Manga : from Center to Periphery,Back and Forth

〈Articles〉 Manga : from Center to Periphery,Back and Forth

著者 Eldad Nakar journal or 年報筑波社会学 publication title number 14 page range 63-91 year 2002-10 URL http://hdl.handle.net/2241/108056 Tsukuba Tsukuba An naJs 01. おciology ，No . 14 (2 ∞2) ，pp 臼 -9 1.

(ARTICLE) (ARTICLE) Manga -'from Center to Periphery ， Back and Forth

Eldad Nakar*

In troduction

When forming a soci a1 group of 叩 y kin d， human beings tend to ぽ回te some type type of core with a surrounding. In other words societies ga 出er around a cen 仕al core and the components tangential to the center form a periphery. The concept of the

'cent ぜ， as for its s∞ ial characteristics ，what it consists of and 50 on ， has been debated m 銃犯iology ，on several overlapping ， but not identical levels. So me have directed 0 ぽ attention attention to religious entities ，maintaining 出at ev ぽ y religious ‘cosmos' po ぉeぉesa αnter ，a plaαwhere the zone of the saαed - the absolute reality - resides (E liade 197 1: 12-17). 12-17). Others took us a step further ， maintaining that this center of a religious community ，is not necessarily always geographi ca1 1y cen 仕al to the of life-space the community ，and as pilgrimages demonstrate ，an ex-centric location could be as meaningful meaningful (Turner 1973). Shils Shils (1975) broadened the discussion. He argued ，first ， that the concept of

‘αnt ぜ凶society should not be conαived in narrowly religious terms ，and 出at eVI ぽ y

S前提ty - religious or 関 αlI ar - po おおses a 'center' ，which partakes the nature of the sacred. sacred. As such ，he made it c1 ear ， that the ‘center' is not ， necessarily a spatial phenomenon ， but rather a phenomenon of the re a1m of va1 ues and beliefs. To him ，it is the the zone of symbols ， values and beliefs ，which governs s配 iety. 缶∞ndly ， he po 泊ted

場開 I. D. Ca ndidate ，政x:t oral pr 句 ram in Soci al Sci en 惜， University of Tsuku ba， Japan.

Fhv3。 out ，that this central zone is at the same time a phenomenon of the realm of action .It is the the 1∞ us of activities ，roles and persons ， within which the values ，and beliefs ， which are are central to society ， are embodied and propounded With Shils' arguments ，then ，sociology came to recognize that all societies comprise comprise of some kind of central and peripheral zones ， each housing different values ， ideas ， or beliefs and different social actors and institutions. Be aring 出is in mind ，this paper paper is an attempt to 1∞k into the ]apanese society and find out where the values and actions actions of reading and producing manga belong. The following text is an attempt to look look at the cultural field of the ]apanese society ，and determine where the modern manga is / was located in the various phases of its modern developmen t. Does

]apanese ]apanese manga - its production and / or consumption - belong in the cult 町 al center or or in the periphery? Is it located at 出e ‘spiritua l' 1∞ us / center representing ultimate

ideas ，values and beliefs ， or is it 1∞ ated at 血 e fringes demons 仕ating a peripheral ，and even even vulgar activity ， not worth pursuing by respected members of society? With this in mind ，1 should like to review briefly some major historical points - frequently detailed by manga scholars and critics - and speculate the position of manga in ]apanese

閥均The points 1叩¥1 鳩山for making th 慨 assessments ，will be: Who w<ぽ e the ones ones that were involved in the manga production in each period? Wh o were its avid consumers? consumers? and How was it regarded in society. Taking into account the fact that

during during the time-span pursued in 出is work ， the ]apanese society underwent a profound change ，moving from a pre-modern to a modern state ，and transforming ，thus ， the composition composition of society 's center and periphery ， these composition changes will

eventually eventually al 回 be addrωsed .

Modern Japan - Modern Mang a

The Emergence of “Ce nter" Manga - Journ a1 ism Manga What constitutes manga? What is the origin of it? How much of 出atmedium is

from from a ]apan 侭 e origin and what is the influence of Western comics on it ， these are

- 64 - 仕icky questions discussed by quite a few critics and manga schol 紅 Sl. There are some scholars scholars who ar 思le that 仕aces of what should be as considered manga are found back in in the Heian period (8 1h to 12 1h century) ， while other modestly trace it only to the early Meiji ， or strictly confine what we know today as manga to the early 20 th century. This study study defines modern manga as a form of communication ，comprised of visual elements elements and aαompanied by literal expressions of some length ，which is spread on pages pages of modern communication media such as newspapers ， magazines or b∞ ks. The modern start ，by this definition ，is the Meiji period (1 筋8- 1912). Modern manga then first first appeared in Japan in newspapers aimed at the foreign-adult community in the form of social / political caricatures. An Englishman by the name Charles Wirgman (1835-91) (1835-91) and a Frenchman ，George Bigot (1860-1927) are often mentioned as responsible responsible for the introduction of this Western journalistic tool to Japan. At first ， arnazed arnazed by the new modern type of humor and art ，Japanese ， were made to put out

2 even even a translated version of Wirgman's magazine - The Japan Punch • Yet ， soon aft ぽ wards 出ey began publishing their own humor magazines ，among which the most famous ，was Marumaru Chinbun ， issued in 1877 (Shimizu 1999: 69). Among the famous artists in the history of manga are often mentioned writers like Rakuten Ki tazawa (197 6- 1955) ，who drew manga from 1叩12 in the Sunday column of the Jiji

Shinpo Shinpo newspaper ，and the 也氏∞nist Ippei Okamoto ，who drew manga for the Asahi Shinbun 企om 1912. Scholars Scholars agree ， that at first manga drawing 3 was limited to the realm of journalism. journalism. 'Da ily newspapers and regular weekly and monthly magazines u記 d to be the the primary outlet for comics' (Soeda 198 1: 94) ，and people engaged in drawing manga were were journalists in charge of the manga drawn in certain newspapers (l chioku no Showashi Showashi No. 11 ，1976: 224- 225).

Furthermore ， as Shimizu illus 仕ates (1999: 74) ，manga ， as a journalistic- expression-t ∞1，企 om the start ，was αeated in c10se relation to everyday life; it 児島cted events ，directly mentioning and mocking them ，and pointing out ∞n仕adictions . In fact ， the the manga were 銃犯ial sketches ， forming visual comments on 銃犯ial changes ，which were were also dealt verbally in the newspapers. The mangaαeators ，like other journalists ，

氏UFHU were were assuming the role of reporters and sociall political commentators using simply visual rather rather visual than lit< 釘 alme 加 s.lt was a “ manga report i ng ". The mangaαeators were dispatched dispatched to the s住民ts of Tokyo to sketch their impressions of the ways of lue in the city ， or to the Diet ， to report on the parliament s飴 sions .They produced visual reports on current events such as sumo tournaments or the Emperor funeral ，showing understanding understanding of new trends of thought such as socialism or feminism ，and taking political political sides. At the turn of the centur 訊when itbe 四 mecustom 紅 y for newspapers to send send journalists to the front-line to cover a war ，manga journalists were also at the scenes. scenes. So me were mobilized as communicati o n soldiers sketching scenes of the w 民 sending sending them back home accompanied by comments . One such example is Misei Kosugi ，who sent his sketches with reports on the war with Russia (Ib id: 19) . “Manga reporting' it was ，however ，these report s were mainly concerned with the the evolving of the modern society which concentrated in modern communities - namely namely the modern cities. In fact ，u one 1∞ ks carefully ，a strong in c1 ination to report on on city lue is eviden t. Even more ，reports were mainly about some sort of modern development ，modern experiences in thought and practice ，rather than about the old Japan . lt was thus ，“ manga 's reporting of the modern ". An d as Kure (1986 : 20 ー21) argues ， at first ，manga was a tool in the hands of modernists ， serving to convey modernity modernity and its important and new - yet at times complicated ideas - in a more relaxed relaxed way. Manga was ， at the turn of the century ，representing modernity and thus the the new evolving αn 仕al va1 ues of 出eJapanωesociety.

