A Small Study on Real-Time Language Translation and Its Contribution to Language Learning

A small study on real-time language translation and its contribution to language learning.

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE

EVIE JANSSEN 10829318

MASTER INFORMATION STUDIES HUMAN-CENTERED MULTIMEDIA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM

July 3, 2015

1st Supervisor 2nd Supervisor Dr. Daniel Buzzo Dr. Jacobijn Sandberg UvA UvA

A small study on real-time language translation and its contribution to language learning. Evie Janssen University of Amsterdam, Graduate School of Informatics Science Park 904, Amsterdam [email protected]

ABSTRACT translators is exciting. However, we must not forget This paper explores the new real-time machine how important it is to actually learn a foreign translation technology and its effect on second language. Within a conversation, words take on language learning motivation. Based on a field different meanings based on the understanding of the experiment among 18 non-native Dutch persons, I language. Communication is based on consciousness conclude that the use of speech translation enhances as meaning is negotiated for achieving possible the motivation and self-confidence when understanding (Bakhtin, 1981; Klein, 1986). communicating in a second language. In addition, the Therefore, learning and understanding a foreign use of image translation has a positive influence on language is important to communicate properly and vocabulary learning. Overall, real-time machine connect with a new culture. In addition, learning a translation stimulates second language learners to second language has far more advantages such as maintain the executive motivation. creating job opportunities and even keeping your brain healthy (Mechelli et al., 2004). Keywords L2 learning, learning motivation, machine translation The quote from Nelson Mandela, stated at the beginning of this section, is poetry. However, I think we all know in our hearts that his statement is true. 1. INTRODUCTION Talking to someone in their own language is showing “If you talk to a man in a language he understands, them respect, and with respect comes understanding. I that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his find this an admonitory quote for the excessive use of language that goes to his heart” (Nelson Mandela). innovative technologies such as RMT. No technology can ever truly substitute the benefits of knowing Today, the digital age of internet and mobile second languages. However, I do believe that technologies are providing global mobility of technology can stimulate the motivation within the knowledge. Virtual learning environments have process of learning a second language. In this paper I diversified the way of learning by broadening the will explore this area of tension. possibilities of gaining knowledge. As are learning environments in language learning. Moreover, the There are many advantages for knowing other motivation of language learning is supported in new languages and there are many factors taking place in ways through mobile learning and translation the process of successful language acquisition applications. (Skehan, 1989; Saville-Troike, 2006). Among all these factors, motivation plays an important role in Learning has been re-assessed as a personalized and L2 learning (Gardner, 1985; Masgoret & Gardner, learner-centred activity (Leadbetter, 2005). According 2003; Dörnyei, 2005). to Sharples et al. (2005), “so too are new digital technologies offering personalised services.” At the From the experience and work of the linguist Steve beginning of 2015 Google and Skype both launched Kaufmann, contextual and personal learning what they believe to be the next level of machine environments are the stimulating factors for language language translation: real-time machine translation learning motivation. A learner has to discover the (RMT). By using phones' cameras or speech, words and the phrases that he or she is going to need languages can be translated immediately and allow (Kaufmann, 2013). The importance of contextual seamless chat between people. Barak Turovsky, learning environments, therefore, presents the interest product Lead of Google Translate, states in a blog for exploring the effect of RMT on language learning post the following: "today's updates take us one step motivation. closer to a world where language is no longer a barrier to discovering information or connecting with 1 1 Source: http://googleblog.blogspot.nl/2015/01/hallo-hola- each other. ” Altogether, the potential of real-time ola-more-powerful-translate.html The goal of this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness Therefore, it is important to get emotionally engaged of RMT on the motivation of non-native Dutch users with the language and the context that we‟re learning to learn Dutch as a second language. What if we can from. In other words, learning from material that we use RMT in such a way that translated content can like and find interesting has resonance. become the bridge between discovering information and stimulating language learning? Section 2 presents New conceptions of learning are evolving because of the evidence from the literature and an interview the convergence of mobile and personal technologies. conducted with an expert in the field of linguistics. In Table 1 shows the similarities between new learning section 3 the main research question will be and new technology (Sharples, Taylor, Vavoula, introduced and the methods for answering this 2005). question will be described. This includes an experiment with the new RMT functions among non- New Learning New Technology native Dutch persons who (want to) learn Dutch. Personalized Personal Section 4 and 5 will present the results of my study Learner centred User centred and discuss the findings. I conclude by offering Situated Mobile suggestions for future work. Collaborative Networked Ubiquitous Ubiquitous 2. RELATED WORK Lifelong Durable Table 1 - Convergence between learning and technology 2.1 Second Language Learning A second language (L2) refers to a language an The study of McGroarty (2001) explains the role and individual learns that is not his/her mother tongue, but contribution of different social contexts in a language is of use in the area of the individual. The conditions learning activity to determination of effective for L2 learning are diversified and broadened through language instruction. However, this study focuses modern technology. For example, if there is no fully only on change in literacy and not on the effect that bilingual teacher available, students have alternatives communication in language and different contexts has such as Rosetta Stone, which provide courses for on learners‟ motivation. students to immerse themselves with the target language. In addition, mobile language learning 2.2 L2 Learning Motivation Duolingo claims to provide better learning for free There are many advantages for knowing other because their business model sells translation languages. However, many factors are taking place in services. To give an indication of the growth of the process of successful language acquisition mobile language learning in the past years, a study by (Skehan, 1989; Saville-Troike, 2006). Among all Vavoula (2005) of everyday adult learning for the these factors, maintaining the motivation to learn a MOBIlearn project, based on personal learning second language plays an important role (Gardner, diaries, found that almost half (49%) of the reported 1985; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003; Dörnyei, 2005). learning episodes took place away from home or the learner‟s own office, i.e. the learner‟s usual As part of early research, an extensive interview was environment. done with Dr. Federicon Gobbo, professor in

