International Journal of Research and Review Vol.7; Issue: 11; November 2020 Website: www.ijrrjournal.com Research Paper E-ISSN: 2349-9788; P-ISSN: 2454-2237

Structure of Eastern African Standby Force in Maintaining Peace and Security in and

Robert Gichangi Kabage1, Prof. Kennedy Onkware2, Prof. Crispinous Iteyo3

1,2,3Department of Peace and Conflict Studies, P.O Box 190-50100, Kakamega

Corresponding Author: Robert Gichangi Kabage

ABSTRACT security of its members through political and military means. The overall organ is the Structural issues marred intrastate conflicts in North Atlantic Council. This is the highest the early nineties thus challenging regional decision making entity and is comprised of security. This prompted the need for a collective the Representative Ambassadors of the regional response. Further, this explains the Allied countries. Other organs are the formation of a number of regional security mechanisms such as EASF with a mandate to Military Committee, which is comprised of maintain peace and security in the Eastern the Defence Chiefs of Staff of the Allied region. Despite over a decade of its countries, to which the Allied Command existence, the EASF efforts to tackle the Operation and Allied Transformation seemingly intractable peace and security Command report. The third organ is the dilemmas in the region and especially in Kenya International Staff and the International and Somalia have remained elusive and Military Staff, which prepares plans and insignificant, making it more of a bystander. directs operations. As an organization, This study sought to address this gap. NATO has very few permanent own forces Specifically, the study examined the structure of and so when the Atlantic Alliance decides to Eastern African Standby Force. The study was launch an operation; the Member States underpinned by regional Security Complex theory. provide military forces voluntarily (Jack et al, 2009). Keywords: Eastern African Standby Force, At the continental level, Darkwa EASF, peace, security, Kenya, Somalia (2017) observes that a similar hierarchical structure exists in ECOWAS. To be able to I. INTRODUCTION articulate its mandate of promoting peace Minterzberg (1972), in his book, and economic integration of the constituting “The structures of an organization” countries, ECOWAS is organized with three explains structure as the system that is used arms of governance. They include the to define the hierarchy within the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary. organization that establishes how it operates At the helm of the structure is the Chairman to execute its goals. It involves the jobs, the of the Authority of Heads of State and processes, the people and groups making Government, who is appointed by other efforts to achieve its goals. Jack et al Heads of State and Government to oversee (2009), when analyzing the structure of and coordinate the affairs of the NATO, reiterates that the organization is organization for a period of one year. Others structured with international political and are the Council of Ministers, the military organs, to be able to undertake its Community Tribunal, the Community Court role of guaranteeing the freedom and of Justice, the Executive Secretariat, the

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ECOWAS Parliament, and the Specialized explicates how security is clustered in Commissions to include one on Peace and geographically slated regions. It avouches security (Agyapong, 2005). that security concerns do not travel well At the sub regional level in the East over distance and threats are therefore, African region, Ligawa (2015), opines that mostly linked and witnessed in the geo- the EAC, being a sub-regional political regions, hence affirming security intergovernmental organization of the interdependence. The Regional Security Republics of , Kenya, , Complex Theory underpinned this study in South , and the United the sense that, it helped unravel the Republic of , is structured with intricacies surrounding the structure of seven main Organs. They comprise the EASF effectiveness in maintaining peace Summit, the Council of Ministers, the Co- and security in the region and specifically in coordinating Committee, the Sectoral Kenya and Somalia. It also endeavoured to Committees, the East African Court of explain whether structural aspects affect Justice, the East African Legislative EASF’s mandate. Assembly and the Secretariat. Each of these organs undertakes specified functions to III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY enable the organization achieve its mandate This study adopted descriptive of widening and deepening co-operation research design. Orodho (2003) defines among the partner states and other regional descriptive design as a method of collecting economic communities in, among others, information by interviewing or political, economic and social fields for administering questionnaire to a sample their mutual benefit (Ligawa, 2015). population to get their attitude, opinion and To be able to achieve its mandate of habits on any variety of educational or maintaining peace and security in the EAR, social issues. This design was used to this study found out that EASF is also describe the demographic elements under organized with a structure that establishes study. It gave a detailed account of how it operates to execute its goals. The demographic characteristics of the structure constitutes the Planning Element respondents to the study. The descriptive (PLANELM), the Early Warning Systems approach aided in describing the status of (EWS), the Mediation and Negotiation the variables in objective one while showing capability, the political and geo-political how the variables relate in the natural systems as well as the Mission Support setting (Creswell, 2009). Descriptive capabilities and the Logistics Base research design was employed to describe (Kimathi, 2010). the structure of EASF. It described the structure as the system that is used to define II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK the hierarchy within the organization that This study was underpinned by establishes how it operates to execute its Regional Security Complex Theory goals, for instance, EASF planning element, (RSCT).This theory was advanced by early warning system, and negotiation and Buzanet al (2003), in their works “Regions mediation capability of EASF as well as and Power”. It is a theory of international how the political and geopolitical structures relations, which posits that international are made up. A total of 300 questionnaires security should be examined from a regional were administered to the respondents. 255 perspective, and that relations between were returned, while 45 were not returned. states exhibit regular and geographically This implied that there was 85% response clustered patterns. The theory explains the rate. This impressive rate was achieved due structure of international security and spills to the rigorous engagement of the it over to the regional segmentation of the respondents by the research assistants. The concept of security. In particular, this theory 15% who did not manage to complete the