Manga Production -A Ce ntr a1 Issue lt lt appears ， as well that manga writers ， at the turn of the century ， were young people people - many of them at their early twenties - and the great majority of them graduates graduates of the then Japan's art institutions . Manga was th en also produced by aspiring aspiring modern artists ，甘 ained in Western and Japanese drawing techniques ， indeed capable capable people ，belonging to the newly formed high c1 asses of Japan . Al though ，Sc hodt(19 回 :43) comments that until Ki tazawa and Okamoto came along ，cart ∞ning ， in general ，was perceived as a side-job for those whωe main goal

- 66 - was to succeed as “serious" artists ，it was nonetheless considered a respected and

印 stom 訂 y side-job among many of the young students attending art sch ∞Is. For ，by having having their manga illustrations printed in newspapers or magazines ，was a way of earning earning their daily expenses ， using their progressive / modern knowledge (Shimizu l卿: 74; 143) .

The following account about Rakuten Ki tazawa illus 甘ates further how much the the production of manga was seen as a ‘cen 仕al' issue ， worth mastering by educated youngsters. youngsters. At the age of 却， Rakuten Ki tazawa was reportedly told the following by

Yukichi Yukichi Fukuzawa ， one of the leaders of Japan's mod 釘 nization drive: 'In the West 出ey have have pictures that parody and αiticize both government and s配 iety . These 'cart ∞ ns' are are the only type of pictures capable of moving the wo r1 d. If you wish to be an artist ， you should pioneer this field ' (Sc hodt 1983: 42) . Even Fukuzawa himself later on carried carried out his conviction about the importance of manga by establishing the Japan's

4 first first manga supplement - the Jiji Manga • In general ，1 believe ， such attitude taken by modernists modernists like Fukuzawa ， in itself ，promoted this visual medium and helped legitimized legitimized it further as a field worth to be pursued by edu 回 ted youth.

Manga -A Li teracy of Cultured Ed ucated Adults

To understand 釦rther the place of manga in the Japan 蹴 society at 出e Meiji era ，it is important also to get a glimpse of the reality at that time. First of all ，we should should not forget that the Meiji period had started while the Japanese s∞ iety was lagging lagging much behind in its modernity ，achieved much 回 rlier by Western coun 仕ies.

The Meiji ぽ a was in fact a reaction to that wave of modernity ， aiming to bring to

Japan Japan a similar level of it. For 伽 tpurp 慨， anews 配 ial order was σ回 ted， bre 法 ing away from the old rigid c1 ass s仕ucture .It was a new social order ，which allowed a more flexible mobility and enabled more people to participate in public life. An important important means of mobility ， introduced by the Meiji restoration ，was also the in 仕.oduction of public education .By that Japan had turned into a meritc 町 atic 筑間ety- a society ， with a social order ， in which ， at least officially ， the elites could no longer perpetuate perpetuate directly their ex c1 usiveness ，and people of modest origins had now a

- 67 - potential potential of advancing themselves through education . The Meiji era thus produced a passion passion and eagerness for learning. Yet ，this passion was directed at new ideas coming form the West ，new ideas which represented modernity ，and thus the future. Young men ， eager and indiscriminate ，learned whatever foreign language they needed to read whatever whatever materials came to hand - medical texts ，b∞ ks on armaments ，religious writings writings and so forth (W hite 1開 3:41 -45). Ma nga ， which was ∞ nsidered of Western origin ，was given as well a special attention . Famous Japanese manga artists casionally ∞casionally traveled to the West bringing back on their return the latest innovations in in the realm of comics ，and intensifying the exotic image of the genre . To c1 irnb the socialladder meant back then ，that one had to be ，first of all ， able to to read. To become modern - the highest goal of the time - one had first to master successfully successfully the act of reading ， the act of absorbing knowledge through the written word. word. The mediums of newspapers and magazines becarne therefore themselves at ∞l of of modernity ， conveying modernity in their ∞ntents ，and making modernity by their very very usage ， namely by reading them. Yet ， as Nagamine illus 甘ates (1 的 7: 21-34) ，at 命st newspapers were a medium consumed / read mainly by intellectuals ，university graduates graduates and the salary men c¥ ass ，who had the tirne ，money ，and proper education to engage engage in such activity ，and who were still forming the small elite of Japan ぉe 反x: iety.

In In 1929 ，when 1∞ king back upon his long 伺 re ぽ凶journalism during the Meiji period ， Tokutomi Tokutomi So hd for instance ，wrote :...'Newspapers once served a learned minority; today ， they are for the mas 鈍 s.The newspaperman was once the leader of the m 都民s; today ， he provides them with one more sourαof amusements' (Altrnan 1975 :伺1). This statement statement gives further testirnony of the leading ，and cen 仕al roles which journalism ocωpied at that time. Be ing a medium of the newspapers - a 班 ious t∞ lhandled wi 出

伺 re by professional journalists.artists ，who were part of the educated elite ，and not arbi 甘ary drawings made by anyone who wished to make a living (as were the ‘pre- modern' modern' independent kamishibai performers う一 has turned manga into a literacy of educated educated men - those oc ∞ pying the cen 仕al zone of Japan 飴 e society .

- 68 - A City Culture Manga at that stage besides being ex c1 usively targeted at adults (and not

恒 ds') ，who were meant to acquire through it a new wittin 民 s about life -a fact further

7 implying implying on the importance the medium was taken with - was also a medium mainly consumed in the cities and not in the countryside . It was then a medium further infeπ 吋 with the aura of modernization / culturalism (kyo yoshugz) ，a medium of the new cultured man .

Like Like other places all ov ，ぽ the worl d， cities in Japan ， were the 伝説 to undergo modernization ，and to be swept by many of the modern vogues . These were usually first first consumed by the young and sophisticated urban p田 ple ，creating within the cities

出emselves zones of high culture as well as some lower ones ，like in the 回 se ofTokyo ， where where a Yamanote culture ・that of the urban elites - and Shitamachi culture - of those less less able ones - were formed (N agamine 2∞1: iv -v; Ke nji 1開4:5) .Yet ， the big cities ， for for the many residing out of them ，represented the 1∞ us of progress in relation to other places. places. Cities themselves were serving as mediums of comrnunication ，cr 国 sroads of modernity ， passing on modern infortnation to other places aαoss the coun 仕y， while being being themselves the embodiment of modernity ， holding modern institutions ，modern gα 対s and offering new e却 eriences. The initial connection of manga with the modern written written media of newspapers ，which were first consumed mainly in the cities (N agamine 2∞1: 与制， and the new links between the act of reading and modernity ， have have thus fur 出 er fortified the initial cen 仕al p慣 ition of manga in the newly created modern Japan ぉ esociety .

Taisho Manga - A Gradual De scent from Heaven

Children's Children's Manga

Forman ぁthe 19 笈ls and the first half of 白e 19 30s 一位le second part of Taisho period period (1912 - 1925) and 伺 rly Showa (19 25-- 1989 ト is 出e actual time of birth of modern manga ， which has brought about the fermentation of new styles - later to be cropped

- 69 - in in thep 田 twar era. Attention is rnost often given to the relatively large circulated ∞ rnic strips ，targeted at children ， which began to appear in the newspapers. These have heralded heralded a new developrnent in the realrn of rnanga - the ernployrnent of the rnediurn to

8 generate generate rnerely sirnple ， even silly stories •

The Taisho era was a tirne of a relatively 回 refree atrnosphere ，when Japan had aiready aiready joined the ranks of the world 's rnajor powers 伺ane 1986: 220) .Taisho Japan is therefore ，often characterized by a thriving popular culture. Popular novels ，rnagazines ， newspapers ， and the new rnedia of radio and rnotion pictures disserninated “ ωlture" into into the coun 甘yside and onto the lower levels of the cultural and intell ぽ tual spec 住山n.

