Household Battery Recycling Numerous Obstacles Few Solutions

Household battery recycling: numerous obstacles, few solutions

U.S. consumers buy over two-and-a-half ables built into household ~appliances billion dty cell batteries per year to power such as small vacuums, shavers and toys, tools, radios, flashlights and avariety power tools. by Nancy Reutlinger of other electronic devices in our homes. Batteries compose approximately .005 I and Dan de Grassi It is estimated that each Ameritan uses percent by weight of the U.S. waste and throws away eight to 10 household stream, but account for over 50 percent Nancy Reutlinger is a solid waste program dry cell batteries each year. of the mercury and cadmium found in our il

analyst for the Santa Clara County Not unlike post-consumer waste paper, trash. In an uocoming-8-m. U.S. Environmental (California) Office of Toxics and Solid batteries come in a variety of formulations. Protection Agency (EPA) report, hous e- ; Waste Management. She participated in Each type of battery presents unique col- hold batteries will likely be identified í the battery recycling feasibility study dur- lection, sorting, storage, shipping, recy- the single largest source of mercury ing an internship with the County of Santa cling and disposal problems. Household municipal solid waste. Cruz, California. Dan de Grassi is the pro- batteries include the cylindrical AAA, AA, EPA exempts household hazardol gram coordinator for the Santa Cruz C and D size cells; six- and nine-volt bat- waste from regulation under the Resourc County Integrated Waste Management teries; and the button cells. Button cells Conservation and Recovery Act, ther Planning Program. ’ are the tiny round batteries used in fore permitting disposal of househo18 watches, hearing aids, cameras and cal- generated hazardous waste into t1 culators. municipal solid waste stream. In Califc In the consumer battery arena, al- nia, however, state regulations prohit kalines make up 75 percent of the market; municipal landfill disposal of househo Many barriers obstruct the older carbon-zinc cells account for hazardous waste and require cities ar battery recycling efforts - about 15 percent (see Table 1). Button counties to implement programs for sa batteries are about 5 percent of the market management of hazardous waste gene economic, environmental, (see Table 2). Nickel-cadmiums account ated by residents in their homes. It al safety and technological. for 1 percent of consumer battery sales, pears that household-type batteries rn: with a sizable quantity of these recharge- be considered hazardous under Californi

n Table 1 - Consumer battery market Estimated share of Battery type consumer market (percent) Metal of greatest concern Alkaline 75 (increasing) 1 percent mercury by weight .025 percent mercury in new low mercury alkalines Carbon-zinc 15 (dropping) 1 percent mercury Button cells 5 35 percent or more mercury in some consumer mercuric oxide buttons Silver in silver oxide cells Lithium (1) Nickel-cadmium (sold loose) 1 17 percent cadmium Other 4

(1) Lithium is a highly reactive metal present in lithium cells, which may pose safety hazards ir storage and shipping.

