Lesson 2. Epigraphy Learning tasks: by completing this unit of study, the student will be able to: ¾ Define Epigraphy and to highlight the key moments in its evolution as science. ¾ Retain some elementary notions of Epigraphy: writing materials, writing techniques and writing tools; the evolution of the epigraphic writing; the branches of Epigraphy; the dating and the editing of the inscriptions. ¾ Reveal the importance of Epigraphy. I. Definition; The evolution of Epigraphy as science Epigraphy (from Greek ἐπιγραφή, epi­graphē = inscription) is the Auxiliary Science of History that deals with the interpretation and deciphering of the inscriptions in hard materials such as stone, metal (plumb, bronze, silver, gold), pearl, ivory, ceramic, wood, bricks, skin, glass, etc. Willhelm Larfeld has defined Epigraphy as "science of the literary monuments". Epigraphy not studying coins, medals and seals. With their study deals other Auxiliary Sciences of History (Numismatics, Phaleristics and Sigillography). The History of Epigraphy is very old. Herodotus of Halicarnassus (c.484–c.420 BC) used the temple inscriptions as historical sources for the realization of his work. After Herodotus, the attention given to Epigraphy was accentuated by the concerns of the Latin and Byzantines historians. In the Middle Ages, concerns in the field of Epigraphy were continued. In the 16th century, Conrad Peutinger (1465‐1547) and Martin Smet was preoccupied by inscriptions. Although they do not have exceeded the recognition phase, they are regarded as the parents of Epigraphy. Significant contributions to the advancement of Epigraphy was brought by Scipione Maffei (1675‐1755). In book 3 of the Ars critique lapidaria, he tried to extract some elements, realizing the first critical of the inscriptions published until him. As science, Epigraphy was formed only in the early 19th century, when are realized the major collections of ancient inscriptions (Greek and Latin). The founder of this science is August Boeckh (1785‐1867), who established the principles and emphasized the importance of Epigraphy. In 1827, he published a circular Corporis Inscriptionum graecarum, Notitia sumptibus Academiae Borussica edendi, in which defines the characters of Epigraphy. A year later, August Boeckh has developed its concerns in the first volume of Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (CIG); the following volumes appeared in 1843, 1853 and 1856, and the index in 1877. His work includes a total of 9926 inscriptions. In 1863, under the aegis of the Academy of Berlin (as CIG), began publication of a very valuable epigraphic instrument, called Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Daniel Flaut, Introduction to the Auxiliary Sciences of History (CIL). To achieve it, a great contribution brought Theodor Mommsen (1817‐ 1903), in fact the initiator of this great work of Epigraphy. These two large corpora of inscriptions (CIG and CIL) have provided information material for the theoretical debate. Completion of science takes place much later by the famous work of Salomon Reinach (Traité d’épigraphie grecques, Paris, 1885), Wilhelm Larfeld (Handbuch der griechischen Epigraphik, 2 vol., München, 1902‐1907; Griechischen Epigraphic, München, 1914) and Rene Cagnat (Cours d’épigraphie latine, ed. 4, Paris, 1914). Thus, was established the general methodological principles. In the interwar period and after 1945, the researches of Epigraphy was widened considerably both by the publication of new inscriptions provided by the archaeological discoveries as well by the elaborating studies of Epigraphy theory. Over the years, the specialists participated at the international congresses of Epigraphy, which were held in Paris, Vienna, München, Cambridge, etc. and where they discussed various issues of the theory and the methodology of Epigraphy. A prestigious international publication, which mediates the discussion of many issues raised by the epigraphic studies today, is appearing in Paris (L' Année épigraphique). II. Elementary notions of Epigraphy a) Writing materials, writing techniques and writing tools The material of the inscriptions is very varied. The oldest inscriptions were carved in wood, usually waxed wood, for a greater durability ‐ this was, for example, Solon's laws ‐ then in stone and, most common, in marble. Also, was carved, both in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, in brick, ceramic, masonry, etc. The written material was processed by special techniques, depending on its destination, in several phases. In the first phase, the monument was worked by various techniques: carving, modeling, casting, etc., being realized the shapes and marked the surfaces of the inscription that follow to be made. Previously, the text was written, sized and distributed according