Australia's Mammal Extinctions

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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-84918-0 - Australia’s Mammal Extinctions: A 50000 Year History Chris Johnson Index More information

Index

Note: Illustrations are shown with either 140 Plate 11 bold page numbers or as Plates. Page oral traditions linked to extinct Araucaria 83 numbers ending in ‘t’ refer to tables. megafauna 70–1 Araucariaceae 5 population growth 136–7, 142 arboreal marsupials 99 Aboriginal burning relationship with dingoes 150–3 archaeological invisibility of massive and extinctions 43–4, 51 rock painting 69–70, 135, 139, 155, killings 47–9, 111 and vegetation levels 124–6, 142, 191–3 156, 157, 160, 161 archaeological sites for human occupation evidence from charcoal concentrations sedentary and permanent occupation 58–61, 59t 92–3 138–9 arid zone, pollen core sample analysis Holocene 144 social change 139–41 84–5 impact on Australian environment social groups 139 aridity 142–4 tool development 160–1 and megafauna extinctions 37, 38, 39–42 reasons for use 143–4 Holocene 137–8, 141–2 under glacial conditions 78 to increase harvest of large mammals use of animal and plant species, Arnhem Land paintings 69–70, 146, 155 145–6 Holocene 138 articulated skeletal remains 62–3 see also fire use of extinct megafauna 71–2 Asteraceae 122 Aboriginal hunting Acacia 9, 83, 117 atmospheric carbon dioxide 77, 81–2, 89, and extinctions 47–9, 97, 228 spiny-foliage of juvenile arid-zone 123 cessation of, impact on mammal acacia Plate 13 ausktribosphenids 4–5 populations 162–5 Acacia estrophiolata 117 Australian ecosystems, Aboriginal people Holocene 138 Acacia nilotica 128 impact on 132–47 of cats, providing protection for native Acacia peuce 117, 127, 128 Australian environment mammals 205–6 height dimorphism Plate 14 mammal fauna vulnerability to 231–2 of devils 161–2 Acacia pickardii 118 unsuitability of non-flying mammals to of dingoes 150 Acacia victoriae 128 232 of kangaroos 145–6 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 56 Australian mammals of thylacines 159–61 accidents of history 233–5 history, timeline x weapons used 47, 48, 160–1 Aepyprymnus rufescens 164, 176, 200 number of extinctions 3 Aboriginal people African megaherbivores, impact on Australian marsupials agricultural practices 141 vegetation 116 origins and evolution 6–12 and environmental change 132–47 agricultural practices, Aboriginal people 141 phylogeny 29 and extinctions 38, 39 Agrotis infusa 139 Pleistocene dwarfing 34–5 as top predator 234 Allens Cave, Nullarbor Plain 61, 134 Australian prehistory care of camp dingoes 151 Allosyncarpia ternata forest 95 arrival 57–61 competition with dingoes for food 153 Angophora 83 dispersion 61–2 cooperative behaviour 146 Antarctic faunas 6, 7 Australian rodents see rodents, native effect of sea level rise on 134–5 Antarctic marsupials, cross into Australia Australian Small Tool Tradition 141 food festivals 139–40 7–8 Australian Wildlife Conservancy (AWC) impact of Last Glacial Maximum on Antechinus 29 224 132–4 Antechinus puteus 99 Australo-Papuan region, marsupial impact on wild dingo population anti-browser plant architecture 117–18, diversity 3 152–3 Plate 12 Balmoral Beach, Sydney 144 intensification of resource use 140–1 anti-browsing defences 116–19, 127–8 Banda Sea marine sediments 84, 88, 92 occupation of low productivity habitats antilopine wallaroos, Kimberley grassland bandicoots 29, 172

270

extinct species 178–9 brushtail possum 193 through human impact 92–3 foraging behaviour, ecological Buang Merabak 71 variation in 93–4 implications 185 bullwaddy 118 chemical defences by plants 116, 118 spreading of fungal spores 182, 183 bunya pine nuts 139 chenopod shrublands 122, 126 toxoplasmosis in 189 burning see Aboriginal burning; charcoal; chenopods 9, 22, 84, 85, 87 Banksia 83, 144 fire chuditch 179, 192, 201 basalt plains mouse 181 burrowing bettong 164, 176, 193, 208, decline in range 173 Bassian Plain 10, 11, 85 211, 215, Plate 20 Citrus glauca 117 pollen core sample analysis 86–7 burrowing by bilbies, ecological implica- climate bats 28 tions 185 Cretaceous 5 origin and evolution 13–14 Bursaria 118 Eocene 5 Bennett’s tree kangaroo 164 Bursaria incana 118 ice age 76–81 Bettongia 182 Bursaria tenuifolia 118 climate change 223 Bettongia lesueur 164, Plate 20 and vegetation 81–9, 98–101

Bettongia penicillata 164 C3/C4 photosynthetic pathways, and CO2 Eocene 8–9 Bettongia pusilla 34, 176 levels 82 Pleistocene 11–12, 37, 39–42