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 447 Vol.7; Issue: 11; November 2020 Robert Gichangi Kabage et.al. Structure of Eastern African Standby Force in maintaining peace and security in Kenya and Somalia study was either due to busy schedules or structure. Minutely, 6% of the respondents failure to submit the questionnaires in time. strongly disagreed to the inquiry. The study findings are considered valid Cumulatively, 54% of the respondents since, according to Mugenda and Mugenda agreed that the PLANELM is a critical (2003), a response rate of 50% is adequate entity in the structure and effectiveness of for analysis and reporting. A response rate the EASF. of 60-69% is considered to be good, while that of above 70% is excellent. So the In light of the foregoing discussion, one of response rate for this study was excellent the key informants had this to say:

(Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003). Planning element of EASF is part of EASF structure based in IV. STUDY FINDINGS . This is the engine of The study sought to examine the EASF since virtually all plans of structure of EASF in its mandate of the EASF are developed, designed maintaining peace and security in Kenya and implemented from the and Somalia. The findings are discussed in planning element directives issued the ensuing paragraphs. from the Nairobi office. However, for effective operations of EASF to  EASF Planning Element take place, there are has often been need for coordination between the LOGBASE in and PLANELM offices in Kenya The coordination process is broadly making up the EASF structure that consists of the thirteen member states. However more tailored approach towards better planning is necessary in future (Interview with key informant at EASF PLANELM, Nairobi Kenya 20/11/2019.

The foregoing is illustrative of

Figure 1.1: EASF Planning Element. planning elements witnessed across the Source: Field Data, 2019. globe, the continent and within transnational The study sought to underscore the formations. However, it is important to note structure of EASF. It sought respondents’ that, the planning elements without proper understanding whether they strongly agreed, coordination mechanisms become agreed, not sure, disagreed or strongly moribund. Such was the case with the disagreed to factors determining the restructuring of EASBRIG in 2004 into structure of EASF. As illustrated in figure EASF. The PLANELM was composed of a 1.1, out of 255 respondents, 9% of them regional military and civilian staff on strongly agreed that EASF planning element secondment from all EASBRIG member was a defining structure for EASF. Besides, states, and was equipped at its location at 45% agreed that EASF planning element Karen, outside Nairobi, close to the existing was a critical element of EASF structure. International Peace Support Training Centre Additionally, 13% of the respondents were (IPSTC), with funding from Britain. The not sure. A further, 27% of the respondents function of the PLANELM was to serve as disagreed to the inquiry as to whether EASF the multinational full-time planning planning element constituted EASF headquarters for EASBRIG and it is

