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ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS Studia Numismatica Upsaliensia 5 STUDIA NUMISMATICA UPSALIENSIA Editor: Harald Nilsson

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ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS Studia Numismatica Upsaliensia 5 STUDIA NUMISMATICA UPSALIENSIA Editor: Harald Nilsson ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS Studia Numismatica Upsaliensia 5 STUDIA NUMISMATICA UPSALIENSIA Editor: Harald Nilsson 1. Anglo-Saxon and later British Coins. By Elsa Lindberger. 2006 2. Deutsche Münzen der Wikingerzeit sowie des hohen und späten Mittelalters. By Peter Berghaus and Hendrik Mäkeler. 2006 3. Uppsala universitets myntkabinett, systematiska samlingen. Vikingatida och medeltida mynt. By Jonas Rundberg and Kjell Holmberg (sub prelo) 4. Opus mixtum. Uppsatser kring Uppsala universitets myntkabinett (to be printed 2008) 5. ”…achieved nothing worthy of memory”. Coinage and authority in the Roman empire c. AD 260–295. By Ragnar Hedlund. 2008 6. The Coinage of Akragas in Sicily c. B.C. 510–406. By Ulla Westermark (to be printed 2008). 7. Musik på medaljer. Medaljer med musikmotiv i Uppsala universitets myntkabi- nett. By Eva Wiséhn (to be printed 2008). First published 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission in writing of Uppsala University, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographic rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to Uppsala University, Coin Cabinet, P O Box 256, SE 751 05 Uppsala Sweden. STUDIA NUMISMATICA UPSALIENSIA 5 “…achieved nothing worthy of memory” Coinage and authority in the Roman empire c. AD 260–295 BY RAGNAR HEDLUND EDITED BY HARALD NILSSON 2008 Dissertation presented at Uppsala University to be publicly examined in Auditorium Minus, Gustavi- anum, Akademigatan 3, Uppsala, Friday, April 25, 2008 at 13:15 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The examination will be conducted in English. Abstract Hedlund, R. 2008. “...achieved nothing worthy of memory”. Coinage and authority in the Roman empire c. AD 260-295. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. Studia Numismatica Upsaliensia 5. 276 pp. Uppsala. ISBN 978-91-554-7120-0. This study examines how the Roman emperors c. AD 260–295 attempt at maintaining their power-bases through legitimation of their claims to power, with reference to various potentially powerful groups of society, such as the military, the inhabitants of the provinces and the senate in Rome. The purpose has been to discern the development of ‘Roman imperial ideology’ in an age which has frequently been referred to as an ‘age of military anarchy.’ Focus is on how claims to power could be expressed through visual media. Of such media, mainly the coins struck for the emperors c. AD 260-295 have been studied. A close investigation has been made of the iconography of these coins. Furthermore, the ways in which coin-images are modified and combined with various legends are studied. An additional purpose of this investigation has been to provide a comment on the general potential of conveying visual imagery and messages on objects such as coins and medallions. The study argues that novel, intricate and multi-layered images were created on the coins struck for the emperors c. AD 260-295. Furthermore, it is suggested that these coin-images were created to assume the function of larger-scale expressions of imperial authority, such as triumphal arches and imperial statues. This adaption of coinage was made because there was a need for intensified communication of imperial authority. This need arose due to the incessant warfare of the age, and a process of regionalization of the empire, which was connected to this warfare. The conclusion is that these coins provide an illustration of the development of the Roman empire in the second half of the third century. This was a development by which the city of Rome lost its importance in favour of regional capitals, and ultimately in favour of Constantinople. Keywords: Roman empire, soldier-emperor, crisis, propaganda, language of images, authority, legiti- macy, communication, coinage, coin-imagery, war, military, court, Rome, regionalization, consecration, dynasty, divine sanction Ragnar Hedlund, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Classical archaeology and ancient history, Box 626, Uppsala University, SE-75126 Uppsala, Sweden © Ragnar Hedlund 2008 ISSN 1652-7232 ISBN 978-91-554-7120-0 urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-8511 (http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-8511) Typeset in Times New Roman by Publishing & Graphic Service, Uppsala University Library Digital photos by Gabriel Hildebrand, The Royal Coin Cabinet, Stockholm, and Author (Figures 16, 20–22, and 47) Printed in Sweden by Edita Västra Aros, Västerås 2008 Distributor: Uppsala University Library, Box 510, SE-751 20 Uppsala www.uu.se, [email protected] The publication of this volume has been assisted by generous grants from Uppsala University, Uppsala Kungl. Myntkabinettet Sveriges Ekonomiska Museum, Stockholm Sven Svenssons Stiftelse för Numismatik, Stockholm Gunnar Ekströms Stiftelse för Numismatisk Forskning, Stockholm CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... vii NOTES ON SOURCES AND TRANSLATIONS .............................................................. ix INTRODUCTION: “ONE OF THE BEST ATTESTED, BUT MOST IMPROBABLE EVENTS…” .............................................................................................. 