bettongs 164, 165, 172, 176, 208, 221 C3/C4 plants climate-driven extinctions 37–8, 39–42, foraging behaviour, ecological and vegetation composition 122–3 50, 96–7 implications 185 carbon isotope signatures of vegetation criticisms 41–2 truffle-eating 182, Plate 36 change 87–8 climate variability bilbies 29, 164, 165, 178, 208, 209, 211 Callitris 17, 85, 122, 143 ice ages 80–1 burrowing behaviour, ecological Caloprymnus campestris 1–2, 2, Plate 21 on ENSO timescales 81, 94, 95 implications 185 habitat Plate 1 climate warming, and sea level rise 135 decline in range 173 camels 128 Cloggs Cave 68, 155 fire impact on ecology 192–3 cane toads 223 coastal habitats 135–6 foraging behaviour, ecological Canis latrans 220 competitive killing 218–19 implications 185 Canis lupus dingo 148–52 conilurine rodents 13, 200, 201, 215 foxes impact on 200 Capparis 117 reproductive rates 232–3 biological control of predators 224–5, 226 Capparis canescens 120, Plate 16 Coniluris albipes Plate 30 birds Capparis loranthifolia 117 continental dust 78, 79 ground-nesting 35 Capparis mitchellii 117, 118, 120 coyotes, suppression of feral cats 220 herbivorous 25–6 carbon dioxide cycles, ice ages 77 crescent nailtail wallaby 177, Plate 24 black-footed rock-wallaby 201–2 carbon dioxide levels, glacial cycles, Cretaceous climate 5 black-striped wallaby 138 impact on vegetation 81–2, 123 Cretaceous mammals 4–5 blitzkreig hypothesis 44–5 carbon isotope signatures of vegetation critical-weight-range mammals criticisms 47–9, 50 change 87–8 collapses of, Morton’s hypothesis 232 body mass carnivore extinctions 3 declines and extinctions, model 222–7 and risk of extinction 104 carnivorous mammals 26–7, 233–4 importance of neutralising predators and role of carnivorous mammals 32 as scavengers 32–3, 157, 159 on 223–4 estimation difficulties 30–1 decline in 211 predation on 204, 205, 215–16, 220, 221 relationship with home range size 101 extinction of 165, 179 Cuddie Springs fossil site, NSW 37, 64–5, reptiles 32 foxes impact on 200 68, 91 body size role in Australian ecosystems 32 debate over age of megafauna remains and extinction pattern, European see also devils; dingoes; thylacines 64–6, 75 Australia 168–70 Carpentarian Plain 11, 12, 13, 133 cuscuses 12, 29 and Pleistocene mammal extinctions mammal hunting on 86 Cuvieronius 119 33–5 pollen core sample analysis 85–6 Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae erythrotis increase in 9 Carpenters Gap Rock-shelter 72, 85 213–14 Pleistocene mammals comparison 31 casuarinas 5, 9, 84, 85, 87, 91 cycads 138 prey species 222–3 Cathedral Cave 74, 115 bogong moths 139 cats see feral cats Dacrydium 128 Bohra paulae 99 cattle, threatened by dingoes 225 Dacrydium guillauminii 128, 129 Borungaboodie hatcheri 27, 33 central hare-wallaby 177 Dactylopsila kambuayai 34 bridled nailtail wallaby 200, Plate 38 Chaeropus ecaudatus Plate 26 damper 140 broad-faced potoroo 176, Plate 22 charcoal 83, 84, 85, 90, 142 Darling Downs hopping-mouse 180 browser extinction 101 charcoal concentrations Darwin, Charles 36 evolutionary impact on plants 127–8 changes over time 90–4, 144 Darwin Crater, Tasmania 84, 91, 95 browsers 115–16, 127 difficulties of interpretation 92 dasyrurids 99 plant defences against 116–19, 127 following megafauna extinctions dasyuromorph marsupials 9 brush wallaby 164 124–5, 126 Dasyurus 200 brushtail bettong see woylie Holocene 144 Dasyurus geoffroii 173

