POS own wife -Man dodt, besjet gurri na sji door. man death grass grow NA 3POS door -No fordimak pussje wander him fang rotter2. NEG because cat.DIM walk 3SG catch rat.PL -Crabbo no wander, him no kom fet; as him crab NEG walk 3SG NEG come fat when 3SG wander attofel, him sal loop na pot. walk too.much 3SG FUT go NA pot Probe eines Gesprächs im gewöhnlichen Kreol3. ‘Specimen of a conversation in ordinary Creole’ 2 rotter: Danish plural (‘rats’). Probably a Danish interpretation of NH roto ‘rat’. 3 Probe ... Kreol: German. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 234 30 -Morruk, cabé, huso ju be die frufru? morning comrade how 2SG BE DET morning -Dank, mi be fraj. Huso ju slaap dunko?Ju ka drum enista thanks 1SG BE well how 2SG sleep night 2SG PRF dream something fraj? well -Mi no ha slaap fraj, mi ha ha pin na mi tan, ma die 1SG NEG PST sleep well 1SG PST have pain NA 1SG tooth but DET fru die be mussie better, dank God. morning DET BE much better thanks God 35 -Ju aht to fo loop na die doctor fo trek die tan na 2SG ought to FOR go NA DET doctor FOR pull DET tooth NA bitte. outside -Mi addu wak bitzji meer, fo kik as die tan 1SG rather wait little more FOR see if DET tooth sal pin mi weeran,dan mi sal loop fo trek die. Wat ju FUT pain 1SG again then 1SG FUT go FOR pull DET what 2SG sal eet fo frukost van -dag? FUT eat FOR breakfast today 40 -Mi sal ha stof fleis mit bateta en dan ene kominsje 1SG FUT have stewed meat with potato and then one cup.DIM te. Cabé Meria, ju loop na ju grun fo lo peck tea comrade Meria 2SG go NA 2SG field FOR ASP gather geambó en dig bateta. Die pampun no ka rip nungal,te ochro and dig potato DET pumpkin NEG PRF ripe yet until die manskin ful. Die Peterselje no bin fraj nungal fo DET moonlight full DET parsley NEG BE good yet FOR snie. cut Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 235 45 -Huso die beest lo kom an? how DET animal ASP come on -Die how cirj4 bin fol, en sal gaw ha calluf. Die boricka ka DET old cow BE full and FUT soon have calf DET donkey PRF marro en caló over die bergi, mi ka stier die run.away and PRF.go across DET mountain 1SG PRF send DET jung fo lo fang die. Die farki bin na cot, mi lolo suk boy FOR ASP catch DET DET pig BE NA sty 1SG ASP.gosearch bateta -tow,fo jeet fo die. Een cuj ka kom over die potato FOR eat FOR DET a cow PRF come across DET -stalk 50 barcad en ka destroi alga die jung Plantsoon;wen mi fence and PRF destroy all DET young planting when 1SG fang die mi sal drag die na fort, mak die eigenaer catch DET 1SG FUT carry DET NA fort make DET owner betal. Mi lolo na taphus, mi lolo suk stekki pay 1SG ASP.go NA Taphus(town)1SG ASP.go search piece sowed gut fo mi goj na pot. salt stuff FOR 1SG throw NA pot -Wat ju sal ha fo dinner? what 2SG FUT have FOR dinner 55 -Mi no weet, mi wel bak fes mit bak banana;wen mi no 1SG NEG know 1SG like bake fish with baked banana when 1SG NEG kan ha ander, mi jeet sowed gut mit funchi can have other 1SG eat salt stuff with cornbread -Mi wonder, as die ha eniste nyw na taphus; mi 1SG wonder if DET have somethingnew NA Taphus(town)1SG mankeeloop fo weet die nyw, as ni kom na Plantaj; want go FOR know DET new because1SG come NA plantation 4 cirj must be a typo for cuj ‘cow’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 236 fordimak we ha werk fo du na plantaj. Wi5 ha fo because 1PL have work FOR do NA plantation1PL have FOR 60 loop na camina fo lo plant die sukustok. go NA field FOR ASP plant DET sugarcane -Ma biren, die pot lo brau. but neighbour DET pot ASP brew -Du die na grun te mi hoppo. Mi lo prat mit die put DET NA field until 1SG stand.up 1SG ASP talk with DET mester, ma mi sal kom kik na die miselluf. master but 1SG FUT come see NA DET myself -Mi sal groot te asteran, mi sal kom weeran. 1SG FUT greet until later 1SG FUT come again 65 -Adios goodbye Translation The cockroach does not have any reason to be in a chicken run. The chicken looks for the basket, the basket locks it in. The road is long, the ochro dries on its tree. One finger cannot catch lice. The blue bird says: when the rain is finished, I will build my own house. Poor people do not have [wood] for their hearth to burn. The chicken says: I can swear for my eggs, but not for my chickens. In a good herd goat its bottom is outside. The poor are not nice. When the wind rises, then you should be able to see the hen's bottom. A great mind makes the crab not have a head When the guinea fowl's wings have broken, then it looks for company with the hen. The crocodile is not afraid of die snake, the snake is not afraid of the crocodile. The water boils for fish, the fish does not know. The cow's horns never will be too heavy for him to carry. The ant falls into the molasses, because he found it sweet. The mountain cannot touch another mountain, but two people will touch 5 Instead of ons (‘1PL’) the unusual, more Dutchlike pronoun wi is used. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 237 Kill the mother in front of the child, and it will eat; but kill the child in front of the mother, she will not eat, she will cry. Wherever your bottle is, my glass is also One man's death is another man's bread. Each man looks for his own wife. When a man is dead, grass grows at his door. It is not because a cat strolls around, that it catches rats. A crab does not walk around, it does not become fat; when it walks around too much, it will go into the pot. Specimen of a conversation in ordinary creole. - Morning, comrade, how are you this morning? - Thanks, I am fine. How did you sleep last night. Did you dream something nice? - I did not sleep well, I had pain in my tooth, but in the morning it was much better, thank God. - You ought to go to the doctor to pull out the tooth. - I rather wait a little longer, to see if the tooth will hurt me again, then I will go to pull it. What will you eat for breakfast today? - I will have stewed meat with potatoes and then a cup of tea. Comrade Meria, you go to your field to go gather ochre and dig potatoes. The pumpkin has not ripened yet, until the moon is full. The parsley is not good yet for cutting. - How are the animals coming along? - The old cow is pregnant and will soon have a calf. The donkey has run away and gone across the mountain, I have sent the boy to go catch it. The pig is in the sty, I will go look for potato stalk for it to eat. A cow has come across the fence and has destroyed all the young plants; when I catch it, I will bring it to the fort, and make the owner pay. I will go to Taphus, I will go look for a piece of salted meat for me to throw into the pot. - What will you have for dinner? - I do not know. I like baked fish with baked banana; when I cannot have anything else, I eat salted meat with cornbread. - I wonder if there is something new in Taphus; I need to go to know the news, because I come to the plantation; because we have work to do in plantation. I have to go to the field to go plant sugarcane. - But neighbour, the pot is brewing. - Put it on the ground until I stand up. I am going to talk with the master, but I will come and look at it myself. - I will greet until later, I will come again. - Goodbye. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 238 5.2 The Magens letter In 1914 the famous creolist avant la lettre Hugo Schuchardt published the so-called ‘Magens-letter’ in the Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde. This letter, written on the 23rd of February 1883 and addressed to Schuchardt, was written by A. Magens, a descendant of J.M. Magens (see Introduction and section 4.4.2). In the same volume, a translation of the letter into Dutch and a postscript were published by D.C. Hesseling. Unfortunately, we have not been able to trace the original manuscript of the letter, and we suspect that it has disappeared. At least, it has not turned up so far in the Schuchardt Archive in Graz, Austria. The letter is an interesting example of a 19th-century free composition in Negerhollands, in which several topics of daily life are included. Notice that A. Magens admits having only limited knowledge of the language. 1 Mi liewe MaesterDokter!Mi ha dink di besteManii fo mi fo mak 1SG dear master doctor 1SG PST think DETbest mannerFOR1SG FORmake ju ferstann di rekte Manii, di Creol tael pratt, be fo kriff 2SG understandDET right mannerDET creole languagetalk BE FOR write ju na Creol, as faer as mi kan. Mi no weet muschifan di, bot wa 2SGNA creoleas far as 1SG can 1SG NEGknow much of DET but what mi weet mi be tofreedenfo skriff. Mi no weet fo spell die wort 1SG know 1SG BE satisfied FORwrite 1SG NEG know FORspell DET word 5 senderfrei, mi be spell di as mi fang di, wanaermi hoor di follek 3PL well 1SGBE spell DETas 1SGcatch DETwhen 1SGhear DETpeople sender.Mi ka fragg en maenschifan en how creol familli fo hellep 3PL 1SG PRF ask a girl of an old creole family FOR help mi, mi ka fraggam na Ingis wa mi mankeefo sae, an am sae mi 1SG1SGPRFask 3SGNA Englishwhat1SGwant FORsay and 3SGsay 1SG hosó fo sae na Creol. Na di Manii mi dink mi sa gii ju en frei how FORsay NA creole NA DETway 1SG think 1SG FUT give 2SGa good ferstann fan di tael. understanding of DET language 10 Mi ka probeefo krii som buk fan di Creol, bot mi no kan krii 1SG PRF try FORget some book of DETcreole but 1SG NEGcan get Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 239 meer as een posallembuk fan di jaar aktiin hondert an more than a hymn book of DET year eighteen hundred and fii an dertig6 an een niu testament,wa no ha di datum fan di four and thirty and a new testament what NEG have DET date of DET jaar7. Mi ha sukk oká di Grammar,wa een fan mi how familli ha year 1SG PST searchalso DET grammar what one of 1SG old family PST skriff8,mi no ha krii di nungáel;mi hoop gáw mi sa krii een fo write 1SG NEGPST get DETyet 1SG hope soon 1SG FUT get one FOR 15 stier na ju. send NA 2SG Mi dink ju sa wees blii fo hoor muschicreol wort, so mi sa 1SG think 2SG FUT BE happyFOR hear much creole word so 1SG FUT skriff nu alga di wort sender mi ka fenn. write now all DET word 3PL 1SG PRF find Wanaerons hopó na frufru, ons sae ons gebeet;ons was ons lief, when 1PL get.up NA morning1PL say 1PL prayer 1PL wash 1PL body caam ons haar, skon ons heele gesekt,foorhof, hogo, naes, munn mi comb 1PL hair clean 1PL whole face foreheadeye nose mouth with 20 lepp an tann, hoor, kak, tschinn,keel, skowwe mi aerem,hann an lip and tooth ear cheek chin throat shoulderwith arm hand and finger, bors, big, reggé, hepp, di twee bell9, kenii, futto an finger breast belly back hip DET two buttock knee foot and taeschisender.Dann ons drook ons lief an du án ons duko. Di toe 3PL then 1PL dry 1PL body and put on 1PL cloth DET frow -follek du án hemeté, dann onder -saya,kowsen mi skuen, woman put on chemise then under -skirt stocking with shoe -people 6 Creol Psalm-Buk 1834. 7 Maybe a page was lacking in this edition of the New Testament; we know not of any undated New Testament. 8 Magens 1770. 9 bell can also refer to the thighs. Cf. De Josselin de Jong's vocabulary (de Josselin de Jong 1926) and the Vestindisk Glossarium (van der Voort forthcoming). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 240 dann kaputó, benn sen kop mi sen naesduk.Di man -folleksender then apron bind 3PL head with 3PL kerchief DET man 3PL -people 25 du án hemetémi bruk, onder dann sen batschi an hutt -kamsol, put on shirt with trousersunder then 3PL jacket and hat -camisole bo sen kop. Di kleen kinn senderdu án sen kleen japon an nae above3PL head DET little child 3PL put on 3PL small dress and NEG ting ander gutt. - Wanaerons ka kabá klaet, ons ném ons heet water thing other thing - when 1PL PRF finish dress 1PL take 1PL hot water mi sukku; di man senderném en sopi. Senderwell sopi muschi,sender with sugar DET man 3PL take a dram 3PL like dram much 3PL ném di fan frufru an aster se jeet sen frokóss, wanaerdi ka take DET of morningand after 3PL eat 3PL breakfastwhen DET PRF 30 klár. Di frokóss, senderwell, be funschi mi féss, an dann sen ném ready DET breakfast3PL like BE cornbreadwith fish and then 3PL take en sopi werán.As ju kik sen well sopi muschi.Senderném sopi so a dram again as 2SG see 3PL like dram much 3PL take dram so feel as sen kann10fo krii. - As sen kan krii fo jeet, sen been lei much as 3PL can FORget - as 3PL can get FOReat 3PL BE lazy fo werrek.Sen well fo geerá an fegeté testen makander.- Disó bé FOR work 3PL like FOR quarreland fight againsteach.other- this BE di manii fan leff fan di power follek. DET way of live of DET poor people 35 Di ander Dack di ha mak hondert mi feiftig jaar di Baas DET other day DET PST make hundred with fifty year DET master Domini ha ko hisó fo praek fo di Neger sender.Se ha MinisternPST come here FOR preach FOR DET negro 3PL 3PL PST howd -óp di Dack an se ha lei di fondamentfo en niú kerrek. celebrate?DET day and 3PL PST lay DET foundationFOR a new church 10 kan may be ka ‘PRF’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 241 Alga di hook koop fan di lann ha wees da, di Gowerneermi all DET high head of DET countryPST BE there DET Governor with schi wif ha lei di eerstesteen. Almadi lees an di praek an 3POSwife PST lay DET first stone all DET readingand DET sermonand 40 di posallemha wees na íngis. Wanaerse ha howd -ópdi hondert DET hymn PST BE NA Englishwhen 3PL PST celebrateDET hundred jaar, se ha lees an praek na creol. Mi ha fragg di Domini fo year 3PL PST readinga sermonNA creole 1SG PST ask DET MinisterFOR suk di praedikaschifan di Dagg,an am ha blóff mi fo suk searchDET sermon of DET day and 3SG PST promise1SG FORsearch di fo mi. DET FOR 1SG Na di slaventidt,ers di neger senderha krii fri, di a ha NA DET slave.timebeforeDET negro 3PL PST get free DET PST have 45 muschi sukkuplantai. Di werrek na di sukkuplantai ha wees much sugar.plantationDET work NA DET sugar.plantationPST BE hardt werrek.Di follek sender,mann mi frow, a ha fo hopó hard work DET people 3PL man with woman PST have FOR get.up fru a foordagg,ném schi how bobo schi skowwe, schi early NA dawn take 3POS pick.axe above 3POS shoulder 3POS kap na schi hann fo lo na kámmina,mi di gaeng mi di -mess machete NA 3POS hand FOR go NA field with DET gang with DET bumba aster sender fo ki sen werrek.Dann sen werrek te sess overseerafter 3PL FOR look 3PL work then 3PL work until six 50 ier. - Di jeet wa senderha kri, ha weesfárria an meel fo o'clock- DET food what 3PL PST get PST BE groundcornand flour FOR mak funschi, an herring mi po Di maester oká ha -werdjáck. make cornbreadand herring with stockfish DET master also PST gi senderfo dúkkubambú mi gaimás. As sen mankeeen eeneste give 3PL FORcloth bombazinewith rough.linenas 3PL want an any Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 242 gut meer, sen ha fo koop di fan sen eegen stibbo11.Elkereen ha thing more 3PL have FOR buy DET of 3PL own money everyonePST krii stekki gronn van sen maesterfo plant sen negerjeet. Sen a kan get piece groundof 3PL master FORplant 3PL negroe.food3PL PSTcan 55 plant boonschi (wandu -boonschi,sni -boon -schi, wét -boonschi, plant bean walk -bean.DIM string.bean.DIM white -bean.DIM root swatt -hogo boonschi, gob -gob), pampuun, giámbo, suut -boonschi, - red black -eye - bean.DIM calabash.REDpumpkin ochre sweet -bean.DIM báttata, kongkomber,kassaw. Fan alma di gut sender hisó sen ha potato cucumber cassave of all DET thing 3PL here 3PL PST kook sen sopp. Di grunsel fo sen pott sen ha plant di oká: cook 3PL soup DET vegetablesFOR 3PL pot 3PL PST plant DET also langajún12 tiim, pittischelli.Di eenestefleis sen a kan krii fo long.onionthyme parsley DET only meat 3PL PST can get FOR 60 jeet, ha wees ferki -fleis an kabrita Di Neger wa diin di -fleis. eat PST BE pork and goat -meatDET negro who serve DET -meat maestermi schi frow na di huus, senderha krii frei jeet fan di master with 3POS wife NA DET house 3PL PST get good food of DET maesterschi tafel. - Wanaerdi neger senderbeen astrann o lei fo master 3POS table - when DET negro 3PL BE impudentor lazy FOR werrek, dann sen krii slá mi een kab -uetto sukkufellfan di work then 3PL get beatingwith a whip or cat of DET bumba. overseer 65 Na di plantai di eigenera ha búrrika, noli, cabai, kui, skap. NA DET plantationDET owner PST have donkey mule horse cow sheep Di burrika mi cabai an bull -kui ha drei di sukku fo mulla -mulla DET donkey with horse and bull -cowPST turn DET sugar -millFOR grind 11 The Negerhollands word stibbo ‘money’ originates from Dutch stuiver, stuver ‘five-cents piece’. 12 In the Westflemish dialect of Dutch the word lange ajuun, literally ‘long onions’, is used for a kind of chives. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 243 di sukkustok, wa di follek sender ha kap an di noli ha DET sugar.canewhat DET people 3PL PST cut and DET mule PST bring fan di kámmina.Di maellekan di calfi fan die kui mi di bring of DET field DET milk and DET calf of DET cow with DET skap sen ha frokó na taphus. Di eigener oká ha kvaek sheep 3PL PST sell NA Taphus DET owner also PST breed 70 kalkun mi hundu, palpat, tschekké, diffi an powwis; fan di staert turkey with chicken duck guinea.fowlpigeonand peacock of DET tail fan di powwis sen ha mak fliggi Sender ha plant sonder -besom. of DET peacock 3PL PST make fly -broom 3PL PST plant without sukku ander jeet, jamus,bákuba,bánnana, mais an muschiander gut. - sugar other food yam banana horse maize and much other thing - -banana Di neger senderna di plantai sen noit ha trow, bot di mann DET negro 3PL NA DET plantation3PL never PST marry but DET man mi frow ha paar makander.- Elkereen fan di huus fan di neger with womanPST mate each.other- everyoneof DET house of DET negro 75 sender a ha twee kamber,een slaap mi een foor Di -kamber -kamber. 3PL PST have two room a sleep -roomwith a front -roomDET foorhemmeltefan di huus ha wees sukku an di shi fan di -bla, canopy of DET house PST BE sugar and DET side of DET -leaf huus ha wees mii13. Sen hisraat14ha wees en banki mi en plank -tafel. house PST BE wall 3PL furniturePST BE a bench with a board -table Sen slap -plaeha wees bánnana Sen ha en kaes fo boa sen -bla. 3PL sleep PST BE banana 3PL have a case FOR keep 3PL -place -leaf duku. Sen ha kook sen jeet foor sen door, sen no a ha cloth 3PL PST cook 3PL food before 3PL door 3PL NEG PST have 14 hisraat ‘furniture’: Du. huisraad. This is the sole case where the expected form [his] (or [hys] < Zealandic huus) instead of the usual NH form [hus] shows up. 13 In his appendix to Schuchardt's paper Hesseling suggested ‘cow dung’ as a translation for mii, which he based upon a passage in Oldendorp's monograph. However, by means of the usual phonological rules mii can be related to Du. muur ‘wall’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 244 80 kamb -huus. kitchen Wanaerdi neger senderbeen sikk, di eigenerha stiir fo di dokter, when DET negro 3PL BE ill DET owner PST send FOR DET doctor wa ha gi senderpurgaschifo laxeer sender,an sendera ha fo who PST give 3PL purgative FOR purge 3PL and 3PL PST have to lo na grass. Wanaersenderha piin na bors, dann senderkri dreppel. go NA grass when 3PL have pain NA breast then 3PL get drops Di neger senderweet muschiblá fo ném wanae sen fuul sikk foor DET negro 3PL know much leave FOR take when 3PL feel ill FOR 85 kuurdi sender sellef. Di ha en boom, sen lo rupp di cure.it 3PL self DET have a tree 3PL ASP call DET piin -na -koop di blá van die sen benn na sen foorhof fo -blá -boom; pain -in -head DET leave of DET 3PL bind NA 3PL foreheadFOR -leave -tree piin na koop. Fo piin na big sen kook pain NA head FOR pain NA belly 3PL cook su -sákka mi lamunschi sen du stekki appelschinaskael na benne - -bla, sour -sackwith lemon.DIM 3PL put piece orange peel NA inside -leaf mi en klompi sowt, an sen du en stekki djindjamberoká na benne. with a lump salt and 3PL put a piece ginger also NA inside 90 Sens di neger senderha krii fri, sen ka reil sen manii fo lef. since DET negro 3PL PST get free 3PL PRF swap 3PL mannerFORlive Sen ka ko so astrann an makti mi sender sellef, dat sen 3PL PRF come so bold and powerfulwith 3PL self that 3PL gló sen been as gutt as elke follek. Bot wanaese fenn sendersellef belief 3PL BE as good as every peoplebut when 3PL find 3PL self na plá sen no ka pratt or klaar sendersellef,dann sen ha fo ló NA trouble3PL NEGPRF talk or clear 3PL self then 3PL haveFORgo fo fragg di blanko sender,fo hellep sender.Twee, dri fan di how FOR ask DET white 3PL FOR help 3PL two three of DET old Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 245 95 neger sender sen nungaalweet fo bidragg sender sellef tegen di negro 3PL 3PL yet know FOR behave 3PL self towardsDET blanko sender mi manii an blefgeit. white 3PL with manner and politeness Mi sa nu probeefo gi ju en gedaktenfan di follek sender,an 1SG FUT now try FOR give 2SG a thought of DET people3PL and mi sa nu fotell ju wa ha geskidt di ander aster -meendagg. 1SG FUT now tell 2SG what PST happen DET other after -noon Di ander dunko djis aster di skot ka skidt fo akt iir mi ha DET other night just after DET shot PRF shot FOR eight o'clock1SG PST 100 lo ném en keir na mullé -shi.Wanae mi ha rák as faer as go take a stroll NA down when 1SG PST reach as far as -side groot mi ha drei op fo bakafaal15,an mi ha hoor en groot -straat, great 1SG PST turn up FOR Bakawal and 1SG PST hear a great -street uprú mi tuduun.Di follek sender ha currii op an neer di uproar with ado DET people 3PL PST run up and down DET straat, sen a lo skrew, mi no ka ferstann wa di ha wees street 3PL PST ASP scream1SG NEG PRF understandwhat DET PST BE te mi ha kri kann Dann mi ha kik benné en kleen huus -sender. until 1SG PST get near -3PL then 1SG PST look inside a small house 105full mi follek; di door ha weeshopó, an en frow ha stann na di full with peopleDETdoor PST BE open and a womanPST stand NA DET door, lo skrew an kriss: ‘mi kinn lo dodt, mi power kinn lo door ASP scream and cry 1SG child ASP die 1SG poor child ASP dodt’. Mi ha fragg wa skort am. Am no ha antoat mi, am a die 1SG PST ask what fail 3SG 3SG NEG PST answer1SG 3SG PST howd fo skrew an hiil. Dann mi ha lo na benne fo kii di -an hold -on FOR screamand cry then 1SG PST go NA inside FOR see DET 15 As written in Valls (1981) Bakawal means ‘something separate from the rest’, but it is also used for a Charlotte Amalie (in the eighteenth century known as Tapus) locale. Today it is known as Backadal. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 246 maenschimisellef.Mi ha fenn am na bó di flu lo rool an skrew girl myself 1SG PST find 3SG NA on DET floor ASP roll and scream 110su wae as schi ma. Danneenvandi frow senderwa ka stanndesbi somemuchas 3POSmotherthen oneof DETwoman3PL whoPRFstandnear di maenschiha sae: ‘Na big am fo ha. Na better fo ruup en DET girl PST say EMP belly 3SG FOR have EMP better FOR call a dokter;am sa weet een maal wa du am.’ Dann schi ma ha beginn doctor 3SG FUT know one time what do 3SG then 3POSmotherPST begin fo flukk an damineeran sae: ‘ju liik, ju fofluktekapman, mi kinn FORcurse and damn and say 2SG corpse2SG cursed hangman1SG child na en frei kinn, am ló na kerrek an am no speelmi man, so wáplae EMPa goodchild 3SG go NA churchand 3SG NEGplay with man so where 115am sa ka krii big? ju no sa bederregmi kinn schi karaktee,mi 3SG FUT PRFget belly 2SGNEGFUT deceive 1SGchild 3POScharacter1SG sa draa ju forren di bifó16 fo mak schi naam frei. Mi sa FUT carry 2SG before DET district.judgeFORmake 3POSname good 1SG FUT gi ju en butt mi en skop, ju ferdammteteff.’ Dann di ander frow give 2SG a kick with a shovel2SG damned bitch then DET other woman ha sae: ‘ju ondangbarbaes, mi ha sae ju die waargeit,wa du ju PST say 2SG ungrateful beast 1SG PST say 2SGDET truth what do 2SG kinn, an ju no wae gloof. Ju sa kii, am sa krii na en iir -tidt child and 2SG NEG want belief 2SG FUT see 3SG FUT get NA an hour -time 120 en kinn, dann ju sa gloof. Mi sa kumitt it ju huus.’ ‘Mi sa a child then 2SG FUT belief 1SG FUT come.outout 2SG house 1SG FUT lapp ju eers ju lo.’ ‘Du di as ju kann.’Dann am ha gi am di slap 2SGbefore2SGgo do DETas 2SGcan then 3SG PST give 3SG DET lapp, an sen ha fang fegetéan am ha skaeram nakenan gi am en slap and 3PL PST catchfight on 3SG PST rip 3SG nakedand give3SG a 16 Negerhollands bifó originates from Danish byfoged ‘town governor’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 247 bit na schi finger an sae: naem di da nu fo wa ju ha sae bite NA 3POSfinger and say take DET therenow FORwhat 2SG PST say tegen mi kinn.’ Di pestakelha wees so groot, sen ha skrew against 1SG child DET uproar PST BE so great 3PL PST scream 125 ‘moodt, di twee frow lo mattáeen mi makander,ruup di citéres.’ murder DET two womanASP kill one with each.othercall DET police Di citéres ha ko an frá: na wa ka geskidt?’ an DET police PST come and ask EMP what PRF happen and senderha neem senderfo draa na fort. Na di tidt sen ha ka 3PL PST take 3PL FOR carry NA fort NA DET time 3PL PST PRF raak na fort, en frow a kurrii fo beddel di bifo fo get NA fort a woman PST run FOR beg DET district.judgeFOR lo stann let stand 130 di frow ko kii schi kinn lo dodt. Di bifo ha sae di DET womancomesee 3POSchild ASP die DET district.judgePST say DET citéreslo mi am fo kii wa du di kinn an bring am weran,an police go with 3SG FORsee what do DET child and bring 3SG back and kri en dokter oká fo kii di sikk.- So sen ha krii bénné di plaas, get a doctor also FORsee DET ill - so 3PL PST get inside DET place se ha hoor di maenschilo steen; di dokter ha lo na bénné an 3PL PST hear DET girl ASP moan DET doctor PST go NA inside and pratt mi am, an na di sellef tidt di kinn ha geboren.Dann di talk with 3SG and NA DET same time DET child PST born then DET 135 má ha beginnfo slá di maenschi,an di citéresmi di follek motherPST begin FORbeat DET girl and DET police with DET people sender ha neem am waefo no mattá di maenschi. 3PL PST take 3SG away.FOR NEG kill DET girl Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 248 Proverbs As slang bit ju, ju fo bang kakka -tess as snake bite 2SG 2SG FOR be.afraid lizard As ju ha luus, ju fo ha net. as 2SG have louse 2SG FOR have nit As ju speel mi honn, honn sa leck ju munn. as 2SG play with dog dog FUT lick 2SG mouth 140 As ju goi en steen na himmel,di sa faal bo ju koop. as 2SG throw a stone NA sky DET FUT fall above 2SG head As ju spick op na himmel, di faal na ju geseck. as 2SG spit up NA sky DET fall NA 2SG face See no ha boom. sea NEG have tree Elke follek passó sen eigen affeerens, se sa ha genú fo du. every people watch 3PL own business.PL3PL FUT have enoughFOR do Fegg ju flu a frufru, no passó ju biiren. sweep 2SG floor NA morning NEG watch 2SG neighbour.PL 145 Makakkuweet wa fo17 een boom fo klemm,am no klemmstakkelboom monkey know what for a tree FORclimb 3SG NEG climb prickle.tree Translation Text My dear master doctor! I thought the best way for me to make you understand the right way the creole language is spoken is to write you in creole as far as I can. I do not know much of it but what I know I am satisfied to write. I do not know how to spell the words well, I am spelling them as I catch them, when I hear the people. I have asked a girl of an old creole family to help me, I have asked her in English what I want to say, and she says to me how to say it in creole. In this way I think I will give you a good understanding of the language. I have tried to get some books in creole but I cannot get more than a hymn book of the year eighteen hundred and thirty four and a New Testament, which does not have the date of the year. I have also searched for the 17 wa fo: Du. wat voor ‘what kind of’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 249 grammar, which one of my old family has written, I did not get it yet; I hope soon I will get one to send to you. I think you will be happy to hear many creole words, so I will write now all the words I have found. When we get up in the morning we say our prayer; we wash our body, comb our hair, clean our whole face, forehead, eye, nose, mouth with lip and teeth, ear, cheek, chin, throat, shoulder with arm, hand and finger, breast, belly, back, hip, the two buttocks, knees, feet and toes. Then we dry our body and put on our clothes. The women folk put on a chemise, then under-dress, stockings with shoes then jackets, bind their head with their handkerchief. The men folk put on shirt with trousers, under-camisole, then they put a hat on their head. The little children put on their little dress and nothing else. When we are ready dressing we take our hot water with sugar; the men take a dram. They like dram very much, they take it in the morning and after they eat their breakfast when it is ready. The breakfast they want is cornbread with fish, and then they take a dram again. As you see they like their dram very much. They take dram so much as they can get. As they can get to eat, they are bone lazy to work. They want to quarrel and fight against each other. This is the way of life of the poor people. The other day it was hundred and fifty years the head clergyman came here to preach for the negroes. They celebrated the day and they laid the foundation for a new church. All the high heads of the country were there, the Governor with his wife laid the first stone. All the reading and the sermon and the hymns were in English. When they celebrated the hundred year anniversary, they had read a sermon in creole. I asked the clergyman to look for the sermon of the day and he promised me to look for it for me. In the slave period before the negroes had been freed, there were many sugar plantations. The work in the sugar plantations was hard work. The people, men and women, had to get up early at dawn, take their pick axe on their shoulder, their machete in their hand to go to the field, with the gang and the overseer after them to look to them working. Then they worked until six o'clock. The food they got was groundcorn and flour to make cornbread, and herring with stockfish. The master also gave them for cloth bombazine with ?. When they needed something else, they had to buy it of their own money. Everyone received a piece of land from their master to plant their negroe-food. They could plant beans, pigeon peas, string beans, white-beans, red-beans, black eye beans, calabash, pumpkin, ginger, sweet potatoes, cucumber, cassave. Of all the things here they cooked their soup. The vegetables for their pot they planted also: chives, thyme, parsley. The only meat they could get to eat was pork meat and goat meat. The negroes who served the master with his wife in the house, they got free food from the master's table - when the negroes had been bone impudent or lazy to work, then they got flagging with a whip or cat by the overseer. At the plantation the owner had donkeys, mules, horses, cows, sheep. The donkey with horse and bulls turned the sugar mill to grind the sugar cane, which the people had cut and which the mule brought from the field. The milk and the calf of the cow with the sheep they sold in the store. The owner also bred turkeys with chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, pigeons and peacocks; of the tail of the peacock they made fly brooms. They planted besides sugar other food, yam, green bananas, bananas, corn and many other things. The negroes on the plantation they never married, but the man and woman mated each other. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 250 Each of the houses of the negroes had two rooms: a bed room with a front room. The roof of the house was of sugar leaves, and the side of the house was a wall. Their furniture was a bench with a table. Their sleeping place was of banana leaves. They had a closet to keep their cloth. They cooked their food before their door, they did not have a kitchen. When the negroes were ill, the owner sent for the doctor who gave them a purgative to purge them, and they had to walk into the grass. When they had pain in the breast, then they got licorice. The negroes know much about leaves to take when they feel ill to cure themselves. There is a tree, they call the pain-in-head-leaf-tree; the leaves of it they bind on their forehead for pain in the head. For pain in belly they cook sour-sop with lemon-leaf, they put a piece of orange peel inside with a lump of salt, and they put a piece of ginger also inside. Since the negroes were freed, they have changed their way of life. They have become so impudent and powerful with themselves that they believe they are as good as any people. But when they find themselves in trouble they have not spoken or managed themselves, then they have to go to ask the whites to help them. Two, three of the old negroes they still know to behave themselves for the whites with manners and politeness. I will now try to give you an impression of the people, and I will tell you what happened the other afternoon. The other night just after the shot was fired for eight o'clock I went to take a stroll downside. When I had reached as far as Main Street, I turned around to go back, and I heard a great commotion and ado. The people ran up and down the street, they were screaming, I had not understood what it was until I got at Bakawal. Then I looked inside a small house full with people; the door was open, and a woman stood at the door, screaming and crying: ‘My child is dying, my poor child is dying.’ I asked what was wrong with her. She did not answer me, she kept on screaming and crying. Then I went inside to see the girl myself. I found her on the floor rolling and screaming the same way as her mother. Then one of the women who had stood near the girl said: What a belly she has. It is better to call a doctor; he will know at once what do with her. Then her mother began to curse and damn and said: ‘you corpse, you cursed hangman, my child is a good child, she goes to church and she does not play with men, so where she will have gotten such a belly? You will not blemish my child's character, I will drag you before the district judge to clear her name. I will give you a shovel with a kick, you damned bitch.’ Then the other woman said: ‘you ungrateful boss, I told you the truth about what your child did and you do not want to believe it. You will see she will get in an hour's time a child, then you will believe it. I will get out of your house.’ ‘I will slap you ere you go.’ ‘Do as you can.’ Then she gave her the slap and they started fighting, she stripped her naked and gave her a bite in her finger and said: ‘take it there now for what you said against my child.’ The uproar was so great, they screamed ‘murder, the two women are killing one another, call the police.’ The police came and ask: What happened? and they took them in to read them to the fort. In the time they had arrived at the fort, a woman ran to beg the district judge to let the woman come see her child dying. The district judge said to the police go with her to see what the child was doing and bring her back, and get a doctor also to see the patient. So they got inside the place they heard the girl moaning; the doctor went inside and talked with her, and at the same time the child was born. Then the mother began to beat the girl, and the police and the people took her away so she would not kill the girl. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 251 Proverbs When a snake bites you, you will be afraid of the lizard. When you have lice, you must have nits. When you play with a dog, the dog will lick your mouth. When you throw a stone in the sky, it will fall on your head. As you spit up into the sky, it will fall in your face. In the sea there are no trees. All people watch their own business, they will have enough to do. Sweep your floor in the morning, do not watch your neighbours. A monkey knows what kind of a tree to climb, he does not climb prickle trees. 5.3 The sentences of Greider In his large study on Negerhollands D.C. Hesseling based his observations especially on the printed texts that were available in the University in Leyden (the Netherlands). In addition, he corresponded with A. Glitsch, the head of the archive of the Moravian Brethren in Herrnhut to obtain more information about Negerhollands. A few letters have been kept in which Hesseling ordered a copy of the Herrnhut grammar of Negerhollands, a copy which is still in the Leyden University library. Hesseling also sent letters to the Moravian Brethren in St. Thomas to obtain more information, especially about the use of the language in the beginning of the 20th century. Bishop Greider of the Moravian Brethren wrote back the following: ‘The language in its purity is now spoken by a very few old people, principally those living in the country districts. The younger generation speak a mixed dialect that is called Creole, but it contains very many English words ... Our people speak a comparatively pure English and there is no patois like in the French or Dutch islands. In fact if any one wished to study the language as it now is spoken, it would be best to do it immediately.’ (Hesseling 1905:33-34) Hesseling comments: ‘The (...) words are not as English as they look at first sight; this appears from the translation into older Creole, in Dutch transcription (...).’ (1905:34) In this section we present successively Greider's example of ‘Bastard Creole’, as he calls it, Hesseling's transcription, our glosses and Greider's English versions. 1 How so you be? Hoe so joe be? how so 2SG be How are you Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 252 How so you full for da fru -fru? Hoe so joe voel voor die vroe -vroe? how so 2SG feel FOR DET morning How are you feeling this morning? Me no full fri for da fru -fru. Mie no voel vrie18 voor die vroe -vroe. 1SG NEG feel good FOR DET morning I don't feel well this morning Ons a how ... na die dunku. Ons a hou ...19 na die donker. 1PL PST keep - NA DET night We did not have communion last night. 18 From Greider's English translation it is clear that fraai ‘good, nice’ in meant instead of vrie ‘free’. 19 Unfortunately a space is left in this position. Here we do not only expect a Negerhollands word for ‘communion’, but also the negation, which we see in the English example. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 253 6 The 20th century 6.1 De Josselin de Jong's texts In 1926 J.P.B. de Josselin de Jong published a collection of 103 texts he collected in the first months of 1923, together with a large word list and some English summaries. He had nine informants, of whom the youngest was 60 years old. The texts were dictated to him and reproduced phonetically. We have chosen three texts from this material. The first one is very informative about sugar harvesting, and although the main characters are the spider Anaanschi and Bru Tekoma, it is not a classical Anansi-story. The second is based on the Bremen Town Musicians, a traditional German fable. Finally, there is the tale of the Three Blind Mice, which can also be found in Nelson's material (section 6.2). The orthography used in this section is the same as that in Ponelis (1988). See the Abbreviations section for details. 17. Sugar Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 254 LXXV 1 Di kining1 a ha een suku -stik. Am a see a Tekoma, am DET king PST have a sugar 3SG PST say NA Tekoma 3SG -cane mangkééshi suku fo kap wapi am lo kri een man fo maa lack 3POS sugar FOR cut where 3SG go get a man FOR make fi ondu də keetel sinu fo maa suku. Tekoma a anturt fire under the kettle 3PL FOR make sugar Tekoma PST answer a am, Anáánshikan maa fi. So am nu weet huweel am sa NA 3SG Anansi can make fire so 3SG now know how.much3SG will 5 charge am fo maa fi fo neem af2 də crop. So am a see, charge 3SG FOR make fire FOR take off the crop so 3SG PST say am ha fo lo a Anáánshifo lo see am, fo am ho, wa am 3SG have FORgo NA Anansi FORDURsay 3SG FOR3SG hear what 3SG see. So weni am a lo a Anáánshi,Anáánshia see am, say so when 3SG PST go NA Anansi Anansi PST say 3SG jaa, am sa maa fi, bot dan, weni am kabáá neem af də yes 3SG will make fire but then when 3SG ready take off the crop, di kining ha fo gi am feiftik patakón mi twee ton crop DET king have FOR give 3SG fifty patakon and two barrel 10 suku fodima am ha een gunggu crop da fo tre3. So sugar because 3SG have a large crop there FOR harvest so Tekoma a ko a kining, am a see di kining. Di kining Tekoma PST come NA king 3SG PST say DET king DET king a see a Tekoma, jaa, am sa gi am di da, fodima PST say NA Tekoma yes 3SG will give 3SG DET there because 1 kining ‘king’: This form suggests a dialectal Dutch predecessor keuning (with [ø]) instead of Du. koning (with [o]). And it may also explain why we can find the German König ‘king’ (also with [ø]) in the translation of the Old Testament. 2 neem af ‘take off’: The m of Du. nemen ‘take’, which usually drops in NH (nē), is preserved by the presence of a particle. 3 tre: NH trē ‘pull, get’ (< Du. trekken ‘pull’). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 255 a een swee crop bi nabo di lan. So Tekoma di Maanda -frufru NA a heavy crop BE on DET land so Tekoma DET Monday -morning a kri mushi fuluk fo ko kap suku. Weni am a lo PST get much people FOR come cut sugar when 3SG PST go 15 see di fuluk sinu, sin a see, jaa, sinu sa ko di say DET people 3PL 3PL PST say yes 3PL FUT come DET andu week. So di week am a wees da, am a skon op other week so DET week 3SG PST BE there 3SG PST clean up di kopu4 shi hus fo hou di a ordu weni sinu bigin fo DET copper 3POS house FOR keep DET NA order when 3PL begin FOR mula. Dan di Maan -da sinu a bigín fo kap. Sinu a -frufru grind then DET Monday 3PL PST begin FOR cut 3PL PST -morning kap suku. Sinu a bring di ko a mula, ko mula di. Dan cut sugar 3PL PST bring DET come NA mill come grind DET then 20 weni sinu a kabáá mula di week sinu a kook di suku. when 3PL PST PRF grind DET week 3PL PST cook DET sugar Weni sinu a tre di, sinu a gooi di bini di ton, sinu when 3PL PST harvestDET 3PL PST throw DET in DET barrel 3PL a du di bini di curin' -hus fo alma di malashi kuri it PST put DET inside DET curing FOR all DET molassesrun out -house fan di. Di andu week sinu a kap werán, sinu a du diseldə of DET DET other week 3PL PST cut again 3PL PST do DET.same gut. Dan də fəléégen week sinu a stop betji fo lista thing then the next week 3PL PST stop little FOR let 25 sin mogáás drook. Dan sinu a bli tu op alma 3PL ground.sugar.canesdry then 3PL PST stay cover up all di suku sinu wa sinu a gooi a ton fo ma rhum fo DET sugar 3PL what 3PL PST throw NA barrel FOR make rum FOR 4 Kopu: sugar pan made out of copper, Du. koper. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 256 di fəléégenweek. Weni sinu a kabáá, dan sinu a bigín fo DET next week when 3PL PST ready then 3PL PST begin FOR kap werán. Sinu a kap twee week han -kuri. Dan sinu a stop cut again 3PL PST cut two week continuouslythen 3PL PST stop fo sti di eestu suku nu wa sinu a kap fo, a maak it FOR send DET first sugar now what 3PL PST cut FOR PST make out 30 fo sinu kri ple fo du di andu wa mi naastu werán. FOR 3PL get place FOR do DET other what BE NA.behindagain Sinu a kap fo, a maak it fo sinu kri ple fo du di 3PL PST cut FOR PST make out FOR 3PL get place FOR do DET andu wa mi naastu werán. Weni sinu a kabáá frukó other what BE NA.behindagain when 3PL PST ready breakfast alma, dan sinu a bigin fo kap werán tee sinu a kri all then 3PL PST begin FOR cut again until 3PL PST get di crop it fan sin han. Weni sinu a kabáá di crop skonskon, DET crop out of 3PL hand when 3PL PST ready DET crop clean.RED 35 dan di kining a rup Tekoma mi Anáánshidi twee fan sinu then DET king PST call Tekoma with Anansi DET two of 3pl mangkandu.Am a fraag Tekoma, wa am mangkéénu fo di together 3SG PST ask Tekoma what 3SG lack now FOR DET crop. Tekomaa see am, am fo gi am nu fo di crop twee crop TekomaPST say 3SG 3SG FOR give 3SG now FOR DET crop two ton suku mi twaləf patakón mi een kui. Dan as am ding barrel sugar with twelve patakon with a cow then when 3SG think a am sel, am kan gi am een gut obu di, as am nu NA 3SG self 3SG can give 3SG a thing over DET as 3SG now 40 overchargeam, di kining a see am, jaa, fodima wa am overcharge3SG DET king PST say 3SG yes because what 3SG kaa see am fo gi am, di werək a mee a di da. So di PRF say 3SG FOR give 3SG DET work NEG?more NA DET there so DET Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 257 kining a gi am eenhondərt patakón fo shi tit mi di king PST give 3SG one.hundredpatakon FOR 3POS time with DET twee ton suku mi shi kui. Dan am a see am, shi stibu two barrel sugar with 3POS cow then 3SG PST say 3SG 3POS money am kan nee een part fan di fo lo koop shi jit tee weni am 3SG can take a part of DET FOR go buy 3POSfood until when 3SG 45 mangkééam werán. So am a du dzhis leiki hoso di kining a lack 3SG again so 3SG PST do just like how DET king PST see am. Am mi Anáánshisinu a kri sin bitáál, sinu a lo a say 3SG 3SG with Anansi 3PL PST get 3PL payment3PL PST go NA hus mi wa sinu a kri fan di kining. house with what 3PL PST get of DET king LXXV The king had a sugarcane. He said to Tekoma he needed his sugar cut, where he would get a man to light a fire under the kettles to make sugar. Tekoma answered to him, Anansi can light a fire. So he now knows how much he will charge him to light a fire to take off the crop. So he said, he should go to Anansi to tell him, to hear, what he'd say. So when he went to Anansi, Anansi said to him, yes, he would light a fire, but then, when he had finished taking of the crop, that the king had to give him fifty patakon and two tons of sugar because he had a large crop to harvest. So Tekoma came to the king. The king said to Tekoma, yes, he will give him it there, because it was a heavy crop on the land. So Monday morning Tekoma got a lot of people to come and cut sugar. When he went to speak to the people, they said yes they will come the other week. So the week he was there, he cleaned up the chief's house to keep it in order, when they began to grind. Then the Monday morning they began to cut. They cut sugar. They brought it to be ground. Then when they had finished grinding that week they cooked the sugar. When they had harvested it, they threw it in the barrel, they put it inside the curing house for all the molasses to run out of it. The other week they cut again, they did the same thing. Then the next week they stopped a bit to let their ground sugar canes dry. Then they stayed to cover up all the sugar canes that they threw in the barrel to make rum for the next week. When they were ready, then they started to cut again. They cut two weeks continuously. Then they stopped to send the first sugar which they had cut, and put it out, for them to make place to do the other which was behind again. They cut, put it out, for them to make place to do the other what was behind again. When they had all finished breakfast, they began to cut again until they got the crop out of their hands. When they had finished the crop clean then the king called Tekoma and Anansi, the two of them together. He asked Tekoma what he needed Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 258 now for the crop. Tekoma said to him, he was to give him now for the crop two barrels of sugar with twelve patakon and a cow. Then when he thought by himself, he could give him something more, if he could overcharge him. The king said yes to him, because whatever he had said to pay him, the work had been more. So the king gave him one hundred patakon for his time with the two barrels of sugar and his cow. Then he said to him, that he could take a part of his money to go buy his food until he needed him again. So he did just like the king said to him. He and Anansi they got their payment, they went home with what they had gotten from the king. VI 1 Een tid da ha een noli. Am ha kaa koo hou, am na a time there have a donkey3SG have PRF come old 3SG NEG kan werək. Shi meestər a loo loo mata am. Am a maro. can work 3POS master PST FUT go kill 3SG 3SG PST flee Am a see an loo loo a Briment.Weni am a rak a paat, 3SG PST say and FUT go NA Bremen when 3SG PST hit NA road am a fin een hon. Am a see: wamaa ju loo blaas soo? 3SG PST find a dog 3SG PST say why 2SG DUR blow so 5 Də hont see: mi meesər loo loo mata mi. Di noli see: the dog say 1SG master FUT go kill 1SG DET donkey say koo loo mi mi a Briment. Den di twee fa sinə a wandə come go with 1SG NA Bremen then DET two of 3PL PST walk mangkandə.Sini a fin een pushi. Sini a fraa am, wa am together 3PL PST find a cat 3PL PST ask 3SG what 3SG loo du. Am see, am mi too hou. Am nə kan fang roto numéé. FUT do 3SG say 3SG 1SG too old 3SG NEG can catch rat no.more So di noli see: koo loo mi ons a Briment, ju sal maa so DET donkeysay come go with 1PL NA Bremen 2SG will make 10 singman.So di dri fa zinə a loo. Sini a fin een hundu singer so DET three of 3PL PST go 3PL PST find a cock Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 259 haanboonoodi farm hekn5. Sini ha fraa am, wa am a loo - on DET farm fence 3PL have ask 3SG what 3SG PST FUT du. Am lo skreew mi alga shi stem. An see, shi meestə ha do 3SG DUR scream with all 3POSvoice and say 3POSmaster have een frokós. Am loo loo mata am. Noli a see: koo loo mi a breakfast3SG FUT go kill 3SG donkeyPST say come go with ons a Briment. Dan di fir fa zinə ha start. Dungkua fang 1PL NA Bremen then DET four of 3PL have start night PST catch 15 sini a pát. Sini a kri ondə een boom. Də hunduhaana 3PL NA road 3PL PST get under a tree the cock PST flig bo di boom. Ham a rup yt a sini: di ha en le fly on DET tree 3SG PST call out NA 3PL DET have a light ni mi fer wéé fa ons. Di noli a see: taa ons loo api NEG BE far away of 1PL DET donkeyPST say there 1PL go where di le bee. Weni sini rak, sini a peep dee een DET light BE when 3PL arrive 3PL PST look through a venstər. Sini a ki di difman sini loo jeet. Di noli ham a window 3PL PST look DET thief 3PL DUR eat DET donkey3SG PST 20 wees di grostə6. Sini a maa am peep dee də venstər. Am BE DET largest 3PL PST make 3SG peep throughthe window 3SG a see, am kaa ki twenti mi fi man loo jit ront een PST say 3SG PRF look twenty with four man DUR eat around a taawul. Am a see di hon: dzhumbboo mi rigi. Di pushi a table 3SG PST say DET dog jump on 1SG back DET cat PST klim bo di hon rigi. Di hunduhaana flig bo di pushi climb on DET dog back DET cock PST fly on DET cat 5 hekn ‘fence’: may look like the plural of Du. hek ‘fence’ but derives from Zealandic hekken ‘fence’. 6 grostʌ (< Du. grootste): De Josselin de Jong's text contains a couple of Dutch superlatives instead of the more analytical construction meestə ‘most’ + adjective, which points at a higher amount of variability in the creole of the field slaves than one might think on the basis of what is said in Magens (1770). Cf. the introduction. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 260 koop. An sini a sing een sang. Di difman sini a kuri staa head and 3PL PST sing a song DET thief 3PL PST run leave 25 sin hus mi sin jit. Di noli a hoopoodi doo. Am a 3PL house with 3PL food DET donkeyPST open DET door 3SG PST loo abini. Am a maa di le. An sini a begin jit alda di go inside 3SG PST make DET light and 3PL PST start eat all DET jit. Weni sini a kabá, sini a it di le. Di noli a food when 3PL PST finish 3PL PST out DET light DET donkeyPST loo midəl i plaats. Di hon a lei fo di doo. go middle DET place DET dog PST lay FOR DET door Də hunduhaana flig a də roof. Də pushi a loo a də the cock PST fly NA the roof the cat PST go NA the 30 fiplee. De difman sini a sti een. Am a koo bini də fireplace DET thief 3PL PST send one 3SG PST come in the hus. Am a loo a də fiplee. Am a ki də pushi hoogoo. house 3SG PST go NA the fireplace3SG PST look the cat eye Am a see: a stiki fi. Am a steek di kes a di. Də 3SG PST say EMP piece fire 3SG PST light DET candleNA DET the pushi a flig a shi geség. Am a staat kuri. Am a fin də cat PST fly NA 3POS face 3SG PST start run 3SG PST find the hon a di doo. Di hon a bit am a shi bil. Am a fin dog NA DET door DET dog PST bite 3SG NA 3POSbuttock3SG PST find 35 di noli bini də plaas. Di noli a gi am een skop. DET donkey in the yard DET donkey PST give 3SG a kick Də hunduhaana skreew. Am a drai a di andə sini en see: the cock PST scream 3SG PST turn NA DET other 3PL and say di ha een wizád a di fiple. Di ha een man mi DET have a wizard NA DET fireplace DET have a man with een mes a di doo. Di ha een man mi een banglá bini a knife NA DET door DET have a man with a club in Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 261 di plaas. De polísman a skreew: bring di difman ko. DET place DET police.man PST scream bring DET thief come VI Once upon a time there was a donkey. He had grown old, he could not work. His master was going to kill him. He fled. He said he would go to Bremen. When he reached the road, he found a dog. He said: Why are you panting so? The dog said: My master will go and kill me. The donkey said: come and go with me to Bremen. Then the two of them walked together. They found a cat, and they asked her, what she would do. She said, I am too old. She could not catch rats any more. So the donkey said: Come with us to Bremen, you will make the singer. So the three of them went. They found a cock on the farm fence. They asked him, what he would do. He screamed with all his voice. He said, his master has a breakfast. He wanted to kill him. The donkey said: come with us to Bremen. Then the four of them started. The night caught them on the road. They got under a tree. The cock flew high into the tree. He called out to them: there is a light not far away from us any more. The donkey said: let us go where the light is. When they got there, they looked through a window. They saw thieves eating. The donkey was the largest. They made him look through the window. He said he just saw twenty-four men eating around a table. He said to the dog: jump on my back. The cat climbed on the dog's back. The cock flew onto the cat's head. And they sang a song. The thieves ran away from their house and food. The donkey opened the door. He went inside. He put on a light. And they started to eat all the food. When they finished they put out the light. The donkey went into the yard. The dog lay by the door. The cock flew onto the roof. The cat went to the fireplace. The thieves sent down one of them. He came into the house. He went to the fireplace. He looked into the cat's eye. He said: it is a piece of fire. He lit the candle to it. The cat flew him in the face. He started to run. He found the dog by the door. The dog bit him in the buttock. He found the donkey in the place. The donkey gave him a kick. The cock cried. He turned to the others and said: there is have a wizard at the fireplace. There is a man with a knife by the door. There is a man with a club in the yard. The police cried: bring the thieves here. LXXXVIII 1 Dri blin mushi. Ki hoso sini kuri. Sini lo kuri fan də three blind mouse look how 3PL run 3PL ASP run of the farmer's wif. Widi shini en stet mi een kambusmes?Mi farmer.GENwife who.DETcut a tail with a kitchen.knife 1SG noit kaa ki een -gut leiki dida abini mi lif. never PRF look one -thing like DET.there NA.inside 1SG life Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 262 Jen ki wa sport! 2PL look what game LXXXVIII Three blind mice. Look how they run. They run from the farmer's wife. Who cut a tail with a kitchen knife? I never have seen something like this in my life. Just look at what game! 6.2 Nelson's field notes More than ten years after the visit of De Josselin de Jong to the US Virgin Islands, Frank Nelson did some fieldwork on Negerhollands on St. Thomas. In Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 31) the typoscript of the fieldnotes was mentioned under the name Words and texts in Negerhollands, gathered in St. Thomas, June 1936. It consists of a seven-page word list containing 413 items and one page with short texts. In this section we present these texts. Following the correspondence between Hans den Besten and Frank Nelson in 1993-1994, more fieldnotes will be published in the near future. It is also from this correspondence that we know Nelson worked with informants from all of the US Virgin Islands. 1 Mi ā lō en dans gistu dūnku. 1SG PST go one dance yesterday night Dɛ wɛs drum dans. DET BE drum dance Dɛ ā lō pān7 frai. DET PST go on nice Dī folok a wɛs w[e+]<ɛ>l drung. DET people PST BE very drunk 5 Der8 hā ēn [-fkeē] fɛ́ketɛ́. there have one - fight 7 lō pān: This is lōp-ān ‘go on, continue’. Cf. de Josselin de Jong's glossary. Through the particle the stem-final p of Du. lopen ‘walk’, which usually drops in NH (yielding lō), is preserved. 8 Der: English creole der ‘there’ instead of NH di. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 263 Der has9 seteris, an nē sene a di fort. there has policeman.PL and take 3PL NA DET fort As10 nē wɛt wāt sēn sa dū me sendū.11 1PL NEG know what 3PL FUT do with 3PL Morok(?) ōns sā wêt. tomorrow- 1PL FUT know Translation12 I went to a dance last night. It was a drum dance. It went on well. The people was well drunk. It had police, and take them in the Fort. I don't know what they will do with them. Tomorrow we will know. 1 Fandɛ́ nā gro Sunda today BE great sunday Wātō mī, laren, wātō m[e+]<ī> water 1SG *** water 1SG Wātō mī, na mī kōp shi water 1SG NA 1SG head side Wātō mī, laren, wātō mī water 1SG *** water 1SG 5 Han mī dī guava berri hand 1SG DET guava berry Wātō mī, laren, wātō mī. water 1SG *** water 1SG 9 Der has: English creole. 11 sendu: 3PL pronoun with the original d of sender. 10 As: English creole us ‘we’. 12 Translation by Frank Nelson. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 264 Translation13 Today is Christmas Water me, laren, water me,14 Water me to my head side, Water me, laren, water me, Hand me the g[au+] Three Blind Mice 1 Tri blain mishi16 three blind mouse Ki hoso sen kūrri see how 3PL run Sen kurri awɛ́ wit də fāma chi wif, 3PL run away with DET farmer 3POS wife Sen snī āf sens stet17 wit a gebrāta mes, 3PL cut off 3POS tail with a roast knife 5 Mī noit no ka ki so en gōt a mī lef 1SG never NEG PRF see such one thing NA 1SG life Leke drī blain mishi. like three blind mouse Translation Three blind mice. See how they run. They run away with the farmer's wife. They cut off their tail with a carving knife. I never have seen such a thing in my life, like three blind mice. 13 Translation by Frank Nelson. 14 The meaning of water me is ‘give rum’. 15 Guavaberry is a kind of wine. 16 mishi ‘mouse’: In de Josselin de Jong's version of this song we find muši. Both muši and miši can be found in his glossary. 17 sens stet: should be sen stet. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 265 1 Dī kabai hala dī kārūshi DET horse pull DET cart Dī frau [-f]lolo a bɛnɛ market. DET woman ASP.go NA inside market Mī lolo kop en pān suko 1SG ASP.go buy one pound sugar Apɛ́ yo lolo? where 2SG ASP.go 5 Hōsɛ́ yo nām? how 2SG name A mān mā en hus. Der ha drī kambu a man make one house there have three room en kambus me en pantrum, en regolbaek one kitchen and one pantry and cistern a biti fan də hus NA outside of DET house Mī nū kan dinko mɛ́ no. 1SG NEG can think.of more now Translation18 The horse pulls the cart. The woman is going to market. I'm going to buy a pound of sugar. Where are you going? What's your name? A man built a house; it had three rooms, a kitchen and a pantry, a cistern [a+] 6.3 The last stage of Negerhollands In 1977 Graves published The present state of Dutch creole of the Virgin Islands (Ann Arbor, Michigan). For this description of Negerhollands she worked with six informants, probably the last six native speakers of the language. One of these informants was Mrs. Alice Stevens, born in St. John in 1898. She died in 1987. Two other scholars who worked closely together with Mrs. Stevens are Gilbert A. Sprauve 18 Translation by Frank Nelson. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 266 and Robin Sabino. The following two text samples are translations of English texts by Mrs. Stevens under the supervision of Gilbert Sprauve and conversations between Mrs. Stevens and Robin Sabino. Negerhollands, as used in this section, represents the creole language in its final phase. This does not mean that Mrs. Stevens did not speak the language well. See Sabino (1989) for more information about issues of competence, and the publications of Sprauve and Sabino in our bibiography for more information about recent Negerhollands and texts in this language. Information about the orthography used by Sprauve and Sabino can be found in each section. 18. Neu Herrnhut on St. Thomas 6.3.1 Active translations The following texts are transcribed from a tape recording made during a visit of the late Mrs. Alice Stevens to the Dutch Creole class at the University of the Virgin Islands on the 18th of June, 1985.19 The following practices are adhered to in the following transcription: I = low high front vowel as in English ‘bit’ U = low high back vowel as in English ‘butt’, ‘put’ E = front mid open vowel as in English ‘bed’ 19 Transcription completed on 1 November 1994 by Gilbert A. Sprauve, University of the Virgin Islands. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 267 O = back mid open vowel as in French ‘robe’ ô = back mid nasalized vowel as in French ‘on’ N = velar nasal consonant of English ‘sing’ sh = unvoiced palatal ‘shibilant’ of English ‘ship’ Otherwise, the text is broadly phonemic in nature. The basic methodology employed in eliciting Dutch Creole speech from Mrs. Stevens was to translate orally and then paraphrase in English Creole or English for her some of the stories of de Josselin de Jong and permit enough time for her to render the material in Dutch Creole. Mrs. Stevens was never exposed to written Dutch Creole and was thus translating on the spot and from scratch when she worked with the class at the University. Prompt (by Alice Stevens response student or Sprauve) (From story #12 in de Josselin de Jong (1926)) 1 Jack had to give a man some money Jack ha to gi en nom stibu Now, when the man come to Jack wEnE dI nom a kô a JAck fo suk fo di stibu Jack know the day when the man was coming Jack a wet dI dak wEnE dI nom a lo kô Jack put his mother on the road Jack a du shi ma abo dI pat 5 He had his coalpot in the house ‘He had?’ aN a ha dI ‘coalpot’ abEnE dI huS with the pot on the fire to cook dI pot abo dI fi fo kok By the time the man reach to the door dI tit dI man rak a dI do... ‘say’, a dI hus ‘OK?’ dI tit dI man a rak a dI hus his mother bring the pot come put it before the door Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal dI ma brIN dI pot a du abEnE dI hus Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 268 with two, three stone ‘wit three’ ... dri sten 10 She make the pot cook there on the three stone ‘she’ a ma dI pot kok abo dI dri sten Where she put the pot ‘where’ am a ‘putt’ di pot the pot don't have any fire under it dI pot no a ha entIN fi ondu di But as she take it off the fire ‘but as’ aN ka ne di fran dI fi so the pot cooking so dI pot a we...a lo kok 15 The man tell Jack dI nom a ‘tell....’ se Jack Jack, you have a pot cooking without fire Jack, yu a ha en pot lo kok ‘without’ fi, yu no ha en fi ondu di (from story # 60 in de Josselin de Jong) He eat his bellyful aN ka yet shi pa...bIkfu She call One-Eye rUp en ogo She say: ‘she say? or she think?’ 20 Left to you bli ayu all de goat dem alma... woulda go wild ‘what?’ gone wild ‘de goat?’ [Here Sprauve offers a reminder that one girl has been left to tend goats.] Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 269 am manke hau di kabrita sInu? am a fIn SInu lo slap? 25 She say: ‘left to you de ‘Let She speak clear, goat woulda gone wild that I could under- stand!’ am ase: lIsta a yu dI kabrita sInU saN a lo wEl she don't know anything aN no wet IntIN gut about it boU...vʌn SInu Come, let's go home kô lista ons dra a hus Then she went home wEn am a lo a hus Three-eye ask who gave... dri hogo a fra am... ‘What?’ 30 Who gave her food a wi a gi sInu yet wEnE am a lo a hus dri- hogo a fra am wi gi sInu yet She don't want to eat an no manke yIt di yet the food One-eye say en-hogo a se She ain' see anybody en-hogo a se aN no a ki IntIN fo... She say: Yeh, yeh, somebody am a se: ya, ya, sʌm folUk a gI am yet 35 Tomorrow I go go mOrUk mi lo lo The day after, three-eye dI ‘day’ astu dri-hogo a went lo [Sprauve prompts:] the day ?? dI ‘day’ astu after, Miss Alice? Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 270 [Sprauve:] How do you say three days? dri dak...dI dag astu ‘the day after’ He chase the goat inside the high grass am a yak dI kabrita abini dI...gras 40 High grass grot ‘High is big!’20 dI grot gras [After Miss Alice complains that her eyes had bothered her recently, and no one from the class came to check on her, Sprauve asks her to say that much in Creole. mi a fra yu no fo badu mi yu no fU ho wa mi a sE yu...‘Wha' I tell him? [Sprauve:] yU hogo a wes ro ya. hogo a we ro. dI pIn mi, kuri watu [Sprauve:] Shall we go ahead? [to students ‘You must talk hard, please! (Cause me eye sick make me ear sick.) He say am a se 45 Three-eye, Three-eye dri-hogo, dri-hogo You go sleep yu lo slap ... you wake ...yu wak So he say, bleat the small goat, bleat blit, di klen kabrita blit Small table come, full o' dI klen tabke a kô fUl Food mI yet He eat till he can't eat no more am a yIt tI aN no kan yIt IntIN mo 20 This is not confirmed by de Josselin de Jong's glossary, which distinguishes grōt ‘big’ and hōk ‘high’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 271 50 All the time Three eye Two eye... alma dI tIt dri-hogo two-eye... Go sleep lo Slap The one in front of his head didn't sleep dI en afo shi kop no wel slap [Students inquire about correspondence between ‘lo’ and -ing mi lo slap. ‘When I am going go sleep, I say ‘mi lo lo slap’ ‘Mi lo slap is ‘I sleeping, and I going to sleep is mi lo lo slap nu...’ ...it seeing everything what he doing aN lo ki eke gut wa am lo do 55 When he finished wEnE am a kaba He say am a se ...let's go home lISta ons dra a hus You didn't help me take care of the goat dem yu no a help ni kyar... kik it fo dI kabrita yu no a help mi kik it fo dI kabrita sInu Get up, let us go hopo, lIsta ons lo ‘Where all you going?’ 60 Them go in the house. They went in the house sIn a lo abEnE di hus [Sprauve: They went in the house, or they went...] Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 272 They went home sIn a lo a hus They ask Three-eye: where sIn a fra dri hogo ape Two-eye get food twe hogo a kri yet He put two of his eyes to sleep am a du twe hogo fo slap, o dri hogo??? 65 [Sprauve:] He put two of his eye- dem to sleep. He got three of dem twe a a-am hogo [Sprauve:] Say the whole thing for me, please am a du twe fa ham hogo fo slap The one in front of he head wasn't sleeping dI en hogo... ‘Wa a must say? Me don't know!’ ‘afo’? in front? dI en hogo a fo am no a slap In front she head afo shi kop 70 wasn't sleeping di en hogo afo shi kop no a slap He was watching everything. am a lo ki eke gut what she was doing wa sIn a lo du Then he say am a se He can't have it better than us an no kan ha di mo frai dan ons 75 Because he terrible am mI lIlUk and like other people an mI lEk andu folUk a en lelUk kIn, o ‘a man’ a en frau? ‘a en frau’ a en frau? Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 273 So the mother say dI ma a se am Go kill the goat lo ‘kill’ dI kabrita 80 Go kill the goat ‘Go kill it? lo mata dI kabrita He sit down Am a sEt a gr^N He start to cry am a skrau The woman come again dI frau a kô weran She ask him am a fra am 85 what he doing wa yo lo du [Sprauve:] What do him? wa a du am She Says to her: she mother mother done kill de goat dI ma ka mata [‘not “lo”; “lo” is going to’ ‘ka mata’ is done do it already’], ka mata dI kabrita 6.3.2 Short stories The following stories were told by Mrs. Alice Stevens to Dr. Robin Sabino. English words used by Mrs. Stevens are placed between brackets. I. Hoso ju ma coconut oli. 1 lista di kokonət senu sen drok. let DET coconut 3PL 3PL dry ju a ne di əbiti21 di šel. 2SG HAB take it out DET shell ju dra senu 2SG carry 3PL 21 Notice that earlieron ʌbiti meant ‘NA.outside’ and itlut was used for ‘out’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 274 dɛn ju goi watu abo di. then 2SG throw water on it 5 [an you squeeze them] əbiti. and 2SG squeeze them out dɛn ju ne di mɛlək fan di kokonət then 2SG take DET milk from DET coconut ju du di abo di fi. 2SG put it over DET fire kok [until] ju ki di oli ko abobo, ju ki? cook until 2SG see DET oil come up 2SG see? dan ju ne en lipu en ju [skim di] oli. then 2SG take a spoon and 2SG skim DET oil 10 du abɛne en gut put in a thing ɛn ju kautu di. and 2SG cold it ɛn ju du di əbɛni di batl. and 2SG put it in DET bottle Translation How to make coconut oil. Let the coconuts dry. You take it out of the shell. You take them, then you throw water on it and you squeeze them out. Then you take the milk from the coconut. You put it on the fire. Cook it until you see that the oil comes up22, you see? Then you take a spoon and skim the oil. Put it in something and you cool it. And you put it in the bottle. II. Hoso ju dov fles.23 1 ju šini di. 2SG cut DET 22 The milk is cooked until the oil comes out and floats to the top. Mrs. Stevens would probably have translated this word in English Creole with out. We used up, because of the more general meaning of abobo. 23 According to Valls (1981) dov, or douve as he writes it, is roast in a pot with spices and herbs. He attributes it to Sp. adobar or Fr. daube. In this context dov is a verb. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 275 ju du saut mi pepu - swat pepu abɛnɛ di. 2SG put salt and pepper black pepper in it dan ju ne ju nɛf. then 2SG take 2SG knife ju šini ju [onion] abo di en ju [tomato an] 2SG cut 2SG onion on it and 2SG tomato and 5 den ju lista di bli klen bichi. then 2SG let it stay little bit ju du ju put abo di fi. 2SG put 2SG pot on DET fire wɛnɛ di pɛt a hət, when DET pot PRF hot ju [throw] di oli əbɛni di. 2SG throw DET oil in it dan ju drai di, then 2SG turn it 10 ju drai di, 2SG turn it ju drai di, 2SG turn it en ju drai di, and 2SG turn it en ka drai, ka kuk. and PRF turn PRF cook [after] di ka kuk frai, after it PRF cook good 15 ju du di [onion] mi di {...}. 2SG put DET onion with it - ju wit? 2SG know Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 276 goi klen bichi watu abɛni di, throw little bit water in it dan ju tu di. then 2SG close it ju lista di bli [there]. 2SG let it stay there 20 [then it simmer, and it simmer, and it simmer, you know and it simmer, and it come right out to how you want it.] Translation How to roast meat. You cut it. You put salt and pepper, black pepper, on it. Then you take your knife. You cut your onion over it and your tomato and then you let it stand a little while. You put your pot on the fire. When the pot gets hot, you throw the oil in it. Then you turn it, you turn it, you turn it, you turn it, and when you are finished turning it, it's finished cooking. After it has completely finished cooking, you put the onion with it {...}. You know? Throw a small amount of water into it, then you close and cover it. You let it stay like that. Then it simmers, and it simmers, and it simmers, you know, and it simmers, and it comes out just how you want it to. III. Werewolf. 1 mi grotma ši həsbə a se mi 1SG grandmother 3POS husband PST say 1SG wenə, [I know I were] klenci. when 1SG know 1SG were little.DIM a [grow] guƞgu [slavery]. 3SG grow big slavery in duƞku, an a lo wandu. one night 3SG PST ASP walk 5 an a ki en hən. 3SG PST see a dog Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 277 də hən a maƞke fə stop am fə wandu. DET dog PST want FOR stop 3SG FOR walk an a [lay] ši stək, 3SG PST lay 3POS stick an də hən a sɛt [by] am. and DET dog PST sit by 3SG am a se am: twe, twe, twe, twe [das two]. 3SG PST say 3SG two two two two that -BE two 10 am a se [to] də hən twe. 3SG PST say to DET dog two di hən se [one, one, one, one]. DET dog say one one one one am a se twe, twe, twe, twe, twe, twe. 3SG PST say two two two two two two di hən a se in, in, in, in. DET dog PST say one one one one an a [te] ši stək, 3SG PST take 3POS stick. 15 am a sla24 am. 3SG PST beat 3SG [that were] en [werewolf]. that were a werewolf Translation Werewolf. My grandmother's husband told me when, [I know I was] small. He grew up during slavery times. One night, he went walking. He saw a dog. The dog wanted to stop him from walking. He put aside his stick, and the dog sat by him. He said to him: ‘Two, two, two, two.’ [That's two]. He said to the dog, ‘Two.’ The dog said, ‘One, one, one, one.’ He said, ‘Two, two, two, two, two, two.’ The dog said, ‘One, one, one, one.’ He took his stick. He beat him. That was a werewolf. 24 At this moment Mrs. Stevens makes a striking motion. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 278 IV. Alice lo a skol. 1 RS: How old you was when you begin to go to school? AS: {...} fɛəv. five five mi a lo a skol 1SG PST go NA school I went to school te mi a [make thirteen] until 1SG PST make thirteen until I was thirteen. 5 mi a lo a [school] 1SG PST go NA school I went to school wɛnɛ mi [were five years], when 1SG BE five years When I was five years, mi grotma a sti mi a skol. 1SG grandmother PST send 1SG NA school. my grandmother sent me to school. RS: ja yes AS: ja. a ha en kapəto. Yes EMP have a dress Yes. There was a dress. 10 RS: ja yes AS: [you know what is] kapəto? 2SG know what is dress Do you know what ‘kapəto’ means? RS: [a dress]? a dress Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 279 AS: mi a ha en kapəto. 1SG PST have a dress I had a dress. mi a maƞke fə dra di a hus. 1SG PST want FOR carry it NA house I wanted to wear the dress at home. 15 an a noit a lista mi a dra di. 3SG PST never PST let 1SG PST carry it She wouldn't let me wear it. mi a skreu. 1SG PST scream I screamed. mi a skreu. 1SG PST scream I screamed. mi a skreu. 1SG PST scream I screamed. mi se, ‘mi maƞke lo a skol.’ 1SG say 1SG want go NA school I said, ‘I want to go to school.’ 20 am a sti mi a skol. 3SG PST send 1SG NA school She sent me to school. RS: ju a dra di kapoto? 2SG PST carry DET dress Did you wear the dress? AS: ja! yes Yes! RS: ja. yes AS: an a du di kapəto abo mi. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 3SG PST put DET dress on me She put the dress on me. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 280 25 RS: ja yes AS: [an] mi a lo. and 1SG PST go and I went. lo a skol. go NA school. went to school. RS: [who] a dra ju - awidi a dra ju? who PST carry 2SG who PST carry 2SG Who took you (to school) - who took you (to school)? AS: en fa mi kizin senu. one of 1SG cousin 3PL one of my cousins. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 281 III Negerhollands bibliography Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 283 1 Introduction Comprehensive bibliography of texts in or about the Negerhollands language In works about the Virgin Islands, a paragraph or a chapter is frequently devoted to Negerhollands and its written sources. However, the authors did not always have the chance to see these sources themselves as they have been kept in libraries or archives inaccessible to them. This has led to minor and major mistakes in the references, which were often copied and passed on in later publications by others. None of the previous works, bibliographical or not, are complete in this sense. As we had the chance to check references to most existing sources of Negerhollands first-hand, we were able to uncover many of the mistakes and, in some cases, reveal hitherto unknown sources. Though probably no bibliography will ever be complete, we have attempted here to compose as exhaustive and correct a bibliography as possible. Even though we do not hesitate to point out mistakes in other bibliographies, we acknowledge wholeheartedly the fact that we stand on the shoulders of our predecessors. These fundamental works guided us and gave us the opportunity to connect loose ends and trace the correct references. At some future time the Moravian materials in the archives in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (USA), and possibly other collections as well should be studied in more detail. The following bibliographies are, where applicable, quoted consistently with the systematic codes used in them: Hesseling, Dirk Christiaan. 1905 Het Negerhollands der Deense Antillen. Bijdrage tot de geschiedenis der Nederlandse taal in Amerika. Leiden: Sijthoff. Chapter II of this work on the Negerhollands language contains a richly annotated bibliography of a number of sources in Negerhollands found in Herrnhut and in Copenhagen. Reinecke, John E. et al. 1975 ‘Negerhollands: Virgin Island Creole Dutch’. Chapter 58 of: A Bibliography of Pidgin and Creole Languages. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. pp. 318-321. Chapter 58 contains an annotated bibliography of sources in and about Negerhollands. It is frequently based on information from Larsen (1950) and Hesseling (1905). Stein, Peter. 1986b ‘The Documents concerning the NegroDutch Language of the Danish Virgin Islands, St.Thomas, St.Croix, and St.John -Negerhollands-, in the Unitäts-Archiv (Archives of the Moravian Brethren) at Herrnhut. A commented Bibliography’, in: Amsterdam Creole Studies IX. pp. 19-31. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 284 This bibliography contains nearly all documents in and on Negerhollands found in the archives of the Moravian Brethren in Herrnhut. Their coding derives from the original signatures. Because these codings reveal the relationships of the documents with each other, we have also included them in our bibliography. Vibaek, Jens. 1953 ‘Dansk Vestindien 1755-1848, Vestindiens Storhedstid’, in: Johannes Brøndsted (ed). Vore Gamle Tropekolonier Volume 2. Copenhagen: Westermanns Forlag, 1953. 2nd ed. Copenhagen: Fremad, 1966. This work contains a chapter on ‘daily life’ in which some linguistic and bi(bli)ographical information is found. One of the appendices is a bibliographical list of Negerhollands, partially based on Hesseling (1905). Bibliographical information is also found in the following works, which are sometimes quoted in the present bibliography: Ehrencron-Müller, H. 1924 Forfatterlexicon omfattende Danmark, Norge og Island indtil 1814, Bind I-XII, København: H. Aschehoug & Co. Koch, L. 1905 ‘Den danske mission i Vestindien’, in: Kirkehistoriske samlinger, 5.raekke, 3.bind, [Selskabet for Danmarks Kirkehistorie ved Holger Fr. Rørdam] Kjøbenhavn: G.E.C. Gad. pp. 144-180. Larsen, Jens [P.M.]. 1950 Virgin Islands Story; a History of The Lutheran State Church, Other Churches, Slavery, Education, and Culture in the Danish West Indies, now the Virgin Islands. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press. Lose, Emil Valdemar. 1891 ‘Kort Udsigt over den dansk-lutherske Missions Historie paa St. Croix, St. Thomas og St. Jan’, in: Nordisk Missionstidsskrift, udgivet af J. Vahl, 1ste aargang. Kjøbenhavn: Hoffensberg & Trap's Etabl. (i kommission hos Fr. Bertelsen, Bethesda). pp. 1-37. Schuchardt, Hugo. 1914 ‘Zum Negerhöllandischen von St. Thomas’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde 33. pp. 123-135. As far as our information goes, sound recordings of Negerhollands have been made only since 1970. We feel that a bibliography of audiovisual sources of Negerhollands, and even a library of such, would be welcome now. As the language has been reported extinct since 1987, one could aim to be exhaustive. The present bibliography, however, only concerns written sources and consists of two parts: sources that exist only in manuscript form, and printed sources. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal This bibliography is alphabetically ordered by author's name or, if no indication of the author exists, by the first content word of the title page. Titles are in italics, and articles or chapters are enclosed in quotation marks. When the author is known, but an explicit indication in the work itself is absent, or if he or she is part of the title, or when, for the lack of author and title, a description of the work had to be used to represent Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 285 the entry, this information is put between [square brackets]. Bibliographical information on the original title page that is not part of the author reference or the title itself is bracketed and in italics. Different entries are separated from one another by a white space. When different references are found in the same entry, they are subparts included in the same publication (e.g. Wold). For certain rare works, we have, like our predecessors, tried to give the correct signature, if possible, of the places where they can be found today. Note that in Reinecke (1975), the little circle in e.g. ‘o1798’ indicates that the writers have not personally seen the work (entry number 28 in their bibliography). We have preserved this information by putting a ‘o’ in front of their entry number code, so now ‘o28’ means that they have not seen this work (from 1789) themselves. Works which we did not have the chance to see first-hand or in photocopied or microfilmed form are marked with an asterisk between braces, {*}, at the end of the pertinent entry, but before the bibliographical comments. Abbreviations BUH Universitets Bibliotek København (University Library of Copenhagen, since 1992 incorporated in DKB) DKB Det Kongelige Bibliotek (The Royal Library in Copenhagen) EN short English characterization of the title ms. manuscript n.d. not dated RA Rigsarkivet (State Archives in Copenhagen) UA Archiv der Brüder-Unität (Archives of the Moravian Brethren at Herrnhut) UBA Universiteitsbibliotheek Amsterdam (Amsterdam University Library) UBL Universiteitsbibliotheek Leiden (Leyden University Library) unkn.aut. unknown author unkn.pub. unknown publisher unkn.pl. unknown place Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 286 2 Manuscripts [Alling, Niels Olufsen. Psalms of David]. > According to Lose (1891:23), Alling, teacher-missionary on St. Thomas, had translated 100 of David's psalms into Negerhollands by 1777. They were finished and sent to Denmark. The General Church Inspection College received them in 1778, but they were never printed, and the manuscript has since disappeared. Auerbach, Joh. Christoph. [Letter from Niesky in St. Thomas, 10 March 1774 to Friedrich Neisser, Barby, Germany.] 3 pp. > UA: R15 Ba 21a. 70 > The letter contains a passage in Negerhollands that was cited in the introduction to the present work. The 18th-century correspondence, which has not yet been fully examined, between the Virgin Islands and Moravian Brethren in Germany often contains pieces in Negerhollands, or remarks about the language. Beylage zum Diario von St. Thomas vom Monat August 1755 -a) Etliche Cariolische Lieder. 1755. 6 pp. > EN: Annex to a diary part A. Creole hymns. > Part B of this ms. is a list in German of 48 ‘widows in St Thomas who have enrolled at our sister Benigna, to be with her in a special choir-community, and who for this reason were [together] today the 31st of August 1755’. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.4). > UA: R15 Bb Nr.6-2m. [Böhner, Johann] Die Geschichte users HEERN und Heilandes Jesu Christi, aus den Vier Evangelisten zusammengezogen, Un aus dem Deutsch in die Creolsprache übersetzt zum Gebrauch in dem Versammelung Haus der Neeger Gemeine. Mit einem Rgister zur anweisung der Stäglichten Evangelium. Before 1780. 15,0 × 19,0 cm, 406 pp. > EN: History of our Lord. > p. 1-297: Evangelienharmonie; pp. 297-404: The Acts of the Apostles. > Stein (1986b:29, nr. 3.2.1). > UA: NBVII R3, 6g. [Böhner, Johann] Die Handelingen of Geskiedenisen van ons HEER en Heiland JEsus Christus ut die Vier Evangelisten na een tesammenhang gefoegt. Before 1780. 16,1 × 20,1 cm, 4 + 528 pp. > EN: History of our Lord. > p. 1-418: Evangelienharmonie; pp. 419-526: The Acts of the Apostles. > Stein (1986b:29, nr. 3.2.2). > UA: NBVII R3, 6f. Böhner, Johann. [Letter from Neuherrnhut in St. Thomas, 10 March 1780 to Bruder Joseph [Spangenberg], Barby, Germany]. 2 pp. > UA: R15 Bb 26 b 113. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 287 > The letter reports on his translation activities into Negerhollands, through which several manuscripts can be located in time, and in which he mentions other Negerhollands translations, e.g. the Psalms of David, certain Apocrypha, etc. of which we do not know the current whereabouts. Böhner, Johann. Korte Begrieb van die Christlike Leer, nabin die evangelische Broedergemeenten daer geleegt van August Gottlieb Spangenberg. 1780. 2 volumes, 15,5 × 19,3 cm, 650 pp. > EN: Short summary of the Christian doctrine. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.2.6). > UA: NBVII R3, 6i1/6i2. > Negerhollands translation of the Idea Fidei Fratrum. The German original of this doctrine of the Moravian Brethren was written by August Gottlieb Spangenberg (Bruder Joseph) in 1778 and printed in 1779. Böhner, Johann. [Letter from Neuherrnhut in St. Thomas, 2 August 1781 to Bruder Joseph [Spangenberg], Barby, *Germany]. 2 pp. > UA: R15 Bb 26 b 218. > The letter reports on his translation activities into Negerhollands, remarks on the prerequisites for the acquisition of Negerhollands and on the quality of Magens' translation of the New Testament. [Böhner, J.] Die Briefen van die Apostel sender. [and the revelation of John]. 15,6 × 20,1 cm, 259 pp. > EN: The New Testament Epistles. > Stein (1986b:29, nr. 3.2.4). > UA: NBVII R3, 6h. [Böhner, J.] Ein abermaliger Versuch, Etwas aus den Büchern der heiligen Schrift Alten Testaments in die Creol (oder Neger) Sprache zu übersetzen, und in eine harmonische Zeitordnung gebracht, und in den dunkeln Stellen aus dem deutlichen Vortrag und Zusammenhang Des Grundtextes erlaeutert .... End 18th century. 3 volumes, 15,4 × 20,0 cm, 1038 pp. > EN: Old Testament in Creole. > vol.I: pp. 1-259, 1-129; vol.II: pp. 131-524; vol.III: pp. 1-123, 1-132. > Stein (1986b:29-30, nr. 3.2.5). > UA: NBVII R3, 6e1/6e2/6e3. Catalogus unserer Neger-Geschwister in S. Thomas, Crux, Jan, von 1736-1753. {*} > EN: Catalogue of our Negro brethren and sisters. > Stein (1986b:23, nr. 1.2.8). > UA: R15Bb, 24. [Diaries, Reports, Letters, quite regularly written by the missionaries]. 18th century. {*} > Stein (1986b:22, nr. 1.2.3). > UA. > Some texts from this entry have been published in the Büdingische Sammlung (see Zinzendorf). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal [Four Creole sermons from 1796/97]. In: [A number of diverse texts, partially dated]. 46 pp. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.1.5). One of these sermons, called ‘Eine Rede an die Kinder’ has been published in Stein (1986c). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 288 > UA: NBVII R3, 6d. [A free translation of Genesis 1,16 - 4,26]. Some commentaries added. In: [A number of diverse texts, partially dated]. 32 pp. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.1.3). > UA: NBVII R3, 6d. Geskiednis na die Martel=Week en tee na die Hemelvaart van ons Heere en Heiland Jesus Christus. 132 pp. {*} > EN: History of the Passion week to the Ascension. > In Moravian Archives, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in box: ‘Ms. Translations into Danish (Creolan). 2.) The Passion Week-Ascension’. Die Geskiedenis van ons Heere en Heiland Jesus Christus, opgeskreeven van die vier Evangelisten Mattheus, Marcus, Lucas en Johannes; Die Geskiednis van ons Heere en Heiland Jesus Christus, soo as die vier Evangelist sender ka skriev die op. In: [A number of diverse texts, partially dated]. Late 18th or early 19th century. 15,5 × 19,8 cm., respectively 107 pp. and 97 pp. > EN: History of our Lord. > Two Negerhollands translations of respectively § 1-43 and § 1-36 of the Evangelienharmonie. > Stein (1986b:29, nr 3.2.3., also 3.3.1.2) (We have referred to the two parts respectively as 3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.2.). > UA: NBVII R3, 6d. Gomez, John B. Kerk Buch for Die Mission Gemeente hier op St Thomas 5 van November 1813 John B Gomez Voorleezer en scoolmester voor die Mission Gemeente. > EN: Church book of the St. Thomas community. > The ‘provisional’ archive signature from the catalogue ‘Københavnske Kirkebøger II, med et tillaeg omfattende modtagne kirkebøger, herunder kirkebøger fra Grønland og Dansk-Vestindien, København, 1974.’, of the Landsarkiv in Copenhagen is: 776, Ministerialbog for Dansk-Vestindien, Skt.Thomas og Skt.Jan, Kulørte Missionsmenighed, 1813-1822. > The first 68 pages of this ‘church-book’ are in Negerhollands. This is a Danish mission parish register of ‘the coloured community’ on St Thomas, containing a kind of diary of baptisms, marriages and deaths and now and then a list of those (slaves or freemen, grown-ups or children) that passed ‘confirmation’ or had their first ‘communion’ (heillig Avontmael Sacrament). It is by Gomez, who owned a plantation on St. Thomas and was Degn ‘deacon’ there. After January 9th, 1817, the register is in Danish. The original can be found in the church archives of Landsarkivet for Sjaelland, Lolland-Falster og Bornholm in Copenhagen, Jagtvej 10. It is accessible in a photocopy format from 1989. Only this part of one of the West Indies parish registers in the Landsarkiv is in Negerhollands, whereas nearly all the others are in Danish, and some are in Dutch. In all registers, fraktur handwriting is used for Danish, and Latin handwriting for Dutch, Latin, Negerhollands and personal names. Grammatik der Creol-Sprache in West-Indiën. Shortly after 1802. 96 pp., unkn. pl. > EN: Grammar of the Creole language. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > Hesseling (1905:45): ‘14. G.H.’ Hesseling writes that he obtained a copy of this manuscript from Mr. A. Glitsch in Herrnhut. That manuscript/copy (from the beginning of this century) is found in the Hesseling archive in the library of the State University of Leiden. Hesseling, and with him Reinecke, claim the Herrnhut copy has 104 pages. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. o19, n.d.), as in Hesseling. > Stein (1986b:24, nr. 2.1.4): ‘[anon.] Grammatik der Creol-Sprache. s.l., s.d., 15,5 × 19,2 cm, 96 pp.’ > UA: NBVII R3, 6b2. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 289 > Erroneously mentioned in Van Rossem & Van der Voort (1993:109) as written in 1805 Grammatik der Creol-Sprache in West-Indien. Shortly after 1900. 112 pp., small 4o, unkn. pl. > EN: Grammar of the creole language. > UBL 163 C 33 (formerly 559 H 28). > Hesseling (1905) writes that he obtained a copy of the original manuscript from 1802 with the same title from Mr. A. Glitsch in Herrnhut. This manuscript/copy (from the beginning of this century) cannot now be found in the Hesseling archive in the library of Leyden University nor in the manuscript collection, but is in the collection of printed works. On the inside cover is written that it is a gift of 1941 from Hesseling's widow, A.H. Hesseling-Salverda de Grave. The back of the cover bears the title ‘Het Negerhollands der Deense Antillen’. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. o19, n.d.), from Hesseling. Die Helfer und Diener unter den Mohren in Thomas, Crux und Jan aus diesen selbst. Was von ihnen, aus ihrem Kirchen=Buche und aus dem Munde ihres 27jährigen Kirchen-Dieners Bruder Georg Weber aus gefasst worden, Jm Nov. 1760. {*} > EN: The helpers and servants under the Moors. > Stein (1986b:23, nr. 1.2.7). > UA: R15Ba, 27-11. Hesseling, Dirk Christiaan. Creolisering in de taal. [Ms. of lecture held at ‘De Spaanse Club’, Den Haag, January 20. 1934]. 27 pp. > EN: Creolization in language. > UBL: BPL 2408. Hesseling, Dirk Christiaan. Studiemateriaal voor het Creoolsch. > EN: Study material for Creole. > A few folders of which three directly refer to Negerhollands: two notebooks and a portfolio with the lecture Creolisering in de taal. > UBL: BPL 2408. [Isles, Samy] Diarium von St. Thomas vom Monat Septbr. 1754 bis Januar 1755 incl. Beilage zum 25sten Dec. gehörig: Lied welches am Kinder Bettage des 25. Dec [1754] abgesungen worden. 1754-1755. 4 pp. > EN: Diary of St. Thomas. Annex: hymn. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.3). > also in Stein (1982b:106-112). > UA: R15Bb Nr.6-2h. Isles, Samy & Georg Weber. Criol Leedekin Boekje voor gebriek Van de Neger broer gemeente Na St Thomas St Crux Overzet üt de Hoog deutse taal door Broer Samy Isles en George Weber, en een deel mee Assistantie Broer Johañes Van de Jaar 1749 tot Jaar 1753’. small format, 87 pp. {*} > EN: Creole hymnal. > In Moravian Archives, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in box: ‘Ms. Translations into Danish (Creolan). 1.) Hymn book for the Negroes of St. Thomas & St. Croix (Transl. by Sam Isles & Geo Weber, (1747-1753)’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 290 [Kingo, Johan Christopher. The Gospel of St. Matthew]. 1765. unkn. pl. {*} > Mentioned in Lose (1891:18) as never printed. This information was passed on in Koch, Larsen and Reinecke (1975:320, in a note under nr. o24 and o25). [Kingo, Johan Christopher. Translation of Martin Luther's Small catechism]. 1770. {*} > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. o25). According to Reinecke the work has been printed (his ‘Kingo 1770b’), but according to Ehrencron-Müller (1924), this is not the case. Reinecke et al. have not seen the work, but probably got the information from Larsen (1950). Larsen writes on page 114 that by 1770, both Kingo and Wold had published a Negerhollands primer, Wold furthermore a hymnal, and Kingo this catechism. This might be in accord with facts but real proof is still lacking (see section 3 Kingo). Lose (1891:18-21) writes that Magens and Wold worked on a draft version of Kingo's catechism from 1764 on, but nowhere does it become explicit that it was ever printed (see section 3 Wold). Kirchenbuch [covering the time from the beginning of the mission in 1732 up to November 11, 1759.] {*} > EN: Parish Register. > Stein (1986b:22, nr. 1.2.5). > UA: R15 Ba, nr. 11-187. Die kleentje Catechismus van Docter Mart*in Luther*. In: [A number of diverse texts, partially dated]. 28 pp. > EN: The small Catechism. > In Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.1.1) as Luthers Kleiner Katechismus. > UA: NBVII R3, 6d. [A letter to Brother Nathanael from 1772, written in German, but the last four lines are Negerhollands and show a different handwriting.] {*} > In Moravian Archives, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in box: ‘St. Croix, W.I. Letters [#1] 1760-1774 (List in this box) G. (& Some Dutch) (cã 190 ms. pp.)’. [Loretz, Johann] Bruder Loretz Entwurf zu einem kurzen Unterricht für die getauften und getrauten Eheleute. Ca. 1783/1784. 6 pp. > EN: Sketch of a short instruction for baptized and married people. > Stein (1986b:31, nr. 3.3.6), see also Visitationsberichte. > UA: R15Ba Nr.27-12. Lund, T(h)orkild. [Letter from Lund in Tommerup, Denmark, 3 June 1823, to J.P. Hiorthøÿ, secretary of the The Danish Mission Society]. > RA. Privatinstituter. Det Danske Missions Selskab. Privatarkiv nr. 10.162. Pk. nr. 324. Danske Vestindiske Øer. Korrespondence m.v. vedr. de Danske Vestindiske Øer 1822-25, 1827. Journalnr. 5/1823, Arkivnr. 136, 1 [3. 6. 1823]. > In this letter Lund expresses his gratitude for including in the Creol Psalm-Buk of 1823 the 30 extra hymns that he wrote 26 years ago. He makes some corrections and adds the remaining verses of hymn 17, that were inserted in the reprint of 1827 with minor spelling differences. [Magens, Jochum Melchior. New Testament]. {*} Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > According to Lose (1891:23), before 1770 a manuscript version of the New Testament translated by Magens and given to Wold circulated among the Danish missionaries. For the printed New Testament Magens made an entirely new translation. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 291 [Magens, Jochum Melchior. Old Testament]. {*} > According to Larsen (1950:115), it is possible that besides his work on the New Testament between 1772 and 1777, Magens also started to translate the Old Testament. It is reported in Lose (1891:23-4) that the translation was finished and sent to Copenhagen in 1781, but never published. The introduction to the New Testament of 1781 refers to Magens' work on the Old Testament, and that the General Church Inspection College had received David's Psalms (see Alling) and the Books of the Prophets. Like others this ms. was never found, and may have been destroyed in the Orphanage fire of 1795, the Castle fire of 1884 or some other fire in Copenhagen. Magens, J[ochum] M[elchior] Grammatica over det Creolske sprog, som bruges paa de trende Danske Eilande, St. Croix, St. Thomas og St. Jans i Amerika. Sammenskrevet of opsat af en paa St. Thomas indföd Mand. Kiøbenhavn, 1770. Trykt udi det Kongelige Wäysenhusets Bogtrykkerie, af Gerhard Giese Salikath. 93 pp. > EN: Grammar of the Creole language. > UBL: 1483 D 47. > This is a bound handwritten copy of the printed work, apparently from the collection of D.C. Hesseling as on the inside cover is written that it is a gift of 1941 from his widow, A.H. Hesseling-Salverda de Grave. It may have been copied by D.C. Hesseling himself. Spelling errors are also copied, and commented ‘sic’ in faint dotted characters. The copy is in purple ink, and only the right-hand pages are used. The original page numbers are mentioned in the right margin. Memorabilia, in Creole. 1767. In: [A number of diverse texts, partially dated]. 8 pp. > EN: Memorabilia. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.1.7). > UA: NBVII R3 6d. Nelson, Frank, G. Words and short texts in Negerhollands, gathered in St. Thomas, June 1936. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 31): ‘Copy in Univ. of Hawaii library, John E. Reinecke correspondence’. > The present anthology contains parts of this material, which was revised by Professor Nelson himself, in his correspondence of 1994 with Hans den Besten. [A number of diverse texts, partially dated]; format: c. 15.5 × 19.8 cm. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.1, subdivided in seven entries). O[ldendorp], C.G.A. Criolisches Wörterbuch. Erster zu vermehrender, und, wo nöthig, zu verbessernder Versuch. 1767/1768. 10,8 × 18,2 cm, 189 pp. > EN: Creole dictionary. > Stein (1986b:25, nr. 2.2.1). > UA: NBVII R3, 6b1. > An edition is being prepared for publication in 1996 by Peter Stein. Oldendorp, C.G.A. Missionsgeschichte, 3 vols. 3273 pp. {*} > EN: Mission history. > Stein (1986b:21, nr. 1.2.1). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > The rough copy UA: R28-63.II, ± 3000 pp., 3 Vols. and the fair copy: UA: R28-62.I., ± 3000 pp., 3 Vols. > Oldendorp gives a long and critical description of Negerhollands. The nearly 60 pages of grammar in the manuscript have been shortened to 11 pages in the 1777 edition. A small section of the grammatical part of this ms. was translated in Gilbert (1986). The full grammar will be published together with Magens' and the Herrnhut grammar in Stein & Eroms (forthcoming). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 292 > An edition of the complete manuscripts is now in progress at the Staatliches Völkerkundemuseum in Dresden. Oldendorp, C.G.A. [Replies and critical remarks concerning the printed version of his Missionsgeschichte prepared by Bossart]. {*} > Stein (1986b:22, nr. 1.2.2). > UA: R15Ba 25. Plicht van Een helper Broeder en Süster. 4 pp. > EN: Duty of a helper brother and sister. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.5). > UA: R15Ba Nr.27-12. Politi(rets)protokoller, Landfogeden på St. Jan. > EN: Police (court) protocols, St. John's country bailiff. > RA, Vestindiske Lokalarkiver, Landfogeden på St. Jan, Politi retsprotokoller nr. 39-57, 1818-1904. > These are the reports of the interrogation of suspects and prosecutors at the St. Jan police court. They are almost wholly written in Danish, fraktur script, yet in some of them, words and short sentences in Negerhollands and English are found in Latin script, when direct speech is quoted untranslated. Brought to our attention by Poul Olsen. [17 pages of Dutch verses with Creole influence, where members of the slave community are named]. In: [A number of diverse texts, partially dated]. {*} > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.1.6). > UA: NBVII R3 6d. [Slave letters]. Ca. 150 letters from 1737-1768. {*} > Stein (1986b:31, nr. 3.3.7). > An edition is being prepared for publication by Peter Stein and Hartmut Beck. > UA: R15Ba Nr.27-12. [Two Dutch sermons]. 1740. In: [A number of diverse texts, partially dated]. 16 pp. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.1.4). > UA: NBVII R3, 6d. Vestindisk Glossarium. > EN: West Indian glossary. > Danish - Negerhollands word list containing 338 entries, seven pages 4o, divided into three columns per page. The list is ordered alphabetically on basis of the initial only, each initial occupying its own column. On the title page between brackets: ‘Fra Chr.IV.s Hvaelving 1906, Sager der formentlig er bragte i Uorden ved Slotsbranden 1884. [From Christian the fourth's vaulted cellar 1906, Documents that probably have been disordered through the Castle fire 1884]’. Brought to our attention by Poul Olsen. > proper reference: Rigsarkivet. Håndskriftsamlingen. V.A.8: Vestindisk Glossarium. > Said by Koch (1905) to be written by J.C. Kingo before 1765. Repeated in Ehrencron-Müller (1924). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > Vibaek (1953:554) has an old signature: ‘rigsarkivet, MS. Andre Videnskaber nr. 66’, and he quotes Koch about Kingo's authorship. On page 269 he claims, however, that it is by Magens. > The General Church Inspection College wrote in the introduction to Magens' New Testament (1781): ‘..., en byttendien ha lastaen skriev een van die Mission Catecheten, die hem na deese Oogmerk ha giev Plaes na sie Hus, een Woord-Buk, die bin volstandig genug, maer leg ongedrykt nogal,... [and furthermore let one of the missionaries, whom he [referring to Magens] for this reason lodged in his house, write a dictionary, which is complete enough, but lies still unprinted,...]’. This Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 293 points to a different author or ms. because as far as we know, Kingo never lived in Magens' house and as of yet no information has been found on their collaboration. > An edition by Hein van der Voort will appear as an appendix in Peter Stein's edition of the Oldendorp dictionary. Visitationsberichte. {*} > EN: Visitation reports. > Stein (1986b:22, nr. 1.2.4): ‘Of particular interest [..] is that [the account] of Johann Loretz in 1784, -UA: R15Ba-24.1a-, because it reports from a discussion on the use of the Creole language, criticizes translations and translators, and makes projects for further translating and preparing Creole texts.’ [Volkersen, A.W. Old Testament]. {*} > This ms. is mentioned in a letter of 19 June 1815 (RA, Koloniernes Centralbestyrelse, Kolonialkontoret, Gruppesager II-922, Salmebogssagen). A ‘considerable’ part of the ms. had been sent to the signatories to the document, members of the English Bible Society in London, who had not been able to judge whether it was useful to print it. The undersigners' advice is to leave the ms. and use Magens' New Testament and print only a few ‘important’ books of the Old Testament at the most. > The ms. is also mentioned in a letter from 3 March 1817 (RA, Koloniernes Centralbestyrelse, Kolonialkontoret, Gruppesager II-922, Salmebogssagen) where it is said that Lund and Mackeprang advised not to print it. Instead, Magens' New Testament should be reprinted in 1200 copies as the 1781 edition was no longer available on the Virgin Islands. Wied, H. Lieder, confirmationsunterricht u.a.m., teils in kreolischer, teils in englischer Sprache. 1842-1847. 10,6 × 16,0 cm, 83 pp. > EN: Hymns, confirmation lessons. > The first part from 1842/1843 is in Negerhollands and consists of 60 pages. The remaining 23 pages, from 1847, are in English. On the front page the author remarks: ‘In den 40er Jahren des 19. Jahrh. verschwand auf den Westindischen Inseln die kreolische Sprache und wurde durch die englische verdrängt. [In the 40s of the 19th century the creole language disappeared on the West-Indian Islands and was superseded by the English one.]’. > Stein (1986b:30, nr. 3.3.2). > UA: NBVII R3, 6k. Zeugnisse von den Communicanten von der Neger-Gemeine in S. Thomas und S. Crux, von Bruder Nathanael [Seidel] in Gemeinschaft der ledigen Arbeiter bey seinder Visitation in S. Thomas im Monat Junio und Julio 1753. {*} > EN: Testimonies of the communicants. > Stein (1986b:23, nr. 1.2.6). > UA: R15Ba, 18-1,2. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 294 3 Printed work A B C-boekje voor die Neger-Kinders na St. Thomas, St. Croix en St. Jan. [Barby, 1800.]. Barby: 1800. 12 pp. > EN: ABC booklet for the Negro children. > Hesseling (1905:45): ‘13. A.B.C. Boekje voor die Negerkinders na St. Thomas, St. Croix en St. Jan, Barby, 1800.’ > Reinecke (1975:318, nr. o1) gives a partially incorrect title: Instead of ‘Neger-Kinders’, he has ‘negerkinderen’. > American Philosophical Society library. > Stein (1986b:25, nr. 2.3.1): ‘[anon.] ABC-boekje voor die Neger-Kinders na St. Thomas, St. Croix en St. Jan. Barby 1800, 10,5 × 17,6 cm, 12 pp.’ > UA: NBVII R3, 4a. ABC-boekje voor die neger-kinders na St. Thomas, St. Croix en St. Jan. Gnadau: 1825. 12 pp. {*} > EN: ABC booklet for the Negro children. > This title is from Reinecke (1975:318, nr. o2), which is almost identical to the above work from 1800. Considering his rendering of that title, however, the 1800 and 1825 version may have been confused. > University of California library, Berkeley. Adelung, Johann Christoph. 1809. Mithridates oder: allgemeine Sprachenkunde mit dem Vater Unser als Sprachprobe in beynahe fünfhundert Sprachen und Mundarten. II. Berlin: Vossische Buchhandlung. pp. 252-253. > EN: Mithridates: general linguistics. > This work contains the Lord's Prayer in all languages known to the author, including Negerhollands. Adelung contrasts the version from Magens (1781) with a Moravian translation from 1802. His remark, made in a footnote, that Negerhollands is a corrupted form of Dutch, is criticized by Rask (1932-3:123, see Rask after 1806). > UB: 477 E 26. Andersen, R[asmus]. 1889. Den Evangelisk-Lutherske Kirkes historie i Amerika. Fra dens begyndelse til nutiden. Brooklyn: Forfatterens Forlag [etc.]. xiii, 672 pp. {*} > EN: History of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in America. > Reinecke (1975:318, nr. 3): ‘Includes history of its activities in V.I.’ Bergh, L. Ph. C. van den. 1840. ‘iets over het Neger-Hollandsch’, in: Taalkundig Magazijn of gemengde bijdragen tot de kennis der Nederduitsche taal [bijeenverzameld door A. de Jager], 3, 4th part. pp. 500-501. > EN: Something about Negerhollands. > This is the first source of the name ‘Negerhollands’. > van den Bergh cites Adelung (1809) with both of the versions of the Lord's Prayer. [Brandt, Andreas Joachim]. 1799. Creol Psalm-Buk of een Vergaedering van Ouwe en nywe Psalmen na Creol-Spraek. [Kopenhagen, 1799. Prented bie Boas Brünnich]. Copenhagen: Boas Brünnich. 94 pp. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 295 > EN: Creole hymn book. > DKB: DA.Box, 4-419, 07268, 12o. 90 pages containing 79 hymns, an appendix with the Litany, 2 1/2 pages register, and 1 1/2 pages Dryk-Vouten ‘printing errors’. > In view of the correspondence in the RA, Brandt, pastor of the Lutheran church in Christiansted, St. Croix, from 1792-1802, seems to be the author (RA, Koloniernes Centralbestyrelse, Kolonialkontoret, Gruppesager II-922, Salmebogssagen). Also the DKB catalogue mentions him. Deddens (1967, III) has also seen indications of this on the second page in a copy kept on St. Thomas. > Lose (1891:36) mentions Brandt as the author of this and of following editions, probably meaning 1823 (but see there) and 1827. Although 1823 contains many more hymns, those that it has in common with 1799 are almost perfectly identical. Probably not even the 1799 list of corrections on pages 93-4 was consulted. The contents of 1827 also are identical to 1823, but the spelling is sometimes a bit modernized and applied more consistently. Sometimes, a word is substituted. There are also many resemblances between these three editions and the anonymous 1770 hymnal (see the 1823 hymnal). > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. o11) from Larsen (1950:119): ‘Andreas Yoachim Brandt, Creole hymnal with litany, superseded Wold's 1770 hymnal.’ > Mentioned by Schuchardt (1914). > Vibaek (1953:554). [Creol altar book.] n.d. {*} > EN: Creole altar book. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. o12): ‘A publication in Negerhollands, ca. 1800’, mentioned by Larsen (1950:120). Creol Psalm-Buk of een Vergaedring van Oûwe en nywe Psalmen na Creol-Sprack. [Kopenhagen, 1823. Prented bie C. Groebe]. Copenhagen: C. Graebe, 1823. 140 pp. > EN: Creole hymn book. > Numbering from pp. 4-134; pp. 3-130 contains 109 hymns (of which no. 17 is incomplete); pp. 131-134 appendix with the Litany; six pages register. > DKB: DA.Box, 4-419, 07269, 8o. From the handwritten name on the first page it appears that this copy must have been in the possession of Oxholm. The incomplete hymn no. 17 of this copy has a handwritten reference to the end of the book: ‘vid:fin:lib: [see end of book]’. The first empty page at the end of the book contains the rest of hymn 17 in handwriting. > According to Lund's correspondence with the Danish Missionary Society kept in RA (RA, Privatinstituter. Det Danske Missions Selskab. Privatarkiv nr. 10.162. Pk. 324.), this hymnal is a re-edition of the 1770 one, enlarged with 30 hymns written by him in 1797. Quite remarkably, Lund says in a letter of 12 December 1822 that he does not know of any other hymnal than the 1770 edition (see Wold). Yet the 1823 one corresponds in several ways to the 1799 one by Brandt. In an 1827 edition, hymn 17 is completed in accord, except for minor spelling differences, with the text supplied in a letter by Lund of 3 June 1823. > The contents are identical to the 1827 edition except for small orthographic differences; the title page is a bit different and the size is smaller, and therefore contains more pages than 1827. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 6): ‘Translator unknown. 111 hymns translated from Danish. Schuchardt gives the 1st ed. as Copenhagen, 1799, with 94 pp.’ Reinecke's rendering of the title is slightly different: ‘creole tael’ instead of ‘Creol-Sprack’, and of the printer: ‘Groebe’ instead of ‘Graebe’. > In Newberry Library. > Larsen (150:120) says it replaced Brandt's hymnal. > In Vibaek mentioned with same title as (Brandt 1799). > In DKB catalogue mentioned as same book as Brandt (1799) but as written by Praetorius. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 296 Creol Psalm-Buk, of een Vergaedering van Oûwe en nywe Psalmen na Creol-Tael. [Kopenhagen, 1827. Ka prent bie C. Graebe]. Copenhagen: C. Graebe, 1827. 127 pp. > EN: Creole hymn book. > Numbering from pp. 4-121; pp. 3-117 contains 109 hymns; pp. 118-121 appendix with the Litany; six pages register. > The contents are identical to 1823 except for small orthographic differences, the title page is a bit different and the size is larger, allowing for fewer pages than 1823. Hymn 17 is completed (except for minor spelling differences) in accordance with the text supplied in a letter by Lund of 3 June 1823. > DKB: DA.Box, 4-419, 07270, 8o. > According to Vibaek (1953:554) same title as 1799, but with J.J. Praetorius as author. There is nothing that points to this author, however. > In DKB catalogue this one is mentioned as same book as Brandt (1799) and written by Praetorius. Creol Psalm-Buk, of een Vergaedring van Oûwe en nywe Psalmen na Creol-Tael. [Kopenhagen, 1834. Ka prent bie P.T. Brünnich]. Copenhagen: P.T. Brünnich, 1834. 