Interlinguistics and Esperanto at the University of The process of memory within language learning is Amsterdam. Gobbo states that if the motivation of a very important in order to increase the language level. language learning falls down, it falls at the beginning The Levels of Processing Theory (Craik, 2002) states 2 of the learning process . that a memory trace can persist in long term memory

(LTM) if it involves a deeper level of processing. Motivation has a significant effect on the areas of Therefore, more than one sensory modality, for development and achievement (Steinmayr & Spinath, instance, verbal and visual processing together, are 2009). Motivation clarifies why people choose a needed (Mayer, 2009). particular activity, how long they are willing to

continue doing it and what effort they put in to it 2.1.1 Contextual Learning (Dörnyei and Schmidt, 2001). According to Gardner The contextual surroundings of action have a strong (1985) motivation is a “mental engine that subsumes motivational influence on educational language effort, want/will and task enjoyment”. This definition motivation (Dörnyei, 2003). Interesting here are both of motivation will be used as a basis for this study. the context and engagement with the language that influences learning. Learning a language involves the social patterns and acquisition of skills which are 2 Source: Interview with Federico Gobbo distinctive of another community (Gardner, 1985).

Overall, there are two types of motivation: performances can positively influence self-  intrinsic motivation applies to cases when conficence. language is learned as a desire to integrate into the target language community; 2.3 L2 Learning Motivation Frameworks  extrinsic motivation refers to cases where Research on language learning motivation has a long language is learned with the intention of history in the field of L2 acquisition (Gardner and achieving a certain external goal like getting Lambert, 1972; Dörnyei, 1990, Masgoret and a job (Noels 2001). Gardner, 2003). Several concepts such as goals, Research studies have shown that learners are more attitudes and self-confidence are central constructs geared towards extrinsic than intrinsic motivational within this field. Therefore, in order to gain a better goals in L2 learning, as they aspire instrumental understanding of which concepts are crucial in this rewards in the form of grades and achievements, study, it is important to explain different frameworks credits, performance incentives and good future jobs of L2 learning motivation. (Dörnyei, 1990). The first three decades of L2 learning motivation 2.2.1 Attitude towards Language Learning research, before the early 1990s, were largely fuelled One's attitude towards language learning is related to by work of Robert Gardner and his associates. self-confidence and motivation. Development of a Motivation was primarily seen as a concept of positive attitude towards language learning courses or learner‟s social perceptions and individual differences languages learning in general is an important were key factors affecting L2 acquisition (Gardner; component of learners‟ motivation. In the AMTB Lambert, 1972). Empirical studies in the past few framework of Gardner, motivation is assessed decades have focused on different aspects of through the combination of the desire to learn, motivation. Motivation is a complex multi- attitude towards learning, and motivational intensity. dimensional construct and involves a wide range of components. The traditional approach of L2 learning An expert in the field, Federico Gobbo, argues that motivation gave way to a more complex and technology stimulating the contextual learning qualitative approach in research based on the theory process can be complementary especially for of Dörnyei. beginners as it can change the attitude of the learners in a positive way3. From 1993 to 2010, the understanding of L2 learning motivation changed to encompass the variability in 2.2.2 Linguistic Self-confidence the external factors affecting L2 learning. More Every person carries some extent of belief in one‟s characteristics were added to describe the variables own abilities to speak a second language. The affecting each of the individual factors; these were intensity of this belief is different from each other. compiled in the Attitude Motivation Test Battery Linguistic self-confidence refers to a person‟s developed by Gardner which will be explained later perceptions of their own competence and ability to in chapter 3. accomplish tasks successfully (Clement, 1980). 