24 Resource Recychg April 1991 I

which are sent to a recycler. The remain- and n Table 2 - Consumer button battery market ing batteries, mostly alkalines that make Estimated share of button up 75 percent of consumer sales, go to 005 cell market (percent) Uses hazardous waste landfills or are stock- Type piled in hopes that new recycling oppor- aste Zinc-air 60 (growing) Almost entirely for new hearing :ent tunities will develop. aids; replacing mercuric oxide Environmental Action Coalition - our buttons for some applications ntal New York City. Environmental Action Co- 20 Jse- Mercuric oxide (1) Hearing aids, watches, alition collects button cell and nickel- i as cameras, medical devices cadmium batteries in apartment buildings y in Silver oxide Calculators, watches, cameras and retail establishments and sends them to Mercury Refining Company in Latham, laus “I(zp 11 (combined) Cameras, computers, other New York. The program was initiated be- Jrce devices cause of concerns about heavy metals in ere- \ the incineration waste stream. Program coordinators at Environmental Action Co- IoId- (1) Mercury is the primary component in mercuric oxide button. the (2) Lithium batteries are rapidly gaining in popularity. alition also voice concerns about leachate lifor- from landfilled batteries. lhibii Hennepin County, Minnesota. Hen- hold hazardous waste crìteria due to their waste planners conducted a feasibility nepin County’s program collects button and heavy metal content. study to evaluate recycling options for cells at retail establishments and sends safe Eight major metals are commonly used household batteries. To determine the them to Mercury Refining to recover the :ner- in batteries: mercury, cadmium, lead, feasibility of a battery recycling program mercury and silver. The impetus for this : ap lithium, manganese, silver, nickel and for Santa Cruz County, battery recycling program was concern about heavy metals may zinc. When released into the environment program coordinators and researchers in from batteries entering the county’s solid Imia by waste incineration or as landfill four states were interviewed. waste incinerator. leachate, heavy metals can enter the food All battery collection programs con- An earlier pilot project collected all chain as they accumulate in soil, plants tacted stated that their primary goal was types of consumer batteries. After one and animals. As such, these substances to minimize the air pollution hazards as- year in storage, these mixed batteries can harm human health and the environ- sociated with solid waste incineration. As were sent to a hazardous waste landfill at ment. The varied metals content in con- can be noted from the following program a cost of $1,000 per ton. An extensive sumer batteries and the available markets summaries, current household battery re- search for U.S. recyclers of alkaline and for each type of metal are the key factors cycling options in the U.S. are extremely carbon-zinc cells was unrewarding. Aside fn determining the scope of any battery limited. from Mercury Refining, no other U.S. com- recycling program. pany was found with the equipment and Survey of battery collection programs sorting capability to recycle consumer bat- Three types of bat-tery collection systems teries. Household battery feasibility study were identified during the study. The To achieve the objective of minimizing ? Santa Cruz County, with a population of simplest system accepts only nickel- heavy metals in the incinerator waste 235,000, is located on the Monterey Bay cadmium and button cells, usually at con- stream, county battery recycling program 70 miles South of San Francisco. Protec- sumer electronics and jewelry stores, and staff also recommended collection of the tion of the environment has been a priority sends them to a recycler. The second sys- mercuric oxide batteries used in medical of residents and local government for over tem collects mixed (all consumer) bat- facilities and other industrial batteries. 20 years, resulting in advanced curbside teries and, at considerable cost, sends These users are easily identified, and recycling systems, food packaging or- them to hazardous waste landfills. recycling opportunities appear promising dinances, stringent coastal protection The third and most complex system ac- for the larger industrial batteries. .ds in laws, and a host of other proactive en- cepts mixed batteries at retail stores and New HampshireNermont. The New vironmental initiatives. requires a sorting procedure to recover HampshireNermont Solid Waste Project In the summer of 1990, county solid the nickel-cadmium and button cells, has operated a mixed battery collection

25 Resource Recychg April 1991 I i U.S. consumers discard over 2% billion household batteries each year into the mu- f nicipal waste stream (1). Rechargeable j nickel-cadmium batteries are an acceptable alternative to one-use disposables. After 500 i recharges, the battery will cease to function í and should be delivered to a househo18 ’ hazardous waste collection site (2).