As An n Waswo (1 咲泌: 63-4) puts it ，in “the early 192 0s the full irnpact of rnass lit 釘 acy was to be felt in both urban and rural Japan ， and the written word began functioning as as at ∞1 of organization '¥ This This steadily growing literate populace has brought about ，aiready in the rnid- twenties ， a fierce cornpetition arnong newspapers to 伺 pture the subscription rnarket ， rnaking rnaking newspapers increase entertainrnent features - adding the serialization of novels novels by well-known popular authors and thickening the share of rnanga as well. Offering Offering readers independent rnanga supplernent was one rnore service devised in

9 order order to at 仕act new readers • In that environrnent of rnedia cornpetition children rnanga rnanga have al 回 began to systernatically draw attention 'o. Till Till the end of the 192 0s， however ，rnanga - children's rnanga in c1 uded - was still still generally consisted of no rnore 由加 four to eight 企arnes on a page ，sぽ ialized only in in newspapers or their color supplernents . In the 193 0s， though ， a further developrnent carne carne abou t. Established publishing cornpanies such as Kodansha and Nakarnura Shoten Shoten had shown new interest in children's rnanga ， and actively began participate in children's children's rnanga production (Shirnizu 1伺 1:145) .Frorn that point on ，Sc hodt (19 回 :51) reports reports that 'fat rnonthly children's rnagazine s like Kodansha's SJw nen Club began in c1 uding longer ，serialized cornics ， where each episode often ran to 20 pages and forrned forrned a ∞rnplete story '.What is known as 'Story manga' has 白 us ernerged. Monthly rnagazines rnagazines such as SJw nen ωtb ，S Jw jo ωtb ，S向 fo no Tomo or Ni Jw nS Jw nen that were were targeted at children till the age of 10 had gradually expanded their sales ，arriving

司，ハ sU at 白nes at sales of 1 to 2 million ∞ pies all toge 出er (Aki yama 1998 :25).

Ce ntral Rωts Still intact

Yet ， as Shimizu (1 銃殺 95 ー7) emphasizes the Taisho era was still ， at Iar ge ，a time when manga was mainly perceived by its young 制 ists as another field of fine art ， allowing allowing αeators to 仕eely express themselves. For that same purp 部 e ，artists have also also established their own independent magazines ， that were Ii ke a mini-media ， separated separated from the big newspapers and in which they also staged their art ， comrnenting comrnenting about 銃犯 ia1 affairs. Thus ，we may see the publishing of spec 凶 manga

magazines magazines established as research bulletins by manga 剖enthusiasts ，collaborating in issuing issuing their own magazines. The two magazines ， one by the name Ma 噌 .a and the other other by the name Tobae ， which were first issued in 1918 ， were a reflection of this

仕end. on the other hand ，there was a1 so a tendency of ordinary magazines to issue special special collections of some important manga - that is ，foreign manga - that were considered considered a ∞ rner stones of せmt art ，calling for their mastering by anyone aspiring to be be seen enlightened /叩 ltur 吋/吋 U 叩 ted / westernized. In deed ， deep into the Taisho and 回 rly Showa periods the mass media often in 仕oduced Am erican manga ，issuing them in special volumes (Shimizu 1986) .on the part of Okamoto Ippei ，we may see the innovation innovation of what he termed Manga Manbun ，caricatures accompanied by short

鈴泊ys /∞ mrnents allowing the manga journalist ωexpand his comrnentary pow ぽ. By 1932 ， this style of Manga Manbun had become the main genre of manga expr 飴l sion ， while still mainly operating wi 白血 the journ a1 ism realm. This genre was especially especially acc 1a imed by intellectuals ，who were still its major audienα. The famous

Jap 組問副社lor Natsume Sose ki is re ∞ rded to have praised 出is 蹴 ia1∞ mrnentaη style style created by Okamoto Ippei ， with whom he was a cI ose friend (Shimizu 1991 :

122 -3;1銃殺 74) .

司'噌 EA Manga - By itself a Ce nter and a Periphery

As demons 凶 ted above ， the late Meiji ， the Taisho and the early Showa eras ， have have expanded the realm of manga into two opposite directions. on the one hand there was the old artistic expression with its main outlets still in the daily newspapers ，and magazines ， which were now joined by few experimental types of research bulletins. on the the other ， there emerged a new line of magazines whose main goal was to produce manga for the youngsters . While the former were still aimed at adults ，commenting about about social affairs ， the latter were forming a new readership - the children - making up stories ，and paving the way for an entertainment manga .

As the above split of directions was detected ， αiticism from th 偶 e at the αnter wass ∞n at the d∞r ，forcing a divide of αnter and periphery in the medium of manga itself . At around Taisho 15 Ouly 1926) ， for instance ，a union of manga artists ， the Nihon Nihon Mangaka Renmei was formed .The union specified that its aim was to develop the the medium of manga ーonly that ofαrt ∞ ns / caricatures made of one p1a te 一組 d to bring bring it back to the artistic standard it d鎚ぽves .An advertisement ， which the union issued issued and included a call to other manga artists to join in ， stated that 'a certain dullness dullness and stagnation at the manga medium has began ，and some vulgar manga with with no comrnent about society have recently seen ligh t' .As ac ∞οu叩nt 尉巴ぽr-re 伺acti ぬ∞o民n1L ，、4'so ωo that mm 噌悠 'a 附()，uω10uld not be mi 珂ザ切抑u必d， ged ωasa m ω6eゐ，h themselves themselves tωoc 叩ul 凶tiv 四at 旬e the artistic おaspe 舵ct ぬs of the medium of ma 叩ng 伊a and 伺:a c lled 0白釘s

川t吋o jo 叩泊 in .Elsewhere ， Shimizu (1 開 1: 148) records ， that as soon as 1931 ，calls by 田町 other other manga 訂 tists ass ∞ iations - some aimed at introducing ‘civilized ' manga to elementary elementary school children - expressed contempt towards the commercial children manga of the time ， which were said to badly influence children . As happens with any elite 's status symbol that is emulated by lower c1 asses of society ， here too ， the medium of manga ，which by now has become a medium of expression expression associated with the cultured c1 asses - the intelligentsia - was forced to reshape reshape itself .As upwardly aspiring people were attempting to emulate elite ωlture - consuming consuming and producing their own manga - the elite ， which felt disposs ぉsed ，reacted by refining their taste ，criticizing the form of emulated manga ，and describing it as

t可 4円刊 19ar. This reaction of the elite / center was backed by the modern discourse of enlightenment ， which since the Meiji era evaluated ∞ ltural products aαording to their fitnessωassist fitnessωassist modern values and beliefs .Manga was 出en a “ good" product as long as as it contributed in some way to the modern knowledge and modern education of society. society. Failing to do 田制rned it immediately into a “bad" ，刊Jgar product unde 記 rved the the pursuanαof modern civillzed men ".

