FOOD Research Methods for Anthropological Studies of and

Published in Association with the for the of Food and Nutrition (SAFN) and in Collaboration with Rachel Black and Leslie Carlin

Volume I Food Research: and Archaeological Methods Edited by Janet Chrzan and John Brett

Volume II Food Culture: Anthropology, , and Food Studies Edited by Janet Chrzan and John Brett

Volume III Food Health: Nutrition, Technology, and Edited by Janet Chrzan and John Brett Food Culture

Anthropology, Linguistics, and Food Studies

XXX

Edited by Janet Chrzan and John Brett

berghahn N E W Y O R K • O X F O R D www.berghahnbooks.com

Published in 2017 Berghahn Books www.berghahnbooks.com

© 2017 Janet Chrzan and John Brett

All rights reserved.

Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Chrzan, Janet, editor. | Brett, John A., editor. Title: Food culture : anthropology, linguistics and food studies / edited by Janet Chrzan and John A. Brett. Other titles: Food culture (Berghahn Books : 2017) Description: New York : Berghahn Books, 2017. | Series: Research methods for anthropological studies of food and nutrition ; volume II | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016047921 (print) | LCCN 2016048830 (ebook) | ISBN 9781785332890 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781785332906 (E-book) Subjects: LCSH: Nutritional anthropology—Research—Methodology. | Food habits—Research—Methodology. | Anthropological linguistics—Research— Methodology. Classification: LCC GN407 .F6595 2016 (print) | LCC GN407 (ebook) | DDC 394.1/20721--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016047921

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-1-78533-289-0 (hardback) EISBN: 978-1-78533-290-6 (ebook)

Contents XXX

Introduction to the Three-Volume SetResearch Methods for Anthropological Studies of Food and Nutrition 1 Janet Chrzan Introduction to Food Culture: Anthropology, Linguistics, and Food Studies 7 Janet Chrzan Research Ethics in Food Studies 15 Sharon Devine and John Brett

Section IV. Socio-Cultural Approaches Chapter 1. The and Food Anthropology: A Sociocultural Perspective 31 Geraldine Moreno-Black Chapter 2. Interviewing Epistemologies: From Life to Kitchen Table 47 Ramona Lee Pérez Chapter 3. Studying Body Image and Food Consumption Practices 58 Nicole Taylor and Mimi Nichter Chapter 4. Methods 70 Helen Vallianatos Chapter 5. On the Lookout: The Use of Direct Observation in Nutritional Anthropology 81 Barbara A. Piperata and Darna L. Dufour Chapter 6. Participant-Observation and Interviewing Techniques 92 Heather Paxson Chapter 7. Focus Groups in Qualitative or Mixed-Methods Research 101 Ramona L. Pérez vi Contents

Chapter 8. Studying Food and Culture: Ethnographic Methods in the Classroom Appendix 1: Food Ethnography Course Syllabus Appendix 2: Food 112 Carole Counihan

Section V. Linguistics and Food Talk Chapter 9. Introduction to Food Research Methods 131 Jillian R. Cavanaugh and Kathleen C. Riley Chapter 10. Food Talk: Studying Foodways and Language in Use Together 143 Jillian R. Cavanaugh and Kathleen C. Riley Chapter 11. An Introduction to Cultural Domain Analysis in Food Research: Free Lists and Pile Sorts 159 Ariela Zycherman Chapter 12. Food and Text(ual) Analysis 170 Kathleen C. Riley Chapter 13. Analysis of Historic Primary Sources 183 Ken Albala

Section VI. Food Studies Chapter 14. Introduction to Food Studies Methods 197 Amy B. Trubek Chapter 15. Meaning-Centered Research in Food Studies 204 Lucy M. Long Chapter 16. Food and Place 218 William Woys Weaver Chapter 17. Sensory Ethnography: Methods and Research Design for Food Studies Research 228 Rachel E. Black Chapter 18. Methods for Examining Food Value Chains in Conventional and Alternative Trade 239 Catherine M. Tucker Chapter 19. The ingleS Food Approach: A Research Strategy in Nutritional Anthropology 253 Andrea S. Wiley and Janet Chrzan Index 270