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 448 Vol.7; Issue: 11; November 2020 Robert Gichangi Kabage et.al. Structure of Eastern African Standby Force in maintaining peace and security in Kenya and Somalia empowered to enter into agreements with Military Chiefs of Staff and this leads to national and other training institutions for communication being more directed to the necessary capacity building. However, the Ministers and Chiefs of Defence and not to restructuring of EASBRIG was necessitated Chiefs of Police and Ministers responsible by its ineffectiveness, hence the need to for police matters as well as Ministers of come up with a more effective structure Foreign Affairs on civilian matters (Kibuko, (Cilliers& Malan, 2005). This finding is 2014). supported by Robinson (2014), who Omanyo (2015) agrees that staffing reiterates that during the 2013 verification and funding constraints still remain a of the ASF pledged capabilities, EASF, challenge for the regions, especially with ECCAS, ECOWAS and SADC, were found respect to the police and civilian to have operational PLANELMS. NARC components within the PLANELM. When it capabilities were still not operational but comes to funding, there is still quite a were working towards achieving operational dependency on partner funding to support readiness (AU Verification Report, 2013). posts within the PLANELMs. This again is However, Kibuko (2014), on the especially particular to the police and other hand, observes that the military civilian components. As partner funding components are the most dominant within continues to wane, the sustainability of the PLANELMs with a relatively fair staffing positions becomes a major capacity to plan, launch and sufficiently challenge. Thus regions also need to ensure manage missions. This is attributed to the that they include funding for posts in their originalBrigade concept of the ASF whilst regular budget structures for the PLANEMs. gradually being shed, but is still evident. All the regional PLANELM structures The military components at the regions are provide for three police experts in the police comprised of staff officers across land, component. And it was observed that the maritime, air and service support elements only region where these positions are all who report to a Head of Component and/or filled, is the EASF with only one officer in Chief of Staff. There is therefore need to SADC and two each in ECCAS and enhance and develop the police and civilian ECOWAS (Darkwa, 2017). components. There also remains a need for integration/integrated capacities. This will  EASF Early Warning Systems ensure that each component is afforded the Regarding early warning systems as opportunity to develop and manage its composing EASF structure, 130 respondents affairs in its unique manner whilst (51%) of the total 255 respondents agreed contributing to the overall strategic that Early Warning Systems (EWS) had objectives that have been set within the been initiated by EASF. 59 (23%) of the PLANELM. This is due to the fact that respondents disagreed to this inquiry and 28 Police and civilian components continue to (11%) strongly agreed that early warning report through the military and it was systems had been put in place by EASF. observed that they are not adequately Besides, 20(8%) strongly disagreed that represented in decision-making structures EWSs were part of EASF structure and 18 and processes such as the Chiefs of Defence (7%) of the total respondents were not sure. meetings wherein decisions that inform and Cumulatively 62% of the drive the activities of the PLANELMs are respondents agreed that Early Warning taken. Where technical expert groups are System was a vital component that had been utilised (such as in the EASF region), it was operationalized within the EASF structure. informed that they are for the most part These results are illustrated in figure 1.2. comprised of military representatives. The communication flow and correspondence are also coordinated and managed by the

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continent. While the Continental Early Warning System (CEWS) was put in place by Article 12 of the Protocol relating to the establishment of the Peace and Security Council (PSC), its operationalization is guided by the provisions of the “Framework for the Operationalization of CEWS”. The two instruments stress the importance of collaboration with Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) on matters of early warning and conflict prevention as a pre- requisite for the successful operation and full operationalization of CEWS