Manga s副 1mainly a “Ce nte r" C 叫ture

Man ga culture had indeed begun to be d近U 鈴 d inJapan ぉe society ，and with its desαnt a dis ∞ urse / debate distinguishing ‘good'and ‘bad' manga had been evolved. Ye t， in spite the existence of a gradual diffusion it seems that on the whole manga magazines magazines and the reading of them was still relatively highly acclaimed. However manga has moved 企om the modern daily medium of the newspap ぽ s into specialized magazines ， aiming at children and 白出19 for αiticism ， as Ber ndt (1 拘 4:35 ーηargues ， manga was still a high-braw culture ， as its children-readers were still mainly 仕om better -o ff families and few children of the periphery had actually a chance to enjoy them ペThat manga had kept its high-braw image at that period is also testified in the fact fact that when manga stories were compiled ， they were issued in attractive ， clothbound ， hardback volumes of around 1印 pages ，printed in color and sold in fancy

但 rd 凶 ard 伺錨(Sc h吋 t 19: 回: 51). It seems that there w 白血attempt to enlarge the circle circle of manga readers ， yet without giving up its s促 ial symbol as a modern elite

叩 lture. As an art that evolved from newspapers /journalism - medium of the cultured p伺 ple - it was sold as a highly valued literature ，and was therefore in 仕oduc 泡d in an appropriate appropriate wrapping. Another point worth mentioning is that manga remained basi 回 lly a city 叩 lture. The magazine Shonen ωtb ， which was issued by ~吋ansha ， could could illus 仕ate this poin t. This magazine ， which by the 19 30s is said to have enjoyed a great great popularity among childre n， is often considered as one of the representatives of

出is children manga culture of the time. Yet ， as Iwahashi (19: 回: 82 - 3) implies ， though the the readers of the magazine were spread 町田s the ∞un 句" the great majority of them were were stilllo 田崎d around Tokyo ，and many others were in and around the modern cities

-73 - of of Kansai area 侭obe ，O 回 ka ，etc) ，an indication that supports the argument that the manga was still mainly a city culture. To sum up ，then ，throughout the “first half of its modern development "，manga seemed to be lying mainly in the zone of Japanese society 注center - at the locus where only only relatively few upward-aspiring elements were assembled. It was produced and mainly mainly consumed by upwardly aspiring adu 1t s， people who comprised the then educated educated elite of the new Japanese society and were still a minority. Yet these people represented represented back then all that should be aspired to ，出e coηect and proper way 一位le refined refined taste that should be emulated . An d although the number of producers and readers readers was constantly enlarged ， the producers and consumers were still limited in number ，反応 ial sta 加s，c1a ss ，and consumption space. We may therefore assume that manga remained basi 回lI ya tool ，literacy and a symbol of a social center for quite sometune .

Postwar Manga

A Thriving Peripheral Entertainment It It was not until later - after the Seco nd World War - that manga has indeed profoundly profoundly changed its status . From being mainly a form of art ， of communication ， and commentary - a medium of the elite and thus belonging to the center of s田 iety-it now turned to be a popular entertainment genre associated with the periphery and the uneduαted masses . Soo n after the war ended ，manga has reappeared ，reinventing itself ， in few other other forms . There remained the old short comic strips in newspapers ，and the independent independent adu 1t manga magazines such as VAN or Manga ηim es (Shimizu 19 邸 :

17 8- 181) ， which as before ，included 記 rialized four-panel 甜 ips ，and attempted mainly to to make witty comments on the reality of the time. The most important development ，however ，∞印汀 ed in the children 's comics ， which were previously denounced as lighthearted .As Sc hodt points out ，“ the old -style

4可 AUZ hardback hardback comics 出at the 仕aditional and powerful Tokyo publish ぽ s issued were t∞ expensive expensive for m 田 tchildren " (Sc hodt 1錨 3 :62). This allowed peripheral streams within the the manga indus 仕y， to prosper and take the lead .On e such peripheral s仕'eam was the akahon akahon manga. The akahon were manga b∞ ks (manga tankobon) printed on ap ∞r quality quality paper. They were the product of small and p∞r publishing firms situated in Osa ka (Takeuchi 1995: 11 -33) . Os aka - the big city - it was ，yet ， these were p∞r manga b∞ks ，which were not even sold at 印刷lar bookstores ， but at cheap candy stores ， or by s仕eet vendors (Shimizu 1989: 72-73). Des pite all that initial marginality ， this this market 回 ught the attention of many readers and produαrs at the time. Not only

出e ∞nsum ぽ s were all p∞r children ， but al 田 the artists w<ぽ ep ∞r and young 一白e formers formers starving for some entertainment ，and the latters for some income to make a living. living. It was here 出at 出 e 'Story manga' style for children was nurtured and reached new heights with the stories of Tezuka 0 回 mu.

Th ぽモ was another VI ぽ ys 仕ongp ぽ ipheral ∞mpetitor ，which was operating and producing producing manga for some time in the 19 回、 .Thi s was the 加shihonya - prof ，ぉ sional

以雌-lenders stores ，which offered inexpensive ent 巴rtainment and lent out both b∞b and comics by the day. The stores were often situated at 仕ain terminals and street ∞mers lending b∞ks and magazines at the rate of lO Yen per 2 days (K insella 加治: 24) .

If If the akahon is 回 id to have refined the 'Sto η ma 昭 '0，' form ， the invention of

出egek 恕'0， style is ra 仕ler at 仕ibuted to the kashihonya. The gekiga was a return to a more realistic and political form of manga oriented towards young adults. Early gekiga gekiga were characterized by themes related to society and politics ， attempting to break away from the pattern of sha l1 0w childish stories with no relation to contemporary contemporary affairs ，which was by that tIm e customary in manga. As was the 伺 seof 白ea 知加ηmanga ，出 ege 妖，ga manga t∞was innovated by a group of p∞r 紅白ts in the the Osa ka area . Most of the gekiga artists w 町 e no more than teenagers. Bo rn just before before the war ，m 白 tof 仕le 紅白ts had only an initial edu 回 tion ，and a coming of age during during the war or in its aftermath. They did not any longer belong to the educated classes ， as manga artists used to be before the war. Rather ， they were "absolutely ordinaryp 田 ple" 仮泊 sella 2α)(): 106) .

司'phd These peripheral manga forms were first gaining support only in the periphery ，outside the center .Bo th styles ，however ， in due time have also dripped into the the center of the manga magazines ，gradually turning into another main pωsession of the the center ，and driving their original markets (kashihonya and akahon) to a slow death. This This has happened towards the early 1部品 as the Japanese economy was beginning its its explosive growth. Young p田 ple were in possession of more money and could afford to to spend more on comics. At that time the big publishing houses from the center - from Tokyo - started a new line of manga magazines ， the weekly-issues'3• This intensified intensified the production pace ，which suited the newly created television-based informati 側 society of the 19 印s，and caused other slow information and entertainment fields ，like 如 mishibai ， akahon manga and kω，hi. 加nya to deteriorate. By the mid-1 後iOs ， most of the artists which drew for the kamishibai and a如 hon ，though ， turned to draw for for kashihonya ，and the latter ， with their decay ， were recruited by the newly established weekly weekly magazines of the cent 民仕ansferring also their gekiga-style into the center and with with them their adult readers ，who were at 仕acted to the gekiga ・style.