Introduction to the Three-Volume Set Research Methods for Anthropological Studies of Food and Nutrition Janet Chrzan 

Th ese three volumes provide a comprehensive examination of research design and methods for studies in food and nutritional anthropology. Our goal is to provide a resource that bridges the biocultural or biological focus that tradition- ally characterized nutritional anthropology and the broad range of studies widely labeled as the anthropology of food, and food studies. Th e dramatic increase in all things food in popular and academic fi elds over the last two decades, accom- panied by vast changes in technology, has generated a diverse and dynamic set of new methods and approaches to understanding the relationships and interactions people have with food. Earlier methods books tended toward the biocultural per- spective of nutritional anthropology (e.g., Pelto, Pelto, and Messer 1989; Quandt and Ritenbaugh 1986) while more recent volumes have focused on food studies (e.g., MacBeth and MacClancy 2004; Belasco, 2008; Miller and Deutsch 2009) and applied work (e.g., den Hartog, Van Staveren and Brouwer 2006). Th e rap- idly evolving fi eld of food studies has generated a host of new perspectives and methods from a wide variety of academic backgrounds, many of which include anthropological theories and research designs. Because of the expansion of the fi eld and the recent rise of food studies, we saw a need for a comprehensive refer- ence volume to guide design and research across the full spectrum of food, diet, and nutrition studies. Th e set has eight sections, each of which can almost stand alone as a food methods volume for a particular subdiscipline of anthropology. Just as nutri- 2 Janet Chrzan tional anthropology and studies in the anthropology of food benefi t from a four-fi eld, contextualized approach, this volume assumes that research in food systems and nutrition relies upon four subdisciplines in order to eff ectively study the importance of food within human . Th erefore, in addition to sections covering biological/nutritional, sociocultural, linguistic, and archeolog- ical anthropology methods, we have included sections on public health/applied nutrition, food studies, technology, and statistics. Each section is anchored by an introductory chapter that chronicles the history of the study of food within that area of research or practice and provides a comprehensive discussion of pre- vious studies that have helped to defi ne current work. By examining where we have been in relation to what we are doing and where we are going, each section seeks to defi ne how current and future research can choose, adopt, and adapt the best methods to ensure high-quality outcomes. Each section is designed to provide readers with the background sources necessary for a fully comprehensive understanding of the use of methods for that area of study—a “pointing to” of studies and practitioners that have defi ned the fi eld so that the reader has a good understanding of what is necessary to conduct respectable food research using methods germane to that area of anthropology. Th e individual chapters provide case studies and examples of how these methods have been used by other social scientists. Th e chapters within each section form a complementary packet covering most of the major methods generally used by practitioners within each subdiscipline. We have included what might be called standard methods in the various sub- disciplines (e.g., , ethnographic interviewing, excavation techniques, site surveying, etc.) but have expanded this focus with specialized techniques and approaches that have emerged or become popular more recently, such as digital storytelling, GIS, bone chemistry, and the use of biomarkers. Th e authors write about the methods and research design for their topics from their own research experience, outlining how they thought through their research questions, designs, data collection, and in some cases analysis. Th ese volumes are meant to be a primary resource for research about food for not only the beginning student but also graduate students as well as research and teaching professionals who desire a better understanding of how their peers have tackled specifi c questions and problems. Each author follows a similar outline, with a short introduction to the method and its antecedents (covering key background/ historical and essential readings where applicable) followed by current discussions and uses of the method, including the gray literature where applica- ble (e.g., material from the FANTA projects, FAO, Gates Foundation, etc.) and then discussion of analysis and research design considerations, concluding with the references cited and further readings. Th e sections on further reading include key historical volumes, reviews, monographs, software links, and so on for back- ground or more in-depth exploration. Introduction to the Three-Volume Set 3

