Appendix: Battery Standards

The International Electrochemical Commission battery. These characteristics are: (lEC) have prepared a battery standards speci­ a) Dimensions and terminals (physical inter­ fication: lECPublication 86: Primary Cel/sand changeability) Batteries , parts 1 and 2, 1975. The relevant b) Voltage and electrical performance (elec­ British Standard is BS 397. Both are available trical interchangeability) from the British Standards Institution, 2 Park Street, London WlA 2BS. At the present time there are three possible The American National Standard, ANSI sources of such information. C18.l, is available from ANSI, 1430 Broadway, The battery manufacturer publishes litera­ New York 10018. ture describing his products and sometimes The Japanese Standards Association issues includes recommendations for the battery to Standard 115 8501 Dry Cellsand Batteries; 115 be used in specific equipment. In the nature 8508 Mercury Cells and Batteries ; 115 8509 of things this information is not complete. Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide Cells and Bat­ The equipment manufacturer may include teries ;115 8510 SilverOxide Cellsand Batteries; in the equipment a label stating the specific 115 8511 Alkaline Primary Cells and Batteries. type of battery to be used,or the size required. All are available through Japanese Embassies Often a more detailed list of approved bat­ or direct from the Japanese Standards Associ­ teries is given in the equipment instruction ation, 1-24 Akasaka 4 Chome , Minato-ku, manual but again this islikely to be incomplete. Tokyo. Furthermore the information may lead to The following is an extract from The lEC frustration when the equipment originates in System of Battery Designation, prepared by a different country from that in which the IEC Technical Committee No. 35. batteries are purchased. Finally assistance may be given at the sales point by experienced and qualified technicians , Introduction although more usually the salesassistant is non­ technical . It is apparent that the casual pur­ The last decade has seen a large expansion in chaser is rarely able to derive adequate benefit the range of portable battery-operated con­ from the sources described above. In recog­ sumer goods, often these are sold and used in nittion ofthis ,severalattempts have been made countries other than those in which they were to establish systems at a national level. manufactured. During the same period the It is the aim of the IEC system to overcome range of electrochemical systems available for the deficiencies described and the limitations battery use has multiplied and .ven within imposed by national boundaries. a system different application grades have appeared. These changes when coupled with the increase in travel between countries have Examples led to the user being confused as to the correct type of replacement battery to purchase. In the IEC system fully described later and in The battery purchaser requires a simple, Publication 86, a series of numbers and letters unambiguous symbol which defines inter­ are used to give a unique reference to each size nationally the important characteristics of the of battery, its terminals , voltage and electro-

T. R. Crompton, Small Batteries © T. R. Crompton 1982 Appendix: Battery Standards 217

R6 lR6 Terminals 1.5V Terminals 1.45V

Figure A.1 Figure A.2 chemical system. The following examples illus­ example a) the electrochemical system is trate the use of the lEe system. manganese dioxide/ammonium chloride, zinc chloride/zinc but the presence of the a) R6 (commonly used in small transistor number 3 denotes a battery voltage of radios), Figure A.l The letter R indicates that the battery is cylindrical and combined with the num­ Terminals ber 6 signifies a particular size with closely defined terminals. The absence of another letter shows that the electrochemical sys­ tem is manganese dioxide/ammonium ¢~ chloride, zinc chloride/zinc. This system has a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts and since no preceding number is given the battery voltage is identical with that of the electro­ chemical system, viz. 1.5 volts. b) LR6 (commonly used in cine-cameras), Figure A.2 3R12 R6 as in the preceding example, defines the same shape, dimensions and terminals. 4.sV The additional letter L indicates that the electrochemical system is, manganese dioxide/alkali metal hydroxide/zinc having a nominal voltage of 1.45 volts. c) 3R12 (commonly used in pocket lamps), Figure A.3 The complete symbol defines the size, ter­ minals and voltage of the battery. As in Figure A.3 218 Small Batteries - Primary Cells

letter M which denotes that the electro­ chemical system is mercuric oxide/alkali metal hydroxide/zinc of 1.35 volts nominal which in this case is also the battery volt­ age. f) MR44 (commonly used in watches), Figure A.6 "'=---' This battery is identical in all respects with the MR07 except that a closely controlled 6F22 and precisely defined profile is mandatory. 9'/ This ensures satisfactory fitment in the battery compartment of watches. For this reason the battery is defined in conjunction with a profile gauge and given a different number.

Figure AA

three times the nominal voltage of the sys­ tem, Le., 4.5 volts. d) 6F22 (commonly used in pocket size tran­ sistor radios), Figure A.4 As in example c) the complete symbol de­ fines the size, terminals and voltage of the battery. The letter F denotes a flat cell ~ Terminals construction which is convenient for com­ pact multicell batteries. As in the preceding example the absence ofan additional letter ~ shows that the electrochemical system is MR44 manganese dioxide/ammonium chloride, zinc chloride/zinc. The number 6 indi­ Figure A.6 cates that the battery voltage is six times 1.5 volts, i.e., 9 volts. e) MR07 (commonly used in hearing aids), Discussion Figure A .5 The new feature in this example is the The IEC system thus defines the battery construction, its precise dimensions including profile and contact arrangements, the electro­ chemical system used and the battery voltage. Whilst at first sight such a system appears to be extremely complex and perhaps difficult Terminals to understand, it does not present any diffi­ culties to battery users since all they need to know is the IEC number. For example, a bat­ + tery which is familiar to all users of pocket MR07 size transistor radios and is known by such Figure A.5 different references as PP3, 216, R0603, 438, Appendix: Battery Standards 219