121 + 6 pp. > EN: Creole hymn book. > Schuchardt (1914:124) also mentions this edition. This must then be the fourth edition or the fifth (when Brandt 1799 is included) of 1770. This is an exact copy of 1827. Note that likewise, Praetorius' catechism-and-textbook of 1834 is identical to the one from 1827. Furthermore, both works from 1827, then printed at C. Graebe, were reprinted in 1834 at P.T. Brünnich, and each in an issue of 1000 copies (as appears from an account of 10 November 1834 in RA, Koloniernes Centralbestyrelse, Kolonialkontoret, Gruppesager II. 922 Salmebogssagen). > According to Vibaek the third edition of 1799 must be from 1827 but no reference is made to a 1834 edition. [also Deddens III, p. 281]. > According to Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 7), this is a second edition but he does not indicate which one is the first (probably 1827). > DKB: DA.Box, 4-419, 07271, 8o. > In Newberry Library. Creool Psalm-buk voor die Deen Missioon na Westindien. 1770. 1770. unkn. aut. > EN: Creole hymn book. > DKB: DA.Box, 4-419, 07264, 8o, is also found as the third part of Wold. > Numbering from pp. 4-68: pp. 3-5 is the Litany; pp. 6-68 contain hymns; two pages register. > The orthography sometimes looks old-fashioned in comparison to that of the other hymnals, and the size is much smaller. Still there are so many resemblances between this hymnal and the 1799, 1823 and 1827/34 ones that one should probably speak of a sequence of re-editions that is ultimately based on the 1770 hymnal. See under Wold for further details about authorship. Dewitz, A[ugust Karl Ludwig] von. 1882. In Dänisch-Westindien. Hundert und fünfzig Jahre der Brüdermission in St. Thomas, St. Croix und St. Jan. Niesky: Direction der Brüdergemeinde. viii, 374 pp. {*} > EN: 150 years of Brethren Mission. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. o15). Dewitz, A[ugust Karl Ludwig] von. 1889, 1907. In Dänisch-Westindien. Anfänge der Brüdermission in St. Thomas, St. Croix und St. Jan, von 1732-1760. Herrnhut: Missionanstalt der Ev. Brüderunität. 2 Volumes. 322 and 372 pp. {*} > EN: Beginnings of the Brethren Mission. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 16). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 297 D[octor]. Martin Luther sie klein Catechismus na veif part. [1770.] unkn. aut., unkn. pl., unkn. publ., 1770. 32 pp. > EN: Luther's Smaller Catechism. > This work was only encountered as the second part of Wold (1770, see there). [Evangelienharmonie. This is Samuel Lieberkühn's (Stein 1991) Die Geschichte unsers Herrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi aus den vier Evangelien zusammen gezogen. (The history of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, drawn together from the four gospels.) Gnadau: Buchhandlung der Evangelischen Brüder-Unität, Chr. Ernst Genft, 1820 (preface is dated 1768). > This is the Moravian Harmony of Gospels, a compilation of everything written by the four evangelists on the life of Christ combined into one story. This entry as such has nothing to do with Negerhollands, but it was the basis for many translations into Negerhollands, notably Johann Böhner's. Fortryk af Matthaeus Evangeliums første Ark. Copenhagen. {*} > EN: Preprint of the first sheet of Matthew. > Vibaek (1953:554): ‘Med følgende paategning i det kgl. bibl.s eksemplar: “de første ark af det nye testamentes oversaettelse i det creolske for de kgl. danske øer i Vestindien; men da den befandtes at vaere mere hollandsk, blev ej videre deraf trykt”. [With the following note on the DKB copy: “the first sheet(s) of the translation of the New Testament; but because it was considered too Dutch, no more of it was printed”].’ > From Hesseling (1905:38) it appears that this preprint, and the one from 1779, may be located under no. 4626 in the Thottean Collection (Bibliothecae Tottianae/Thottske Samling) of the DKB. Fortryk af Matthaeus Evangeliums første Ark. Copenhagen: 1779. {*} > EN: Preprint of the first sheet of Matthew. > Vibaek (1953:554): ‘de første ark af det creolske nye testamente, trykt 1779, hvoraf intet videre udkom, siden oversaettelsen var mest hollandsk [the first sheet(s) of the New Testament, printed 1779, of which nothing more was issued, as the translation was too Dutch].’ Gebeden en Liederen voor die swart Broeder-Gemeenten na S. Thomas, S. Croix en S. Jan. 1765. unkn. pl., unkn. pub. > EN: Prayers and Hymns. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. o17), as in Hesseling. > Hesseling 1905:43): ‘8. Gebeden en Liederen voor die swart Broedergemeenten van St. Thomas, unkn.pl. 1765.’ > Stein (1986b:27, nr. 3.1.3). > UA: NBVII R3, 5a. is an incomplete copy of 40 pages. > DKB, Copenhagen: DA Box, 4-419, 07262, 8o. Contains Danish handwritten remarks about the melodies to be used. Page numbering from pp. 4-71. This is a complete copy containing 71 pages. Die Geskiednis van ons Heere en Heiland Jesus Christus, soo as die vier Evangelist sender ka skriev die op. New York: Printed by the American Tract Society for the United Brethren's Mission in the Danish West-India Islands, 1333 [1833]. 348 pp. > EN: History of our Lord. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > Stein (1986b:28, nr. 3.1.10): ‘[Böhner, Johann]’. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 18): ‘“1333” must be “1833”’. > In Library of Congress. > UA: R3, 6c. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 298 Ginneken, Jac[obus] van. 1913. Handboek der Nederlandsche taal, Deel I. De sociologische structuur der Nederlandsche taal I. Nijmegen: L.C.G. Malmberg. vii, 552 pp. > EN: Handbook of Dutch, Sociological structure. > Reinecke (1975:321, nr. 40): ‘p. 238-260 on Negerhollands.’ > 2nd edition. Nijmegen: L.C.G. Malmberg, 1928. viii, 357 pp. Reinecke (1975:321, nr. 41): ‘p. 238-258 on Negerhollands.’ Hesseling, D[irk] C[hristiaan]. 1905. ‘Het Negerhollands der Deense Antillen’, in: De Gids 69, I. pp. 283-306. > EN: Negerhollands of the Danish Antilles. Hesseling, D[irk] C[hristiaan]. 1905. Het Negerhollands der Deense Antillen. Bijdrage tot de geschiedenis der Nederlandse taal in Amerika. Leiden: A.W. Sijthoff. x, 290 pp. > EN: Negerhollands of the Danish Antilles. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 20). Hesseling, D[irk] C[hristiaan]. 1914. ‘Naschrift’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde 33. pp. 135-140. > EN: Postscript. > This appendix to Schuchardt's (1914) article contains the Dutch translation of the Negerhollands letter A. Magens wrote to Schuchardt. Hesseling, D[irk] C[hristiaan]. 1914. ‘Aantekeningen’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde 33. pp. 140-142. > EN: Notes. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 21): ‘Comments on Schuchardt (1914).’ Hesseling, D[irk] C[hristiaan]. 1933. ‘Papiaments en Negerhollands’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde 52. pp. 265-288. > EN: Papiamentu and Negerhollands. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 22). Hesseling, Dirk Christiaan. 1979. ‘Papiamentu and Negerhollands’. Translated by Thomas L. Markey and Paul T. Roberge. In: On the Origin and Formation of Creoles: A Miscellany of Articles Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers Inc., 1979. pp. 47-87. > Translation of Hesseling, D[irk] C[hristiaan]. ‘Papiaments en Negerhollands’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde 52 (1933). pp. 265-288. Die Hoofd-inhoud van die leering van Jesus Christus, tot gebruk voor die neger-gemeenten, van die Evangelische Broeder-Kerk. Barby: 1785. 78 pp. {*} > EN: Main contents of the teachings of Jesus Christ. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 23). > In Newberry Library. > Hesseling (1905:45): ‘12. Die Hoofd-Inhoud van die Leering van Jesus Christus voor die Negergemeente van die Broeerkerk, Barby, 1785.’ > Stein (1986:28, nr. 3.1.7): ‘[anon.] die Hoofd-Inhoud van die Leering van Jesus Christus tot gebruk voor die NegerGemeenten van die Evangelische Broeer-Kerk. Barby: 1785, 78 pp.’ Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 299 > UA: NBVII R3 5e. Josselin de Jong, J[an] P[etrus] B[enjamin] de. 1924. ‘Het Negerhollandsch van St. Thomas en St. Jan’, in: Mededelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunde, Deel 57, Serie A, no. 3. pp. 55-71. > EN: Negerhollands. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 13): ‘Contains much sociolinguistic material.’ Josselin de Jong, J[an] P[etrus] B[enjamin] de. 1926. Het huidige Negerhollandsch (teksten en woordenlijst). Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Nieuwe Reeks, Deel 26, no. 1. 124 pp. > EN: Present-day Negerhollands. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 14): ‘Material gathered 1922-23. Texts in phonetic spelling; word list with English and Spanish loanwords indicated. The best firsthand source.’ Kingo, Johan Christopher Kørbitz Thomsen 1770. Kreool A, B, buk. Door J.C. Kingo. St. Thomas na Amerika d. 7. Julii 1770. [Di ka druk na Mester Daniel Thibou na St. Croix, 1770.] St. Croix: Daniel Thibou. 16 pp. > EN: Creole AB book. > A language primer, containing also fragments from Luther's Smaller Cathechism, and two small fragments from the New Testament. > Hesseling (1905:34) never saw this work and doubts its existence: ‘... en verder een, mij onbekend gebleven, A.B.boekje dat in 1770 op S. Croix(!) verschenen zou zijn. [... and furthermore an A.B.booklet that is supposed to have been issued in 1770 on St. Croix (!), with which I have remained unacquainted.]’ > Vibaek suggests Christianssted as place of issue, as in 1769 Daniel Thibou founded the first print-shop on the Virgin Islands there. In his richly illustrated work Vibaek has also reprinted the title page and page 15. He has clearly used the copy from the royal library in Copenhagen. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. o24). > DKB: København: Hj.2244a DA Box. Koch, L. 1905. ‘Den danske mission i Vestindien’, in: Kirkehistoriske samlinger, 5.raekke, 3.bind, [Selskabet for Danmarks Kirkehistorie ved Holger Fr. Rørdam] Kjøbenhavn: G.E.C. Gad. pp. 144-180. > EN: The Danish Mission in West India. > History of the Danish Lutheran Mission on the Virgin Islands, draws on information from Lose (1891), Lawaetz (1902) and archival documents. Gives bibliographic information on Negerhollands sources. Mentions the Orphanage fire in Copenhagen of 1795, that destroyed a great number of unpublished documents of the ‘Missionskollegium’ and the ‘Kirkeinspektion’. Lawaetz, H. 1902. Brødremenighedens Mission i Dansk-Vestindien 1769-1848, Bidrag til en charakteristik af Brødrekirken og dens gerning og af den farvede races stilling tol Christendommen [disp.], København: Otto B. Wroblewski. > EN: The Moravian Mission in Danish West India. > Lawaetz was minister in Christianssted in the 1890s. Chapter 5 and 16 deal with the issue English (creole) against (Dutch) creole. Liturgie, de formulieren van doop en avondmaal en sommige liederen. 1761. {*} Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > EN: Liturgy, formulary of baptism and communion and some hymns. > Hesseling (1905:43): ‘7. Een in 1761 gedrukt boekje, bevattende de liturgie, de formulieren van doop en avondmaal en sommige liederen.’ Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 300 > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. o27): ‘Translated by the Moravians; the first book printed in Negerhollands. Several times revised.’ > Stein (1986b:26, nr. *3.1.2): ‘[anon.] Liturgie, die formulieren van doop en avondmaal en sommige liederen. unkn.pl., 1761.’ > We originally know this work only from Oldendorp (1777:914). Vibaek (1953:554) and Hesseling (1905:43) claim that the works ‘Liturgie’ (1761) and ‘Gebeden’ (1765) are sometimes confused by Oldendorp. In Stein (1986b) you can find two arguments against the possibility of a confusion: first, Oldendorp elsewhere (1777:971) gives the correct title of the work from 1765, which is different from the 1761 work; second, in Oldendorp's ‘Critical remarks’ on the edition by Bossart of his ‘Missionsgeschichte’ the passage mentioning the 1761 work is not criticized. The 1761 publication was never found, however. Lose, Emil Valdemar. 1891. ‘Kort Udsigt over den dansk-lutherske Missions Historie paa St. Croix, St. Thomas og St. Jan.’, in: Nordisk Missionstidsskrift, udgivet af J. Vahl, 1ste aargang. Kjøbenhavn: Hoffensberg & Trap's Etabl. I kommission hos Fr. Bertelsen, Bethesda]. pp. 1-37. > EN: Short view of the Danish Lutheran mission history. > Overview of the history of the Danish Lutheran Mission on the Virgin Islands, draws mainly on archival documents, and gives bibliographic information on Negerhollands sources. Ludewig, Hermann E. 1858. ‘III. Negro-Dutch’ in: The Literature of American Aboriginal Languages [by Hermann E. Ludewig, with additions and corrections by professor WM. W. Turner, edited by Nicolas Trübner], London: Trübner and co. pp. 56-57. > This is a bibliography containing references to: (Adelung) (1809), Kingo (1770), (Magens) (1770), (Magens) (1781) and Oldendorp (1777). It also mentions the hypothetical first printed work in Negerhollands from 1761 (see ‘Liturgie’). [Lund, T(h)orkild]. 1798. Leerboek na die Evangelis-kristelik Relisie tot Gebryk voor die Kooninglik Deen Mission-Kerk sender na Amerika. [Kopenhagen, 1798. Ka prent van Boekprenter K.H. Seidelin]. Copenhagen: K.H. Seidelin. > EN: Textbook in the Evangelical Christian religion. > DKB: 3-443, 06095, 8o. No indication of author, but on the title page in this copy is handwritten: ‘Nb: Forfatteren er Torkild Lund, Provst og Missionair paa St. Thomas og St. Jan. [Nb. the writer is T.L., pastor and missionary on St.Thomas]’. On the inside of front cover is handwritten: ‘Johannes Lund 1862’, inside the back cover: ‘JH:D:Lund’. > From the correspondence kept in the RA (RA, Koloniernes Central-bestyrelse, Kolonialkontoret, Gruppesager II-922, Salmebogssagen), Lund clearly emerges as the author. Apparently 1970 copies were printed. Lose (1891:36) mentions Lund as the author in a footnote. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. o28), probably from Larsen (1950:119): Leerboch na die Evangeliskristelig relisie tot betryk yoor die Kooninglik Deen Missionskirk sender na Amerika. > Larsen translates the title as: ‘Reader of the Evangelical Christian Religion printed for the Royal Danish Missions in America’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal Magens, A. [Letter from 23 February 1883 to Hugo Schuchardt, published by Schuchardt, with a translation into Dutch by Hesseling, in: ‘Zum Negerholländischen von St. Thomas.’, ‘Naschrift’ and ‘Aantekeningen’, Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde 33 (1914). pp. 123-142.] > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 29). Magens, J[ochum] M[elchior]. 1770. Grammatica over det Creolske sprog, som bruges paa de trende Danske Eilande, St. Croix, St. Thomas og St. Jans i Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 301 Amerika. Sammenskrevet of opsat af en paa St. Thomas indföd Mand. [Kiøbenhavn, 1770. Trykt udi det Kongelige Wäysenhusets Bogtrykkerie, af Gerhard Giese Salikath]. Copenhagen: Gerhard Giese Salikath. 80 pp. > EN: Grammar of the Creole language. > Hesseling (1905:36): ‘2. G.D.’. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 30): ‘Grammar on Latin model, pp. 9-33; proverbs and sayings with Danish translation, 34-36; dialog with translation, 37-80.’ > Stein (1986b:24, nr. 2.1.1). > UA: K 94. > DKB: 47,-540,-8o. This copy also contains a handwritten proverb in Negerhollands on p. 36. The preface by Magens is from St. John, 24 April 1769. > The copy present in the Leyden University Library, 1483 D 47, is a handwritten copy, possibly by D.C. Hesseling himself. Printing errors are also copied and annotated by ‘sic’ in faint dotted characters. [Magens, Jochum Melchior]. 1781. Die Nywe Testament van ons Heer Jesus Christus ka set over in die Creols tael en ka giev na die ligt tot dienst van Die Deen Mission in America [Gedrykt in Copenhagen, 1781. Bie Die Erfgenamen van Godiche]. Copenhagen: Godiche. 10,9 × 18,7 cm, 1166 pp. numbered + 38 pp. > EN: New Testament. > Translated by J.M. Magens. With a dedication to the king and a preface of 1 March 1781 by Bishop L. Harboe, E.J. Jessen-S., J. Hvid & A.P. Bartholin representing the General Church Inspection College, both in Danish and Negerhollands, and a foreword in Negerhollands by the translator. Divided into two parts: the four Gospels and Acts of the Apostles on pp. 1-672, Letters and Revelation of John on pp. 673-1166. The last page of the book contains a list of ten Dryk-Vouten ‘printing errors’. > According to Koch (1905:161) Wold and Alling helped with the translation. According to Lose (1891:24) Alling made an effort to get the ms. printed soon, and supervised the printing process while on sick leave in Denmark by making a fair copy of the ms. and providing corrections. > Hesseling (1905:37-39): ‘3.die Nywe Testament van ons Heer Jesus Christus ka set over in die Creolse Tael en ka giev na die Ligt tot dienst van die Deen Mission in America, gedrykt in Copenhagen 1781, bei die Erfgenamen van Godiche.’ > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 8). > In Newberry Library. > Stein (1986b:27, nr. 3.1.5). > In Stolz (1986) by mistake attributed to L. Harboe and assumed to have been published in St. Thomas. > UA: NBVII R3, 1a. > UBL: 727 E 33. [Magens Jochum Melchior]. 1818. Die Nywe Testament van ons Heer Jesus Christus ka set over in die Creols tael en ka giev na die ligt tot dienst van Die Deen Mission in America [Die tweede edition. Gedrykt in Copenhagen, 1818. Bie Die Erfgenamen van Schultz]. Copenhagen: Schultz. 1166 pp. numbered + 20pp. > EN: New Testament, second edition. > No Negerhollands translations of the dedication and the preface. Hesseling points out that the ten printing errors are restored in the second edition, but that a multitude of new errors was added. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > From the correspondence kept in the State Archive in Copenhagen this edition appears to comprise 1200 copies (RA, Koloniernes Centralbestyrelse, Kolonialkontoret, Gruppesager II-922, Salmebogssagen). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 302 > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 9): ‘A cheaper edition. For history of the translation see the summary in Larsen (1950), pp. 115-119.’ Note, however, that Larsen confuses missionary Hans Salling with missionary Niels Alling on page 116. > In Newberry Library. > Stein (1986b:28, nr. 3.1.9): ‘die Nywe Testament .... Copenhagen (Godiche) 21818.’ > UA: NBVII R3, 6a. > UB: 1059 C 18. > UBL: 2545 E 45 or 97 E 21, copy that has belonged to D.C. Hesseling. Meer, Marten Jan van der. 1927. Historische Grammatik der niederländischen Sprache. 1. Band: Einleitung und Lautlehre. Heidelberg: Carl Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung. pp. xxxiv-xl: ‘Das Negerhöllandische’. > EN: Historical grammar of Dutch. > Reinecke (1975:316, nr. 2). Die Nieuwe Testament van ons Heere en Heiland Jesus Christus, na Creol-Taal. Barby: 1802. [4], 812, [8] pp. > EN: New Testament. > The last eight pages (not numbered) contain corrections of errors and misprintings, very interesting for the researcher of early orthography and the liturgical variety of Negerhollands. > Reinecke (1975:319, nr. 10): ‘Translation by Johan Bøhmer, revised by Gov. Thomas de Malleville.’ > In Newberry Library. > Hesseling (1905:44-45): ‘11. Die Nieuwe Testament na Creol Taal, Barby, 1802. 8o. 812 blz.’ > Stein (1986b:28, nr. 3.1.8): ‘largely based on Böhner's translation of the Evangelienharmonie’ (see his mss. 3.1.10, 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.3 and 3.2.4). > UA: NBVII R3, 6a. > UBL: 2725 G 11. Oldendorp, C[hristian] G[eorg] A[ndreas]. 1777. C.G.A. Oldendorps Geschichte der Mission der evangelischen Brueder auf den caraibischen Inseln S. Thomas, S. Croix und S. Jan. Herausgegeben durch Johannes Jakob Bossart. Barby: Christian Friedrich Laur. 2 volumes in one. 1068, [44] pp. > EN: History of the Moravian Mission. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 32). > In Newberry Library. > UBA: 2452 F 5 and 1206 D 6 > Hesseling (1905:44): ‘10. Taalproeven (spreekwoorden en de apostoliese geloofsbelijdenis met de verklaring van Luther) meegedeeld door Oldendorp (pp. 432, 434-436). [Language samples (proverbs and the apostolian article of faith with the explanation of Luther) mentioned by Oldendorp]’. Oldendorp, C.G.A. 1987. C.G.A. Oldendorp's History of the Mission of the Evangelical Brethren on the Caribbean Islands of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John, edited by Johann Jakob Bossard, English Edition and Translation: A Caribbean Mission by Arnold R. Highfield and Vladimir Barac. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers Inc. > The publication year of the German original mentioned overleaf the title page, 1770, is incorrect. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal Oxholm, J.N. 1822. Bibel voor Kinders of Bibels Spreek met kort opmuntringen voor opmerksame Kinders set over na die Creols Tael van J.N. Oxholm Deen Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 303 Dominie en Missionarius in St. Crux en Inspector over die Deen Westindis Eilanden. [Kopenhamn]. Copenhagen. 60 pp. > EN: Bible for children. > This is a collection of short quotations from the Testaments, each one provided with an explanation of about one page by the author. > Mentioned in Schuchardt (1914:124) as quite entbehrlich ‘dispensable’ for the study of Negerhollands as it would not give a dependable picture. > DKB: 1-460-8o. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 33) mentions the size as 12o. > In Newberry Library. > Mentioned also in Lose (1891:37) and Larsen (1950:119). Pontoppidan, E[rik]. 1881. ‘Einige Notizen über die Kreolensprache der dänisch-westindischen Inseln’, in: Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 13. pp. 130-138. Berlin. > EN: Some notes on Virgin Islands Creole. > Hesseling (1905:40-41): ‘6. Taalproeven meegedeeld door Dr. E. Pontoppidan (Zeitschrift für Ethnologie XIII (1881), blz. 135-138.)’ Note that Hesseling does not give number 135 as the first page; page numbers refer to those pages he cites in his appendix. Number 135 is interpreted as a first page number, however, in Vibaek. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 34). > Pontoppidan includes three sources of Negerhollands; one is a copy of the 14th chapter of Matthew taken from Magens (1781), and the other two, proverbs (that were copied in Adams Graves 1977) and an informal conversation, are of great value because they were recorded from late 19th-century Negerhollands speakers of St. Thomas by Pontoppidan himself. Praetorius, Johannes Jacob. 