1 mine actual heavy metal content. Dis- nickel-cadmiums are used for industria posal and recycling options are being in- purposes, such as back-up power ant program since 1987. The project began vestigated based on these analyses. communication systems for the military simultaneously with the start-up of a solid Hurd’s study may be the first independent municipal governments, utilities, railroac waste incineration facility. analysis of the new “low mercury” al- companies and hospitals. Most nickel. The original plan called for a sotting kalines and other batteries in the U.S. cadmiums used by householders are buil procedure to recover the nickèl-cadmium Such data are needed, as the only source into appliances and are not easily acces and button cell batteries, which were to of battery composition has been unveri- sible for replacement or proper disposal be sent to Mercury Refining Company. It fied industry reports. Nickel-cadmiums sold loose to consum. was determined that the sorting was po- Bronx 2000 is also investigating options ers account for only 1 percent of the mar tentially unsafe if done by volunteers and for consumer nickel-cadmium recycling in ket. too costly if done by properly trained em- the U.S. in conjunction with a company in Although severa1 industrial nickel. ployees. Consequently, the mixed bat- France. Options under consideration in- cadmium battery reclamation companies teries are sent to a chemical waste landfill clude bringing the French technology to are operating in the U.S., they do not wani in South Carolina, at a cost of $300 per the U.S. or setting upa nationwide system consumer-generated nickel-cadmiums. drum or $925 per ton. for collecting nickel-cadmiums in the U.S. Consumer batteries have a different inner Due to the high cost of disposal, and and shipping them to France. construction that requires special proc the relatively low mercury level of alkaline essing equipment, making reclamation batteries, project coordinators recom- Alkaline battery recycling more complex and costly. Although ths mend against setting up new mixed bat- Pilot recycling projects are underway in technology exists to process consume1 tery collection programs. They instead Switzerland and the Netherlands. In nickel-cadmiums, the cost of equipmeni urge communities to focus on collecting Japari, a demonstration plant was de- for the processor and storage and ship higher toxicity batteries such as consumer signed to process all types of household ping costs for the collector currently hinder button cells and batteries used in medical batteries. consumer nickel-cadmium recycling. facilities, in industry, by the military and However, the only U.S. company at- Inmetco, located in Elwood City, by municipal governments. tempting alkaline battery and mixed bat- Pennsylvania, is one industrial nickel- Bellingham, Washington. Mixed battery reclamation is the Environmental cadmium processor willing to accept con- teries are collected at retail stores and Pacific Corporation (see “The unsavory sumer nickel-cadmiums, but the cost iS sorted by program staff. Button cells are side of battery recycling,” also in this extremely high. Inmetco would charge sent to Mercury Refining Company for the issue). This company’s export of post- $250 per ton, and requires a $400 recovery of mercury and silver. Alkaline consumer battery components to de- minimum. A ton of batteries would fil1 and carbon-zinc batteries are sent to a veloping countries and its apparent three-and-a-half 55-gallon drums. In- hazardous waste landfill in Oregon. unwillingness to revea1 its operating metco’s environmental record was nof Bronx 2000. An extensive battery com- procedures made it unpopular among the examined. position and disposal study is underway, collectors interviewed. Inmetco reports that AT&T will be doing led by David Hurd of Bronx 2000, an en- a pilot nickel-cadmium recycling project vironmental and community development Nickel-cadmium battery recycling in Southern California. Phone stores wtll organization in New York City. This re- Nickel-cadmium batteries (nickel-cad- collect spent batteries used in cordless search is supported by seven state gov- miums) are considered by the EPA to be household telephones. Inmetco will proc ernments as well as the EPA. Batteries the largest contributor of cadmium in ess the batteries and recover both the are being analyzed chemically to deter- municipal solid waste. The majority of nickel and cadmium for reuse.