333, 006P, 1604, TRl, 410, LPI-9, Tiber, 485, ammonium chloride, zinc chloride/zinc TM146, can be simply identified by the Symbol system. It is most commonly used in 6F22. Another instance is the popular size of specialised motor-driven equipment. lighting battery (approximately 34 mm diam­ d) The mercuric oxide/alkali metal hydrox­ eter x 61 mm height) which isidentified in the ide/zinc system (letter reference M) has a IEC system as the R20, whereas at present it high prime cost, a very high capacity per is variously referred to as the 212 , SP2, 950, unit volume , and an almost constant volt­ UMl, D, 250 , 211, 734, 6TIL, LPV2, 152, 209 age discharge characteristic. It finds appli­ and 70 in different parts of the world. cations in miniature electronic equipment Since the appearance of the IECdesignation e.g., Hearing Aids. upon a product is a claim by the manufacturer e) Mercuric oxide with minor addition of that the product complies with the require­ manganese dioxide/alkali metal hydroxide/ ments of the relevant standard, which includes zinc system (letter reference N) is similar a minimum standard for electrical perform­ in all respects to the M system described ance, the purchaser has the additional guaran­ above but has a slightly lower capacity per tee that batteries will not only fit the equip­ unit volume and a slightly lower cost. ment but that they will also provide reasonable f) The argentuous oxide/alkali metal hydrox­ service. ide/zinc system (letter reference S) has a The major factor controlling the price and very high prime cost. It operates at the electrical performance of batteries is the elec­ highest current drains and voltages of any trochemical system employed. The IEC rec­ of the systems under discussion and is used ommendations include at present six electro­ in miniature equipment. chemical systems, whose principle character­ Within each system (particularly the manga­ istics are given below. nese dioxide/ammonium chloride, zinc chlor­ ide/zinc) differing levels of electrical perform­ a) The manganese dioxide/ammonium chlor­ ance are possible, dependent upon the quality ide , zinc chloride/zinc system has the and quantity of the active materials used and lowest prime cost. It is very efficient under therefore on prime cost. IEC is considering conditions of intermittent use at low and how best to indicate these differences in per­ medium current drains. For this reason formance level. transistor radios and torches are almost For the IEC system to be successful it is exclusively used with batteries of this essential that all countries support its use system. through the medium of their National Stan­ b) The air or oxygen/ammonium, zinc chlor­ dards. ide/zinc system (letter reference A) is Many countries have already done so. another low price system, suitable for ap­ lt is regrettable that at present some battery plications requiring a high ampere-hour manufacturers do not use the IEC system on capacity under low current drain con­ their products. It is hoped that this expose of ditions, where the volume is unrestricted. the system will encourage such manufacturers Railway signalling and electric fence equip­ to revise their policy and participate in this ment employ this system. International co-operation for the benefit of c) The manganese dioxide/alkali metal hy­ everyon e. droxide/zinc system (letter reference L) has a medium prime cost and is most suit­ able for applications requiring a medium The tee System current drain under semi-eontinuous con­ ditions. Its capacity per unit volume is The battery nomenclature defines unambigu­ higher than that of the manganese dioxide/ ously the physical dimensions, polarity and 220 Small Batteries - Primary Cells type of terminals, electrochemical system and c) Batteries the nominal voltage. If the battery contains only a single cell, the cell designation is used. In other cases each section ofthe battery a) Cells is designated separately, each designation A cell is designated by a capital letter fol­ being separated by an oblique stroke. lowed by a number. The letters F, Rand S If a section contains more than one cell define flat (layerbuilt), round and square in series, their number precedes the cell (or rectangular) cells respectively. designation. This letter, together with the following If cells are connected in parallel, the number provide the reference to the appro­ number of parallel groups succeeds the cell priate entry in a table of approximate designation, being attached to it by a dimensions. hyphen. Each designation is related to a specific Examples: set of dimensions. There may however be R20; a battery consisting of a single more than one designation for anyone set R20 cell, of dimensions. These cases arise due to dif­ 3R 12: a battery consisting of three R 12 ferences of detail in profile or polarity. cells connected in series, At the present time numbers are allo­ R25-2: a battery consisting of two R25 cated sequentially. cells connected in parallel, 3R20-2: a battery consisting of two paral­ lel groups ofcells, each group con­ b) Electrochemical system taining three R20 cells in series, With the exception of the manganese 60F20/ a battery oftwosections in which dioxide/ammonium chloride zinc chloride/ 2RI4-2: one section contains sixty F20 zinc system, the letter R, For S is preceded cells in series and the other section by an additional letter which denotes the contains two parallel groups, each electrochemical system, as shown below. of two Rl4 cells in series.

Negative Nominal Letter Positive electrode Electrolyte electrode voltage Manganese dioxide Ammonium chloride, Zinc 1.5 zincchloride A Airor oxygen Ammonium, Zinc 104 zincchloride L Manganese dioxide Alkali metalhydroxide Zinc lAS M Mercuric oxide Alkali metalhydroxide Zinc 1.35 N Mercuric oxide with Alkali metalhydroxide Zinc 104 minoraddition of manganese dioxide S Argentuous oxide Alkali metalhydroxide Zinc 1.55

Note: The letter K relates to nickel-cadmium secondary batteries for which recommen- dationsare given in lEe Publication 285. Glossary

ACTIVATED STAND LIFE The period of merically equal to capacity , rated at the n h time, at a specified temperature, that a second­ discharge rate. ary cell can be stored in the charged condition XCn RATE Charge or discharge current nu­ before its capacity falls below a specified level. merically equal to X times the capacity, rated ACTIVATION The process of making a cell at the n h discharge rate . without electrolyte functional, either by intro­ CADMIUM ELECTRODE See Negative ducing an electrolyte or by immersing the cell plate . into an electrolyte. Activation of thermally CAPACITY Ampere-hours available from a activated reserve cells involves heating to melt fully charged cell or battery. a solid. AVAILABLE CAPACITY Total ca­ ACTIVE MATERIALS The substances of a pacity that may be obtained at defined positive or negative plate which react to pro­ charge and discharge rates and their as­ duce current. sociated environmental conditions. AMPERE-HOURS Product of current in DELIVERABLE CAPACITY See Ca­ amperes multiplied by time current is flowing; pacity, available. capacity of a cell or battery is usually expressed FUNCTIONAL LOSS OF CAPACITY in ampere-hours. Reduction in cell capacity due to non­ ANODE An electrode at which an oxidation standard charging or discharging par­ reaction (loss ofelectrons) occurs; in secondary ameters such as cell temperature, current, cells either electrode may become the anode , and discharge voltage cut-off. See also depending on direction of current flow. Function failure. AVAILABLE CAPACITY See under Ca­ NAMEPLATE CAPACITY See Ca­ pacity . pacity, rated . NOMINAL CAPACITY See Capacity, BAFFLE A non-conductive barrier inserted rated. in a vented cell above the plate pack and used PERMANENT LOSS OF CAPACITY as a reference for electrolyte level; it also pro­ Reduction in cell capacity from 'as new' tects top edges of plates from objects dropped value, under standard rating conditions; into vent cap hole. not recoverable by reconditioning. See BATTERY One or more cells connected to also Failure , permanent. form one unit and having provisions for ex­ RATED CAPACITY A designation by ternal connections. the battery manufacturer which helps BATTERY CASE Box or enclosure which identify a particular cell model and also contains cells, associated connectors and hard­ provides an approximation of capacity; ware. usually expressed in ampere-hours at a given discharge current. Cp Effective parallel capacitance. RESIDUAL CAPACITY Capacity re­ C-RATE Discharge or charge current rate in maining at a particular point in time after amperes numerically equal to rated capacity any set of operating conditions, usually of a cell in ampere-hours, rated at the I h dis­ including a partial discharge or long rest. charge rate. RESTORABLE CAPACITY See Ca­ Cn RATE Charge or discharge current nu- pacity, temporary loss of. 222 Small Batteries - Primary Cells