Index 271

Dasyurus hallucatus 222 suppression of fox numbers 217–19, foraging for seeds and soil turnover Dasyurus maculatus 188 220, 225 181, 184–6 dates for earliest occupation 58–9, 59t transport to Australia 149 spreading of spores and seeds 181, contrasting dates 59, 60–1 use by Aboriginal people for hunting 182–4 impact of downward displacement on 150–1 ectotherms 231 dates 59–60 Diomedia exulans 114 eel trapping 139, 141 dating of megafauna fossils 62–3 Diprotodon 36, 37 Egg Lagoon, King Island 86, 91 criticisms 63–4 dating 63, 66 El Niño events evidence for late survival 64–72 Diprotodon minor 17 and droughts 41 dating technologies 55–7 Diprotodon optatum 17, 21 ice ages 80–1 Dendrolagus 12 body mass estimation 30–1 El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Dendrolagus bennettianus 164 climate change effects 42, 101 80–1, 94, 95 Dendrolagus dorianus 34 demographic model of overhunting and charcoal peaks 93–4 Dendrolagus noibano 34 108–10, 111 emu 25, 26, 63, 120, 122 dense and diverse ground vegetation, impact of Aboriginal burning on 43 giant see Genyornis newtoni dependence on 98–9 impact of rainfall decline on 40–1 emu apples 120 dense forest, dependence on 98 size and feeding habits 17 endotherms 231 desert bandicoot 178, 203, Plate 27 diprotodons 11, 17–20, 30, 36 environmental change desert rat-kangaroo 1–2, 2, 176, Plate 21 diprotodonts 16, 17, 29 and Aboriginal history 132–47 habitat Plate 1 disease epidemics and extinctions 36–7 devils 32, 234 and mammal extinctions/decline Eocene climate 5, 8–9 depiction in rock painting 157 188–189 Eocene rainforests 5, 9 depiction of hunting in rock painting criticisms 189–91 eucalypts 83, 84, 85, 86, 95 161 and megafauna extinctions 49–50 Eucalytpus tetrodonta woodland 143 hunting of 161–2 impact on Tasmanian devils 223 European settlement impact of thylacine extinction on 162 divaricate growth 118 impact on mammal populations 162–5 mainland extinction of 153, 156 dodo, extinction causes 53 mammal extinctions caused by 3, 168–86 outcompeted by dingoes 159 Dreamtime animals, Aboriginal people’s extinct species, European Australia 169, see also Tasmanian devil depictions of megafauna 69–72 175–81 Devils Lair 58, 60, 68 drier environment, Pliocene/Pleistocene bandicoots 178–9 dingoes 234 9–10 hare-wallabies 177 as biological control agent for foxes Dromaius novaehollandiae 63 native rodents 180–1 and cats 225 Dromiciops australis 7 rat-kangaroos 172, 175–6 as moderate threat to cattle 225 Dromornis stirtoni 25 thylacine 153–6, 179 as threat to sheep 226–7 droughts, and extinctions 39–42 wallabies 177–8 bounty scheme 216–17 dry rainforest Plate 15 extinction patterns (European Australia) 168 control of feral goats and pigs 225 adaptation to large browsers 119 body size and geography 168–70 depiction in rock painting 157 dune building 78 four waves of extinction since 1820s diet 157 dunnarts 9, 99 171–5 ecological effects on thylacines 157–8 dust records 78, 94 extinctions ecological impact of 166 dwarfing hyperpredatory 212–16 fossil record 149 impact of hunting on 111–12 number of 2–3 genetic variation 148, 149 Pleistocene marsupials 34–5 selectivity 33–4, 35, 53, 54, 98–105 high-density distribution 198 dwarfing test 111–12 test framework 53–4 history 148–50 timing of 3, 53, 96–7 hunting of 150 E55-6 impact on human population size 152 charcoal concentrations 92 feathertail possum 29 impact on kangaroo numbers 165 pollen core sediment analysis 86, 122 feral cats need to increase numbers of 216–22, Early Miocene faunas 8 and extinctions 205, 216, 228, 229, 234 225–6, 234 eastern grey kangaroo 34, 163 and mammal decline 203–6, 207, 211, not associated with mammal extinc- eastern hare-wallaby 172, 177, Plate 23 222 tions 38, 215, 219–20 eastern quoll 172, 179, 190, 209, 215 and rabbit population decline 226 outcompeting devils 159 echidnas 5, 28, 33, 69–70, 79 as source of disease 189 outcompeting thylacines 152–3, 157–9 Echymipera kaluba 86 distribution in Australia 204, 205 persecution of 216–17, 225 ecological aftermath of megafauna extinc- historical spread 198 relationship with Aboriginal people tions 115–28 neutralising predation by 223, 224 150–3 megafauna dispersal syndrome 119–21 origins 204 role in folk belief 151 plant defences against browsers 16–19 predation on mala 203–4 spread throughout Australia 149–50 plant responses to extinctions 121–9 predation on rabbits 214 stabilisation of kangaroo numbers 219, ecological implications of mammal suppressed by coyotes 220 225 decline 181–6 suppressed by dingoes 224

272 index

feral dogs 215 rabbits and mammals, and hyperpreda- habitat clearing feral goats 222, 225 tory extinction 212–16 and mammal decline/extinction 193 feral pigs 225 sensitivity to natural ‘1080’ poison 201 impact on toolache wallaby 193–4 ferns 83, 84 suppressed by dingoes 217–19, 225 habitat revegetation 226–7 Finlayson, Hedley Herbert 1–2 surplus killing 202 Hakea 117 fire Fromms Landing 149 hare-wallabies 171, 172, 175 and climate instability 142 fruit bats 14 height dimorphism 117–18, Plate 14 and mammal decline 192–3 fruit eating herbivore evolution and vegetation change, following by megafauna 119–21, 128 impact of glacial climates on 100 megafauna extinctions 124–6, 191, by rat-kangaroos and rodents 183–4 Pliocene/Pleistocene 9–11 192 fungal spores, dispersal by mammals herbivorous birds 25–6 human evidence of use 92–3, 143–4 182–3 herbivorous mammals impact on pre-peopled Australian biomass distribution in relation to environment 90–2 Gastrolobium 184, 201 body size 115 impact on small mammals 221 GC17 (Pilbara Coast) impacts on vegetation 116 in Australia 142–6 charcoal concentrations 92, 125 late Pleistocene 16–26 Pleistocene history of 90 pollen core sediment analysis 85, 122 non-extinct and extinct species vegetation and people 90–4, 95 Genyornis newtoni 25–6, 26, 35, 37, 71, 120 115–16 see also Aboriginal burning; charcoal burning effects on 43–4 herbivory, obsolete defences against 116–19 fire hypothesis dating 63 high-quality plant food, requirement for 99 and extinctions 43–4, 51 geographic distribution, and extinctions Holocene and vegetation change, Flannery model 170, 171 burning and human population 124–6, 191, 192 giant emu see Genyornis newtoni growth 144–5 criticisms 192–3 giant horned turtle 27 charcoal concentrations 144 fire-tolerant vegetation 90 giant koala 16 introduction of dingo 148–53 firestick farming 142, 144 giant musky rat-kangaroo 27–8, Plate 8 mammal declines 162–5 fixing dates on the past 55–7 giant snake 27 mammal extinctions 3, 34 Flannery, Tim Gilbert’s potoroo 172 population growth 136–7 blitzkrieg version of overkill 45, 46 glacial climate 11 thylacine dates 154–7 fire regimes and vegetation change glacial cycles tool development 137–8, 141–2 following megafauna extinctions and colonisation of Australia 57 honey possum 4, 29 124–6, 191, 192 impact on Australian environment hopping-mice 171, 180, 181 overkill views criticised 46–9 41–2 house mouse, as source of disease 189 Flindersia dissosperma 117 Pleistocene 11, 12, 76–81 Hulitherium thomasettii 20 Flindersia maculosa 117 temperature and carbon dioxide levels human arrival in Australia 57–61 flying foxes 14 76–7 and resultant extinctions 228, 229 foraging by rat-kangaroos, bandicoots see also last glacial cycle charcoal concentration evidence 92–3 and bilbies, ecological implications glaciers 79 dates for earliest occupation 58–61, 59t 184–5 gliding possums 4, 29, 98 fixing dates for, methodologies 55–6 forests glossary 264–6 hunting overkill leading to megafauna Eocene 5, 9 goats 222, 225 extinctions 37, 44–9, 50, 51, 97, interglacial 84 golden-backed tree rat Plate 3 102–5 see also rainforests golden bandicoot 179, 193, 203 origins of ancestors 57 fossil abundance, and true extinction date Gould’s mouse 180, 181, Plate 33 see also Aboriginal burning; Aboriginal 72–4 grass seeds, use of 138 hunting; Aboriginal people fossil marsupials 6–7 grasses 83, 84, 86, 122, 123 human dispersal in Australia 61–2 fossil placentals 7 great drought 39–42 human occupation sites 61–2 foxes 189, 191, 197–203, 207, 223, 234 great hopping-mouse 171, 180 fixing dates for earliest 58–61, 59t 1080 baiting 202, 224 Greater Australia overlap of artefacts and megafauna and mammal declines 199–203, 211 archaeological sites for human remains 68, 71–2 and mammal extinctions 202–3, 206, occupation 59t hunter-gatherer economy 44, 45 216, 228, 229–30 map of 11, 12, 58 hunting and rabbit population decline 226 greater bilby 173, Plate 37 impact on dwarfing 111–12 as predators on sheep 226 greater glider 28 of thylacines, Tasmania 179, 194–7 bounty payments 199 Gregory Lakes 87, 88 see also Aboriginal hunting; overhunting distribution 200 ground-dwelling mammals hunting overkill and extinctions 37, 44–6, historical spread 198–9 decline of 221, 222 50, 51, 97 introduction to Australia 197–8, 199 population increase by restoring vege- criticisms 46–9 neutralising predation by 202, 224 tation 226–7, 234 power of late Pleistocene hunters predation on reintroduced macropods ground-nesting birds 35 106–14 201 Gymnostoma 5 species most at risk from 102–5