2.4 Mobile Machine Translation Self-confidence and experiencing success play an Machine Translation (MT) is language translation essential role in developing language learners‟ performed by a computer which translates source motivation (Ebata, 2008). Thus, linguistic self- language text (SL) into target language text (TL) confidence could positively influence the learner's (Hutchins, 1995). motivation and could lead to more effective language learning. Moreover, successful experiences with a The use of mobile dictionaries has grown over the second language outside the classroom seem more past years. Dictionary.com saw more than 30 million effectively to the self-confidence comparing to app downloads in 2011 and engagement levels on satisfaction gained in a classroom setting (Clement mobile were already nearly three times more than and Kruidenier, 1985; MacIntyre et al., 1998). Yet to online4. However, Google Translate is one of the this day, very little empirical research has been done most popular services of mobile language translation. to suggest its cause (Dörnyei, 2003; Yashima, 2004). At present Google Translate can provide written translation of 90 languages and is capable of hearing Heyde mentioned, in research of Park and Lee (2005), a number of spoken languages and translating them5. that self-confidence can be negatively influenced 4Source: http://www.mobilemarketer.com/cms/news/rese- when the language learner finds oneself limited in the arch/10301.html target language. On the other hand, practicing oral 5Source:https://sfi.usc.edu/news/2015/04/9053-explore 3 Source: Interview with Federico Gobbo -iwitness-over-90-languages-google-translate

Gobbo argues that the use of Google Translate is annotation can help learners with higher verbal and great for understanding an authentic text written in an visual ability (Chen, 2008). unknown language. However, he stresses that the production of this application has too many errors to 3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS produce well written text. Nevertheless, it is a 3.1 Problem Statement complementary feature because of the mobile 6 As we have seen in the previous section, the main orientation . challenge for language learners is to maintain the executive motivation. In particular, motivation has a Research of Chen et al. (2008) shows that mobile significant effect on the areas of development and devices are used extensively in an informal learning achievement and therefore can lead to effective context. In addition, mobile devices are used in ways language learning. Personal learning environments that correspond to the contextual mobile learning and contextually relevant content are key in gaining philosophies identified by Dörnyei. Interestingly, data language learners‟ motivation. In addition, self- shows that participants are prepared to adapt existing confidence and experiencing success plays an mobile device features to suit their learning needs, essential role in developing language learners‟ and may develop informal learning interests as a motivation. result of owning the device (Chen et al., 2008). Content of RMT is mostly contextually relevant, 2.4.1 Speech Translation however it is unclear how RMT affects user‟s Pronunciation is a fundamental element of language language learning motivation. As people have learning. Through speech translation, conversational increasingly started using mobile translation tools, it spoken phrases are automatically recognized, will be interesting to see whether their language translated and spoken aloud in a second language. learning intentions are affected by RMT through the This technology enables speakers of different use of speech and image translation. Does the comfort languages to communicate. A participant of this study and convenience of RMT lead to less intention of mentioned the importance of speech during L2 language learning or does it enhance the L2 learners‟ learning: motivation?