TEMPORARY LOSS OF CAPACITY separator and electrolyte are held; it is made Reduction in cell capacity that is re­ up of the cell jar and cover which are perma­ covered when cell is subjected to several nently joined. reconditioning cycles. See also Failure, CONTAMINANT Undesirable element , reversible. usually in the electrolyte, that reduces the USEFUL CAPACITY See Capacity, capacity of the cell; in vented cells, contami­ available. nants can be introduced by use of tap water CAPACITY RECONDITIONING See Recon­ or operation without vent cap. ditioning. CONTRACTION The shrinkage of active CATHODE An electrode at which a reduction material. reaction (gain of electrons) occurs; in second­ CORROSION The oxidation of a metal elec­ ary cells either electrode may become the trode . cathode, depending on direction of current COULOMETER Electrochemical or elec­ flow. tronic device, capable of integrating current­ CELL Electrochemical device, composed of time, used for charge control or measurement. positive and negative plates, separator and COUNTER ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE electrolyte, that is capable of storing electrical A voltage opposite to the applied voltage, also energy; when encased in a container and fitted referred to as back e.m.f. with terminals, it is the basic 'building block' CURRENT DENSITY The amount of cur­ of a battery. rent per unit area passing from one plate to 2 CELL CASE See Container. another (A/cm ). CELL REVERSAL Reversing of polarity of CUT-OFF VOLTAGE Voltage at which a terminals of a cell in a multi-cell battery due discharge or charge is terminated. to overdischarge. CYCLE One sequence of discharge and re­ CHARGE Return of electrical energy to a charge. Deep cycling requires that all the en­ battery. ergy to an end-voltage established for each STATE OF CHARGE Residual capacity system is drained from the battery on each dis­ of a cell expressed in terms of the fully charge; in shallow cycling the energy is partially charged capacity. drained in each discharge, that is, discharge up CHARGE RATE The current at which a sec­ to 50 per cent depth of capacity . ondary cell or battery is charged, expressed as a CYCLE LIFE In a secondary storage battery, function of the cell or battery's rated capacity; the number of cycles the battery may experi­ for example, the 20 h charge rate of a 10 A h ence before its capacity falls to a point con­ cell would be equal to C/20=10/20=0.5 A. sidered a failure. See also Failure. CHARGE RETENTION The tendency of a CYLINDRICAL CELL A cylinder-shaped charged cell to resist self-discharge. sealed wound cell containing a high-pressure CHARGER Device capable of supplying safety vent. electrical energy to a battery. CONNECTOR Electrical conductor which DEAD BAND The range of temperatures joins individual cells together in a battery. between the point at which the thermostat CONSTANT CURRENT Charging method opens and the point where it recloses (resets). in which current does not change appreciably If the temperature first exceeds the point at in magnitude, regardless of battery voltage or which the switch opens and then drops below temperature. this point, the switch remains open within the CONSTANT POTENTIAL Charging method dead band until the temperature falls below that applies a fixed voltage to a cell; often ab­ the reset point. breviated to CP. DEEP CYCLING See Reconditioning. CONTAINER Cell enclosure in which plates, DEEP DISCHARGE The condition where a Glossary 223 cell is discharged to 0.5 V or less at low rate , Eo See Equivalent no-load voltage. that is, to below cut-off voltage or withdrawal EFFECTIVE INTERNAL RESISTANCE, Re ofat least 80 per cent of rated capacity. The apparen t opposition to current flow within DEIONISED WATER Water that has been a battery that manifests itself as a drop in bat­ freed of ions by treatment with ion-exchange tery voltage proportional to the discharge cur­ resins. rent; its value depends on battery design, state DEPOLARISER A material to offset a polar­ of charge, temperature and age. ising effect of an electrode. ELECTRODE Conducting body and the DEPTH OF DISCHARGE (DOD) The per­ active materials in which the electrochemical centage of rated capacity to which a cell or reaction occurs. battery is discharged; for example, if 5 A h of ELECTRODE POTENTIAL The voltage de­ capacity is discharged from a 100 A h battery, veloped by a single plate either positive or the depth ofdischarge is 5 per cent. negative; the algebraic difference in voltage of DISCHARGE Withdrawal ofelectrical energy any two electrodes equals the cell voltage. to end-point voltage before the cell or battery ELECTROFORMATION The conversion of is recharged. the material in both the positive and negative DISCHARGE RATE See Rate. plates to their respective active material. DISCHARGE VOLTAGE The voltage of a ELECTROLYTE Fluid used in a cell as a battery during discharge. medium for movement of ions. DISCHARGING The withdrawing of electri­ END-OF-eHARGE VOLTAGE The voltage cal energy from a battery or cell. of the battery at termination of a charge but DISTILLED WATER Water that has been before the charge is stopped . freed of ions by a process of vaporisation and END-OF-DISCHARGEVOLTAGE The volt­ subsequent condensation. age of the battery at termination of a discharge but before the discharge is stopped . DRAIN Withdrawal of current from a cell END-POINT VOLTAGE Voltage below or battery. which connected equipment will not operate, DRY Indication that the electrolyte in a cell or below which operation of a cell is not rec­ is immobilised, being either in the form of ommended ; frequently interchangeable with a paste or gel or absorbed in the separator 'cut -0ff voltage'. material and/or that a cell may have insuf­ ENERGY Output capability , ampere-hours ficient electrolyte. capacity times average closed-circuit discharge DRY, CHARGED An electrochemical sys­ voltage, expressed as watt-hours. tem in which the electrodes are in a charged ENERGY DENSITY A figure of merit in state, ready to be activated by the introduction common use with batteries, expressing the of electrolyte. stored energy as a function of the weight or DRY, UNCHARGED Indicates that a cell volume (watt-hours per kg or watt-hours per must be activated and receive initial formation dm"); rate dependent. cycles before it can be brought into use. ENTRAINMENT Process whereby gases gen­ DUMP TIMED CHARGE (DTC) A charging erated in the cell carry electrolyte out through method in which the cell is first discharged at vent cap. a rate-time combination equal to or greater ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS External than the charge rate-time combination which circumstances to which a cell or battery may immediately follows. be subjected , such as ambient temperature, DUTY CYCLE The condition and usage to humidity, shock , vibration, and altitude. which a battery is subjected during operation, EQUALISATION See Reconditioning. consisting of charge, overcharge, rest and dis­ EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT A circuit presented charge. to simulate the electrical behaviour of a cell. 224 Small Batteries - Primary Cells