26 Resource Recyding April 1991 /

UIlion A nickel-cadmium battery processing new facilities will be operational in the ering a law that would require consumers ! mu- facility called SNAM is operating in spring of 1992. to return batteries to retailers, or if avail- ?able France. One U.S. battery program coor- able, to use curbside collection programs. ‘table dinator who visited SNAM reported seeing More battery recyclers sought Manufacturers would be required to re- ‘r 500 I a clean, state-of-the-art facility employing An extensive search for additional recy- claim the batteries from retailers or mu- modern technology in all phases of its op- clers was undertaken, only to confirm the nicipal collection programs. zhold eration. The Bronx 2000 project is de- discouraging findings of other U.S. battery In late 1990, the California Legislature / veloping a system for shipping co’nsumer program coordinators. passed a bill directing the California Inte- i (household) nickel-cadmiums collected in A number of local jewelry and watch grated Waste Management Board to i the U.S. to this facility for recycling. repair shops report saving button bat- study the effects of household batteries teries for recycling. It appears that these on solid waste landfills and transformation Button cell battery recycling batteries are eventually sent to small pri- facilities, including threats to human The only U.S. company that accepts vate collectors who sort out the silver health and the environment. The recy- mixed consumer button batteries is Mer- oxide cells and dispose of the mercury, clability of batteries will also be examined, cury Refining Company (MERECO). In zinc-air and lithium cells in the trash. including technological feasibility and fact, MERECO will accept all consumer Some scrap metal processors will accept possible adverse health effects resulting batteries, though only mercuric and silver large quantities of well-sorted silver oxide from exposure to household batteries dur- oxide buttons are actually processed for batteries. ing the recycling process. The study is to metals reclamation. The alkaline and be completed by March 1992. carbon-zinc batteries are sent to a landfill Legislative activity A bill proposing a lo-cent deposit on operated by Chemical Waste Manage- In early 1990, the Minnesota Legislature household batteries was considered by ment in Model City, New York. MERECO enacted a law that mandates mercury re- the California Legislature in 1990. The will accept nickel-cadmiums and plans to duction in the popular alkaline cells and legislative body voted to wait for the re- strial send them to the SNAM reprocessing forces battery manufacturers to partici- sults of the battery recyclability study be- and facility in France. pate actively in resolving the consumer fore taking further action on the deposit Itay, MERECO pays collectors $0.25 per and industrial battery disposal problem. issue. road Pound for mercury buttons and approxi- Effective in August 1990, manufacturers ckel- mately $13 per Pound for silver oxide of silver oxide, mercuric oxide, nickel- Industry-sponsored initiatives built cells. After the mercury and silver are re- cadmium and sealed lead-acid batteries Mercury is added to many batteries to xes- covered, remaining material, (about 80 slow a chemical reaction between the pri- osal. percent by weight of the onglnal) is sent mary components: alkaline and man- sum- to a hazardous waste landfill. MERECO ganese in alkaline cells, and carbon and mar- charges $6 per Pound to deactivate and zinc in carbon-zinc batteries. Without the dispose of lithium cells. The cost of al- mercury “degassing agent,” these bat- ckel- kaline and carbon zinc disposal is $0.29 teries would fully discharge before reach- mies per Pound. Batteries compose ing the consumer. Over the past 10 years, want Coordinators of button cell collection the mercury content in alkaline and ums. programs noted that due to the cost of approximately .005 carbon-zinc batteries has been sub- inner publicity, personnel, collection containers, percent by weight of the stantially reduced. The last generation of proc- shipping and lithium disposal charges, a alkalines contained about 1 percent mer- ation button battery recycling system will not be U.S. waste stream, but cury by weight. h the financially self-sufficient. MERECO was account for over 50 “Green cells” are alkalines containing umer unable to estimate the average payment no more than .025 percent mercury by ment for a shipment of button cells but reports percent of the mercury weight. They were developed severa1 ship- that, although every shipment is slightly and cadmium found in our years ago in Europe in response to con- iinder different, the collector will usually receive cerns about mercury in the incineration 1. a check. trash. waste stream and are now available in citv, MERECO has had serious mercury the United States. Contamination problems in the past, in- U.S. battery manufacturers say they are t con- cluding being listed as a Superfund site racing to meet the “green cell” limit set 3st is in the early 1980s by the U.S. EPA. This by Minnesota and Connecticut. Eveready iarge mercury contamination problem was reports that its newest alkalines are 99.97 $400 said to be a result of industrial waste dis- percent mercury-free, or .025 percent in- id fil1 PoSal practices used before mercury was were required to set up systems to collect stead of 1 percent mercury. The Eveready i. In- a regulated substance. The company re- used batteries from their commercial and Iow mercury alkalines appeared on store s not mediated the contaminated site to the governmental customers. shelves in California in early 1991. How- satisfaction of the EPA. However, Beginning in 1992, alkalines sold in ever, due to the enormous number of doing MERECO is now upgrading the facility to Minnesota must not exceed the .025 per- these batteries discarded each year, the roject address problems resulting from the on- cent mercury levei. By 1993, recharge- reduced-mercury alkalines would still be 3s will going mercury reclamation process. able household appliances must be de- a significant source of mercury in the *dless Santa Cruz County decided to postpone signed to allow for removal of the battery. waste stream. In California, it appears that proc- consideration of MERECO for battery The Connecticut Legislature passed simi- the low mercury alkalines will still exceed :h the recYcling until the facility improvements lar battery legislation. state limits for mercury, but no definitive are completed; it is anticipated that the The New Jersey Legislature is consid- ruling has been made to date.