Figure 1.2: EASF Early Warning Systems (Chikwanha, 2010). Source: Field Data, 2019. The PSC Protocol specifically States In view of the foregoing deliberations, one that the Commission shall informant had this to say during the collaborate with International interview: Organizations, Research Centres, Academic institutions and NGOs, to facilitate the Early warning systems are essential functioning of the CEW. Against this for EASF role. In maintaining background, the ASF and CSOs have peace and security, it is important provided an important contribution in the to understand the dynamics that operationalization of CEWS. This is done comes with early warning. It is not through participation in various meetings just about issuance of alerts, and workshops convened by the AU slapping countries with travelling Commission since 2003. During this period, advisories as witnessed by the red- three consultative meetings have been held tape countries like USA and UK. with REC/RMs and CSOs, in the continent. Early warning entails activating They have basically focused on creating preparedness levels in readiness to awareness and understanding amongst them respond to crises (Interview with on the mandate, structures, operations and Kenya Immigration government status of operationalization of CEWS official on 23/11/2019, Mombasa, (Bouka, 2016). Kenya). This has enabled the development of an effective working methodology between Chikwanha (2010), reiterates that the CEWS, RECs/RMs and CSOs. This has EASF, working with the Africa Union facilitated emergence of an effective, Commission CEWS has developed many practical and sustainable relationship; and capacities and skills. This has enabled the elaborate the modalities for engagement and organization and the region to engage in their effective participation in conflict peace and security operations when prevention and early warning with the mandated. Key among them is the Early CEWS and RECs/RMs. Warning and Conflict Analysis system, As a follow-up to the consultative which provides regular updates and analysis meetings, CEWS identified five CSOs and of conflict in the region. This finding is Research Centres from the 5 AU regions to supported by previous studies; for example coordinate data collection activities and by the Bah et al (2014), on the enhancement thematic research initiatives. Further, the of Early Warning Capacity in Africa. It Africa Reporter tool, which is an important revealed that a lot of progress has been online platform, has been used to enhance made to enhance this capacity in the exchange of information between the AU,

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 450 Vol.7; Issue: 11; November 2020 Robert Gichangi Kabage et.al. Structure of Eastern African Standby Force in maintaining peace and security in Kenya and Somalia the RECs/RMs and CSOs. Through this the the Eastern Africa region, RECs/RMs and CSOs, are able to exchange especially in Kenya and Somalia. information with CEWS, in (Interview with Key informant countries/regions, where they have a Nairobi, 24/11/2019) presence or through existing networks (Cuman, 2012). The AU continues to support REC/RMs to develop their negotiation and  Negotiation and Mediation capability mediation capabilities through the APSA As far as negotiation and mediation framework and given legitimacy to the capability is concerned, out of the 255 RECs/RMs mediation activities. This is respondents, 115 (45%) of the respondents contained in the UN-AU Ten Year disagreed to the inquiry whether negotiation Capacity-Building Program. ACCORD and mediation capability constitutes EASF (2009), in a study on negotiation and structure. 81 (32%) of the respondents mediation capabilities in Africa emphasized agreed that EASF had capability in terms of that what is required now is the mediataion and negotiation. 26(10%) of the development of a sustainable work program respondents were not sure, while 15(6%) for the support to RECs/RMs capabilities. strongly disagreed and 18 (7%) strongly It recommended that the process of agreed. Cumulatively, only 39% agreed that strengthening the mediation relationship EASF has a functional mediation and between the UN, AU and the REC/RMs negotiation capability. This is illustrated in should be broadened. The UN should figure 1.3. further offer support for building the mediation capacity of the sub-regional organizations. This will go along way in ensuring that the relationship between the AU, the UN and the RECs/RMs regarding mediation is strengthened through desk-to- desk contact; sharing information and early warning. It will also develop a system for jointly identifying emerging conflict issues and designing timely response measures (ACCORD Report, 2009).

 Political and geo-political structure The study sought to ascertain whether political and geo-political structures formed part of EASF structure. As Figure 1.3: Negotiation and Mediation Capability Source: Field Data, 2019 illustrated from figure 1.4, out of the 255 respondents, 145 (57%) of the respondents In view of the foregoing discussion, one strongly agreed that political structure exists informant adduced that: in EASF and is affected by member state

Negotiation and mediation are politics. Additionally, 58 (23%) of the important aspects of regional respondents agreed with the foregoing organization like EASF. While, inquiry. Besides, 26 (10%) of the EASF has in the past been involved respondents disagreed to the inquiry, 13 in negotiation and mediation (5%) concomitantly were not sure while a efforts in attempts to maintain further 13 (5%) strongly disagreed that the peace and security, it may need to political/geopolitical structures exhibited be further developed to be a more effectiveness of EASF. effective conflict prevention tool in