EQUIVALENT INTERNAL RESISTANCE which may be created by interconnecting cells See Effective internal resistance. in various arrangements. EQUIVALENT NO-LOAD VOLTAGE , Eo FUNCTION FAILURE See under Failure. The numerical value of the source voltage in the equivalent circuit. GASSING The liberation ofhydrogen and/or oxygen gases from a cell. FADING The long-range loss of capacity GRID The metallic part of a battery plate with use. which retains the active material. FAILURE The condition in which a battery GROUP An assembly of positive or negative is unable to perform satisfactorily. plates which fit into a cell. FUNCTION FAILURE Condition in which the battery has caused the end-use HIGH-RESISTANCE SHORT See Short cir­ device to fail to function at the perform­ cuit. ance level expected. HIGH-RATE DISCHARGE Withdrawal of PERMANENT FAILURE A non-revers­ large currents in short intervals oftime, usually ible condition which makes the battery at a rate less than 1 h. essentially useless. There is no recognised standard method of rating or defining Imp See Maximum-power discharge current. exactly when a cell has reached the end IMPEDANCE An a.c. circuit's apparent op­ of its life ; however, the end of useful life position to current; consists of reactance and is defined as that condition when the cell ohmic resistance. For the equivalent phenom­ cannot perform above SO per cent of its enon in a d.c. battery, see Effective internal rated ampere-hour capacity with all resistance. charging and discharging done at room INITIAL DRAIN Current that cell or battery temperature. supplies when first placed on load. REVERSIBLE FAILURE Failure con­ INTERMITTENT SHORT See Short circuit. dition which may be corrected through INTERNAL IMPEDANCE The opposition the application of certain electrical pro­ of a cell or battery to an alternating current cedures. ofa particular frequency , usually 60 Hz. (Note: The internal impedance may vary with the TEMPORARY FAILURE See Failure , state of charge.) reversible. INTERNAL RESISTANCE Opposition to FAST-CHARGE BATTERY A battery that direct current flow in a cell; this can be can be charged at the fast-charge rate and that measured by dividing the difference between gives a suitable signal which can be used to the open-circuit voltage and the voltage at a terminate the fast-charge current without dam­ particular current, by that current. (Note: The age to the battery. internal resistance may vary with the current FAST CHARGING Rapid return of energy and state of charge.) to a battery at the C rate or greater. FLOAT CHARGING The use condition of a JAR The bottom portion of the cell container storage battery wherein charge is maintained which mates with the cell cover. by a continuous, long-term constant-potential charge . KOH See Potassium hydroxide. FLOODED CELL See Vented cell. FLOODING Filling of pores of a porous LIFE The duration of satisfactory perform­ electrode with electrolyte solution, thereby ance, measured as usage in years or as the minimising access ofgases to electrode surface. number of charge/discharge cycles. FORM FACTOR Battery configurations LOAD The current drain through a fixed Glossary 225

resistance to which the battery will be sub­ perature (21°C). It is also implied that, in the jected. case of a primary, the cell is freshly manufac­ LOW-RATE DISCHARGE Withdrawal of tured, and for a secondary, fully charged. small currents for long periods of time , usually OVERCHARGE CURRENT The charging longer than I h. current flowing to the battery after all the LOW-RESISTANCE SHORT See Short cir­ active material has been converted into a dis­ cuit. chargeable state. OVERCHARGING Continuing charge after MAINTENANCE The care and procedures the battery has accepted its maximum amount necessary to keep a battery in a usable con­ of charge. In a vented cell, a result will be de­ dition, such as reconditioning and water composition of water in the electrolyte into addition to electrolyte of a vented cell. hydrogen and oxygen gases. In a sealed cell, a MANUFACTURING VARIATIONS Differ­ result will be increased cell temperature. ences in performance characteristics between OXIDATION The release ofelectrons, by the products of the same design, attributable to cell's active material, to the external circuit. process deviations within expected tolerances. During discharge , active material at the nega­ MAXIMUM-POWER DISCHARGE CURRENT tive electrode is oxidised. Imp The discharge rate at which the terminal OXYGEN RECOMBINATION The electro­ voltage is equal to one-half of Eo and at which chemical process in which oxygen generated maximum power (energy rate) is transferred at the positive plate during overcharge is re­ to the external load . acted (reduced) with water at the negative MEMORY EFFECT A phenomenon in which plate at the same, generating heat. a nickel-cadmium battery, operated in suc­ cessive cycles of identical depth of discharge, PARALLEL Electrical term used to describe temporarily renders the rest of its capacity the interconnection of batteries in which all inaccessible at normal voltage levels. the like terminals are connected together. MID-POINT VOLTAGE The battery voltage PERMA-eELL A registered trademark ofthe at the halfway point in the discharge between General Electric Corporation which designates the fully charged state and the fully discharged a rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery-eharger state of a cell. system using sealed cylindrical cells; offered as an alternative to popular sizes of primary NEGATIVE ELECTRODE See Negative cell. plate. PERMANENT FAILURE See under Failure. NEGATIVE PLATE The plate that has an PEROXIDE VOLTAGE Initial voltage ob­ electrical potential below that of the other served when current load is first applied to a plate during normal cell operation. fully charged cell; this voltage is normally NICKEL ELECTRODE See Positive plate. higher than the plateau voltage. NOMINAL CAPACITY See Capacity, rated. PLAQUE A porous body of sintered metal NOMINAL VOLTAGE The mid-point volt­ used as a current collector and holder of elec­ age observed across a battery during discharge trode active materials. at a selected rate , usually at the O.2C , or O.lC PLATE Common term for electrode. rate. PLATEAU VOLTAGE Level portion of dis­ charge curve, varying with discharge rate . ON-eHARGE VOLTAGE Voltage of a cell POLARISATION The increased internal re­ while on charge. sistance ofa cell which occurs during discharge. OPEN-eIRCUIT VOLTAGE The no-load POLARITY Electrical term used to denote voltage of a cell or battery measured with a the relative voltage relationship between two high-impedance voltmeter at about room tem- electrodes. 226 Small Batteries - Primary Cells