Th e eight sections were divided into three volumes by clustering areas of an- thropological research that are linked conceptually and methodologically. Th e fi rst volume contains ethics, nutritional anthropology and archeological meth- ods, studies that are often biological in focus. Th e second volume is mostly socio- cultural, covering classic , linguistic anthropology, and food studies. We felt that research in food studies was more frequently rooted in so- cial processes and disciplines such as history, journalism, and and thus belonged amongst the allied anthropological fi elds. Th e fi nal volume folds the more applied research paradigms together with public health anthropology and fi nishes with a section on technology and statistical analysis. Clearly, this last vol- ume could be paired with one or the other volumes to provide a comprehensive overview of allied methods, as and technology are utilized in biological/archeological fi elds as well as socio-cultural, linguistic, and food studies research and practice. By breaking these three volumes into sections we hope to provide a comprehensive overview of methods related to food research, one that allows faculty, students, and researchers to purchase the volume(s) best suited to their subdiscipline and research interests. A fi nal word concerns research design. Th ese volumes have no chapter ded- icated to research design for two reasons: one, the topic is far too large to be adequately covered in one or even two chapters, and two, each chapter includes some aspect of research design. Clearly, research design will diff er between bio- logical and sociocultural studies, even if the of each is derived from classic anthropology theory. However, each author was asked to provide founda- tional examples of research design in their fi eld in order to create a comprehen- sive core bibliography for research design and methods in food and nutritional anthropology and food studies. Th at bibliography is given here, along with a second bibliography for Rapid Assessment Procedures and Focused Ethno- graphic Studies.

Food/Nutritional Anthropology and Food Studies: Research Design and Methods Albala, Ken, ed. 2013. Handbook to Food Studies. New York: Routledge. Axinn, William, and Lisa Pearce. 2006. Mixed Method Data Collection Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Belasco, Warren. 2008. Food: Th e Key Concepts. New York and Oxford: Berg. Bernard, H. Russell. 2011. Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 5th ed. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press. den Hartog, Adel P., Wija A. van Staveren, and Inge D. Brouwer. 2006. Food Habits and Con- sumption in Developing Countries. Wageningen, Th e Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers. Dufour, Darna L., and Nicolette I. Teufel. 1995. Minimum Data Sets for the Description of Diet and Measurement of Food Intake and Nutritional Status. In Th e Comparative Anal- 4 Janet Chrzan

ysis of Human Societies: Toward Common Standards for Data Collection and Reporting, ed. Emilio F. Moran, 97–128. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. Edge, John T. 2013. Th e Larder: Food Studies Methods from the American South. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. Gibson, Rosalind. 2005. Principles of Nutritional Assessment, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press. Johnston, Francis, ed. 1987. Nutritional Anthropology. New York: Alan R. Liss. Kedia, Satish, and John van Willigen. 2005. Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application. Westport, CT: Praeger. Kiefer, Christie W. 2006. Doing Health Anthropology: Research Methods for Community Assess- ment and Change. New York: Springer. Macbeth, Helen, and Jeremy MacClancy. 2004. Researching Food Habits: Methods and Prob- lems. New York: Berghahn Books. Margetts, Barrie, and Michael Nelson. 1997. Design Concepts in , 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mead, Margaret. 1945. Manual for the Study of Food Habits. Washington, DC: National Re- search Council. Miller, Jeff , and Jonathan Deutsch. 2009. Food Studies: an Introduction to Research Methods. Oxford and New York: Berg. Murcott, Anne, Warren Belasco, and Peter Jackson, eds. 2013. Th e Handbook of Food Research. London and New York: Bloomsbury. Pellett, P. L. 1987. Problems and Pitfalls in the Assessment of Human Nutritional Status. In Food and Evolution: Toward a Th eory of Human Food Habits, ed. and Eric Ross, 163-180. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Pelto, Gretel, Pertti Pelto, and Ellen Messer. 1989. Research Methods in Nutritional Anthropol- ogy. Tokyo: United Nations University. Pelto, Pertti. 2013. Applied Ethnography: Guidelines for Field Research. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Pelto, Pertti, and Gretel Pelto. 1978. Anthropological Research: Th e Structure of Inquiry. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press. Quandt, Sara, and Cheryl Ritenbaugh, eds. 1986. Training Manual in Nutritional Anthropol- ogy. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association. Scrimshaw, Susan C. M., and Elena Hurtado. 1987. Rapid Assessment Procedures for Nutrition and Primary Health Care: Anthropological Approaches to Improving Programme Eff ectiveness. Tokyo: United Nations University and New York: UNICEF. Shamoo, A., and D. Resnik. 2009. Responsible Conduct of Research, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Sobo, Elisa J. 2009. Culture and Meaning in Health Services Research. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Sutton, Mark Q., Kristin D. Sobolik, and Jill K. Gardner. 2010. Paleonutrition. Tucson: Uni- versity of Arizona Press. Th ursby, Jacqueline S. 2008. Foodways and Folklore. Westport, CT: Greenwood Folklore Handbooks. Ulijaszek, Stanley. 2005. Human Energetics in . Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology 16. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Introduction to the Three-Volume Set 5