“During the day at work I speak some Dutch. It is the only way I learn Dutch properly. I have 3.2 Main Research Question learned more during interactions than studying The main question of this research is stated as Dutch.” (resp. 17) following: Does real-time machine translation enhance A study of Holland et al. (1999) on speech technology linguistic self-confidence and does it have a in language learning explored the effect of speech positive influence on second language learners’ interaction between a learner and technology. Results motivation? show an apparent learning effect for short sentences and repeated attempts. In order to answer this question, I will measure how RMT will stimulate L2 learners‟ motivation by 2.4.2 Text in image translation affecting the following two domains: attitude towards Word Lens was integrated into Google Translate language learning; and linguistic self-confidence. which allows users to instantaneously translate To get a detailed insight into these relationships, I written text with the use of their smartphones‟ will test the following 6 hypotheses divided in two camera. This type of language detection means text broad categories: can be quickly scanned; identified and translated visibly onscreen by the use of a smartphones‟ L2 learning motivation camera7. This feature of RMT is a step towards 1. People who use RMT are likely to have a language learning in augmented reality8. more positive attitude towards Dutch language learning. Results of a study on short-time memory and content 2. The use of RMT is likely to have a stronger representation show that providing learning content positive influence on the intrinsic motivation with pictorial annotation in a mobile language of language learners than the use of a paper learning environment can help learners with lower dictionary. verbal and higher visual ability learn, because they 6 are cognitively better equipped for learning content Source: Interview with Federico Gobb 7Source:http://www.theverge.com/2014/5/16/5724230/google- presented in visual form. In addition, providing buys-word-lens-translation-app learning content with both written and pictorial 8Source: Interview with Federico Gobbo

3. The use of RMT will positively influence the Gardner‟s AMTB was its established validity and extrinsic motivation of second language reliability over the last two decades, as it has been learners. used in a significantly large number of quantitative 4. People who use RMT are likely to have studies which focused on examining different more self-confidence in communicating affective components influencing second/foreign Dutch. language (Gardner and Lambert, 1972; Masgoret & Gardner, 1994; Williams, Burden & Lanvers, 2002). RMT experience The questionnaire items were modified to the context 5. People find speech translation stimulating of Dutch language learners in order to make it more when learning a second language. meaningful and contextually relevant for the 6. People find image translation stimulating participants (Gardner, 2008). The goal of the design when learning a second language. of this questionnaire is to be a reliable instrument where scores on similar items are related (internally In the following section I will discuss in detail the consistent), but in which each item contributes some methods used in this research. unique information as well.

4. METHODS 4.2 Interviews This study was based on an experimental pre- and Interviews with predefined open questions, based on post-test design in which all participants were questions from the questionnaires, were used for cross randomly assigned to one of the two groups. The first validation. In essence, most of the same research group (group A) used the speech and image questions were asked twice (in the questionnaire and translation functions of the Google Translate in the interview), with the goal of analysing a similar application on their mobile phones for two weeks. pattern in the results. The other group (group B) was the control group. The participants from this group used an old-fashioned 4.3 Field Experiment paper dictionary during two weeks. In addition, all The field experiment was conducted among a group participants were asked to keep a daily journal of of 18 non-native Dutch people who learn Dutch as a their experiences. second language. All participants were randomly assigned to either the RMT user group (group A) or Before the experimental phase started, a pre the control group (group B) of paper dictionary users. questionnaire was administered to measure the Taking into account the short time frame, the motivation, attitude and self-confidence of all participants were asked to use either the Google participants. At the end of the experimental phase the Translate application or paper dictionary for only two same test was administered again by filling in a post weeks. This between-subject design allows one to questionnaire. For the data analysis, the difference in compare the effect of RMT with a well-known old scores between the pre and post questionnaire was fashioned type of translation. used as the dependent variable. Group A was asked to use the new technology of 4.1 Questionnaires speech and image translation by using the Google For this study, I prepared two questionnaires in order Translate application. Additionally, participants were to measure the language learning motivation of the asked to keep a diary observing their experiences. See participants; their attitude towards learning Dutch; figure 1 for a visual explanation on using the image and the experience of the new functions of the Google translate function. Translate application. The first questionnaire (pre questionnaire A) and the second questionnaire (post questionnaire B) consist both of a qualitative part containing background questions and a quantitative part containing questions on attitude towards the Dutch language, motivation and self-confidence. The participants were asked to rate each item on a 7-point Likert scale so as to determine their level of agreement with each item statement. Figure 1: explanation of image translation function.