to the size of the monument project. After the lines were drawn and the letters were designed, the inscription was made, by various techniques, depending on the material used: carved or embossed (for stone), painting, sculpting (for wood), etc. As writing tools were used: chisel, paintbrush, knife, etc. b) Epigraphic writing and its evolution At first, Greeks and Romans have written the text of the inscription from the right to the left. Thereafter, it was written alternately, a line from the right to the left and the next line from the left to the right (boustrophedon). This system was used in many inscriptions (Northern writing, Italic writing, etc). There were several modalities to place the letters in writing. Studying old grammars, we find the existence of three models. The oldest of them is columnar. In this system, the letters of a word was placed one under another. For columns to be not too long and so hard to read, the inscription field was divided into limited areas with a free space. The second system was the brick­shaped. In this system, the lines of the text were placed in the shape of parallelepiped. The third system was the basket­shaped. In this system, the lines of the text are successively shortened. There are also inscriptions square, triangular, pyramid­shaped. Whatever the utilized system, there is the rule that each letter of the next line must to be placed 2 Daniel Flaut, Introduction to the Auxiliary Sciences of History under another letter of the previous line. This recommendation was rarely respected because not all letters have the same surface area. Although for the most part it is scriptura lapidaria, reading of inscriptions is not easy due to technical difficulties. Ligaturing are extremely varied. Words are not always written in full. Sometimes is used sigla (initial letter), is write only the initial letter of the word (for example: IOM = iovi optimo maximo). Sometimes, is used the abbreviation. It is achieved by writing of two or more letters at the beginning of the word (for example: PR = praetor, LG = legio, PVB = publicus). But there are exceptions, many abbreviations are used for the same word (for example: V, VIX or VT = vixit) or is used the contraction (for example: MCP = municipiu). The historian must to know the relevant rules and the exceptions for every Epigraphy. To facilitate the correct reading of the inscriptions, in Epigraphy are used and accents. In Latin Epigraphy has been used acute accent put on long vowels. From third century, acute accent was used only exceptionally. It has also been used circumflex accent. This accent is put on a letter to show that it is doubled (for example: O S A = OSSA) and later will show a greater abbreviation (for example: PR = pater; NR = noster). In Greek Epigraphy have been used several types of accents: acute, grave and circumflex. In Epigraphy were also used ellipses. Sometimes there is a tendency to separate the words by signs of various shapes: round, square, triangular, oblong, leaves, etc. Then, the stonecutters lost the meaning of these signs, they believed were ornaments. Therefore, the stonecutters have placed the signs everywhere: between words, between syllables and even between letters. c) The branches of Epigraphy Epigraphy includes three main branches, in according to the alphabets and the historical eras in which they were made different epigraphic texts: Greek Epigraphy (inscriptions with the Greek alphabet and in Greek language, in Antiquity); Latin Epigraphy (inscriptions with the Latin alphabet and in Latin language, found in the whole Roman world) and Medieval Epigraphy. Medieval Epigraphy use different alphabets (Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Arabic, Turkish, etc.) and languages. The Medieval inscriptions belong both Medieval Epigraphy and as well respective writings: Medieval Latin, Neo Greek, Old Slavic, Slavic‐Romanian, Romanian‐Cyrillic, etc., which were not separated completely. There are two main direction of analysis of the Ancient and the Medieval inscriptions, which is made by each of the branches of Epigraphy: the form and the content. The analysis of the form of the epigraphic monument refers to: dimensions, the material it is made, techniques and tools used to achieve the epigraphic monument, deciphering the text, deciphering of possible representations from the epigraphic monument. All these details is required to realize a complete study on that epigraphic monument. In the next phase ‐ not separated from the first phase ‐ are studied the content elements of the epigraphic monument. These elements include: the interpretation of figurative scenes which it contains by the epigraphic monument, completion and interpretation of the epigraphic text, translation and comment of the epigraphic text, framing of the historical