Index 273

Hydromys 13 Lake Callabonna fossil site 17, 30, 40 Macquarie Island parakeet 213–14 hyperdisease 49–50 Lake Coomboo, Fraser Island 83–4, 91 macropod diversity 9 hyperpredatory extinction 212–16 Lake Eyre 25, 78–9, 85, 94, 122–3 Macropodidae 9, 16, 22–5 Hypsiprymnodon moschatus 28 Lake George 79, 84, 90, 95, 122 Macropodinae 22, 105 Hypsiprymnodontidae 28 Lake Menindee 67, 155 extinct 25 Lake Mungo 58, 60, 61, 72, 79–80, 155 Macropteranthes keckwickii 118 ice age climates Lake Selina 90 Macropus 25 carbon dioxide 76 Lake Tandou 68 Macropus dorsalis 138 climate variability 80–1 Lake Wangoom 71, 84, 86, 93, 122 Macropus eugenii 164 temperature 76–7 Lancefield Swamp, Victoria 68 Macropus giganteus 34, 66, 111 water 78–80 late survival of megafauna 66–7 Macropus greyi Plate 25 Idiospermum australiense 121 large-bodied herbivores Macropus irma 164, 177 insectivorous species 99 as browsers 101 Macropus parryi 177 intensification of resource use, Aboriginal resilience to glacial climates 100 Macropus robustus 163 people 140–1 Lasiorhinus angustidens 34 Macropus rufus 163 interglacials, vegetation change 84 Lasiorhinus latifrons 42 Macropus titan 34, 37, 66, 111 introduced herbivores last glacial cycle Macrotis lagotis 164, 173, Plate 37 versus introduced predators 210–12 and charcoal levels 94 Macrotis leucura Plate 28 see also rabbits; sheep climate variability 80–1 Madura Cave, Nullarbor Plain 149 introduced predators 197–206 megafuana survival of 72–5 Main Cave 68 feral cats 189, 198, 203–6, 211, 214, putting it in perspective 94–5 mala 172, 203–4, Plate 34 216, 220, 222, 229 temperature and carbon dioxide levels Malakunanja 60, 61, 72 red fox 189, 191, 197–203, 211, 76–7, 123 mammal carnivores see carnivorous 212–19, 228, 229–30 vegetation and climate change 81–9, mammals versus introduced herbivores 209–11 122–4 mammal decline ironwood 117 water availability 78–80 and ecosystem decay 181–6 Isodon auratus 179, 203 Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 77, 79 and vegetation change 221 Isodon obesulus 190 climate variability 80, 95 causes environmental change and Aboriginal disease epidemics 188–91 Jinmium Rock-shelter 58 people 132–4 fire hypothesis 191–3 sea level rise at end of 134–5 introduced predators 197–206, kangaroo hunting, fire use for 145–6 vegetation change 84, 85, 86, 87–9, 94, 212–20, 222 kangaroos 9, 115 122, 123, 125, 128, 134 killing and habitat clearing 193–7 as seed dispersers 120–1 late Holocene see Holocene rabbits 207–9, 210, 211 controlled by dingoes 219, 225 late Miocene fauna 9 sheep plague 210, 211–12 extinctions 172 late Pleistocene see Pleistocene complete model and its implications largest 25 late survival past 46 kyr 222–7 Pleistocene dwarfing 34–5 evidence for 64–8, 67t four-stage scheme of, European Pleistocene extinctions 16, 21–5, 28 evidence from rock painting and other Australia 171–5 population numbers, mid-19th century cultural records 69–70 late Holocene 162–5 161–2 reliability of dates 68–9 mammal extinctions in European Australia reasons for population increase 164–5 Lava Cave 154, 157 3, 168–86 slow reproductive rates 233 Lembudu Cave 68 causes 187–206 see also sthenurine kangaroos; tree leopardwood 117 fire hypothesis 191–3 kangaroos Leporilus apicalis Plate 31 hyperpredation 212–16 Keilor 68 Leptospermum 144 introduced predators 197–206 Kelangurr Cave 68 lesser bilby 178, 203, Plate 28 killing and habitat clearing 193–8 kill sites 47, 48 lesser stick-nest rat Plate 31 plague and pestilence 188–91 Kimberley rock painting 156 Lime Springs 68 characteristics 174–5 Kiowa Rock-shelter 154 Lombok Ridge marine sediments 84, 86, extinct on the mainland, persists on koalas 29, 34, 74, 99, 115, 165 90, 92 islands 169t disease epidemics 188 long-beaked echidna 28, 69, 70, Plate 9 extinct species 169t, 175–81 population number 163–4, 191 long-footed potoroo 176 extinction pattern 168–75 Kokopellia juddi 6 long-tailed hopping mouse 181, totally extinct 169t Kollikodon ritchiei 4 Plate 32 mammal extinctions, late Pleistocene 99 Kolopsis watutense 20 long-tailed planigale Plate 2 mammal fauna Kulpi Mara 61, 133, 192 Lourandos’‘intenstification’ of resource coexistence with exotic predators 215 use 140–1 origins and evolution 3–14 Lagorchestes 177 luminescence dating 56 slow reproductive rates 232–3 Lagorchestes hirsutus Plate 34 Lynch’s Crater, Atherton Tablelands 83, susceptibility to placental predators Lagorchestes leporides Plate 23 90, 92, 95, 125, 128 230–1