For this study I used the Attitude Motivation Test I used a test protocol which explained the field Battery (AMTB), originally developed by R. C. experiment in detail for both user groups (see Gardner (2004). The underlying principle of selecting Appendix A).

4.4 Participants of 0.76 when item 4 is deleted, therefore I will not use 38 responses were received from the pre item 4 when analysing the data. questionnaire through convenience sampling (Marshall, 1996). Due to the intense participation 5. RESULTS needed for this study, a smaller but focussed sample First I will present the general results on the pre group of 18 participants was residual for the questionnaire. Next, I will analyse the factors of all experiment (7 males, 11 females), aged between 23- participants per user group and then I will compare 50. Our sample contained 12 different native both user groups on the factor results. languages, of which English was most prominent (4/18). More than half (13/18) of the participants 5.1 Pre and Post factor Results indicated they were very familiar with mobile A paired samples t-test (N=9) was conducted on all language translation and most (15/18) of the factors for both user groups (A and B). For both participants use mobile language translation at least groups, factor 1 was not found statistically significant once a day. Participants‟ self-reported Dutch (A, p = 0.80; B, p = 0.57). In addition, factor 3 (A, p language skills was null (3/18), low (9/18), = 0.84), factor 4 (A, p = 0.60; B, 0.29) and factor 5 intermediate (5/18) and advanced (1/18). (A, p = 0.83) were also not found statistically Additionally, the participants indicated they had significant. This is presumably because of the small troubles with speaking (14/18), listening (9/18), group of subjects and the minor effects within this writing (14/18) and reading (10/18) the Dutch short timeframe which are therefore not visible on language. such a small group. Gorsuch (1983) recommended that N should be at least 100 within a factor analysis, 4.5 Data Analysis and Kline (1979) supported this recommendation. 4.5.1 Factors Cronbach’s Alpha However, the necessary N is in fact highly dependent The Cronbach's alpha (Cronbach, 1951) was used to on several specific aspects of a given study test whether the items per factor within the pre and (MacCallum et al., 1999). Therefore, I will analyse post questionnaires form a reliable measure or not. these factors with possibility statements which I will Reverse coding is applied on several positively and support with qualitative results. In addition, each item negatively phrased questions. of a factor contributes some unique information as well. The following factors were measured:  Factor 1 (Attitudes towards Dutch language Contrary to group A, factors 3 (p = 0.01) and 5 (p = learning; 6 items) = 0.67 0.05) within group B are statistically significant. o If item 4 is deleted = 0,76  Factor 2 (Attitudes toward native Dutch; 3 5.2 Language Translation Preferences items) = 0.49 This study offers a number of useful insights on the  Factor 3 (Intrinsic motivation; 5 items) = language translation preferences of non-native Dutch 0.86 people who live in the Netherlands. More than half of  Factor 4 (Extrinsic motivation; 5 items) = the participants (67%) have a Dutch language level 0.87 which can be indicated as a beginner level9.  Factor 5 (Self-confidence; 5 items) = 0.74 Interestingly, 72 per cent mention they are familiar A reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is considered with mobile translate applications and using it at least “acceptable” in most social science research once a day. In addition, 83 per cent mentions to be situations. The overall internal consistency estimates generally comfortable using a mobile translation 0.73 highlighting the instrument to be highly reliable application. in measuring student‟s motivation, attitude and self- confidence towards Dutch language learning. A statistical analysis10 of the data provides extra insights on the effect of the experiment on the The factor „extrinsic motivation‟ showed the highest attitude, motivation and self-confidence of the alpha (0.87). Whereas the „attitudes towards native participants. Dutch‟ illustrated the lowest alpha (0.49). A possible explanation for this low alpha score could be that most of the participants had troubles speaking Dutch, therefore item 3 is not consistent within factor 2. As this factor (2) is not essential for answering my 9Beginner level: zero or low level of Dutch. hypotheses, I will not take this factor into account 10 The data was analysed using IBM’s SPSS Statistics 2012 while analysing the data. Factor 1 scores a reliability