Reemergence 錨 a Peripher a1 Se lf-Expression Medium At around the mid-l960s ，when the locus of manga production was firmly reinstated reinstated in the old industrial Tokyo center ， the manga as a medium ，which reappeared reappeared supported this time mainly by forces from below in society ， has gained a low low reputation. It was conceived as an element of popular 叩 ltureand 出us not much of a “culture '¥ It was all along criticized and bashed by social agents ，like parents associations associations (PT A) ，teachers unions ，conservative intellectuals or even some manga artists artists who were active before the war - all pretending to speak on beha !f and to represent represent cultural institutions. They frequently condemned manga as a vulgar ， tasteless tasteless medium ，which was damaging to both ， public morality and children 's education education (K insella 1民活: 1侃) .Be ing dispossessed of their medium of expression of earlier earlier d氏 ades ，cen 仕al elements in society ，armed with their enlightenment discourse ， positioned positioned over and again the manga at 仕le periphery .An d when ， towards the end of the1 銃犯 s ，it became widely obvious that manga is popular not only among 'kids' but

勺，po also also among university students - who are supposed to represent the arsenal of cen 仕al values values - a public debate ensued naming the phenomenon “a new social problem"

(Takeuchi (Takeuchi 1叩5: 121-29). Manga was blamed for inciting students to be involved in violence violence and anti-s 侃 ial activities; it became conceived even as a social threa t. on the part part of the many students who r白 ented the political institutions of the late 1袋ぬ s and were were holding demons 仕ations against them there was indeed even a pride in reading manga. manga. On ev ，釘 y famous slogan of the students of Waseda in their demons 仕ations at the the end of 出e1 俊治 s，in c1 uded references to manga .In tended to show manga as 出eir medium of expression ， they coined the slogan saying: “Migite ni 凶sahi) Journal ， hidarite hidarite ni {Shone 前!} Magazine " (on the right hand we have Asahi Journal ， on the left hand Shonen Magazine). An d when in 1968 the Japanese terrorist organization - the Red Arm y (sekigun) - which comprised mainly of young Japanese adolescents (in effect students) ，hijacked a plane to North Korea ，出ey simply stated in their pr lω sr e1 ease -

“wear 官 Tomorrow's Joe!"14 (K insella 2α )Q : 32) ，illus 仕ating the bonds of manga with 出e radi 回 1elements ，whom society would have lik 吋 to label as periphery and devian t. Dissident Dissident intellectu a1 s and disaffected urban youths indeed regarded manga to be be progressive criticism and taboo breaking . It was almost a bizarre situation . An entertainment entertainment media - the manga - which was produced by established publishing companies companies of the center ， companies that otherwise publish pure literature ，became embraced embraced by peripher a1 groups ，and served as their own mediurn of expr 岱l sion. On e cannot cannot explain this ， unless realizing that at that stage the manga was indeed a peripheral peripheral medi um， recognized as a representation of all 出at was unorthodox ， not only by its consurners. By now manga could have been a mediurn operated and con 仕olled by industrialists ，who belonged to the 伐 onomic or cultural cent 民 in practice ，however ， it it was produced by artists emanating 企om the pぽ iphery .Be ing produced by artists from the periphery ，manga has kept c1 0se contacts with the social realities of the peripheη; refiecting its aspirations and at 仕acting its support .

lndeed ， as Kin sella (2α)() : 32) reports ， commercial weekly magazines 仕om the mid-1 後胤repeatedly 田 ught to in c1 ude politi 回 1釦 d soci a1 themes in their manga 目. It is is as if it was fashionable to make a statement ， which was ，at 白at point ，largely an

- 77 - anti-estab 1i shment one. It was a reflection ，1 presume ， of the social elements at which manga addressed itself. These were the youngsters who at that stage were largely confronting confronting / challenging the orthodox values of society ，what was thought as the fundamental fundamental and sacred beliefs of the japanese group ， the values of progress in whatever whatever cos t. This overall inclination to what is conceived as “left" ， as opp 偲吋to the po 1i tical ，industrial and business centers ， which were largely conservative ，contributed further ，it seems ， to the negative image of manga ，and to its continual association with the the lower s仕ata of society ，outside the spec 仕umof “o血cia l" japanese ∞lture.

Co ntempt despite Co ntinual Expansion The 197 0s further brought expansion of the manga medium. It was in this decade decade that new magazines ， wholly dedicated to adult readers ， were established and new ge 町 es explored .As a whole ，it was also throughout the 1鋭治 s and 197 0s that the field field of manga criticism ，was actually established ，yielding a harvest of at least eight different different books which exarnined the different aspects of 出 e field (Takeuchi 1995 : 11 8- 20). 20). The more time passed by ， the more manga had become diversify in themes ， read ぽ s，and forms ，making the discussion of it more complicated ，and thus yielding a spate spate of books devoted to unlock the 'riddle of manga' - the phenomenon of its growing growing popularity. It was indeed throughout these initial d氏 ades after the war that the the manga also made new approaches back towards mains 仕eam adult readers. Yet ， d巴spite thωe new approaches towards cen 甘al elements of society - manifested by the estab 1i shment of quality rnagazines such as COM and GARO which producedωcalled difficult “difficult manga" - manga ， as critics note ，was largely considered a peripheral medium ，d 悶 W 吋 to be read by the less educated ，a medium that basically had bad influenαover children ，and reflected p∞r upbringing in elder readers (Be rndt 1的 4: 13- 14; Kure 1986: 81). It continued to be marginalized and rejected by “'respectable" japan 侭 e cultural and social institutions. In other words ，manga was out of the αnter .

t可。。 Manga - the 19808

On ce Ag ain an Ac cI aimed Art From the mid-1980s on ， there were soaring sales of manga books and magazines_ magazines_ There was also a 仕ansformation of the old demographic 回 tegories ， which used used to reflect the ac tua1 gender and age of readers of specific magazines ，into stylistic

回 tegories d回 cribing the style and content of manga .An d there was ev ，ぽ more diverse subjects subjects and themes dealt by the medium . The most prominent transformation ， however ，was the change in the image the manga has gone through ，becoming onα again again an 'arf d鈴 erving to be consumed and produced by elite members of s侃 iety.

From this period on， manga b氏 ame recognized as a national culture ，displayed even in museums . In 19 朗，manga items began to appear in art galleries ， framed as works of art art hanged on walls to be ob 記 rved by visitors. Museums aαoss， the country began to almost almost compete ov ，ぽ who holds unique and better manga exhibitions . Be tween 19!:訓 D and 1998 alone ，Kinsella (2α)(): 95) reports ， of no less than 12 museums displaying manga works of various individual artists . To name just a few ， in 1咲狗 it was the r鈴 Pぽ ted Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art血 at ch 田 e to display the works of Tezuka Osam u，and in 1998 it was the Museum of Co ntemporary Art in Tokyo ， which held held a general exhibition describing the postwar development of manga . The acknowledgement of manga as an art was not confined to Japan alone .As early early as 19 邸，the fust ∞ mprehensive book in English ，considering manga in its many as 似ヨ cts ，bythefamous Am eriαnmangaσitic Sc hodt ，was publish ed.， celebra 出 g itas a unique Japanese medium of expression. In 1伺 '2 ，manga was a岡山e focus of an exhibition exhibition arranged in the San - Francisco Cartoon Ar t Museum ，where it was in 仕oduced by the exhibition 's curator as 'fine art in m 也 ing ，just the way w ∞d印 t prints prints were and are' 側ainichi Daily 1伺12) . Manga's new direction and social status was repeatedly conveyed through various various media chann e1 s.The new pow 釘 of manga was spread in artid 巴sandb ∞ks ， in adv ぽ tisements placed in newspapers or even in television documentary programs and radio radio br' 伺 d国 sts 匹insel 1a笈削 : 70). Man ga criticism w 部∞ぱ町ed with intellec tua1