Ulijaszek, Stanley, and S. S. Strickland. 1993. Nutritional Anthropology: Biological Perspectives. Littlehampton: Smith-Gordon. VanderWerker, Amber M., and Tanya M. Peres. 2010. Integrating and Paleoeth- nobotany: A Consideration of Issues, Methods and Cases. New York: Springer. Weiss, William, and Paul Bolton. 2000. Training in Qualitative Research Methods for NGOs and PVOs: A Trainer’s Guide to Strengthening Program Planning and Evaluation. Baltimore, MD: Center for Refugee and Disaster Studies, Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health. http://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/center-for-refugee-and-dis aster-response/publications_tools/publications/_pdf/TQR/tg_introduction.pdf.

Rapid Assessment Procedures and Focused Ethnographic Studies Beebe, James. 2001. Rapid Assessment Process: An Introduction. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press. ———. 2014. Rapid Qualitative Inquiry: A Field Guide to Team-Based Assessment. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefi eld. Blum L., P. J. Pelto, G. H. Pelto, & H. V. Kuhnlein. 1997. Community Assessment of Natural Food Sources of Vitamin A. Boston: International Nutrition Foundation. Catholic Relief Services. n.d. Rapid Rural Appraisal/Participatory Rural Appraisal Manual. http://www.crsprogramquality.org/storage/pubs/me/rrapra.pdf. Catley, Andrew, John Burns, Davit Abebe, and Omeno Suji. 2008. Participatory Impact As- sessment: A Guide for Practitioners. Feinstein International Center, Friedman School of Nutrition and Policy, Tufts University (in English, Spanish, or French). http://fi c .tufts.edu/assets/Part_Impact_10_21_08V2.pdf. Chaiken, Miriam S. 2011. Using Qualitative Methods in Save the Children Programs and Research: A Training Manual. Washington, DC: Save the Children. Chaiken, Miriam S., J. Richard Dixon, Colette Powers, and Erica Wetzler, 2009. Asking the Right Questions: Community-Based Strategies to Combat Hunger. NAPA Bulletin 32(1): 42–54. GERANDO: Community Based Disaster Risk ; Facilitator’s Manual. 2011. http:// www.wvi.org/disaster-risk-reduction-and-community-resilience/publication/gerando-co mmunity-based-risk-reduction. Gittelsohn, J., P. J. Pelto, M. E. Bentley, K. Bhattacharyya, and J. Russ. 1998. Ethnographic Methods to Investigate Women’s Health. Boston: International Nutrition Foundation. Gove, S., and G. H. Pelto. 1994. Focused Ethnographic Studies in the WHO Programme for the Control of Acute Respiratory Infections. 15: 409–24. Pelto, Gretel H., and Margaret Armar-Klemesu. 2014. Focused Ethnographic Study of Infant and Young Child Feeding 6–23 Months: Behaviors, Beliefs, Contexts and Environments. Man- ual for Conducting the Study, Analyzing the Results, and Writing a Report. Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN). http://www.hftag.org/resources/all-resources/ (select “Demand Generation for Home Fortifi cation”, then “Focused Ethnographic Study”). Pelto, G. H., M. Armar-Klemesu, J. Siekmann, and D. Schofi eld. 2013. Th e Focused Ethno- graphic Study: Assessing the Behavioral and Local Market Environment for Improving the Diets of Infants and Young Children 6 to 23 Months Old and Its Use in Th ree Countries. Maternal & Child Nutrition 9: 35–46. 6 Janet Chrzan