5.3 Attitude towards Dutch Language increased which possibly indicates that the use of the Learning speech translation motivates users to learn Dutch in The mean difference of factor 1 within both groups is order to communicate in that language. This similar to an equal -0.09. This could indicate that the statement is supported by participants: attitude of all participants towards Dutch language learning has decreased during the experiment. “It is interesting to learn pronunciation.” (resp.3) However, this decrease is minimal and can be unbraced for group A by the fact that the mean of “I think Google speech translation might help me items 2; 3; 4; and 6 within factor 1 were already high with pronunciation and encourage me to speak rated with a 6 out of 7. In addition, the mean more Dutch.” (resp. 9) difference of item 111 (m = (0.56) has increased tremendously within group A. In addition, item 2 within group A is also increased (m = 0.11). This could indicate that the use of speech Group B, as opposed, has a tremendously decreasing and image translation combine different aspects of mean difference at item 1 (m = -1.11). However, the language learning within a contextual environment mean differences of items 2 (m = 1.00); 3 (m = 0.56); which possibly increases motivation. and 6 (m = 0.11) have increased. “It is a great way to learn a new language, but it As an exploration, the high and low Dutch level must have a good design which motivates you to participants were compared. A one-way ANOVA was keep improving, learning, and studying.” (resp. 2) conducted for both user groups to test if factor 1 relies on this independent variables: level of Dutch. This means that I do not reject hypothesis 2: Interesting is that the exponential growth of item 2 The use of RMT is likely to have a stronger within group B comes from participants with a positive influence on the intrinsic motivation of beginners level of Dutch (zero or low level). language learners than the use of paper dictionary.

In addition, qualitative data12 of beginners shows that 5.5 Extrinsic Motivation using a dictionary gives opportunities to understand The main reason all participants are in the Dutch words better. Netherlands and learn Dutch is because of the extrinsic motivations partner (11.11%), study “Though a dictionary is not that easy, it‟s really (33.33%) and work (55.55%). interesting and has much precise meaning comparing to Google Translate.” (resp.11) A one-way ANOVA was conducted for both user groups to test if factor 4 relies on the independent “When using the dictionary it is funny to see variables: reason to be in the Netherlands. how one word has so much meaning.” (resp.16) Interestingly, study (n = 5) has an increasing mean Item 5 askes participants directly what attitude they value with overall a mean difference of 0.55. This have towards Dutch language learning. This item has can be supported by qualitative data that states that increased for group A. Therefore, I will not fully international students probably want to stay for reject hypothesis 1: work in the Netherlands: People who use RMT are likely to have a more “In the Netherlands, a job application always says positive attitude towards Dutch language learning. that understanding Dutch or even speak fluent Dutch is preferred. So I think studying Dutch will 5.4 Intrinsic Motivation definitely give me an advantage say over As mentioned in section 5.1, factor 3 is found someone that can‟t speak any Dutch.” (resp. 8) statistically significant within group B. The intrinsic motivation in group B (m = -0.93) has decreased. Therefore, I will partly support hypothesis 3: Interestingly, the intrinsic motivation of group A (m = The use of RMT will positively influence the -0.04) remained stable. However group A is not found extrinsic motivation of second language learners. statistically significant, I will analyse this data on possibilities. Item 4 within group A (m = 0.440) has 5.6 Self-confidence 11Item 1: I would rather spend more time on learning Dutch Within group B, factor 5 was found statistically than learning other languages. significant. The self-confidence factor of group B has 12Interviews, diary and open questions. an overall decrease of m = -0.38. Almost all items of