- 79 - respect ，and books on manga by manga critics and scholars turned into hot commodities. commodities. Manga returned to be 仕eated as a respectful medium of expression in which which its artists ，publishers and αitics became once again a 回 urce of authority . Manga had also begun to be approached by forces at the center that were previously previously either critical of it ，indifferent to it or even against it. Politicians began airing airing interviews in manga magazines ， or otherwise co ぱωsing of 出町habit to read manga at times of relaxation ， as was in the case of the two former ]apanese prime ministers ministers Kichi Miyazawa and Ryutaro Hashimoto (Sc hodt 1伺 6: 19) .Go vernment minis 仕ies began using the medium of manga for publicizing official d∞uments . The Finance Finance Mi nistry ， for example ，printed the Environment Wh ite Paper in the form of manga in 1994 . In 1984 ，questions about manga were incorporated in the entrance exam papers to public university ，and in 1985 works by Tezuka Osamu and Sa to Sanpei Sanpei were incorporated into sections of elementary school textbooks on Japanese culture culture approved by the Min is 仕y of Ed ucation and Culture (1 to 1伺 4:81) . Man ga has turned 'civilized' ，and by 1989 was considered by the Agency for

Cultural Cultural Aff airs (bunkacho) even appropriate for edu 回 tional rewards (Kin sella 2α)():

95) .An d if that was not enough ，by 1叩 7 ，there we 陀油田dy fourteen universities and colleges ， which offered some form of teaching in manga studies ，a1 10wing a sc 加Ia rly pe ek into this form of ar t. As av a1 uable and respected art ，a manga theory (mangaron) ， equivalent equivalent to literary theory was also developed ，attempting to put some order into the field ， as if there should be any. Past works were reevaluated and given the tug of manga c¥a ssics ， as in ev ぽ yresp ぽ ted art field .Thωe early manga c¥a ssics ， began to resurface ， newly packed in dust jackets ， designed as novels or in small pocket-size books ，more typical of literature than manga b∞ks ， to which were often added some e却 lanatory words written by some manga 'au 出ority¥

A Se arch-Engine Amidst all those developments ， as manga became more respectable ， there started started to appear new signs of content 仕ansformation as well. A new ge 町 e， widely known as Inf ormation Ma nga has emerged . These were manga works attempting to

- 80 一 assist assist modern adu ¥t s in digesting by now excessive modern knowledge. The first of such such works was the widely known work by Ishinomori Shotaro ，Manga Nihon Keizai no no Nyumon (ln仕 'oduction to ]apan 悶Ec onomics in Man ga) ， which was 命st published in in 19 部 by the serious financial broadsheet ， the Nihon Keizai Shinbun ，and was meant to to help digest otherwise difficult economic materia l. Another famous work ，worth mentioning mentioning is the 48 吋 olume Manga Ni 加nnoRe 胎 Ju (the Hi story of ]apan in Ma nga) ， which was also drawn by Ishinomori Shotaro ， but commissioned -this time by the serious serious magazine Chuo Koron beginning in 1989. lt was an attempt to draw closer the otherwise otherwise remote historical knowledge. This work was later recognized by the

Monbusho ，for educational purp 凶 es. By now ，then ，manga has offered itself as another useful useful information 鈴 arch -e ngine ，suitable for the In ternet era. Information Information manga ， mainly targets adults and young adolescents. lt is printed on expensive pap 民 sometimes in full or part- ∞lor ，frequen t1 y bound in hard-cover with with glossy high quality dust jackets ，and often first published in serious adult magazines ，some of which use the written word as 出eir major method of commentary.

Pr aised for the educational merits it 回 ηies ，manga for adu 1t s has gradually began to assume the characteristics of newspapers. An d 叫 like newspapers ， they 民団me dir ぽt1 y involved in actual matters preoccupying ]apanese 似たty ， providing factual factual data ， engaging in various topical discussions and providing social and political statements. statements. Man ga stories were said to 加∞me ever more political (Y omiuri Shinbun 1992 ， quotes in Kinsella 2α ぬ: 90) . On e prominent example of the politicization of manga is provided by the manga 釘 tist Kobayashi Yoshinori ，who as early as 出e1 咲狗 s inaugurated inaugurated the popular political satire series ，何日吋 Go manizumu Se，も~en ， in which he offl ぽ 'ed soci a1 and political commentary. lt was ，and still is ， about actual topics such as social social discrimination ，religious sectarianism ，and lately even the still highly con 仕oversial i鉛 ue of wwn and its place in ]apanese s民 iety.

A Shift in 出 e Production Cy cI e lntroducing lntroducing / supporting again central values and beliefs - attempting to educate educate and pass on otherwise complex ，communal ，and central knowledge -

- 81 一 information information manga ，adult manga and manga in general was back at the central zone of japan 間航iety .To sustain that new 蹴 ial status ，a rearrangement of the production cycle cycle t∞k p¥ace . In 1伺 7，Kin sella (2α)() : 52) reports ，出 at there were 4α ぬprofessional manga artists working for 273 manga magazines . The great majority of them ， she attests ， were not famous ，and many were still coming from p∞r families ， of working class class origins ， working for small publishers and minimal financial rewards. Ba sed on a field field work done in K 吋 ansha ，however ，Kinsella reports ，that a reorganization of adult manga's manga's production cycle has taken place ， at this point allowing manga editors -

l6 social social elite by now - to take charge of the themes ，and the way of their depiction in journals . This in turn ， she argues ， has helped to sustain the new respected place of mangains ∞iety. As in this constellation ，it was largely the editors' ideas ，research and experience ，rather than the social e却 erience of the artists ， which were transmitted to the the readers . Adult manga stories ，therefore ，began to re f1 ect the white.collar employees' ，and thus members of the social and 叩 ltural center points of view rather those those of the periphery . In deed she indicates ， adult manga magazines since the mid - 1980s 1980s feature many stories that revolve around scenes in board - meeting rooms ， shareholders' shareholders' 0節ces ，taxis ，hotels ，and elegant buildings. This is a great change 企om earlier earlier adult manga stories 出at were concerned with matters of the man in the s仕ee t. The focus was thus narrowed and shifted to the interests ，values ，beliefs and experiences experiences of the center of the japanese s∞iety ， which now encapsulates the many middle middle class japan 悶 and their ∞mmon 'norma l' activiti 民

Co ncluding thoughts: manga - from center to periphery ，back and forth

As 仕1I s review demons 仕ates ， the appear 叩 αof manga at the cen 仕al zone of s∞ iety is not a new phenomenon .Ma nga ，when first in 位oduced in modern japan ，had actually actually started its way in the center ofωciety. Twice ， in the center ，manga inf e rred upon it s producers an aura of social

- 82 - importance ， lending them social authority ，and giving consumers a sense of participation participation in major / cen 仕al proce おおtaking p1a αin society . Twice as well ， while at at the center ，manga was an adult literacy ， not a matter for 'kids¥

For For a long period though after the war ，manga evidently was al 回 a peripheral medium - a medium mainly for 'kids' ，and for less educated p回 ple. Such s∞ ial movement of manga between the αnter and the periphery of the Japanωes ∞iety ，however ，t∞ k place while the composition of society's center and periphery periphery themselves have undergone a transformation .Japanese society has progr 飴 sed ， turning modern . And when such 仕組sition occur 百， as in any s∞iety ，a

17 shift shift of values between center and periphery follows suit • As far as the comp 倍 ition oftheJapanωe center and periphery are concerned ，1 would like to suggest ，that in the pre ・modern stage - on the proc ぉ s of becoming modern (in the Meiji ， Taisho and early

Showa) Showa) - Japan 侭 e society's center was the zone of the au 仕lentic elements of society ， of the the high c1 asses ， or the learned minority with the refined tastes ， while the periphery was ，still ， the place of the lower c1 asses ， of all that was illegitimate ， or all that was considered considered vulgar in society . Gradually ，however ，wi 白血e prl ∞ ess of modernization a new equilibrium of center and periph ぽ y emerged . Th e 銃犯ial center turned to be 仕le locus locus wh 目印刷おes act and interact ，白紙ial spaαwhere the majority and the pop 叫ar reside ， while the periphery turned to represent the “other "，仕 le di 丘町 'ent ， the odd ， the ex αption，， the minor s仕eams ，undercurrent in society' 8. This This move of manga from center to periphery and backwards to the center ， while while acknowledging 出e 回 nsformations th 田 e zones have undergone is i1l us 仕ated in Plate Plate 1. The first set of images for center and periphery (marked as Center 1