27 Resarce Recycling Apd 1991 Meanwhile, the Battery Products Alli- Barriers to battery recycling event that a cracked lithium cell was ex- ante, sponsored by the Dry Cell Section After receiving both encouraging and posed to water at any point in a collection : of the National Electrical Manufacturers cautionary advice from battety program SyStem, an explosion would result. coordinators and researchers, it became If outdated but unused batteries that still Association (NEMA), is lobbying for intro- l duction of its “model” battery legislation clear that battery recycling is a rapidly have charges are added to a collection into state legislatures. evolving area, and the fundamental plan- box, and they make correct contact, The legislation would require each mu- ning questions have yet to be resolved. enough heat might be produced to ignite ’ nicipality to establish collection and proc- In dealing with any post-consumer mate- surrounding materials. Each time the con- I essing systems for recycling nickel- rial, unless the technology is available for tainer is jarred, the batteries make dif- j cadmium and small lead batteries con- economical and environmentally sound ferent contact. The fact that collected bat- tained in consumer products. Alkalines recycling, collectors may simply end up teries have been stored for long periods are not included, as the alliance expects with a costly disposal problem. And in the safely does not preclude the possibility of i the mercury reduction to resolve that dis- case of hazardous waste, liability prob- a short circuit, fire or explosion. * posal issue. An alliance representative lems may result as well. Even if battery None of the battery collectors contacted 1 stated that municipalities, not manufactur- recycling or disposal companies are sited, reported obvious safety problems. How- 1; ers, would be responsible to pay for the a number of logistical, safety and environ- ever, discussions with local chemists, the collection and recycling systems. mental policy issues, described below, re- EPA and the U.S. Department of Trans- main. portation confirm that battery collection, Market changes. At the same time that especially with the recent addition of con- ¡ alkalines are undergoing mercury reduc- sumer lithium cells, may present hazards. . Answer these tion, the button battery market is changing It is hoped that the California Integrated very rapidly due to the introduction of two Waste Management Board study will ad- 1 questions first new consumer battery types: zinc-air and dress this issue. lithium cells. The decision about which Sorting button cells. To recover spe- 3ogram planners considering a bat- batteries to target for collection is becom- cific types of batteries in a button cell col- f :ery collection system should answer ing more difficult, and the presente of lection program, special training is i :he following questions before collec- lithium batteries may further complicate t :ion begins: collection and recycling efforts. D Would your community support Severa1 years ago, zinc-air button cells r legislative action to pressure the replaced mercuric oxide buttons in almost battery industry to take responsibíl- all new hearing aid devices. However, Return to sender ity for the waste generated by its consumer mercury batteries are not ex- To make a point about corporate re- products? Would you need to initiate pected to disappear completely. Hearing sponsibility, town officials in Randolph, legislation or merely endorse exist- aid users change their batteries every 10 Vermont recently returned about 5,000 ing effofts in your state? days, and those still using older model B If battery collection is planned, dead household batteries to their man- devices buy and dispose of large numbers ufacturers (Duracell, Eveready and clarify the purpose of the proposed of mercuric oxide batteries. Zinc is consid- Rayovac). According to an Associated program. Is your goal primarily to erably less toxic and less volatile than Press wire service story, the town is promote recycling, or are you ttying mercury and has much less monetary concerned because of possible heavy to divert heavy metals from the value than silver; no recycling options metal leachate in landfills from bat- waste stream? The latter goal offers have developed for zinc-air batteries. teries, especially from mercury, that greater latitude in choosing mate- Lithium batteries, which come in both may cause health problems over time. rials to target. button or cylindrical types, are rapidly The manufacturers were not I If you are targeting heavy metals in gaining in popularity due to their superior amused. They disagree with the as- the waste stream, what are the lasting power. Beginning four years ago, sumption that batteries are toxic, and largest and most easily collected almost all new automatic cameras are at least one of the manufacturers sources of them in your community’s now designed to use lithium cells, replac- (Rayovac) has refused to accept the waste stream? ing the AA alkalines. Calculators, watches returned batteries. I What recycling or hazardous waste and older single lens reflex cameras use Two bilis introduced into the Vermont landfilling options exist? silver oxide buttons. In some devices, a Legislature would restrict the disposal I What are the costs of these options? lithium battery is interchangeable with the of batteries. Republican Rep. Inge I Is the proposed recycling or disposal silver oxide cell. No recycling options exist option environmentally sound, Le., Schaefer’s bill, supported by the bat- for consumer lithium cells. tery índustry, would ban landfill dis- ís it unlikely to create similar or Safety concerns. There is some con- worse contaminatíon in another lo- posal of batteries containing mercuric cern that the presente of lithium and mer- oxide, silver oxide, nickel-cadmium cation? To answer this question, a cury batteries in collection containers may variety of stite and local environ- and lead-acid by government agen-: pose safety risks to those involved in stor- cies, industry, communications comï mental protection agencies will need ing and handling batteries. Mercury vapor to be contacted. panies and medical facilities. Rep. DOn can accumulate in closed containers, and Hooper (D) has introduced a more re- I Have you resolved safety questions workers who open such containers may regarding the storage, handling and strictive bill that would ban all batteries, be exposed to unknown amounts of mer- including household alkalines, fro? shipment of mercury and lithium bat- culy. teries? landfill by July 1992. 3 Lithium is a reactive metal that explodes 4 when exposed to water. In the unlikely I