this factor are decreased (item 1 and 2 (-0.67); item 3 “I realized it is quicker and easier to use image (-0.22) and item 4 (-0.78). translation in translating paper documents than to type it into Google translate as I did before.” The total self-confidence of group A is decreased (m (resp. 9) = -0.11). Understanding spoken language is possibly not stimulated when looking at item 4 with a Therefore, I will not reject hypothesis 6: decreased mean difference of -1.00. A participant People find image translation stimulating when mentioned a contradictory statement during the learning a second language. interview: 6. DISCUSSION “Really there is a massive difference between my 6.1 L2 learning motivation listening confidence and my speaking confidence. As we have seen in section 2, it is considered I mean I can understand Dutch but speaking is essential for language learners to discover a language very difficult. (resp. 17) in order to maintain the executive motivation. Motivation is important as it has a significant effect Interestingly, items 2 and 5 are increased (2, m = on language learning. Contextually relevant learning 0.56; 5, m = 0.67) which possibly indicates that using content and personal learning environments are speech translation increases the self-confidence in therefore important for language learners. In addition, speaking a second language. experiencing success and satisfaction plays an essential role in developing self-confidence and is Therefore, I will not reject hypothesis 4: therefore stimulating language learners‟ motivation. People who use RMT are likely to have more self- confidence in communicating Dutch. The results of this study reveal that, while RMT users overall have a stable intrinsic and extrinsic 5.7 RMT Experience motivation, speech and image translation does 5.7.1 Speech translation stimulate communication in a second language. As Overall, opinions on the speech translation function we have seen in section 2.2, intrinsic motivation are divided under all participants. Some participants applies language learning as a desire to integrate into found that the function rarely works appropriately the target language community. The use of RMT when speaking Dutch. However, translating from possibly stimulates integration as communication is English to Dutch was found to be more positive. Here less interrupted when using this technology. In are some more insights from the respondents: addition, a paper dictionary is found time-consuming. RMT seems to have a more positive influence on both “I don't feel it had any impact on my stimulation the intrinsic (hypothesis 2) and extrinsic motivation or motivation.” (resp.1) compared to paper dictionary, indicating that RMT “I went to a book club, and I found it impractical has specific benefits. Hence, RMT combines different to use the speech translation for words that were aspects of language learning within a contextual spoken that I wanted to look up.” (resp. 3) environment. Therefore, I will support Kaufmann with his statement that contextual and personal “It a fun way to practice your Dutch learning environments are stimulating factors for pronunciation.” (resp.9) language learning motivation. This means that I do not fully reject hypothesis 5: The main reason given by the participants to learn People find speech translation stimulating when Dutch as a second language is because of their work learning a second language. in the Netherlands. As results of Salim and Dörnyei show in section 2.2, L2 learners are more geared 5.7.2 Image Translation towards extrinsic motivation. This study shows Participants are overall very positive about image similar results as mostly students who use RMT have translation. This function helps them improve their an increased extrinsic motivation to learn Dutch vocabulary (66.67%). However, participants also find (hypothesis 3). This indicates the reliability of this the app easy to use and are fearful losing the study. vocabulary quick. Other insights from participants are: As we have seen in section 2.2.2, Heyde mentioned that high self-confidence can be positively correlated “It helps me to associate an image to a word, thus with oral performance. Interestingly, the results of I remember the meaning.” (resp.2) this study show that the use of the speech translation possibly motivates users to learn Dutch in order to communicate (hypothesis 4). I agree with Heyde, as