274 index

vulnerability to the Australian environ- Pleistocene 3, 16, 28–9, 37, 39–42, 53, Mootwingee rock art site 71 ment 231–2 72–4 Morton’s hypothesis on collapses of mammal fauna extinctions South America 3 critical-weight-range mammals 232 New Guinea 16 Tasmania 97 mosaic-tailed rat 13 South America 3 testing hypotheses on 53, 96–114 movement styles, and risk of extinction mammal herbivores power of Pleistocene hunters 105 distribution of biomass in relation to 106–14 Mt Etna caves 3 body size 115 selectivity extinction 98–105, 112–13 Murinae 12–13 extinct 115 timing on extinctions 96–7 murnong 141 impacts on vegetation 116 ‘megafauna fruit’ 120–1, Plate 16 Murra-el-elevyn Cave, Nullarbor Plain 154 late Pleistocene 16–26 megafauna remains Murray Cave 154 non-extinct species 115–16 age distribution of dated 64 musky rat-kangaroos 27–8 mammal populations, cessation of hunting dating 62–3 mycorrhizal fungi 182–3 on 162–5 criticisms 63–4 Myrmecobius fasciatus 173 mammal predators 26–7, 32, 45, 230–1 youngest articulated remains 63 Myrtaceae 85 see also devils; dingoes; feral cats; foxes; evidence for late survival 64–72, 67t thylacines Cuddie Springs site 64–6 Naracoorte Caves 74 mammals depiction as ‘dreamtime animals’ narrow-leafed bumble 117 dispersal of spores and seeds 182–4 69–71 nature reserves, exclusion of predators high energy demands as endotherms Lancefield Swamp site in Victoria from 224 231 66–7 Nauwalabila 60, 61, 72 refuges from predation 200–1, 211 overlap with human occupation NcEachern Cave 154 Mammoth Cave,WA 71 sites 68, 71–2 New England possums 164 Mandu Mandu Rock-shelter,WA 62, 155 reliability of dates 69 New Guinea mangroves 84, 86 megafauna survival of last glacial period as centre of diversity for tree Maokopia ronaldi 20 72–4 kangaroos and cuscuses 12 Mareeba rock-wallaby Plate 19 megafaunal naivety 46–7, 49, 107–8 climate change effects 11, 12 marsupial decline, mid- to late-Miocene 9 megaherbivores 16–26 rodents entry from 13 marsupial diversity 8, 9, 10 resilience to glacial climates 100 thylacine remains 155 marsupial evolution 4, 6–12 Megalania 32, 33 vegetation changes and extinctions 41 marsupial extinctions 3 Megalania prisca 27 New Guinea mammal extinctions 16, 33 marsupial lion 26, 32, 70, 233, Plate 7 Megalibgwilia ramsayi 28 Ngarrabullgan 58 marsupial mole 4 Meiolania 27 Ngurini Rock-shelter 149 marsupial moles 29 Meiolania oweni 27 nineteenth century ideas on extinctions marsupial tapir 16, 20, Plate 5 Meiolania platyceps 27 36–7 marsupial ‘wolves’ 11 Melaleuca 84, 172 ningauis 99 marsupials, reproductive rates 232 Melomys 13 Nombe Rock-shelter 68, 155 megabrowsers 115–16 Mesembriomys macrurus Plate 3 non-flying mammals plant defences against 116–19 mesopredator release 220–1 energy needs 231–2 megafauna bones Metasthenurus 22 unsuitability to Australian environment poor preservation of 72 metatherians 6 232 use by Aboriginal people 71 microbiotheriids 7 North America, overhunting 44–5 megafauna dispersal syndrome 119–21 Microseris scapiegera 141 North American faunas 7 megafauna extinctions mid-Oligocene faunas 8 northern bettong Plate 35 and the last glacial cycle 72–5 mihirungs 70–1, 120 northern hairy-nosed wombat 170 causes 36–54 model of interactions that led to decline northern quoll 222 complex hypothesis 51–3 and extinction of Australian mammals Nothofagus 5, 7, 84, 86 early ideas 1860–1968 36–8 222–7 Nothofagus cunninghamii 86 fire and the remaking of Australia other pressures on native mammals Notomys longicaudatus Plate 32 43–4, 51 223–4 Nullarbor dwarf bettong 176 Flannery’s overkill views criticised prey species numbats 201, 202 46–9 body size 222–3 decline in range 173 great drought 39–42 distribution and habitat 223 hyperdisease 49–50 moist tropics, pollen core sample analysis Occam’s Razor 52 modern debate 38–50 83–4 occupation overhunting 44–6 Monajee Cave 154 fixing dates for earliest 58–61, 59t overview 50–1 monitors 27 low productivity habitats 140 ecological aftermath 115–29 monotreme fossils 4 occupation sites fixing dates for 62–75 monotremes 5, 8 Australia 61–2 methodologies 55–7 evolution 3 impact of Last Glacial Maximum on plant responses to 121–9 reproductive rates 232 133–4