POSITIVE ELECTRODE See Positive plate. REDUCTION The gain of electrons; in a cell, POSITIVE PLATE The plate that has an refers to the inward flow of electrons to the electrical potential higher than that of the active material. other plate during normal cell operation. RESEALABLE In a cell, refers to a safety POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE A chemical com­ vent that is capable of closing after each press­ pound, symbol KOH, which, when mixed with ure release, in contrast to the non-resealable pure water in the correct proportions, is the one-shot vent. electrolyte solution used in nickel-cadmium RESIDUAL CAPACITY See under Capacity. cells and other alkaline cell systems. RESISTANCE See Effective internal resist­ POWERUP-15 BATTERY The General ance. Electric trademark for a nickel-cadmium bat­ REVERSAL See Cell reversal. tery which permits charging at rates up to the REVERSIBLE FAILURE See under Failure. 4C rate to at least 90 per cent of rated capacity REVERSIBLE REACTION A chemical in 15 min at room temperature. Asthe battery change that takes place in either direction, as reaches full charge, the fast-charge rate is in the reversible reaction for charging or dis­ switched by the charger to a lower, continuous charging a secondary battery. overcharge rate by sensing either the battery voltage or temperature. TAB A battery terminal, often containing a PRIMAR Y CELL A cell designed to be used hole for wire connection. only once, then discarded. It is not capable of TEMPERATURE being returned to its original charge state by AMBIENT TEMPERATURE The aver­ the application of current. age temperature of the battery's sur­ roundings. QUICK CHARGE Charging rate that ranges CELL TEMPERATURE The average from 0.2C to 0.5C rate. temperature ofthe battery's components. QUICK-CHARGE BAITERYA battery that TEMPERATURE CUT-OFF (TCO) A method can be charged fully in 3 to 5 h by a simple, of switching the charge current flowing to 'a constant-current charger and is capable of con­ battery from fast charge to topping charge by tinuous overcharge at this quick-charge rate. means of a control circuit in the charger that is activated by battery temperature. R, See Effective internal resistance. TEMPORARY FAILURE See Failure, revers­ RATE Amount of charge or discharge cur­ ible. rent, frequently expressed as a fraction or TERMINALS The external part of a cell or multiple of the I h rate, C. battery from which current can be drained. RATED CAPACITY See under Capacity. THERMAL RUNAWAY A condition whereby RATING See Capacity. a battery on constant-potential charge at el­ RECHARGE Return of electrical energy to evated temperature will destroy itself through a battery, internal heat generation which is caused by RECHARGEABLE Capable of being re­ high overcharge currents in constant-potential charged ; refers to secondary cells or batteries. charging. RECOMBINATION The chemical reaction TOPPING CHARGE A reduced rate charge of gases at the electrodes to form a non-gaseous that completes (tops) the charge of a cell and product. can be continued in overcharge without damag­ RECONDITIONING Maintenance procedure ing the cell. consisting of deep discharge , short and con­ TRICKLE CHARGE See Standby charge. stant-current charge used to correct cell im­ TROUGH VOLTAGE The instantaneous balance which may have been acquired during open-circuit voltage of a battery that is charged battery use. by a pulsating current. Glossary 227

UNACTIVATED STORAGE LIFE The shocked ; an intermittent short can be period of time, under specified conditions of either low or high resistance. temperature and environment, in which a dry­ LOW-RESISTANCE SHORT A short charged cell can stand before deteriorating measuring less than 20 n. below a specified capacity. SINTERED-PLATE ELECTRODE A sturdy UNDERCHARGING Applying less than the plate formed by sintering (agglomerating met­ amount of current required to recharge a bat­ allic powders by heating). The resulting elec­ tery. trode has a porous structure with a largesurface area containing active materials which are ac­ SEALED CELL A cell that is free from cessible to be charged and discharged at high routine maintenance and can be operated rates. without regard to position; all reactants are SLOW CHARGE 'Overnight' return of energy retained within the container. to a battery at O.OSC to O.lC rates. SECONDARY BATTERY A system that is SOAK TIME That time required for the elec­ capable of repeated use by using chemical trolyte to be absorbed into the active materials reactions that are reversible, that is, the dis­ after activation. charged energy may be restored by supplying SPALLING The flaking off of active material electrical current to recharge the cell. from a plate or electrode. SELF-DISCHARGE The spontaneous de­ SPECIFIC GRAVITY The density of a liquid composition of battery materials from charged relative to the density of pure water. to discharged state. That rate at which a SPLIT RATE CHARGE A charging method primary or secondary battery or cell loses in which the battery is charged at a high rate service capacity when standing idle. and then automatically reduced to a lower SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE A porous charge rate as the battery approaches full film that will pass selected ions. charge. SEPARATOR Material which provides sep­ STACK Flat plates assembled in a parallel aration and electrolyte storage between plates orientation. of opposite polarity. STANDBY CHARGE A low overcharge cur­ SERIES Electrical term used to describe the rent rate , of the order of O.OIC to 0.03C, ap­ interconnection of cells or batteries in such a plied continuously to a vented-cell battery to manner that the positive terminal of an indivi­ maintain its capacity in a ready-to-discharge dual cell is connected to the negative terminal state. Often called 'trickle' charging. of the next cell. STARVED CELL A cell containing little or SHALLOW DISCHARGE A discharge of a no free fluid electrolyte solution; this enables battery equal to only a small part of its total gases to reach electrode surfaces readily, and capacity. permits relatively high rates of gas recombi­ SHEDDING The loss of active material from nation. See Sealed cell. a plate during cycling. STATE OF CHARGE Residual capacity of SHELF LIFE A measure of the active life of a cell expressed in terms of fully charged ca­ a battery in storage. pacity . SHORT CIRCUIT The condition in a battery where two plates of opposite polarity make VENT A normally sealed mechanism that electrical contact with each other. allows the controlled escape of gases from HIGH-RESISTANCE SHORT A short within a cell. measuring 20 n or more. VENT CAP A device that contains a vent, INTERMITTENT SHORT A condition and fits on to the top ofa cell; normally used where the open-circuit voltage of a bat­ on vented cells to allow access for electrolyte tery is unstable when mechanically level adjustment. 228 Small Batteries - Primary Cells