1827. Dr. Marten Luther sie klein Katechismus ka set ower na die Creol Tael van J.J. Praetorius, Miss: ord: na St. Thomas en St. Jan in Amerika. [Kopenhagen, 1827. Ka prent bie C. Graebe]. Copenhagen: C. Graebe. 16 pp. > EN: Small Catechism. > DKB: 3-408-8o, 05338 (1827 edition). > BUH: TH bis 29970. (1827 edition), 16 pages, in one volume with Evangelis Kristelik Leering-buk, 72 pages, total of 88 pages. > DKB: 3-408-8o, 05339 (1834 edition, same author and same place, but ‘Ka prent bie P.T. Brünnich’). > Hesseling (1905:39, nr. 4) presumes that the reference to this book in Gaidoz contains a wrong year (1829): ‘dit boekje wordt geciteerd door H. Gaidoz in de Revue Critique 1881, II, blz. 167, als verschenen in 1829; ik vermoed dat het jaartal een drukfout bevat, van een tweede druk gewaagt Gaidoz niet.’ > Reinecke (1975:321, nr. 35). > Newberry Library. > Vibaek (1953:554) writes that the first edition by Praetorius is printed in Copenhagen in 1770, but he must be mistaken here, as Praetorius was not born then. Even though certain works were propagated as necessary revisions of older works, it does not mean that the revising author was also the author of the earlier work that he was expected to supply an alternative or renewed version of. Such mistakes are repeatedly found in bibliographies of Negerhollands. Often, it seems that even totally new books took the place (in Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal liturgic use) of other ones, being independent from their predecessors with respect to translation and authorship. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 304 Praetorius, Johannes Jacob. 1827. Evangelis Kristelik Leering-Buk tot Gebryk na die Onderwies van die Katechesan sender na die Deen Mission in Amerika. Ka skriev van JJ Praetorius. [Kopenhagen, 1827. Ka prent bie C. Graebe]. Copenhagen: C. Graebe. 72 pp. > EN: Evangelical Christian textbook. > Published together with Praetorius' Katechismus in one volume of 88 pp. Also reprinted with Katechismus in one volume in 1834. > This is an extended version of Luther's annotations with the Ten Commandments, the Articles of Faith, the Lord's Prayer and Sacraments. > BUH: TH bis 29970. (the 1827 edition together with Katechismus). > Hesseling (1905:39-40, nr. 5). > Reinecke (1975:321, nr. o36). > Larsen (1950:120) translates the title as: ‘Evangelical-Christian reader for the use of the catechists of the Danish Mission in America’ and remarks that this replaced Thorkild Lund's (1798) reader. > In Vibaek (1953), also a Creol Psalm-Buk edition of 1827 is said to be from Praetorius, but there is no indication for this. Praetorius, Johannes Jacob. 1834. Dr. Marten Luther sie klein Katechismus ka set ower na die Creol Tael van J.J. Praetorius, Miss: ord: na St. Thomas en St. Jan in Amerika. [Kopenhagen, 1834. Ka prent bie P.T. Brünnich]. Copenhagen: P.T. Brünnich. 16 pp. > DKB: 3-408-8o, 05339. > This work is identical to the 1827 edition, which has the same author, same title and same place, but ‘Ka prent bie C. Graebe’. > Note that, likewise, the anonymous Creol Psalm-Buk of 1834 is identical to the one from 1827. Furthermore, both works from 1827, then printed at C. Graebe, were reprinted in 1834 at P.T. Brünnich, and each in an issue of 1000 copies (as appears from an account of 10 November 1834 in RA, Koloniernes Centralbestyrelse, Kolonialkontoret, Gruppesager II. 922 Salmebogssagen). Praetorius, Johannes Jacob. 1834. Evangelis Kristelik Leering-Buk tot Gebryk na die Onderwies van die Katechesan sender na die Deen Mission in Amerika. Ka skriev van JJ Praetorius. [Kopenhagen, 1834. Ka prent bie P.T. Brünnich]. Copenhagen: P.T.Brünnich. 72 pp. > DKB: 3-408-8o, 05339. > This work is identical to the 1827 edition, which has the same author, same title and same place, but ‘Ka prent bie C. Graebe’. > Published together with Praetorius' Katechismus in one volume of 88 pp., like it was printed with Katechismus in 1 vol. in 1827. PSALM-BOEK voor die NEGER-GEMEENTEN na S. THOMAS, S. CROIX en S. JEAN. [Barby, gedrukt im Jahr 1774] Barby: 1774. 264 pp. > EN: Hymnal for the Negro communities. > DKB: DA.Box, 4-419, 07266, 8o. Introduction, hymns, index. Page numbering only from pp. 12-244. > Reinecke (1975:318, nr. 4): ‘Based on Johan Auerbach, Gebeden en liederen.’ > In Library of Congress. > Hesseling (1905:43-44, nr. 9): ‘Psalmboek voor die Negergemeenten van St. Thomas, St. Croix en St. Jan, Barby, 1774.’ Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal > Stein (1986b:27, nr. 3.1.4): ‘[anon.] Psalm-Boek voor die Neger-Gemeenten na S. Thomas, S. Croix en S. Jean. Barby: 1774. 10,7 × 17, 6 cm, 256 pp. > UA: NBVII R3, 5b. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 305 Psalm-boek voor die tot die Evangelische broeder-Kerk behoorende neger-gemeenten na S. Croix, S. Thomas en S. Jan. Barby: 1784. 322, [46] pp. > EN: Hymnal. > Reinecke (1975:318, nr. 5): ‘2nd edition of the 1774 Psalm-boek: 349 psalms, and liturgies. The high point of “high,” Hollandized Creole.’ > In Newberry Library. > Stein (1986b:27, nr. 3.1.6): ‘[anon.] Psalm-Boek voor die tot die evangelische Broeer-Kerk behoorende Neger-Gemeenten na S. Croix, S. Thomas en S. Jan. Barby: 1784. 284 pp. > UA: NBVII R3, 5c/5d. Rademeyer, J.H. 1938. Kleurling-Afrikaans, die taal van die Griekwas en Rehoboth-Basters, Amsterdam: N.V. Swets & Zeitlinger. > EN: Coloured Afrikaans, language of the Griekwas and Rehoboths. > Contains a chapter on Creole Languages (chapter 2:29-38), illustrated with a passage in Negerhollands on p. 37, taken from de Josselin de Jong (1926). Rask, Rasmus K. Perhaps 1806 ‘Betragtninger i anlednig af det kreolske sprog’, in: Diderichsen, Paul. Rasmus Rask og den grammatiske tradition, studier over vendepunktet i sprogvidenskabens historie. København: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1960. pp. 155-166. [In: Historisk-filosofiske Meddelelser, udgivet af Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Bind 38, nr. 2.]. > EN: Contemplations in connection with the Creole language. > This is an annotated publication of Add. 4o nr. 627 k., possibly from 1806, one of the many manuscripts by the great Danish general linguist that can be found in the Royal Library in Copenhagen. Rask, Rasmus K. After 1806. Udvalgte Afhandlinger, udgivet paa Bekostning af Rask-Ørsted Fondet i Hundredaaret for Rasks Død paa Foranledning af Vilhelm Thomsen af Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab ved Louis Hjelmslev med Indledning af Holger Pedersen. København: Levin & Munksgaards Forlag, 1932-33. Bind II. pp. 122-123. > EN: Selected papers. > The author contradicts Adelung's (1809) remark that Negerhollands would be a corrupted sort of Dutch, by saying ‘dass es eine eigene, neue Sprache ist, die bloss vom Holländischen abstammt, aber eine ganz verschiedene Einrichtung hat. [that it is a new language of its own, which just derives from Dutch, but which has a totally different structure]’ The same essay containing this passage is also found in R.K. Rask, Samlede tildels forhen utrykte Afhandlinger, III, København: H.K. Rask, 1838. pp. 445-466. Reinecke, John E. 1937. ‘Negerhollands’, in: Marginal languages: a sociological survey of the creole languages and trade jargons. Yale University, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. x, 880 pp. pp. 394-425. > Reinecke (1975:321, nr. 37). Schmidt, J.C. 1788. ‘Blandede Anmaerkninger, samlede paa og over Ejlandet St. Kroix i Amerika.’, in: ‘Anmerkninger over Ejlandet St. Kroix i Vestindien af Herr J.C. Schmidt’, in: Samleren, et Ugeskrivt, [Andet Bind, udgivet af Laurits Hvid Bøgh. Kjøbenhavn 1788. Trykt paa Boghandel Lønstrups Forlag, hos F W Thiele] Volume Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 2, Copenhagen: Laurits Hvid Bøgh. No.39 pp. 198-206; No.40 pp. 214-224; No.41 pp. 225-240; No.42 pp. 241-250; No.43 pp. 259-263. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 306 > EN: Mixed remarks. > DKB, Copenhagen: 60-26, 8o. > This article contains a rebellious slave song in Negerhollands on pp. 233-234, which is mentioned in Vibaek as ‘Brudstykke af en oprørssang [fragments of a rebel song]’. > The rebel song on pp. 233-234 was (on some points incorrectly) reprinted in: Thorkild Hansen, Slavernes Øer, København: Gyldendal, 1971, and also in Degn (1974:83). Schuchardt, Hugo. 1914. ‘Zum Negerhöllandischen von St. Thomas’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde 33. pp. 123-135. > EN: On the Negerhollands of St. Thomas. > In this article, a letter written in 1883 by A. Magens to the author is printed. The same letter is translated in the appended ‘Naschrift’ and ‘Aantekeningen’ by Hesseling (1914:135-142). > Reinecke (1975:321, nr. 38). Schuchardt, H. 1979. ‘On Virgin Islands Creole Dutch’, in: Thomas L. Markey (ed./transl.), Ethnography of Variation: Selected Writings on Pidgins and Creoles. Ann Arbor: Karoma Press Inc. pp. 48-58. > Translation of Schuchardt (1914). Spangenberg, August Gottlieb. 1773-1775. Leben des Herrn Nikolaus Ludwig Grafen und Herrn von Zinzendorff und Pottendorf Barby. [Reprint: Hildesheim-New York: Georg Olms, 1971]. > EN: Life of Zinzendorf. Taylor, Charles Edwin. 1888. Leaflets from the Danish West Indies: descriptive of the social, political, and commercial condition of these islands. London: the author. {*} > Reinecke (1975:321, nr. 39). Toit, Pieter Jacobus du. 1905. Afrikaansche studies [Uitgaven der Koninklijke Vlaamsche Academie voor Taal- en Letterkunde, Ve reeks: Uitgaven der Commissie voor Nieuwere Taal- en Letterkunde 14]. Gent: A. Siffer. > EN: Studies in Afrikaans. > Chapter 5 (p. 74-108) is devoted to a comparison of NH and various types of Afrikaans, among which Bantu-based Pidgin Afrikaans. It is the first comparison of this type. Van Name, Addison. 1871. ‘Contributions to Creole Grammar’, in: Transactions of the American Philological Association 1869-70, 1. Hartford. pp. 132-167. > Reinecke (1975:321, nr. 42): ‘p. 159-163 on Negerhollands.’ Vercoullie, J. 1919. ‘Negerhollands molee, Afrikaans boetie, kartjipiering, bibies, bottel, ousanna, ewwa-trewwa, foolstruis.’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Taal- en Letterkunde, 38. pp. 302-306. Wold, Erich Röring. 1770. Creool A B Buk voor die Deen Missioon na Westindien. [ka shrief door Erich Röring Wold, Catechet na St. Jans. 1770.]; unkn. pl.: unkn. publ. 16 pp. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal D[octor]. Martin Luther sie klein Catechismus na veif part. [1770.]; unkn. aut., unkn. pl.: unkn. publ., 1770. 32 pp. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 307 Creool Psalm-buk voor die Deen Missioon na Westindien. [1770.]; unkn. aut., unkn. pl.: unkn. publ. 70 pp. > EN: Creole AB book. Small catechism. Creole hymnal. > BUH: Pdg.11510. > In the introduction to Magens (1781) these three works are mentioned: ‘Die begin a ka maek mit een A.B.Buk, en die klein Catechismus van Lutherus, en eenig Kirk-Psalmen ookal, die ha wordt gedrykt hiesoo in die Jaer 1770, ... [a beginning was made with an AB book, the small catechism of Luther, and some hymns too, which were printed here in 1770]’. > Hesseling (1905:36) refers to this and adds he has not seen them himself, although he implies that they are bound together. ‘1.’ > Vibaek (1953:554) mentions only the first and the third part, and so does Larsen (1950:114). Larsen, who based his inferences on Lose (1891:18), furthermore mentions a catechism published in 1770 by Kingo, probably meaning the second part. Lose mentions a 1764 draft catechism by Kingo that was sent to Magens on which he worked together with Wold. He nowhere explicitly claims, however, that it was ever printed. A 1770 edition of the catechism is ascribed wrongfully to Praetorius by Vibaek. > Reinecke (1975:321) probably used Larsen as source as he mentions the same two parts only: Reinecke (1975:321, nr. 43): ‘Wold, Rev. -. on.d. [A B C book in Creol]’; Reinecke (1975:321, nr. o44): ‘-. on.d. [Hymnal in Creol]’. > DKB: DA.Box, 4-419, 07264, 8o is an identical copy of the third part of the above: Creool Psalm-buk voor die Deen Missioon na Westindien. 1770, with no indication of author. Apparently this has gone unnoticed so far. > It is possible that both Lose and Larsen are correct; then parts one and three are both by Wold, while the second part of this entry is ultimately by Kingo, even though it is bound together with Wold in one booklet. As no author of the second and third parts is mentioned, however, only linguistic and textual analysis may yield more conclusive information. Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig von. 1742. Büdingische Sammlung einiger in die Kirchenhistorie einschlagender, sonderlich neuerer Schrifften. Erster Band. Büdingen: Stöhr. Reprint: Hildesheim: Olms, 1965. p. 453-457: Des Hrn. Grafen Zinzendorff Abschied-Schreiben an die Negers in St. Thomas, in Cariolischer Sprache. p. 483-485: Der erweckten Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an Jhro Majest. den König in Dännemarck. An. 1739. p. 485-487: Der Ältestin der Gemeine der Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an die Königin von Dännemarck. An. 1739. > EN: Zinzendorfs farewell letter. Letter of the Black converts. Letter of the oldest woman of the Black community. > Stein (1986b:20, nr. 1.1.1, 3.1.1). Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 308 4 Studies after 1945. Adams Graves, Anne V. 1977. The present state of Dutch creole of the Virgin Islands. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms. Arends, Jacques, & Pieter Muysken. 1992. ‘Demografische Modellen in de Creolistiek’, in: Gramma/TTT, tijdschrift voor taalkunde 1, 1. pp. 41-55. > EN: Demographic models in creole studies. Bakker, Peter, Marike Post and Hein van der Voort. 1994. ‘TMA particles and auxiliaries’, in: Jaqcues Arends, Pieter Muysken, Norval Smith (eds.), Pidgins and Creoles: an introduction, Creole Language Library (CLL) Volume 15, Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, Ch.20, pp.247-258. Besten, Hans den (ed). 1986. Papers on Negerhollands, the Dutch Creole of the Virgin Islands. Amsterdam Creole Studies IX, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap 51. Besten, Hans den. 1989. ‘A plea for a more thorough use of West-Germanic Studies in Creole Studies (by way of an appendix to Peter Bakker's review of Glenn G. Gilbert (ed) (1987) Pidgin and Creole Languages. Essays in Memory of John E. Reinecke.)’, in: Peter Bakker and Norval Smith (eds), Amsterdam Creole Studies X, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap no.56. pp. 82-102. Besten, Hans den. 1992. ‘De makke van de etymologie van koloniale woorden in het Nederlands’, in: Jaarboek van de Stichting Instituut voor Nederlandse Lexicologie, overzicht van het jaar 1991, Leiden: Secretariaat van de Stichting, pp. 52-82. > EN: The snag of the etymology of colonial words in Dutch. > Sections 1.1 and 1.2 deal with the historical phonology of NH ‘epithetic’ vowels and the etymology of the Dutch and NH words for ‘cockroach’ and ‘soursop’. Besten, Hans den, & Pieter Muysken. 1992. ‘De sociolinguistische geschiedenis van het Negerhollands: een eerste overzicht’, in: Thema's en trends in de sociolinguistiek, toegepaste taalwetenschap in artikelen 42, 1. pp. 67-80, summary on p. 131. > EN: Sociolinguistic history of Negerhollands. Besten, Hans den, & Peter Stein. 1986. ‘Prospective Editions of the Negerhollands Records at Herrnhut’, in: The Carrier Pidgin, December, pp. 5-6. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 309 Bowen, L. 1979. Reconstructing language use: Some examples from Virgin Islands Creole Dutch. Paper presented at the International Conference on Theoretical Orientations in Creole Studies. St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. 7 pp. {*} Bradford, William Penn. 1982. Virgin Islands Dutch Creole: Its Principal Phrase, Clause and Sentence Structures. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of the West Indies, Jamaica. {*} Bradford, William Penn. 1986. ‘Virgin Islands Dutch Creole: A Morphological Description’, in: Hans den Besten (ed), pp. 73-99. Bradford, William Penn. (s.a.) Virgin Islands Dutch Creole: A Phonological Description. Typoscript. pp. i-v, 1-38, 103-108. {*} Brøndsted, Johannes (ed). 1953. Vore Gamle Tropekolonier, II Dansk Vestindien. Copenhagen: Westermanns Forlag. (2nd ed. unkn. pl.: Fremad, 1966). > EN: Our old tropical colonies. > See Vibaek. Bruyn, Adriënne, and Tonjes Veenstra. 1993. ‘The Creolization of Dutch’, in: Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 8, 1. pp. 29-80. Capelleveen, Jan J. van. 1991. ‘Nieuwe Testament in het Negerhollands’, in: Met andere woorden, kwartaalblad over bijbelwerk 10, nr. 1. pp. 11-16. > EN: New Testament in Negerhollands. Cooper, Vincent. 1989. ‘Christian Georg Andreas OLDENDORP. Geschichte der Mission der evangelischen Brueder auf den Caribischen Inseln, S. Thomas, S. Croix und S. Jan. Edited by Johann Jakob BASSARD (Barby: Christian Friedrich Laur, 1777) and further edited and translated into English by Arnold HIGHFIELD and Vladimir BARAC (Karoma Publishers, 1987) [review]’, in: The Carrier Pidgin, March-June. pp. 5-6. Deddens, K. 1967. ‘Kerkboeken in de “Creols-tael” van de voormalige Deense Antillen’ I-IV. In: De Reformatie, weekblad tot ontwikkeling van het Gereformeerde leven 42, nr. 34 (27 mei) - 37 (17 juni); I: pp. 165-166, II: pp. 173-174, III: pp. 281-282, IV: pp. 289-290. > EN: Church books in Negerhollands. Degn, Christian. 1974. Die Schimmelmanns im atlantischen Dreieckshandel. Gewinn und Gewissen. Neumünster: Karl Wachholz Verlag. 583 pp. > EN: The Schimmelmanns in the Atlantic triangle trade. > A very thorough study of the merchant family Schimmelmann, and how they turned away from the slave trade. It contains a few text fragments of Negerhollands, and a photographic copy of a letter from 1787 in Dutch, that seems to show Negerhollands traces. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 310 Diggelen, Miep van. 1978. ‘Negro-Dutch’, in: Pieter Muysken (ed), Amsterdam Creole Studies II, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap no. 20. pp. 69-100. Gilbert, Glenn G. 1986. ‘Oldendorp's History ... and other early creole materials in the Moravian archives in Herrnhut, East Germany’, in: The Carrier Pidgin, 10, 1 (April). pp. 5-7. Goodman, Morris. 1985. ‘The Origin of Virgin Island Creole Dutch’, in: Pieter Muysken & Norval Smith (eds) Amsterdam Creole Studies VIII, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap no. 48. pp. 67-106. Goodman, Morris. 1987. ‘The Portuguese Element in the American Creoles.’, in: Glenn G. Gilbert (ed) Pidgin and Creole Languages. Essays in Memory of John E. Reinecke. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 361-405. > NH is discussed on pp. 395-396. For a reaction with some alternative etymologies see den Besten (1989). Goodman, Morris. 1988. ‘Review of Amsterdam Creole Studies IX, ed. by Hans den Besten’, in: Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 3, 2. pp. 288-291. Grijzenhout, Janet. 1991. ‘Creoles and Historical Linguistics’. Unpublished paper, OTS Utrecht. 12 pp. Gritter, Gert. 1993. Van oerklank tot moedertaal, over de ontwikkeling van het Nederlands. Utrecht/Antwerpen: Kosmos/Zomer & Keuning. > EN: From primal scream to mother tongue. > Contains a chapter called ‘Het Negerhollands van de Deense Antillen’ on pp. 116-118. Hale, Mark Robert. (translator). J.M. Magens grammar of the Creole language in use on the three Danish Islands, St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. Johns, in America. Unpublished manuscript. > A translation of Magens (1770) preceded by an interesting introduction. Unfortunately, the translation of the grammar part and the proverbs section is marred by errors. Hancock, Ian F. 1969. ‘A Provisional Comparison of the English-Derived Atlantic Creoles’. In: Sierra Leone Language Review, 8, pp. 7-72. > Hancock suggests early English influence on the lexicon of Negerhollands. Hancock, Ian F. 1980. ‘Gullah and Barbadian: Origin and Relationships.’ In: American Speech, 35, 1, pp. 17-35. > Hancock suggests a West African origin for Negerhollands. Hewlett, Jocelyn. ‘Native Virgin Islander is one of a kind - she speaks Dutch Creole fluently’. in: The Daily News, Monday, July 15, 1985. St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 311 Hinskens, Frans & Cefas van Rossem. Forthcoming. ‘The Negerhollands word sender in 18th century manusripts’, paper from the SPCL conference of june 1993 in Amsterdam to appear in: Jacques Arends (ed), [Creolization: the early stages, papers presented at the workshop held in Amsterdam, 4-5 September 1992], Creole Language Library 13. Amsterdam/Philadephia: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Holm, John. 1988-1989. Pidgins and creoles. Volume I: Theory and structure, Volume II: Reference survey [Cambridge Language Surveys], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. > Negerhollands is often touched upon in Volume I, and a section is devoted to Negerhollands in Volume II on pp. 325-328. Larsen, Jens [P.M.]. 1950. Virgin Islands Story; a History of The Lutheran State Church, Other Churches, Slavery, Education, and Culture in the Danish West Indies, now the Virgin Islands. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press. xii, 250 pp. > Reinecke (1975:320, nr. 26). > This book contains chapters on language called ‘The Negro Dutch Creole Dialect’ on pp. 102-111, and ‘Translations and Publications’ on pp. 112-128. Lawaetz, Eva. 1980. Black Education in the Danish West Indies from 1732 to 1853, The Pioneering Efforts of the Moravian Brethren, St. Croix: St. Croix Friends of Denmark Society. > Here, in appendix E, a translation of the introduction to Magens' (1770) Grammar is given. > Information on Negerhollands works by Danes seems to be gleaned from Larsen (1950), as can be inferred from her similar claims about the works of Kingo and Wold. Makhudu, Dennis P. 1984. Is Afrikaans a creole language. MA thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. > A reassessment of Markey's comparison of Afrikaans with Negerhollands and the Atlantic creoles (Markey 1982a). Three variants of Afrikaans with varying degrees of creoleness are distinguished, among which the pidgin variant Flytaal. Markey, Thomas L. 1982a. ‘Afrikaans: creole or non-creole?’