Pelto, G. H., and S. Gove. 1994. Developing a Focused Ethnographic Study for the WHO Acute Respiratory Infection Control Programme. In Rapid Assessment Procedures: Quali- tative Methodologies for Planning and Evaluation of Health Related Programmes, ed. N. S. Scrimshaw and G. R. Gleason, 215–26. Boston: International Nutrition Foundation. Scrimshaw, Nevin S., and Gary R. Gleason, eds. 1992. Rapid Assessment Procedures: Qualitative Methodologies for Planning and Evaluation of Health Related Programmes. Boston: Inter- national Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries (INFDC). http://archive.unu .edu/unupress/food2/UIN08E/UIN08E00.HTM. Scrimshaw, S., and E. Hurtado. 1987. Rapid Assessment Procedures for Nutrition and Primary Health Care. Tokyo: UNU. Smith, Madeleine, Geoff Heinrich, Linda Lovick, and David Vosburg. 2010. Livelihoods in Malawi: A Rapid Livelihoods Assessment Using the Integral Human Development Concep- tual Framework. http://www.crsprogramquality.org/storage/pubs/general/Malawi-Assess ment-low.pdf.

Introduction to Food Culture: Anthropology, Linguistics, and Food Studies Janet Chrzan 

Introduction, Research Design and Ethics

Th is volume, the second in the set Research Methods for Anthropological Studies of Food and Nutrition, begins with a discussion of the volume followed by a chapter on research ethics by Sharon Devine and John Brett. Th eir chapter will be repro- duced in all three volumes because ethics must be understood by all researchers, and a consideration of the ethics of methods used to collect, analyze, store, and publish must be an essential and initial element of the planning of any project. In their chapter they expand the idea of research ethics beyond publication and permissions to include the ethics of study design, recruitment, enrollment, and obtaining informed consent. Th ey present a brief history of the research prob- lems that led to the current ethics regulation requirements as well as a primer on the principles that guide ethical research: respect for persons, benefi cence, and justice. Th ey conclude with two short case studies highlighting application of these ethical principles in hypothetical food studies.