-P，出 ph ぽ Y l' set) ，i1l us 仕ates the pre ・modern stage ， while the 鈴∞nd set (iden 凶 ed as

Ce nter 2 - Periph ぽ Y 2' set) illus 仕ates the modern stage' 9. Th e shift in the composition ofcent ぽ叩dperiph ぽ y， which has been brought about by the modern era ， is visualized in in the diagram as a rotation of the VI ぽ tical 鈴 t of lines to the horizontal position .The movement of manga within the 四 ltural field of 白eJapan ，飴 e 反応iety ，on the other hand ， ispoint 吋 outby 仕 le bold.lined arrows. The whole endeavor to call attention to such oscillation of manga in society

- 83- Plate Plate 1: 島監皇主主 O 司hod 目，Auth 阻 tic ，

Higb cla.. ，Corr 明 t， Pro per ，Le arned minority ， 13側側機構 ij l Re fined tas 旬 .. ー・.. 、

!鴎盤図 E

was made in order to allow new ways of talking about manga ， of discussing it. The r氏 ent inclusion of manga in the center of sωiety ， and again inferring upon it a status of of art ， have yielded somewhat a stiffness in matters of discussing manga ， which this paper paper tries to overcome. The status of art ， and the authority given to some of its famous famous producers have somehow eliminated from discourse a whole line of thinking and ideas that do not fit that status. Criticizing Tezuka manga ， for instance ， has become almost a heresy in present Japanese society. By raising this new line of arguments arguments the paper attempts to generate new possibilities of talking about the subject . Therefore ，this study has entertained the possibility of discussing prewar

- 84 ー manga all together 仕om the point of view of its merit in society ， from the standpoint of the the meaning it represented to 銃犯iety 's members ， arguing for more or less a continuous a節liation of manga with cen 仕al values of japanese 叙>c iety. It is not to suggest ， though that that changes in such affiliation did not ∞∞ r. on the con 仕ary ， gradual changes and moves ， as indeed the paper also demons 仕ated ， were taking place all along .But on the whole whole these changes were meager leaving manga still associated with cen 仕al elements of of society. When exarnined 台om this prism ， the postwar manga ，then ，demons 仕ates an int ぽ esting poin t. It was revived in the periphery and stayed there for quite a long tIIn e until until r悶 ntly embraced back to repr ，間ntcen 回 1 values ofjapan 問就iety. To sociologically ∞mprehend the movement of manga between the center and periphery ，1 would like to refer for a moment to Bo urdieu's analogy . The field of national 四 lture ，Bo urdieu (19 邸)紅別 es ，is a space of identity positions ， each occupied by a set of collective actors .Ea ch identity position is taken by a specific variant of the national national culture ，whose believers and representatives continually struggle to gain recognition ，legitimacy ，and dominance .Th ei ぉue at stake ， in th 悶 S仕uggles ，is the repertory repertory of practices ，tastes sensibilities ， elements of knowledge and canons of art forms forms and art works - or in short ， the institutionalized cultural repertoire (La mont l伺 5) 伽 tdefines 'na 旬 ra l' membership in the given nation aJ∞ lture ，and is 0出erwise termed termed as the central values of society. In In light of this imagery ，it seems that in the Meiji era ，a time when the boun 也ries of japanese nation aJ叩 lture were newly α 'eated to encompass a modern pattern ， the manga ， which was identified as a modern variant ，was taken by modern japan 邸 e actors to represent the new national ∞mmunity .It was taken to represent 出e dominant national cultural capital and habitus - taken as an identity position representing representing thejapanese modern .

Gradually Gradually however ， the association of manga wi 白白e modern - the modern as it it was thought to be experienced in the West - began in itself to be eroded . The modern began to encapsulate many other things than manga ，and the general definition definition of art started to shift away from comics 却 . In thes 仕uggle over recognition ， legitimacy legitimacy and dominance in the cultural field ， which t∞kp Ja ce immediately after the

- 85 - W 訂， manga was then ， removed from representing the national culture ， and was left to act act mainly in the periphery of society. Yet ，this as we l1 was to change as society itself eventua l1 y changed .Since the 1980s ‘the global f1 0w of cultural materials has increased the amount of cultural materials ，available in a given national cultural setting ， for the construction of the contemporary contemporary sense of national culture' (R egev 2α ね: 226). This in turn ， has meant also an an erosion of the notion of national culture itself as this abundance of cultural materials materials also meant the blur of distinctions between nations. Under these conditions ， however ， the manga - now conceived as uniquely ]apanese ，something which dωs not exist exist elsewhere - was once again a proper component to represent the ]apanωecent ぽ， a proper element of central ]apanese knowledge . At this stage cultural producers ， which which ordinar i1 y are associated with other cultural variants ， have embraced again

21 manga as one of the representatives of the national culture •

Notes

1 For a glimpse at this ma 抗町民 e Miyahara and Ogino (2 ∞1:13 2- 3); Kure (1 錦6:11 3- 120);

Brendt Brendt (1 鈎4: 24- 30) or Sc h吋 t(1 鎗3: 28- 3η 目

2 In 1862 ， Wirgman is re ∞rd 吋 to have inaugura 俗da British .s tyle humor magazine ，The fapan

Pu nch ，which was targeted at 出e fo 陀 ign ∞mmunity in Yokohama .It∞ nsisted primarily of

text ， but ∞ntained alsoαrt ∞ ns by Wirgman. Th 間 were mainly sa 出 α1 drawings of 白e citizens citizens of Tokyo .1n 1887 ，Bigot had formed his own magazine by the name Tobae ，cart ∞nmg

bothJapan 悶 Sぽ ietyaswell ぉ government members (Sc h吋 t1983 :38-4 0) .

3 Though it gradu a1 1y and sporadi ca1 1y s凶 ted to be in use ，the word “manga" was not at first

as as widespread as on e might thin k. Kur 官 (1986 :初 1) points out 白紙 the manga supplement of

出e newspa 酔 rJiji Shinpo (命百 tissued in February 1921) ， which was αl1 ed Jiji Manga had greatly greatly helpedωpop u1 arize the word manga among its users. At first ，出 .ewo 吋s 'tobae' ， or

onchie' 'p onchie' w 田 rather in wider u銅 ge (M iyahara and Ogino (抑止 132) - imitating ，it 蹴 m s， the

words words pushed first by Bigot and Wirgman res 似ヨ ctively . 4 It was a manga supplement of the newspaper Jiji Shinpo ， which was also established by

Fukuzawa Fukuzawa himself (K u児 1986 :20 ，79 剖 1).

- 86 - 5 The f'O under 'O f Minyusha publi s hing h'O use ， which issued the newspaper Kokumin no Tomo

1h 1h 仕om 1887 t'O 1898 . It was Japan's first general magazine and the most influential 'O f the 19 centur y.

6 Narrat 'O rs ， using a sequence 'O f hand-painted card 加ard st 'O ry sheets ，w 'O uld travel around

neigh 加rhα 刈s and pr 四 nt st 'O ries - with 馴 nd effi ぽts - t'O l畑 1children .The genre enj 'O yed

great great popularity in early Sh 'O wa ，and then 'O nαagain in the immediate 卯 stwar y' 凶 rs .F'O r

more inforrnati 'O n 'O n kamishibai 挺 e Y:創 nam 'O t'O (1 使泌・252 -279) 'O r the Sa itama-ken Heiwa

Shiry 'O kan α匂1'0酔 e Sens o to kamishibai (1 使紛 .