VENTED CELL A heavy-duty cell design in circuit in the charger that is activated by either which the vent operates at low pressure during battery voltage or temperature. the normal duty cycle to expel gases generated in overcharge. A vented cell plate pack con­ WET Indicates that the liquid electrolyte in tains flat plates separated by a gas barrier and a cell is free flowing. separator, completely immersed in electrolyte. WET CHARGED STAND Period of time a Often called a 'flooded' cell. battery can stand in the wet charged con­ VOLTAGE CUT-OFF (VCO) A method of dition while retaining a large percentage of its switching the charge current flowing to a bat­ capacity . tery from fast charge to topping charge by WET FORMED DISCHARGE Indicates that means of a control circuit in the charger that a cell is activated , formed and discharged. The is activated by battery voltage. cell need only be recharged for use. VOLTAGE LIMIT In a charge-controlled bat­ WET SHELF LIFE Period of time a battery tery, the limit beyond which battery potential can stand in the wet discharged condition be­ is not permitted to rise. fore losing charging capability. VOLTAGE-TEMPERATURE CUT-OFF WOUND The interior cell construction in (VTCO) A method of switching the charge which plates are coiled into a spiral. current flowing to a battery from fast charge to topping charge rate by means of a control YIELD The energy output of a battery. Suppliers of Primary Batteries

Acknowledgement is given to the companies mentioned for supplying information on their products.

Belgium France

Chloride Belgium NV Duracell France Technical Division Groenstraat 31 5 Rue Chantecoq Mortsel 2510 F-9280 I Puteaux Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide Mercury-zinc, silver-zinc, lithium solid electrolyte types VARTA SA Rue Uyttenhove 49- 51 La Pile Leclanche B-1 090 Brussels Department Piles de SAFT Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ 156 Avenue de Metz zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium Romainville 93230 types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, carbon­ chloride Leclanche, zinc-air zinc Leclanche, lithium types {lithium-lead bismuthate, lithium-silver chromate}

Canada Israel

Chloride Industries Battery Ltd Tadiron Israel Electronics Industries Ltd 7480 Bath Road Derech Hashalon Mississauga Tel Aviv 6100 L4T IL2 Ontario Carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium types, Zinc-alkaline- manganese dioxide lithium types, silver oxide-zinc

VARTA Batteries Ltd 4 Lansing Square Suite 237 Italy Willowdale Ontario M2JlTI Duracell Italia Technical Division Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ Via Arrivabene 14 zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium 20158 Milan types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc Mercury-zinc, silver-zinc, lithium solid chloride Leclanche, zinc-air electrolyte types 230 Small Batteries - Primary Cells

VARTA SpA The Netherlands Via Tertulliano 70 20137 Milan Accumulatorenfabriek VARTA NV Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ Molensingel 19 zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium Venlo types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ chloride Leclanche, zinc-air zinc , carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc Japan chloride Leclanche, zinc-air Bataafsche Accufabriek BV VARTA Batterie AG Bovendijk 317 Room 810, 8F Shuwa Kioichu Postbus 10 125 TBR Bldg Rotterdam 3004 No 7, 5-ehome Kohi-machi Chiyoda-ku Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ Tokyo 102 zinc , carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ chloride Leclanche, zinc-air zinc , carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc Chloride Batterijen BV chloride Leclanche , zinc-air Postbus I 17 Produktiestraat Vlaardigen Yuasa Battery Co Ltd 6-6 Josai-cho Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide Takatsuki-shi Osaka-fu 569

Carbon-zinc Leclanche , silver oxide-zinc New Zealand

Kenya Chloride Batteries New Zealand Ltd PO Box No 36-026 Chloride Exide Kenya Ltd Morewa PO Box No 14242 Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide Nairobi Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide Sweden Mexico Nordiska Akkumulatorfabriker VARTASA NOACKAB Apartado Postal 7355 Kommendorsgatan 16 Mexico lDF Box5317 Mexico 9DF S-10246 Stockholm Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury ­ Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury ­ zinc , carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium zinc , carbon-zinc Leclanche , magnesium types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc chloride Leclanche, zinc-air chloride Leclanche, zinc-air Suppliers ofPrimary Batteries 231

United Kingdom also 32 Duke Street Chloride Automotive Batteries Ltd London SWI Chequers Lane Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, carbon­ Dagenham zinc Leclanche Essex RM9 6PX Zinc -alkaline-manganese dioxide McMurdo Instrument Co Ltd Rodney Road Duracell UK Technical Division Portsmouth P04 8SS Duracell House Silver oxide-zinc sea water batteries, copper­ Gatwick Road type sea water batteries Crawley RH I0 2PA Mercury -zinc, silver-zinc, lithium solid Mallory Batteries Ltd electroly te types Gatwick Road Crawley RHIO 2PA Ever Ready Holdings Ltd (BEREC) Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ Ever Ready House zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium 1255 High Road types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc Whetstone London N20 OEl also Mine Safety Appliances Co Ltd Ever Ready House Queenlie Industrial Estate Wishart Street Glasgow G33 4BT Glasgow El; Thermal batteries Ever Ready House Dewhurst Street Ray-O-Vac International Corporation Manchest er 8; Westminster House Ever Ready House 97 St Mary Street Coneygree Industrial Estate Cardiff Burntree Carbon-zinc Tipton, Staffs; Ever Ready House Sogea (SAFT) Batteries Ltd Narroways Road Castle Works Bristol 2; Station Road Ever Ready House Hampton Station Approach Middlesex North Coulsdon, Surrey Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, carbon­ Zinc -alkalin e-manganese dioxide, mercury ­ zinc Leclanche, lithium types (lithium-lead zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche bismuthate, lithium-silver chromate)