supported by this study, the use of speech translation potential. Most participants mentioned to be stimulates oral performances. comfortable using mobile translation, however, the new RMT technology is different in use. The The use of RMT did not show clear results of having technology must be used properly, to conceive a likely positive effect on the attitude of language positive impact on learner‟s motivation. Further learners (hypothesis 1). A reason could be that this research can reveal to what extent this new specific technology is new and therefore possibly not technology is adapted by the user, and what used properly. Further research could help technology is best suited for specific learner levels investigating the adoption of the new RMT and contexts. technology. Interestingly, however participants find RMT a great This study revealed also an interesting difference way to learn a language, they are also apprehensive between language levels of participants. Further about the continuing improvement, learning and research among a larger group of respondents with studying when using RMT. Further research is needed different levels in language is needed to see whether to see whether the combination of RMT and mobile this is indeed the case. language learning can help continue improving a second language. 6.2 RMT Experience The experience of the group A participants with 7. CONCLUSION speech translation are divided. Gobbo mentioned in The main challenge for language learners is to section 2.2 that the application will have too many maintain the executive motivation. Personal and errors. This is supported by this study as some contextual learning environments stimulate language participants mentioned in their diaries that the speech learners‟ motivation. Content used for RMT is usually translation only works correctly when speaking the relevant to the context of the user. In this paper I have language on a high level (hypothesis 5). explored if RMT affects user‟s language learning Nevertheless, Gobbo mentioned that it is a motivation. complementary feature. I agree with this statement as participants argue that the speech translation Based on a field experiment among 18 non-native functions was fun and good for practicing the Dutch Dutch participants, I can conclude that, whereas the pronunciation. total motivation remained stable for both groups, RMT seems to have a more positive influence on both The Levels of Processing Theory, discussed in section the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation compared to 2.1, states that the combination of sensory modalities using a paper dictionary. Therefore, RMT stimulates involves a deeper level of processing. Image L2 learners to maintain the executive motivation. translation stimulates improving vocabulary by using both pictorial and textual modalities. Some RMT stimulates language learners‟ motivation to participants seemed fearful of forgetting words integrate and communicate in a second language. In because of the ease of the new technology. Others addition, RMT users are more self-confident in find that associating words with pictorial moments communicating a second language. helps with the process of memory within language As expected, the RMT experience was overall very learning. This confirms my intuition that people positive. However not all participants find speech would found image translation stimulating when translation stimulating language learning, they do learning a second language (hypothesis 6). mention its effectiveness for pronunciation and communication. Furthermore, image translation is The effect of RMT on L2 learning lies partially in its stimulating vocabulary learning, whereas it helps with use and adoption. Hence, assessing the effectiveness the process of memory, which gains a positive effect of a technology is in reality assessing the on the language learning motivation. effectiveness of its uses rather than the technology itself. Results of the study show that the use of an old Therefore, I can state that real-time machine fashioned paper dictionary, well-known and translation enhances the linguistic self-confidence technology-free, gives beginner learners the when communicating in a second language and has a opportunity to understand Dutch words better. positive influence on second language learners‟ Nonetheless, most participants prefer mobile motivation compared to paper dictionary. dictionary and translation apps over old-fashioned paper dictionaries as they work quicker and are easy 8. FUTURE WORK to take with you. The new technology of speech and The research I have done was necessarily limited in image translation may have great educational scope, because of time constraints and the small

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APPENDIX

A. Test protocol - field experiment

Group A

Thank you for your subscription on my study! You're of great help, I hope you will enjoy the next phase: the experiment.

You can start exploring and using the speech and image translate functions of the Google Translate application for the following 2 weeks. Three things are important during this experiment:

1. Make sure you use the application on your mobile phone (You can download the app for free); 2. Make sure you only use the speech and/or image translation within the application (see here on page 3 a short tutorial about how to use the speech and image translator of the Google Translate application); 3. Keep a diary with you in the following two weeks and write down your daily experiences about using the Google Translate application functions. What are your thoughts? When do you use which function? Do you struggle when using the app? (Attached you can find an excel version of the diary).

Enjoy! I will contact you after two weeks and send you a post questionnaire to measure the effect of the application on your motivation.

Group B

Thank you for your subscription on my study! You're of great help, I hope you will enjoy the next phase: the experiment.

 You are part of the control group of dictionary users. You can start using a paper dictionary for the following 2 weeks.  Keep a diary with you in the following two weeks and write down your daily experiences when using the paper dictionary. What are your thoughts? When do you use the paper dictionary? Do you struggle when using a paper dictionary? (Attached you can find an excel version of the diary).

Enjoy! I will contact you after two weeks and send you a post questionnaire to measure the effect of a paper dictionary on your motivation.