7 Shimizu (1 咲ゆ・164) alωindiαtes that in the first stage 'O f manga j'O urnalism ，most 'O f thω e

engaged in the pr 吋 ucti 'O n cy cI e were males ，a fa ct， he argues ，was reflected in the 'O vera l1

negative negative image 'O fw 'O men p'O r廿ayed in manga . In additi 'O n，he p'O ints 'O ut that the great

rnaj 'O rity 'O f rnanga readers at that time w 町 ad 叫ts，釦 dmo 陀 precisely male ad 叫ts ，a fact

which hasalωmost probably played a role in 白紙 negativet 'O ne 8 In fact the first m 叫 ern appearance of children manga ，was even earlier - at the late part of

Meiji ，when some rnagazines began publishing adaptati 'O ns 'O f rnanga f'O r children ，'O rσ'eated

new st 'O ries with an appeal to children . It is even α15ωmary t'O name the magazine SJw nen

Puc k which was 命宮 t published in Meiji 40 (1 飢渇:)，ぉ the first manga rnagazine wh 'O lly f'O r

chil 世田.N 'O ne 出ele 略 despite aJl theseωrly devel 'O pments ，it isωsωmary t 'O speak 'O f Taish 'O

as as the time 'O f birth of children manga (Shimizu 1999) . The issue of the magazine called

Kodomo Puck in Taish 'O 13 (1925) ，t 'O which many fam 'O us manga artist I j'O urnalist s

∞ ntributed their W 'O此s， is 出us often ∞nsid ぽ ed as the ac tua1 start 'O f children rnanga

9 The incepti 'O n of radi 'O broadαsting in 1925 'O nly intensified the c'O mpetiti 'O n am 'O ng the

vari 'O us newspapers and magazines ， which were the primary media until the 192 0s .

10 10 In Tais 加 10 (1922) ，a ∞l'O r凶'One- page chil 命en manga appeared in 蜘 Sunday supplement 'O f

j幼iShinpo . In Taisho 12 (1924) ， both Asahi ・Graph and Asahi Shinbun 記 rialized SJwcha nn o

boken boken ，which s∞n 除問me a big hi t. In 1924 ，we alωhave theapμar 加 ce 'O f the st 'O ry called

Nonkina Nonkina Tosan ， in the evening newspaper れtkan ho chi shinbun ，a story which was S 'O

suc 惜 sful that it generated a separate producti 'O n of best 匂 lling b∞， klets ，wind -up d'O lls ，

puppets puppets and towel s， and was even 合加natized 'O n the radi 'O and turned int 'O a 自1m .

11 11 1n regard with the modern dis ∞ urse 'O f enlightenrnent and it s effect 'O n manga see the

interes 出 g discussi 'O n by Kure (1 鎚 6・19 ー28 ，67 -94) .

12 12 A similar argument is being put by the Sa itarna-ken Heiwa Shiry 'O kanα 凶'O gt 泥 (1 係調 B:18) . 13 13 F

- 87 - Shueisha Shueisha that issued Shonen Jump in 1966 ，and Akita Shoten ，which published Shonen Champion Champion in 1969 .

14 14 Tomorrow 包Joe is a manga story which was publish 吋 in Magazine between 1968 and 1973. It is is a story of ap ∞rboy who 以ョ comesa 凶 xer and fights his way to fame and honor. The story

was blamed for inciting violem 疋 amongst students participating in s甘eetdemons 仕ation s. 15 15 Be tween 1969 and 1971 the Sundny serialized a historical drama by the artist team Fujio Fujiko Fujiko about the Chinese Cultural Revolution titled simply Mao Tse Tung. In 1971 ，Jump

carried carried a story titled The Hu 問問 Condition (N ingen no ]oken) ，a story a加utthe 廿ea 加 ent of

Chin 悶 prisoners of war in Manchuria by the]apan 悶 army. Jump was also reported to have published published encouraging photographs of political demonstrations ， depicting students ωmpaigning for 852 bomber planes to leave ]apan ' s soil and go back to the US. Ma ny top

artists artists at this peri 吋 arealωre ∞rded to have separately lent their talents to the p~吋 uction of politiα1 politiα1 materials in manga form to organizations such as the japan La bor Union (N ihon R吋 o Kumiai) (K insella 2α ゅ 32-34). Ma ny sωries detailing the tragedy of the se ∞nd World

War ，narrating its stupidity and refusing to gl 舗 over warαimes made by]apanese so ldi ers ， havealωseen Ii ght during thisμriod . 16 16 Editors in Kodansha ， Kinsella (2000: 169) reports ， tended to be bookish ，opinionated ，

individualistic individualistic and sometimes ec ぽ ntnc 目 Manga editors in large ∞mpanies ， she adds ，had all graduated graduated from high-ranking universities. Succeeding in entering a prestigious publishing company immediately upon graduation ， they further received soci aI prestige and of ∞ urse high high salaries . Financially ∞ mfortable and highly educated ， they firmly belonged to a social group group rich in socialαpi 凶 17 17 While in pre-modern stages ，central worldview ， for instance ，was determined by religious

valu 白 and beliefs ，which por 仕ayed a world of the Bible and other saαed scripts ， in the

modern one ， the cen 回 1 worldview is emanating rather from scientific and 10gi caI narratives ，

and the former pre-modern values are pushed into a peripheral sta 知 S 18 18 When a certain society is still in a pre -modern stage ， which means that the political power is

concen 仕ated in the hands of few ， (and this is the for ぽ to organize society) ， then center tends to to retlect the elite ， the eduαted minority ，and the periphery ，1 believe ，is mainly represented by the the uneducated masses . In contrast ， in the modern era ，which presupposes equality and prerequisite prerequisite

- 88 一 center center and periphery ，and the grave situation in which a few wealthy ruled the deprived

mas 記s. The vertical line intends to crωte an il1 usion of up 似ヨ r layer marking the center ， in

∞ ntrast to al 'O w ぽIa yer ， which designates the periphery ，suggesting the wide inequality that

ften 'O ften exist ，吋 in this equilibrium .Th 巴ぽ∞ nd set 'O f images ，by ∞ntrast ，is symbolized by a

h'O riwntal line ， suggesting 'O n the fact that in spite 'O f the gap which separates center and

periphery ，placing them 'O n 'O pposites sides 'O f the 以JCi al SiJ(詑仕 um ， they are 'O ften c10se t'O each

'O ther and in manyα 妥当 s approached as equals .

20 20 In terestingly en 'O ugh also in the West at that time some prαlucti 'O ns of ∞ mics were criticized

お Impr 叩 er . lmmediately after the war ， while a wave 'O f criticism at manga ， claiming it t'O be

t∞vi 'O lent and gr 'O tesque f'O r children ，was evident in japan ， in England ， the U. S.，and Ca nada ，

a sudden interest in ∞ rnics and ∞ ncern about its regulati 'O n was also in place ， attempting t 'O

ぽ adicate h'O ηor depicti 'O ns in children media (Takeuchi 1995 ・64) .

21 21 Th erear 官 many “m 'O ra l1 y irresponsible " (vi 'O lence 'O riented) manga ，which are ∞ nsidered st i11

as as raw entertainment 'O f bad in f1 uence . The disc 'O urse (and deeds) maintaining the social

elevation elevation of man ga， however ，dα~ n'O t make 出is distincti 'O n ，apparently deliberately ignoring

these these branches ，attributing them t 'O the periphery ，and implici t1 y re ・defining “manga" in

general general as a cen 回 1medium .When put in the diagrarn above ， these manga branches though

sh 'O uldbepωiti 'O ned in 開 riphery 2.

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QU'EA