Hawker Siddeley Electric Export Ltd VARTA Batteries Ltd PO Box 72 VARTA House Compton House Hanger Lane Aldwych Ealing London WC2B 4lH London W5 lEH 232 Small Batteries - Primary Cells also Chloride of Silver Drycell Battery Co Hermitage Street 500-504 North Paca Street Crewkerne Baltimore 21201 Somerset TAI8 8EY Maryland Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ Silver oxide-zinc zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc Duracell International Inc chloride Leclanche, zinc-air Lithium Systems Division 175 Clearbrook Road Elmsford 10523 New York United States Mercury-zinc, silver-zinc, lithium solid electrolyte types ACR Electronics Inc 3901 North 29th Avenue Hollywood 33020 Eagle-Picher Inc Florida 580 Walnut Street Magnesium types, copper types Cincinnati 45202 Ohio also Bright Star Industries Eagle-Picher Electronics Division 600 Getty Avenue PO Box 47 'C' and Porter Street Clifton 07015 Joplin 6480 I New Jersey Missouri Carbon-zinc Leclanche Magnesium perchlorate-manganese dioxide remote or manually activated types, silver­ Burgess Inc zinc, remotely activated silver-zinc, silver sea Freepost 61032 water batteries, copper sea water types, Illinois thermal batteries Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche Hawaiian Pacific Battery Corporation 250 North Clark Avenue Catalyst Research Corporation Pomona 91767 1421 Clark View Road California Baltimore 21209 Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ Maryland zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium Lithium-iodine, silver oxide-zinc. thermal types batteries Honeywell Inc Chloride Inc Power Sources Center 7 Mallard Lane 104 Rock Road North Haven 06473 Horsham 19044 Connecticut Pennsylvania Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide Lithium types Suppliers ofPrimary Batteries 233

McGraw Edison Corporation Yardney Electric Corporation Edison Battery Division 82 Mechanic Street PO Box 28 Pawcatuck 02891 Bloomfield 07003 Connecticut New Jersey Magnesium types, lithium types Zinc-air Mallory Battery Corporation West Germany South Broadway and Sunnyside Lane Tarrytown 10591 Diamon Werke GMBH New York Sellerstrasse 14 Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ 1000 Berlin 65 zinc , carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium also types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc 5000 Koln 50 Ossendorf; SAFT Corporation of America Kohlstrasse 37 50 Rockefeller Plaza Cologne 36 New York 10020 New York Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, carbon­ Duracell Deutschland Technical Division zinc Leclanche, lithium types (lithium-lead D-5020 Frechen bismuthate, lithium-silver chromate) Hermann-Seger-Str 13 Shigoto Industries Inc Mercury-zinc, silver-zinc, lithium solid 350 Fifth Avenue electrolyte types New York 1000 Friemann Wolf Silberkraft Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ Leichtakkumulatoren zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium 41 Duisburg I types, copper types Meidericher Strasse 6-8 Union Carbide Inc Postschliesstfach 100703 270 Park Avenue Silver-zinc and silver chloride-magnesium sea New York 10017 water batteries Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, silver oxide-zinc, VARTA Batterie AG zinc chloride Leclanche Leineufer 51 Postfach 210 540 VARTA Batteries Inc 3000 Hanover 21 85 Executive Boulevard also Cross Westchester Executive Park Postfach 63 Elmsofrd 10523 7090 Ellwargen New York Jagst Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide, mercury­ zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium zinc, carbon-zinc Leclanche, magnesium types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, types, lithium types, silver oxide-zinc, zinc copper types, zinc chloride Leclanche chloride Leclanche, zinc-air 234 Small Batteries - Primary Cells

Zambia

Chloride Zambia POBox 1892 Kitwe Zinc-alkaline-manganese dioxide Index

Abuse testing; batteries 27-28 magnesium-cuprous chloride Carbon-zinc batteries Active batteries 214 abuse testing of 27-28 lithium-sulphur dioxide 152-153 magnesium-silver chloride capacity of 20 lithiurn-thionyl chloride 179-181 213-214 construction of 17-18 lithium-vanadium pentoxide manganese dioxide-magnesium cost of 6-17 152-153 perchlorate 128, 130 current drain o'f 12, 22- 24, 27 Alarm system batteries 4-5,36 mercury-cadmium 5, 71 discharge characteristics of 19, Alkaline manganese batteries mercury-indium-bismuth 5, 71 25-27 camera applications 15-16 mercury-zinc 4-5,9-10,15,62, electrical characteristics of capacity, retention of 42 69-70, 108 22-40 comparison with carbon-zinc 44 , silver-zinc 4, 10, 15, 111-114, general 1- 42 47 116-117;-121, 123, 126 impedance of 22- 24, 27 construction of 43 zinc-air 5, 12, 138 internal resistance of 21 cost of 6-7, 14 Ammonia reserve batteries low temperature performance of discharge characteristics of 43 , construction of 2 15 20 44 ,48,49,52-53 electrical characteristics of 215 operating temperature of 19, 21 electrical characteristics of 42-58 'recovery' of 12 general discussion 1-17,42-58 service capacity of 18- 20 , 28, internal resistance of 47 BEREC 33 ,37 operating temperature of 47 lithium-ferrous sulphide batteries service life of 19, 22- 23 rechargeable types 3,42 185 shelf life of 22-24,27,40 service life of 13,47, 54- 57 lithium-manganese dioxide standard sizes of 27,34-35 service time of 45-46,50-51 batteries 184 storage of 12, 21 shelf life of 57 mercury-zinc batteries 20,82-83 testing of 21, 25 types available 45-46, 50-51 , zinc-air cells 12, 136 types available 22-24,36,39-41 57-58 Buoy batteries 4- 5 voltage characteristics of 18-40 voltage characteristics of 42-58 Button cells Catalyst Research Corporation Applications alkaline-manganese 42 , 57 lithium-carbon fluoride 183 alkaline-manganese 4, 15,44, lithium-carbon fluoride 183 lithium-iodine 183 57,63-67 lithium-iodine 183, 197-201 lithium-lead iodide 183 carbon- zinc 4-5,22-24,33,36, lithium-lead iodide 192-193 lithium-manganese dioxide 183 38-40 lithium-manganese dioxide lithium-thionyl chloride 183 carbon-zinc chloride 4 183-184,186,189 thermally activated reserve high temperature thermally lithium-thionyl chloride 183 203-207 activated reserve 203 lithium-vanadium pentoxide Cell reactions of lithium-carbon fluoride 183-184 149 lithium-iodine battery 197 lithium-copper oxide 190 mercury-zinc 9,59,63-67, lithium-lead iodide battery 193 lithium-iodine 183-184, 197-198 186 lithium-manganese dioxide lithium-lead bismuthate 194-1 95 silver-zinc Ill , 116, 186 battery 185 lithium-lead iodide 183 , 190 zinc-air 12, 136 lithium-sulphur diox ide battery lithium-manganese dioxide 144, 165 183-185,190 lithiurn-thionyl chloride battery lithium-sulphur dioxide 153, Camera batteries 15-16 178 173 Capacity retention of manganese dioxide-magnesium lithium-silver chromate 194 alkaline-manganese batteries 42 perchlorate battery 127 lithium-thionyl chloride 181, manganese dioxide-magnesium primary batteries 3-4 183-184 perchlorate batteries I 29 Charge retention characteristics of lithium-vanadium pentoxide mercury-zinc batteries 9 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries 151-152 silver-zinc batteries 123 163-164 236 Index