Index 275

ocean circulation, changes in 8–9 plants population growth, Aboriginal people, ODP 820 (wet tropical north-east) chemical defences 116, 118 Holocene 136–7, 142 charcoal concentrations 92, 93, 125 defences against herbivores 116–19, possums 29, 164, 165 pollen core sediment analysis 83, 95 127–8 disease epidemics 188–9 omnivorous mammals 27–9 divaricate growth 118 Potoroidae 27 Onychogalea fraenata Plate 38 height dimorphism 117–18, Plate 14 potoroos 172, 176, 182 Onychogalea lunata Plate 24 responses to megafauna extinction Potorous gilbertii 172 oolacunta 1–2, 2, 216 121–9 Potorous longipes 176 optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) fire 124–6 Potorous platyops Plate 22 56 plant declines and extinctions power of late Pleistocene hunters 106–14 Ornithorhynchus 5 126–9 dwarfing test 111–12 Oryctolagus cuniculus 207 vegetation structure 122–4 overhunting models 106–10 overhunting 37, 44–6, 97 seed dispersal by mammals 119–21 did people hunt megafauna to have blitzkreig hypothesis 44–5, 50 spininess 117 a significant effect? 108, 110–11 criticisms of Flannery’s views in young plants, but absent in Diprotodon optatum demographic lack of archaeological evidence mature 118 model 109–10, 111 47–9 structural defences 116–18 lack of archaeological evidence 113 lessons from predator prey theory 49 see also vegetation prey naivety 46–7, 49, 107–8 megafaunal naivety 46–7, 49 platypus 5 selective extinction of large vertebrates models 106–8 Pleistocene environment 76–95 112–13 power of late Pleistocene hunters fire in Australia 90–1 predation on critical-weight-range 106–14 ice age climates 76–81 mammals 204, 205, 215–16, 220, 221 species most at risk from 102–5 large predators in 233–4 complete model 222–7 population density effects 104–5 people, fire and vegetation 90–4 predator–prey interactions 212–16, 228–9 slow-moving species 105 vegetation and climate change 81–9 predator–prey theory 49 slow-reproducing species 102–4 Pleistocene fossil sites predators species living in open habitats or Darling Downs region 73 biological control of 224–5, 226 on the ground 102 northern Australia 30 introduced 197–206, 209–11, 212–19, Owen, Sir Richard, views on extinction Pleistocene glacial periods 3, 11, 12, 72–5, 220, 222, 228, 229–30 36–7 76–81 mammal 26–7, 32, 45 Owenia 120, 128 Pleistocene hunters, power of 106–14 neutralisation of 223–4 Pleistocene mammal extinctions reducing impact of through habitat pademelons 34, 138, 164, 190 problem of lack of complete skeletons revegetation 226–7, 234 Padypadiy, East Alligator River 157 30 sheep, cattle and dingoes 225–6 Palorchestes 20, 70 species list, Australia and New Guinea thylacines as 157, 179 Palorchestes azeal Plate 5 18–20t prey naivety 46–7, 49, 107–8 palorchestids 16, 20, 29 Pleistocene marsupials prey species Parmerpar Meethaner, Tasmania 62 mass range 30 body size 222–3 Perameles bougainville 179 size-selectivity of extinctions 33–5 distribution and habitat 223 Perameles eremiana Plate 27 Pleistocene megafauna 16–35 Procoptodon 25, 105 Petauroides 28 problems and controversies 30–3 Procoptodon brownoreum 71 Petauroides ayamaruensis 34 Pleistocene megafauna extinctions 3, 16, Procoptodon goliah 25, 43 Petauroides volans 34 28–9 Propleopus oscillans 28 Petrogale lateralis 201 and great drought 39–42 Propleopus wellingtonensis 28 Petrogale mareeba Plate 19 and Signor-Lipps Effect 72–4 Protemndon 25 Phalanger 12 causes 37, 53 Protemndon anak 24 Phascolarctos stirtoni 74 Pliocene Protemndon hopei 25 Phascolonus gigas 21–2, 22, Plate 6 evolution of herbivores 9–11 Pseudocheirus 28 pig-footed bandicoot 178–9, 203, 216, vegetation 9 Pseudochirulus 28 Plate 26 Poaceae 83 Pseudomys 181, 193 pigs 225 Podocarpaceae 5 Pseudomys gouldii Plate 33 Pittosporum lancifolium 118 Podocarpus 83 Pseudomys patrius Plate 4 Pittosporum spinescens 118 poison pea 184, 201 Puritjarra 61, 133, 192 placental mammal fossils 4 pollen core sample analysis pygmy possum 29, 115 placental mammals, evolution 3–4, 6, 7 arid zone 84–5 placental predators, mammal fauna suscep- Bassian Plain 86–7 quandong 184 tibility to 230–1 Carpentarian Plain 85–6 Queensland pebble-mound mouse Plate 4 Planigale ingrami Plate 2 moist tropics 83–4 Quinkana fortirostrum 27, 32 planigales 9, 99 southeastern Australia 84 quokkas 164, 193, 200 plant declines following megafauna population density, and risk of extinction quolls 172, 173, 188, 200, 222, 223 extinctions 126–9 from overhunting 104–5