1 1. APPROACHING THE THIRD CENTURY .................................................................... 5 1.1. “By the weakness of the emperors” ...................................................................... 5 1.2. The crises of the third century: departure points ................................................. 6 1.3. Remnants of a narrative – written sources (or, the lack thereof) ........................ 10 1.4. Communication and legitimacy: towards a theoretical framework .................... 14 1.5. Introducing a ‘language of images’ .................................................................... 21 1.6. Imperial coinage as a visual medium .................................................................. 27 1.7. Grammar and syntax of a ‘language of coin-images’ ......................................... 34 1.8. Crossing boundaries: chronological scope of the thesis ..................................... 39 1.9. Patchwork: research on third century coinages .................................................. 42 2. VIRTUS AUGUSTI: THE EMPEROR GOES TO WAR ............................................. 50 2.1. The year 260: year zero in the Roman empire .................................................... 50 2.2. The image of military power .............................................................................. 52 2.3. The virtus of a soldier-emperor… ...................................................................... 57 2.4. …that leads to victory ......................................................................................... 67 2.5. The importance of being invictus ........................................................................ 73 2.6. ‘Waging peace’ .................................................................................................... 76 2.7. A promise of order ............................................................................................. 80 2.8. Restoring the world ............................................................................................. 84 2.9. War as ritual and monuments of war .................................................................. 86 3. …ET FRATRES SUI: EMPERORS, SOLDIERS AND OFFICERS ........................... 91 3.1. “Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers…” ............................................................ 91 3.2. Being one of the men .......................................................................................... 93 3.3. The legions: an armed society? ........................................................................... 96 3.4. ‘From the curule seat to the horseback’ ............................................................ 106 3.5. Conceiving a ‘military court’ ............................................................................ 113 3.6. Colleagues in arms? .......................................................................................... 120 vi 4. ROMAE AETERNAE: THE EMPEROR AND THE URBS AETERNA ....................... 124 4.1. All roads lead… ................................................................................................ 124 4.2. The gorgeous palaces, the solemn temples: searching for the soldier-emperors in the city of Rome ....................................................................... 126 4.3. Providentia Augusti: coins for the city of Rome ............................................... 136 4.4. Paying tribute to Roma Aeterna ........................................................................ 145 4.5. “…the place, to which each emperor had come…” .......................................... 151 4.6. The revolt of the moneyers: a counter-reaction? ............................................... 161 4.7. Salus provinciarum – imperial coinage in Gaul ................................................ 164 4.8. Maintaining Roman order in Britain ................................................................. 169 5. DEO ET DOMINO AVG: DYNASTIC POLICIES, DEITIES, AND DIVINITY ....... 174 5.1. A death in the family… ..................................................................................... 174 5.2. A god in death: consecratio and pietas ............................................................
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