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Cumulatively, 80% of the with the objective of making and enforcing respondents agreed that a political and peace. Making peace involved negotiation, geopolitical structure existed within the mediation and arbitration. Enforcing peace EASF and was key to its maintenance of involved the deployment of a 3,000-strong peace and security in the EAR. military force to supervise the ceasefire in August 1990 (Mortimeer, 1996). Due to political/geo political interests, in 1999, withdrew its membership. When ECOWAS decided to create a Cease-Fire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), in 1990, serious political divisions between the Anglophone nations led by and the Francophone nations represented by and Côte d’Ivoire became apparent. This division, which eventually included most Anglophone countries on one side and most of the Francophone countries on the other side, not only hindered the implementation Figure 1.4: Political and Geo-political Structure and the effectiveness of the operation, but Source: Field Data, 2019. also strained the cohesion of the In view of the foregoing discussions, one of organization. This explains that incessant the FGD participants observed that: politics will always take centre stage from member states. This, to a greater extent has Political and geopolitical structures shaped the politics of peace and security in are key in the operations of the regions such as Eastern Africa and even in EASF. Regional organizations are major blocs like the NATO (Howe, 1997). by nature political entities of According to Desmidt and Huuck member states. In most cases (2017), this explains why EASF lacks a politics guides issues that political home; with some key structures in circumnavigate around national Kenya and others in Ethiopia. He observes interests. Politics have been that the political climate in the Eastern structured, well rooted into the Africa region is unpredictable, especially political fabric of EASF member among member states due to prevailing states (FGD participant on political and geo-political interests. Desmidt 20/11/2019, PLANELM Nairobi). and Huuck (2017), further observes that the dearth of any member states failing political This finding is supported by study legitimacy to house regional organizations conducted in the ECOWAS by the World is worrying but inevitable in today’s Mediation Organization (WMO) in 2017. It geopolitical environment . found out that endless politics and geo- political interests always pervade all regional and sub regional security  Mission Support Capability Regional security mechanisms are only organizations. When ECOWAS was strong and efficient when they possess established in 1975, its mandate was adequate mission support capabilities. These restricted only to economic issues. This are the capabilities that enable them to tradition changed in 1990, when ECOWAS respond expeditiously to various conflict decided to intervene in the civil war in situations and scenarios without much neighboring . support challenges. Mission support is an The economic organization re- integrated capacity of military, civilian and designated itself as a security organization

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 452 Vol.7; Issue: 11; November 2020 Robert Gichangi Kabage et.al. Structure of Eastern African Standby Force in maintaining peace and security in Kenya and Somalia contracted resources. The mission support can learn from the UN pre-deployment component is responsible for the overall training for the mission support functions management and coordination of all logistic such as Information Technology (IT), which support functions for the EASF (Apuuli, has not been well explored by EASF. She 2016). detests any attempt by EASF to operate with In order to know whether there are limited resources, and duplication or overlap adequate mission support capabilities within of efforts and resources must be minimized, in EASF structure, the study found out that, if not avoided, as best as possible (Kibuko, out of the 255 respondents, 156 (61%), of 2014). the respondents agreed that EASF had This finding is further supported by adequate mission support structure, while 43 an ASF Pledged Capabilities verification, (17%) of the respondents disagreed. which was conducted in the EASF by AU Besides, 33 (13%) of the participants were team led by Gambari in 2017. It found out not sure and 23 (9%) strongly agreed. None that EASF, ECOWAS, and SADC were at of them strongly disagreed. different stages of establishing their mission Cumulatively, 70% of the support capabilities. The EASF and respondents agreed that there exists a ECOWAS were assessed to possess mission support capability within EASF adequate logistics capabilities, which could structure. This is illustrated in figure 1.5. perform procurement and administrative functions beyond the storage of pre- positioned equipment. NARC and ECCAS were still yet to establish such capabilities in their regions (AU Report, 2017).