276 index

rabbit haemorrhagic disease 226 rock paintings Seton Rock-shelter 68 rabbit plagues 208–9, 211 ‘clothes peg figure’ style 156, 161 Setonix brachyurus 164, 193 rabbits 176, 189, 191, 207–9 depiction of conflict 135 Seymour Island faunas 6, 7 contribution to mammal declines depiction of devils 157 Shark Bay mouse 181 208–9, 210, 211 depiction of dingoes 157 sheep 209–10 feeding habits 208 depiction of extinct megafauna 69–70 distribution 198 foxes and mammals, and hyperpreda- depiction of hunting of devils 161 impact on mammal extinction/decline tory extinction 212–16 depiction of hunting of thylacines 160 210, 211–12 historical spread 198, 207 depiction of long-beaked echidna overgrazing and vegetation destruction introduction to Australia 207 Plate 9 209, 212 population decline, impact on cats and depiction of spear-throwers 161 population explosion 209, 210 foxes 226 depiction of thylacines 155, 156, 157, predated on by dingoes 225–6 radiocarbon dating 55–6 Plate 17 predated on by foxes 226 rainfall decline, and large mammal extinc- ‘dynamic figure’ style 160 rabbits and foxes 212 tions 39–40 ‘large naturalistic animal’ style 155 short-faced kangaroos 16, 22–5 rainfall increase, at end of LGM 135 style differentiation by society 139 shrublands 122, 126 rainfall pattern, under glacial conditions ‘X-ray’ art style 155 Signor-Lipps Effect 72, 73–4 79–80, 89 rock-piles, as mammal shelter from foxes implications for late Pleistocene rainforest faunas 12, 28 200–1 palaeontology and archaeology 74 rainforests 9 rock-rats 201 Simosthenurus 22, 23, 105 and marsupial arrivals 8 rock shelters Simosthenurus maddocki 22, 120 Cretaceous 5 growth in number of 136 Simosthenurus pales 74 pollen analysis 83–4 see also specific shelters Sinodelphys szalayi 6 spread at end of LGM 135 rock-wallabies 201, 223 size-selectivity of Pleistocene extinctions vegetation change under LGM 89 rodents, native 33–5 rat-kangaroos 164, 211 distribution of fruit and seeds 183–4 slow reproductive rates bounty payments 199 distribution of fungal spores 182, 183 late Pleistocene species 102–5 distribution of fruit and seeds 183 extinct species 180–1 mammal fauna 232–3 distribution of fungal spores 182–3 extinction 1840s to 1930s 171–2 slow-moving species, at risk of extinction extinct species, European Australia foxes impact on 200 from overhunting 105 172, 175–6 origins and evolution 12–13, 29 social change, Aboriginal people 139–41 foraging behaviour, ecological implica- reproductive rates 215 Solanum 117, 118 tions 184–5 toxoplasmosis in 189 Solanum macoorai 118 foxes impact on 199–200 see also conilurine rodents Solanum viride 118 Holocene 34 rufous bettong 164, 176, 200 South American extinctions 3 Pleistocene 27, 33 rufous hare-wallaby 172, 203–4, Plate 34 South American faunas 6, 7 Rattus 13 southeastern Australia, pollen core sample red fox 189, 191, 197–203 sandalwood 184 analysis 84 red kangaroos 163 Santalum acuminatum 184 southern brown bandicoot 190 refuge-seeking behaviour 200–1, 211 Santalum spicatum 184 spear-throwers 161 refuges, improving by revegetation 226–7 Sarcophilus laniarus 74 species decline, and distribution range reintroduced mammal species scaly-tailed possum Plate 18 173–4 exclusion of predators from 224 scavengers 32–3, 157, 159 species disappearance, and timing of its improving survival through habitat sclerophyll forests 83, 84, 89 decline to rarity 173, 174 revegetation 226–7 scrub leopardwood 117 species living in open habitats or on the predation by feral cats 203–4 sea level changes ground at risk of overkill 102, 103 predation by foxes 201 and colonisation of Australia 57 species vulnerability to vegetation and reintroduction of Tasmanian devils at end of Last Glacial Maximum climate change 98–101 into southeastern Australia 235 134–5, 137 dependence on dense and diverse reproductive rates Pleistocene 11 ground vegetation 98–9 and extinction patterns 102–4 sedges 83, 84, 86 dependence on dense forest 98 Australian mammals 232–3 seed dispersal insectivores 99 reptiles, Pleistocene 27, 32, 37 by megafauna 119–21 requirement for high-quality plant body mass 32 by rat-kangaroos and rodents 183–4 food 99 revegetation, to improve refuges 226–7 impact of loss of 128 Spilocuscus 12 ringtail possum 29 seed resources, utilisation 140 spinifex-dominated landscape, Kimberley, rising sea levels, at end of LGM 135–6 selectivity extinction 33–4, 35, 53, 54, WA Plate 10 Riwi 71 98–105 spininess Roberts et al.s dating of megafauna fossils climate and vegetation change 98–101 as defence against browsers 116–17, 62–3 overkill 102–5 118 criticisms of 62–3 through human impact 112–13 loss of, after removal of browsers 128