Volume and Section Overviews: Volume Two, Sections IV through VI Section IV: Sociocultural Anthropology Section IV examines sociocultural anthropology methods to understand how they work within a food and nutrition framework. Th is section captures many of the perspectives and approaches within an anthropological framework but is 8 Janet Chrzan not explicitly biocultural in orientation. Topics include interviewing techniques, body image studies, direct observation, visual anthropology, participant-obser- vation, focus groups, life , and use of food ethnography in sociocultural classroom settings. Geraldine Moreno-Black introduces the section with an over- view of methods typically used in sociocultural studies, an analysis of best-case examples from previously published studies and manuals, a discussion of the commonalities between these methods and those used by biocultural researchers, and an overview of research design with a focus on developing research questions within appropriate theoretical frameworks. Her chapter introduces the reader to a broader history of how anthropologists have used food to study human relations and understand patterns of behavior within and between , and how the study of human systems has relied on analysis of food production, dis- tribution, and use. Anthropological studies using sociocultural methods are what most lay peo- ple think of when they hear about our fi eld of study: it is the Radcliff -Browns and the Margaret Meads who come to mind—intrepid researchers who venture deep into the “bush” alone to fi nd out how other peoples live and think. Many students might be told that the fi rst anthropologist to explicitly study food was , who used a biocultural model to understand food and nutri- tion among the Bemba of Sub-Saharan Africa. She was primarily a social anthro- pologist, however, and most of her methods for understanding food production and use were drawn from social and . Many others studied food during the early days of anthropology, but for most of these researchers the study of food was part of a broad descriptive agenda of early ethnography rather than something to be studied as a focal point. Th e remaining chapters in Section IV document the authors’ use of specifi c methods to study food use as a central element in the construction and daily functioning of social systems, rather than as a result of social organization. Ramona Lee Pérez uses what she terms “kitchen table ethnography” to elucidate life histories of food use among women in Mex- ico and the U.S. borderlands. She is particularly interested in how researchers can use verbal interactions to elicit life stories and how the investigator must prepare for a truly refl exive and eff ective interview experience that is respectful of the people interviewed. Nicole Taylor and Mimi Nichter have contributed a chapter on body image studies that provides a comprehensive overview of techniques used to understand how body image can be included in anthropological studies. Beginning with an overview of which disciplines have examined body image and where and how they have done so, the authors move into a discussion of specifi c methods used by anthropologists and other researchers. Th ey provide examples of studies that can be accessed for further information about the topic, cover issues of confi - dentiality and ethics, and discuss a number of case studies. Readers will fi nd that Introduction to Food Culture 9 their chapter and Pérez’s together provide an excellent background to thinking through research about difficult topics in a one-to-one setting. The next chapter, by Helen Vallianatos, explores methods in visual anthropol- ogy, a topic briefly touched upon by Taylor and Nichter. Vallianatos presents an in-depth history of the technique as used by anthropologists, but references how visual methods can be used by food studies in general. She also chronicles the history of visual techniques, from recording and analysis to more recent collab- orative work with study populations and individuals. She discusses visual methods in film, photography, drawing and newer digital and multimedia tools, supplying case studies of each, and references particularly effective examples of research. Most importantly she covers the ethics of image collection—currently a hot topic in an- thropology and media of all sorts—and finishes with a step-by-step outline of how to think through a visual project from initial research query to final written report. The chapter that follows is a biocultural review of another form of seeing— that of direct observation in anthropological studies. The authors, Barbara Piperata and Darna Dufour, focus on applying these methods in biocultural or nutritional anthropology research. Echoing themes discussed by Ramona Lee Pérez, they emphasize the importance of “being there” when observing study groups. They provide an analysis of the essential literature, a thorough discussion of several examples of direct observation studies, and then outline how a biocul- tural anthropologist can best use these methods, either with other structured data collection methods or to help construct accurate and effective data instruments, including qualitative/quantitative mixed-methods questionnaires. Relying on ex- amples from their own extensive research, they also discuss how careful observa- tion of activities and mindful listening can lead the investigator into new areas of research that strengthen the outcomes of their studies. Moving back into the sociocultural realm, the rest of this section focuses on classic methods and ends with a discussion on using ethnographic techniques in the classroom. Heather Paxson contributes a robust examination of participant ob- servation and interviewing techniques that complements and extends the earlier discussions about related methods. She first discusses the history and theory behind participant observation, continues with a description of how to “do” this method, and explains how it differs from and augments other forms of observational studies. She also tackles the difficulty of doing actual “participant” observation, given the observer status of the researcher, and provides examples of how she used “inquisi- tive fieldwork” to study cheesemakers and their worlds even though she could not directly make cheese with them. Finishing with a section on how to arrange and analyze interviews, she ends with a point-by-point outline of how to conduct such a project from initial interesting idea to final write-up and ethics considerations. Ramona L. Pérez follows with another key sociocultural method, one that is often used by researchers in other disciplines: the focus group. Her chapter con-