 Logistics Base (LOGBASE) The heart of all humanitarian and peace support operations lies in the ability to conduct operational logistics to sustain the assigned forces. The EASF sub-region`s austere environment presents difficult logistic challenges. The research findings show that 115 (45%) of the respondents felt that the Force has an important logistical Figure 1.5: Adequate Mission Support Capabilities Unit as shown in figure 4.5. Out of the total Source: Field Data, 2019. 255 respondents, 69 (27%) of them averred The findings are underpinned by that EASF has no operational logistical unit. Kibuko (2014), who singled out mission Furthermore, 23 (9%) of the respondents support component as the most strongly agreed that EASF has a functional misunderstood yet critical components for LOGBASE and 15 (6%) strongly disagreed. the effective functioning of peace support In an interesting fashion, 33 (13%) of the operations. Based on her experience in respondents were not sure whether EASF UNAMID, she explains that effective has a LOGBASE or not. delivery of mission support during Cumulatively, 54% of the operations becomes a clear indicator of a respondents agreed that EASF has a successful mission and hence a force functional Logistics Base, within its multiplier. She observes that, if the structure. This is illustrated in figure 1.6. procurement and supply units are not The foregoing was underpinned by working well this means that even the Oluoch (2015), who argued that the military and police activities are hampered. identification of broad sustainability, In her opinion, regional security mechanism logistical support, and funding requirements

International Journal of Research and Review (ijrrjournal.com) 453 Vol.7; Issue: 11; November 2020 Robert Gichangi Kabage et.al. Structure of Eastern African Standby Force in maintaining peace and security in Kenya and Somalia are key components for the deployment of arms that were being used. He argued that any peace operations including military such equipment were crucial in dismantling intervention under any mission scenario. groups that stymie peace and security Emphasising that the problem of logistics is efforts. The researcher, therefore, believes not only that of outdated communication that, LOGBASE in a regional security and operational equipment, he contended mechanism acts as the centralized that it is also the ability of the force to warehouse for storage of logistics that are maintain modern logistical infrastructure key to operations of EASF troops in and operational supply systems. The maintenance of peace and security in standardization of logistical equipment Eastern Africa region. The LOGBASE among the contingents of the EASF in as controls virtually all the aspects of logistics much as possible is a very important in Eastern Africa (Bayeh, 2014). element of successful operation. However, The above assertion is further due to different development capacities of supported by the findings of the AU team member state defence forces, equipment tasked to verify ASF Pledged capabilities standardization will not be possible across that was led by Gambari, which assessed the whole spectrum of EASF military that EASF has an operational Logistics Base equipment. One kind of solution to bridge that was established in 2007 in Ethiopia to the gap that may exist between the different provide and coordinate logistical support to EASF member states` defence forces is the EASF operations. Its mandate includes early identification and standardization of amongst other aspects, managing the areas where interoperability between logistics infrastructure; providing training contingents is crucial to the success of the for logistics personnel; maintaining start-up EASF (Oluoch, 2015). kits for the Force HQ for rapid deployment; undertaking contingency planning and coordinating all logistics activities. Personnel responsible for the maintenance of the equipment and the entire facility have already been trained and the equipment is maintained using state of the art technology, ready to be deployed when the need arises (AU Report, 2017).

V. CONCLUSION The study concludes that a contemporary peace and security debate that leans on the back of a well-structured EASF is preponderant. EASF as currently Figure 1.6: Logistics Base structured is limited to comprehensively Source: Field Data, 2019. execute its mandate in maintaining peace

and security in Kenya and Somalia. The This prevenient assertion was many factors that contribute to insecurity in supported by Bayeh (2014), whose opinion the region exacerbate this situation. Kenya is in tandem with Oluoch’s credence of and Somalia are caught up in territorial EASF. However, he contends that African supremacy battles occasioned by cross armies as well as security mechanisms put border Al-shabaab asymmetrical activities, in place, have ‘notoriously’ weak logistics which are beyond structures configured for facility. In order to promote peace and peace operations. security, Bayeh (2014), calls for offensive equipment such as artillery and other force multipliers like helicopters instead of small

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