Resource Recycling April 1991 1 / ex- needed to learn a complex coding system. products containing hazardous chemi- household hazardous waste manage- tion Yet most button cells are not labeled, and cals. If the industry is held responsible, ment without investing significant re- t there is not a uniform coding system. The options include mandated toxicity reduc- sources in a large-scale battery collection still : ability to sor-t button cells by type might tions and collection systems, advanced system. It also sends a message to man- tion j be desirable in order to recover silver disposal fees or deposits. ufacturers that another community is ac- act, ! oxide buttons for recycling, or to re.move The Battery Products Alliance, on the tively seeking solutions to the battery dis- nite potentially hazardous lithium cells from a other hand, would like to see municipali- posal problem. :on- / button battery collection system. ties fund and administer collection pro- Finally, the study recommended that dif- i Transportation. The U.S. Department grams of nickel-cadmiums and lead bat- the use of rechargeable nickel-cadmium bat- of Transportation (DOT) requires that batteries, claiming that batteries should not batteries be promoted in household teries be “separated so as to prevent short be treated differently than consumer- hazardous waste public education mate- ods l :y of * circuits.” Separation with cardboard and generated scrap paper, aluminum, glass rials. Residents would also be instructed tape would be acceptable to the DOT. A or plastic. to take spent nickel-cadmiums to the :ted regional DOT official was willing to con- county’s household hazardous waste de- low- sider waiving this requirement if the Conclusions pots for proper disposal. the sender was certain that all of the batteries The Santa Cruz County feasibility study Perhaps the most effective approach to 3ns- were fully discharged. However, as noted recommended that the county not attempt minimizing heavy metal contamination in tion, above, undrained batteries may be pres- to collect batteries for recycling until the the solid waste stream is through legisla- :on- ent in collection containers. market picture clears. It also recom- tive channels. Communities should study brds. DOT sets special limits on shipment of mended that the county formally support the battery disposal laws passed in Min- ated lithium cells. Lithium batteries containing the battery bilis in the state legislature. In nesota and Connecticut and the pending l ad- over 0.5 grams of lithium or lithium alloy addition, the study proposed that a limited legislation in New Jersey that require require special packaging and transporta- mixed battery collection component be manufacturers to reduce toxicity and im- spe- tion procedures. Consumer lithium cells included at household hazardous waste plement collection systems for used bat- COI- used in watches are generally under 0.5 depots, if storage and handling questions teries. RR ) is grams, but larger lithium cells in some cal- could be resolved. These batteries would culators and cameras exceed this limit. not be recycled; they would be sent to a Environmental policy issues. A hazardous waste landfill. The views expressed in this article are those of fundamental question exists about who This type of collection program begins the writers and do not represent the views of Santa should be responsible for the disposal of to address state mandates for proper Clara County or Santa Cruz County.

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- 29 Resource Recycling April 1997