. In: Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik. IL Jahrgang, Heft 2, pp. 169-207. > A comparison of Negerhollands and Afrikaans on the basis of a list of creole features. Markey, Thomas L. 1982b. [Brief citation of Markey on Oldendorp's Mission History and on Moravian Archives in The Carrier Pidgin, 10, 4 (December): 4-5.] Muysken, Pieter. 1988. The Binding Theory and Creolization: Evidence from 18th Century Negerhollands. A paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Caribbean Linguistics. Nassau, Bahamas. Muysken, Pieter. 1995. ‘Studying variation in older texts: Negerhollands’, in: Journal of Pidgins and Creole Languages, 10 (1995) 2, pp. 335-347. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 312 Muysken, Pieter and Hein van der Voort. 1991. ‘The Binding Theory and Creolization: Evidence form 18th Century Negerhollands Reflexives’, in: Development and Structures of Creole Languages, Essays in honor of Derek Bickerton. Edited by Francis Byrne and Thom Huebner. Amsterdam/Philadephia: John Benjamins Publishing Co. pp. 145-159. Published as Vol. 9 of the series Creole Language Library. Nieuwenhuijzen, Maroesjka van. 1993. De invloed van het Zeeuws op het Negerhollands. Unpublished paper supervised by Norval Smith. Institute for General Linguistics, University of Amsterdam. 19 pp. > EN: The influence of Zealandic on Negerhollands. Nowak, Elke & Peter Stein. 1993. ‘Die Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine [Excurs im Artikel “Christian David”]’ in: Herbert E. Brekle et al., Bio-bibliographisches Handbuch der Grammatiker, Lexicographen und Sprachtheoretiker des 18. Jahrhunderts, Tübingen: Niemeyer, Vol. 2. pp. 206-209. > EN: The Herrnhut Brethren. Ponelis, F.A. 1988. ‘Afrikaans en Taalversteuring’, in: Tydskrif vir Geestenswetenskappe 28, 2. pp. 119-149. > EN: Afrikaans and language disturbance. > Section 5 is devoted to a comparison of Afrikaans with Negerhollands (p. 132-142). Reference is made to Markey (1982a). In an appendix three Negerhollands stories from de Josselin de Jong (1926) with translations into Afrikaans (p. 145-149). Reinecke, John E. 1975. ‘58. Negerhollands: Virgin Island Creole Dutch’, in: A Bibliography of Pidgin and Creole Languages [‘Compiled by John E. Reinecke, in collaboration with David DeCamp, Ian F. Hancock, Stanley M. Tsuzaki, Richard E. Wood and with the generous assistance of many more.’], [Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications]. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. pp. 318-321. Robertson, Ian E. 1989. ‘A comparative wordlist of Berbice Dutch, Skepi Dutch and Negerhollands.’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde 105. pp. 3-21. Rossem, Cefas van. 1996. ‘The particle so in 18th century Negerhollands: typical Dutch or genuine Negerhollands’, to appear in: P. Baker & A. Syea (eds) Grammaticalization in Pidgins and Creoles. London. Rossem, Cefas van. Forthcoming a. ‘Het Negerhollands, Negerzeeuws of Negervlaams?’, to appear in: Jaap van Marle & Jan B. Berns (eds) Nederlands overzee. Amsterdam: P.J. Meertens-Instituut. > EN: Negro-Dutch, Negro-Zealandic or Negro-Flemish? Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 313 Rossem, Cefas van. Forthcoming b. ‘Negerhollands’, in: Stephen Wurm (ed), Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific Hemisphere, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Rossem, Cefas van & Hein van der Voort. 1993. ‘Negerhollands’, in: Frank Drijkoningen & Kees Hengeveld (eds) Linguistics in the Netherlands 1993, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 105-115. Sabino, Robin. 1979. A Selected Bibliography of Materials on Language Varieties Spoken in the Virgin Islands. Mimeo. {*} > At least one copy exists on St. Thomas, Bureau of Libraries and Archives. Sabino, Robin. 1986. ‘Another Step towards a Characterization of the Negerhollands Tense and Aspect Particles.’, in: Hans den Besten (ed), pp. 47-71. Sabino, Robin. 1988. ‘The Copula in Vernacular Negerhollands’, in: Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3. pp. 199-212. Sabino, Robin. 1990. Towards a Phonology of Negerhollands: An Analysis of Phonological Variation. University of Pennsylvania. Diss. Sabino, Robin. 1993. ‘On onsets: Explaining Negerhollands initial clusters’, in: Atlantic meets Pacific, A Global View of Pidginization and Creolization. Edited by F. Byrne and John Holm. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. pp. 37-44. Sabino, Robin. 1994. ‘They just fade away: Language death and the loss of phonological variation’, in: Language in Society 23, pp. 495-526. Sabino, Robin & D. Graff. 1984. /H/Insertion in Negerhollands: The Pronoun Alternates Ham and Am. Paper presented at the Fifth Biennial conference of the Society for Carribean Linguistics, Mona, Jamaica. {*} Sprauve, Gilbert A. 1976a. ‘Chronological implications of discontinuity in spoken and written Dutch Creole’, in: New directions in creole studies. G. Cave, ed. Georgetown: Society for Caribbean Linguistics. Sprauve, Gilbert A. 1976b. ‘Bilingualism and phonological filtration in the Dutch and English Creoles of the Virgin Islands’, in: Journal of the College of the Virgin Islands 2. pp. 5-19. Sprauve, Gilbert A. 1981. ‘Pre- and post-emancipation language development in the Virgin Islands’, in: Freedom's Flame, St. Thomas: Bureau off Libraries, Museums and Archeological Services. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 314 Sprauve, Gilbert A. 1985. [Press release announcing a cassette tape containing segments of Negerhollands fieldwork sessions with informant Mrs. Alice Stevens], Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas: College of the Virgin Islands. 3 pp. Sprauve, Gilbert A. 1985. Maritšimát en Stédifi, the story of Black Witch and Ground Dove as told by Mrs. Alice Stevens [Cassette tape and transcription in Negerhollands and English]. St. Thomas: College of the Virgin Islands. Sprauve, Gilbert A. 1990. ‘Dutch Creole/English Creole distancing: historical and contemporary data considered’, in: International Journal of Soc. Lang. 85. pp. 41-50. Sprauve, Gilbert A., Vincent O. Cooper and Karen Villesvik. 1984. From Oldendorp to Koelle; Towards an Analysis of Virgin Islands Historical African Linguistic Data. Paper prepared for Conference of the Society of Caribbean Linguistics, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, August. 28 pp. Stein, Peter. 1982a. ‘Quelques dates nouvelles de l' histoire du mot créole’, in: Etudes Créoles 5. pp. 162-165. > EN: Some new data on the history of the word creole. Stein, Peter. 1982b. ‘Die Kreolischen Lieder des Weihnachtsgottesdienstes von 25. Dezember 1754 in St. Thomas’, in: Unitas Fratrum 12. pp. 106-112. > EN: Creole hymns of the Christmas service. Stein, Peter. 1984. ‘Die ersten “Kreolisten”: Die Herrnhuter Missionare im 18. Jahrhundert auf Sankt Thomas’, in: Unitas Fratmm, Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Gegenwartsfragen der Brüdergemeine 15. pp. 53-63. > EN: The first creolists. Stein, Peter. 1985a. ‘Die Anfänge der Verschriftung einer Kreolsprache: das Negerhollands im 18.Jahrhundert’, in: Entstehung von Sprachen und Völkern, Glotto- und ethnogenetische Aspekte enropäischer Sprachen, Akten des 6. Symposions über Sprachkontakt in Europa, Mannheim 1984. Herausgegeben von P. Sture Ureland. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. pp. 437-457. > EN: The beginning of the writing of a creole language. Stein, Peter. 1985b. ‘Bemerkungen zur Edition der “Sklavenbriefe” aus St.Thomas, 1737-1768, (Kurzfassung)’, in: Boretzky, Norbert, Werner Enninger & Thomas Stolz (eds). Akten des 1. Essener Kolloquiums über ‘Kreolsprachen und Sprachkontakte’ vom 26. 1. 1985 an der Universität Essen. Essen. pp. 135-142. > EN: Remarks on the edition of the ‘Slave Letters’. Stein, Peter. 1986a. ‘Les premiers créolistes: Les Frères Moraves à St. Thomas au XVIIIe siècle’, in: Hans den Besten (ed), pp. 3-18. > EN: The first creolists. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 315 Stein, Peter. 1986b. ‘The Documents concerning the Negro-Dutch Language of the Danish Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John - Negerhollands -, in the Unitäts-Archiv (Archives of the Moravian Brethren) at Herrnhut. A Commented Bibliography.’, in: Hans den Besten (ed), pp. 19-31. Stein, Peter. 1986c. ‘An Example from the Dutch Creole of St. Thomas, spoken by the Moravian Missionaries at the end of the 18th century: “Eine Rede an die Kinder” (A speech to the children) from July 11/12, 1796 (UA: NB VII R3, 6D; part of 3.3.1.5). Edited, with an introduction by, Peter Stein’, in: Hans den Besten (ed), pp. 33-42. Stein, Peter. 1989. ‘When Creole Speakers Write the Standard Language: an Analysis of the Earliest Slave Letters from St. Thomas’, in: Wheels within Wheels: Papers of the Duisburg Symposium on Pidgin and Creole Languages. [Duisburger Arbeiten zur Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft 5]. Edited by Martin Pütz and René Dirven. Frankfurt/Bern: Lang. pp. 153-178. Stein, Peter. 1990. ‘II. Besprechungsaufsatz zu Th. Stolz (1986), Auf der Suche nach einem kreolischen Sprachwandelmodell’, in: Indogermanische Forschungen 95. pp. 208-216. > EN: Review of Stolz (1986). Stein, Peter. 1991 ‘Die Kodifizierung des Negerhollands durch die Herrnhuter Missionare im 18. Jahrhundert’, in: Eijiro Iwasaki (ed) Akten des VIII. Internationalen Germanisten-Kongresses, Tokyo 1990: Begegung mit dem ‘Fremden’, Grenzen - Traditionen - Vergleiche, Band 3 Sprachgeschichte, sprachkontakte im germanischen Sprachraum, München: Iudicium. pp. 186-197. > EN: Codification of Negerhollands by the Moravians. Stein, Peter. 1992a. ‘Johann Böhner’ in: Herbert E. Brekle et al., Bio-bibliographisches Handbuch der Grammatiker, Lexicographen und Sprachtheoretiker des 18. Jahrhunderts, Tübingen: Niemeyer, Vol. 1. pp. 306-308. Stein, Peter. 1992b. ‘The Beginning of Creole Writing and Teaching in the 18th Century on the (formerly Danish) Virgin Islands, St Thomas, St John and St Croix’, in: Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 3, November. pp. 4-6. Stein, Peter. Forthcoming a. Oldendorp Manuskript eines Negerholländischen Wörterbuches. Tübingen: Niemeyer Verlag. > EN: Oldendorp manuscript of a Negerhollands dictionary. Stein, Peter. Forthcoming b. ‘... and they only remembered and used it when they succeeded to give it a sense’, in: Jacques Arends (ed.), Creolization: the early Stages, papers presented at the workshop held in Amsterdam, 4-5 September 1992, Creole Language Library 13. Amsterdam/Philadephia: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 316 Stein, Peter, & Hartmut Beck. In preparation. [Kommentierte Ausgabe der Sklavenbriefe aus St. Thomas 1737-1768]. {*} > EN: Commented edition of the Slave Letters. Stein, Peter & Hans-Werner Eroms. In preparation. [Synoptische Edition der drei Grammatiken des Negerhollands aus dem 18. Jahrhundert]. {*} > EN: Synoptic edition of the three Negerhollands grammars. Stolz, Thomas. 1983. ‘The Prosodic Properties of Negro-Dutch. On the interrelationship between stress, pitch, vowel quality, and vowel quantity’, in: Norval Smith & Pieter Muysken (eds), Amsterdam Creole Studies V, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap no 36. pp. 53-92. Stolz, Thomas. 1984a. ‘A Short Report on the Actual State of the Computer-Aided Analysis of Negro-Dutch (ND)’, in: Pieter Muysken & Norval Smith (eds), Amsterdam Creole Studies VII, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap no. 44. pp. 31-35. Stolz, Thomas. 1984b. ‘Two Chapters in Negro-Dutch (ND) Etymology. (1) The Danish share in the ND-lexicon (2) Which forms should ND-verbs be derived from?’, in: Amsterdam Creole Studies VII, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap no. 44. pp. 35-52. Stolz, Th[omas]. 1986. Gibt es das kreolische Sprachwandelmodell? Vergleichende Grammatik des Negerhöllandischen. Frankfurt a.M., Bern, New York: Peter Lang. > EN: Does the creole model of language change exist? Stolz, Thomas. 1987a. ‘Kreolistik und Germanistik: Niederländisch-basierte Sprachformen in Übersee’, in: Linguistische Berichte, 110. pp. 283-318. > EN: Overseas Dutch-based language forms. Stolz, Thomas. 1987b. ‘Verbale Morphosyntax im Berbice und Negerhollands: Ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Grammatik der niederländisch-basierten Überseesprachen’, in: Varia Creolica, Essener Beiträge zur Sprachwandelforschung Bd.3, ed. by Philippe Maurer & Thomas Stolz. Bochum: Studienverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer. pp. 167-204. > EN: Contribution to comparative grammar of Dutch-based overseas languages. Stolz, Thomas, & Peter Stein. 1986. ‘Language and History in the Former Danish Antilles: Non-Linguistic Evidence for a Diachronic Description of the Negro-Dutch Language’, in: Hans den Besten (ed), pp. 103-122. Taylor, Douglas. 1977. Languages of the West Indies, Baltimore/London: The John Hopkins University Press. > On pp. 250-252 of this work, a list of 100 Negerhollands words is ‘compiled from diverse unphonemicized sources’. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 317 Valls. Lito. 1981. What a pistarckle! A dictionary of Virgin Islands English Creole. St. John, U.S.V.I.: unkn.pub. > The subtitle on the title page has ‘glossary’, instead of ‘dictionary’. > The dictionary contains many Negerhollands words, but sometimes they are not identified as such, for instance pistarckle < DU spektakel ‘excitement’. Vibaek, Jens. 1953. ‘Dansk Vestindien 1755-1848, Vestindiens Storhedstid’, in: Brøndsted, Johannes (ed). Vore Gamle Tropekolonier. Copenhagen: Westermanns Forlag, II. 2nd ed. Copenhagen: Fremad, 1966, Bind 2. > EN: Danish West India. > Linguistic information is found on pp. 266-270 and 554 in the 1953 edition and 195-203 and 349-351 in the 1966 edition. Voort, Hein van der. Forthcoming. ‘Vestindisk Glossarium’, to appear in: Peter Stein, Oldendorp Manuskript eines Negerholländischen Wörterbuches. Niemeyer Verlag. Voort, Hein van der & Pieter Muysken. Forthcoming. ‘18th century Negerhollands reflexives revisited’, in: Jacques Arends (ed), [Creolization: the early stages, papers presented at the workshop held in Amsterdam, 4-5 September 1992], Creole Language Library 13. Amsterdam/Philadephia: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Vries, J.W. de, et al. 1993. Het verhaal van een taal, negen eeuwen Nederlands, Amsterdam: Prometheus. > EN: Nine centuries of Dutch. > In this history of the Dutch language, Berbice Dutch and Negerhollands are also shortly dealt with, on pp. 277-279. Werkgem, Fienie G. van. 1994. ‘Weg van het Nederlands’, in: Dubbel Nederlands, 23 opstellen voor Simon C. Dik. pp. 75-79. > EN: Away from Dutch. > This is a diverting presentation of some thoughts concerning the relatedness and distinction between Negerhollands and Dutch, in which material from Auerbach (1774) is contrasted with that from de Josselin de Jong (1926). Non-commercial limited edition. Williams, Jeffrey. 1983. ‘Dutch and English Creole on the Windward Netherlands Antilles. An Historical Perspective’, in: Norval Smith & Pieter Muysken (eds), Amsterdam Creole Studies V, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap no. 36. pp. 93-112. Williams, Jeffrey P. 1984. ‘Faithfulness of Replication: Eighteenth Century Dutch Creole Dialogues as Artifacts of Discourse’, in: Pieter Muysken & Norval Smith (eds), Amsterdam Creole Studies VII, Publikaties van het Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap no. 44. pp. 53-76. Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 319 Index A ABC-booklets, see Language primers Acrolect 42 Accusative XI, 193 Adams-Graves, A.V. 44, 265 Adelung, J.C. 44 African language 10, 64, 71 African lexical substrate 8 African-born slaves 41 Akan 7 Alphabet 181 Amerindians 6 Archives of the Moravian Brethren, Herrnhut 27, 44, 83, 90, 283, 284 Aspect marker XI Audience design 31 Auerbach, J.C. 8, 286 B Basilect 42 Berbice Dutch 4 Bethlehem (USA) 80, 283 Bible translations 119, 144 Böhner J. 1, 27, 41, 109, 120, 143, 144, 286, 287 Brandt, A.J. 114, 294 C Carstens, J.L. 26, 50 Caribbean-born slaves 41 Cornelius 83, 226 Davis Messelaar 88 Dialogues 35, 201, 209, 231 Domingo Gesoe 77, 80, 83 Coloring of schwa 23, 72, 183, 184, 193, 196, 197, 200 Columbus 6 Comparison, degrees of 38, 259 Complement 12 Complementizer XI Conjunction 40 Consonant cluster 43 Copula XI, 16, 17, 84, 115 Copular construction 115 Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 320 Creole languages 10 Creole features 10 Creole genesis 11, 24 Creole influences 74 Creole studies 10 D Danes 8, 32, 41 Danish 19, 28 Danish Antilles, see Virgin Islands Danish households 7 Danish influence 118, 193, 233 Danish mission 28-30, 41, 108 Danish translations 114 Danish West Indian Company 6 Danish words 246 Dative XI, 56, 193 Decreolization 34 Demonstrative XI Denmark 6 Determiner XI Diachronic dimension 34 Dictionary 28 Diminutive XI, 38, 43, 79, 81, 122, 196 Diplomatic symbols XII Duration XI, 14 Dutch 1, 2, 21, 40, 42, 74 Dutch Antilles 4 Dutch-based creoles 11 Dutch descent 41 Dutch households 7 Dutch influences 49, 55-57, 59, 65, 82, 117, 118, 133, 145, 160 Dutch Windward Antilles 7 Dutch words 54, 57, 59, 124, 134, 146 E Education 25 English 10, 19, 28, 32, 37, 267 English households 7 English-lexicon Creoles 11 English words 62, 81, 125, 130, 158, 262 Epithetic vowels 22, 23 European descent 35 European population 7 Europeans 6, 202 Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 321 Evangelienharmonie 1, 27, 153, 288, 297 Evangelische Brüdergemeine, see Moravian Brethren Ewe 71 Existential construction 51, 52, 145 F First language 19, 35 Flemish 7, 13 FOR XI, XVII, 16 French 10, 19 French households 7 French-lexicon Creoles 11 Future tense XI, 14 G Genesis (Old Testament) 135 Genitive XI, 52, 65, 66, 93, 160, 193 Geographical dimension 36 German households 7 German influence 58-60, 65, 66, 82, 95, 97, 109, 129, 131, 133, 136, 160, 193 German words 60, 66, 111, 120, 121, 126, 140, 145, 254 Gradual Creolization 11, 34 Grammar 27, 29, 37, 41, 288, 289, 291 Greider, E.C. 33, 251 Guyana 4 H Habitual marker XI, 228 Herrnhut 1, 25, 29 Herrnhuters, see Moravian Brethren Hesseling, D.C. 20, 33, 44, 209, 238, 251, 283, 289, 298 ‘High creole’ 37 Hollandic 18-21 Holstein households 7 Homonyms XII Hymnal 25, 27, 28, 30, 32, 35, 108, 109, 294-296, 304, 307 I Iambic meter 112, 118 Ibero-Romance 11, 212 Indian congregation 80, 86 Isles, S. 93, 289 J Josselin de Jong, J.P.B. de XVIII, 3, 33, 44, 253, 267, 299 Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 322 K Kingo, J.C. 29, 30, 177-179, 186, 290, 299 L Language death 34 Language primers 20, 27, 177ff Löhans 77 Second language 35 Second language acquisition 19 Variation 34 Letters 26, 27, 30, 37, 49, 74, 238, 286, 287, 292 Lexical aspects 51, 54, 58, 84, 87, 94, 100, 102, 112, 123, 146, 157, 162, 183, 187, 191, 198, 199, 202, 204, 206, 212, 217, 225, 239, 242, 245, 246, 248, 254, 255, 259, 270, 274 Lexicon 3 Lieberkühn S. 297 Linguistic background of slaves 41 Linguistic competence 31 Linguistic variation 143 Liturgic style 34 Locally-born slaves 7, 41 Lund, T. 114, 290, 300 Lutheran Church 29 Lutheran mission, see Danish mission M Magens, A. 238, 300 Magens, J.M. 12, 28-30, 37, 38, 44, 120, 143, 178, 202, 209, 231, 238, 290, 291, 300, 301 Martin, F. 26, 74 Middle Dutch 20, 21, 23 Mission 16 Missionaries 24, 25, 30, 41 Modality particle XI Moravian Brethren 1, 4, 25-27, 32, 41, 43, 49, 93, 94, 108, 226, 251 N NA XI, XVII, 12, 133 Negation XI, 12 Nominative 40, 51, 53 Origin of Negerhollands 19 Genesis of Negerhollands 19 Nelson, F.G. 33, 44, 262, 291 Neu Herrnhut 201, 226, 266 Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 323 New Testament 27, 28, 30, 119, 143, 144, 179, 239, 301, 302 O Old Testament 30, 119, 120, 287, 293 Oldendorp, C.G.A. 4, 27, 28, 30, 35, 38, 42, 44, 86, 108, 202, 291, 292, 302 Orthography XVIII, 35, 68, 75, 76, 78, 80, 85, 87, 88, 90, 93, 103, 126, 127, 146, 147, 179-186, 195, 196, 203, 231, 233 Oxholm, J.N. 120 P Papiamentu 4, 19 Passive 38, 43, 115, 117, 123, 179, 187, 207 Past tense XI Perfective marker XI, 115, 165, 240 Personal pronouns 40, 50, 51, 53, 54, 59, 61, 62, 72, 76, 102, 236, 263 Peter 77 Phonological aspects 13, 20-23, 50, 80, 94, 96, 103, 124, 136, 243, 254, 264, 269 Pidgin 10 Plantation language 32 Plural XI, 17, 38, 43, 59 Pontoppidan, E. 32, 44, 231, 303 Portuguese 10 Portuguese households 7 Portuguese pidgin 19, 22 Possessive XI, 14, 51, 52, 68, 72 Possessive pronoun 58, 75 Praetorius, J.J. 303, 304 Preposition XII, XV, XVI Printed Negerhollands texts 4, 27 Progressive aspect XI, Proverbs 201, 209, 231 R Reflexive pronouns 43 Rask, R.K. 44, 305 Reduplication XI, Reinecke, J.E. 283 Religious instruction 186 Religious texts 93, 177 R-pronouns 20, 59 S Schuchardt, H. 44, 238, 300, 306 Secular texts 224 Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 324 Serial verbs 14, 15 Skepi Dutch 4 Slave community 49 Slave congregation 86 Slave Creole 37 Slave population 8 Slaves 6 Social dimension 37 Sociolinguistic development 31 SOV order 56, 61, 65, 109-112, 145 Spangenberg, A.G. 83 Spelling, see Orthography Sranan 4 St. Croix 3, 6, 8, 29, 36, 37, 79, 88, 224 St. Eustatius 7, 8, St. John (St. Jan) 3, 36, 227, 231 St. Thomas 3, 6, 7, 26, 30, 36, 108, 201, 226, 231, 251, 262 Stevens, A. 33, 44, 265, 266ff Study of Negerhollands 44 Stylistic dimension 34, 144 Subject 12 Superstrate 35 Surinam 4 SVO order 17, 19 Swedish households 7 T Taíno's 6 Tense 16, 39 TMA marker XI, 2, 12, 19, 54, 62, 78, 111, 115 Topicalization 16 Translations 25, 31, 35, 114, 119, 144 Twi 7, 19 U United States 33 US Virgin Islands, see Virgin Islands V Van Name, A. 32, 44, 306 Verbal complex 12 Vestindisk Glossarium 29, 292 Virgin Islands 1, 3, 30 Virgin Islands English Creole 262, 263, 267 Vocative 41, 51 Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal 325 W West Africa 7 West African coast 7 West African influence 19 West African languages 16 West Flemish 20, 242 White creole 37 White population 8 Wied, H. 28, 32, 293 Wold, E.R. 29, 30, 177, 178, 186, 306 Word order 17 Written language 58, 74 Z Zealandic 7, 13, 18-21, 23, 37, 75, 76, 78, 81, 195 Zealandic words 50, 259 Zinzendorf, N.L. Count von, 24-27, 49, 50, 64, 307 Cefas van Rossem en Hein van der Voort, Die Creol taal, whilst the character was ambiguous between [s] and [z] as was still more or less the case in 18th century Dutch spelling. In Danish the [z] does not have a phonemic status. In any event, the occurrence of the