Index 277

spiny foliage of juvenile arid-zone acacia disappearance before dingo arrival last glacial cycle perspective 94–5 Plate 13 156–7 through pollen analysis 82–7 spotted-tail quoll 188 disease in 190, 196 under low carbon dioxide levels 81–2 Steropodon galmani 4, 5 Holocene dates 154–7 vegetation structure, changes following sthenurine kangaroos 16, 22–5, 70 human impact on 159–61 megafauna extinction 122–4 diet 22, 25 interactions with devils 162 Vulpes vulpes 197 impact of climate on 41, 101 locations, mainland Australia 154–6 morphology and distribution 22 mainland extinction of 153–6 waddywood 117 use by Aboriginal people 71 natural abundance 160 wallabies 9, 164 Sthenurus 22, 23,37 outcompeted by dingoes 153–4, 157–9 extinct species 177–8, 200 Sthenurus stirlingi 22 criticisms 158–9 extinctions 169, 171, 172 Sthenurus tindalei 22 Thylacine Hole, Nullarbor Plain 149, wallaroos 163 stick-nest rats 180 154 wandering albatross, population decline Strigocuscus 12 Thylacinidae 11 114 striped possum 34 Thylacinus cynocephalus 194, Plate 29 Warendja wakefieldi 20–1 surivival into the last glacial cycle 72–4 Thylacoleo carnifex 26–7, 32, 70, 233, Warreen Cave, Tasmania 62 surplus killing, by foxes 202 Plate 7 water availability, ice ages 78–80 Thylacoleonidae 11, 26–7, 29 water rats 13 Tachyglossus aculeatus 28 Thylogale 138 Western Australia, occupation sites 61–2 tammar wallaby 164, 200, 201 Thylogale brunii 34 western barred bandicoot 179 Tanami Desert Thylogale chistenseni 34 western brush wallaby 177 mala reintroductions 203–4 Thylogale thetis 164 western grey kangaroo 163 mammal decline 193 tigers see thylacine western quoll, decline in range 173 Tasmania timing of extinctions 3, 53, 96–7 Western Shield program,WA, 1080 destruction of thylacines 179, 194–7 Tingamurra fauna 6–7, 13 baiting 202, 224 kangaroo abundance 163 Tingamurra porterorum 7 wetlands 135 megafauna extinctions 97 tool development whiptail wallaby 177 occupation sites 62, 134 by Aboriginal people 160–1 white-footed tree rat 180, Plate 30 pollen records 86–7 Holocene 137–8, 141–2 ‘wide-awake’ 1–2, 216 Tasmanian Aborigines toolache wallaby 169, 171, 177–8, Widgingarri Rock-shelter 154 dog ownership 150 Plate 25 wild dogs see dingoes impact on kangaroo populations 163 attempt at preservation 178 wild lime 117 tool use 141–2 habitat clearing impact on 193–4 wild orange 117, 120, Plate 16 use of dogs for hunting 151 Toxoplasma gondii 189 wild pomegranate 120 Tasmanian bettong 172, 176, 202, 221 toxoplasmosis 189, 190 Wilkinson’s views on extinctions 37 Tasmanian devil 4, 27, 34, 190 tree kangaroos 12, 34, 99, 163, 165 Willandra Lakes 42 coexistence with native mammals 235 population number 164 Wombah Midden, eastern NSW 149 disease impact on 223 Trichosurus vulpecula 164 wombat-like creatures 16, 17–20 reintroduction into southeastern tropical vegetation, pollen analysis see also diprotodonts Australia 235 83–5 wombats 4, 11, 16, 20–2, 29, 37, 105, 115 Tasmanian pademelon 190 diet composition change 123 Tasmanian tiger see thylacine uranium/thorium (U/Th) dating 56–7 disappearance from Willandra Lakes Teinolophos trusleri 4 Uromys 13 region 42 temperature cycles, ice ages 76–7, 80, 89, 94 Pleistocene dwarfing 34 terrestrial herbivores 9–11, 14 Van Diemen’s Land Company 179, 194 threatened with extinction 170 test framework for extinction 53–4 Woolnorth Station, numbers of Wonambi naracoortensis 27, 32 power to account for the magnitude thylacines killed 194–6 woylie 164, 176, 201, 202, 203, 221 of the extinction event 53, 106–14 vegetation fruit eating 184 selectivity of extinction 53, 98–105 and climate change 81–9 seed-caching and burial 184 timing of extinctions 53, 96–7 and species vulnerability 98–101 Wyulda squamicaudata Plate 18

thermoluminescence 56 C3/C4 plant composition changes thylacine 27, 29, 32, 70, 169, 171, 194, 122–4 Xeromys 13 233, Plate 29 fire and people 90–4 as specialist predator 157, 179 vegetation change Yamuti 70 bounty scheme, Tasmania 179, 194–7 and extinctions 37, 41, 97 depiction in rock painting 155, 156, and small mammal decline 221 Zaglossus sp. 28, 69, Plate 9 157, Plate 17 carbon isotope signatures of 87–8 Zaglossus hacketti 28 depiction of hunting in rock painting Eocene to Pleistocene 10 Zygomaturus 71 160, 161 interpretation of LGM data 88–9 Zygomaturus trilobus 17–20, 116

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