manganese dioxide-magnesium lithium-manganese dioxide lithium-thionyl chloride batteries perchlorate batteries 131 batteries 184- 190 177-182 silver-zinc batteries 125 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries lithium-vanadium pentoxide Chloride Automotive alkaline 148,153-154,158,163,174 batteries 144-152 manganese batteries 45- 57 lithium-thionyl chloride batteries manganese dioxide-magnesium Construction of 148,177-182 perchlorate batteries 127-134 alkaline-manganese batteries 43 lithium-vanadium pentoxide mercury-cadmium batteries 71, carbon-zinc batteries 17-18 batteries 148-150 110 carbon-zinc chloride batteries magnesium-organic electrolyte mercury-cadmium-indium 17-18 batteries 133-134 batteries 71, 110 high temperature thermally manganese dioxide-magnesium mercury-zinc batteries 59-110 activated batteries 202 , 205-208, perchlorate batteries 129-133 silver-zinc batteries 111-126 210 mercury-cadmium batteries 71, zinc-air cells 135-143 lithium-lead iodide batteries 190 110 Electrode materials 3-4 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries mercury-zinc batteries 10, 15, Electrolytes 3-4 152-158 62-68,85-95,99-109 Electronic watch batteries 9-10 lithium-thionyl chloride batteries silver-zinc batteries 117-120, Energy Density 177-178 125 alkaline-manganese batteries lithium-vanadium pentoxide zinc-air cells 135, 137-138, 140 1-2,44,186 batteries 148-152 Duracell carbon-zinc batteries 1- 2, 186 manganese dioxide-magnesium alkaline-manganese batteries carbon-zinc chloride batteries perchlorate batteries 127, 130 58,68-70 1-2 mercury-zinc batteries 59-61 lithium-lead iodide batteries high temperature thermally silver-zinc batteries III 190-194 activated reserve batteries 209 zinc-air cells 135-139 lithium-manganese dioxide lithium-copper oxide batteries Cost of batteries 185-190 183,190 alkaline-manganese batteries lithium-solid electrolyte batteries lithium-ferrous sulphide batteries 6-7,14 190-194 185 carbon-zinc batteries 6-7 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries lithium-iodine batteries 1- 2, mercury-zinc batteries 6-7 173-177 198 zinc-air cells 12 silver-zinc batteries 113 lithium-lead iodide batteries Crompton Parkinson 193 alkaline-manganese batteries 57 lithium-manganese dioxide mercury-cadmium batteries Eagle- Picher batteries 185-186 70-71 manganese dioxide-magnesium lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries mercury-indium-bismuth perchlorate batteries 128-130 1-2,10-11,144-145, 152,165, batteries 70-71 thermally activated reserve 173 mercury-zinc batteries 70 batteries 207-211 lithium-thionyl chloride batteries Current drain 3-4,22-24,27 Electrical characteristics of 1-2,144-145,177,182 Cyclic life 3-4 alkaline-manganese batteries lithium-vanadium pentoxide 42-58 batteries 1-2, 144-145, 149 carbon-zinc batteries 22-40 magnesium-cuprous chloride 'Delayed Action' of manganese high temperature thermally batteries 214 dioxide-magnesium perchlorate activated batteries 202-212 magnesium-organic electrolyte batteries 128 lithium-copper oxide batteries batteries 134 Detonator batteries 4- 5 190, 191 magnesium-silver chloride Discharge characteristics of lithium-iodine batteries 196-201 batteries 213 alkaline-manganese batteries lithium-lead bismuthate batteries manganese dioxide-magnesium 43-44,48-49,52-53 194-195 perchlorate batteries 1-2,14, carbon-zinc batteries 19,25-27 lithium-lead iodide batteries 129-131 high temperature thermally 190-194 mercury-cadmium batteries 1- 2 activated batteries 207 lithium-manganese dioxide mercury-indium-bismuth lithium-copper oxide batteries batteries 184-190 batteries 1- 2 190,192 lithium-silver chromate batteries mercury-zinc batteries 1- 2, II, lithium-iodine batteries 197-201 194 59,186 lithium-lead iodide batteries lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries silver-zinc batteries 1- 2, 125, 192-193 152-177 186 Index 237

thermal cells 1- 2 high temperature thermally Lithium-lead iodide batteries 183, zinc-air cells 1-2,135,137 activated batteries 203 190-194 zinc-silver chloride batteries 214 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries cell reactions of 193 Ever Ready (BEREC) carbon-zinc 165-172 construction of 190 batteries 36 silver-zinc batteries 113 discharge characteristics of Internal resistance of 192-193 alkaline-manganese batteries 47 electrical characteristics of Gassing 3-4 carbon-zinc batteries 21 190-194 Gould zinc-air batteries 12, 136 carbon-zinc chloride batteries 21 energy density of 193 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries high temperature performance 175 of 190 Hearing aid batteries mercury-zinc batteries 9 operating temperature of 193 alkaline-manganese 57 storage life of 190- 192 general 9-10 Lithium-manganese dioxide silver-zinc 117 Lamp batteries 4-5,36 batteries 183-188 zinc-air 12 Lead-acid batteries 14-15 cell reactions of 185 High drain batteries, silver Leakage 3-4 comparison with other types oxide-zinc 117-121 Leclanche batteries (carbon-zinc) 185-186 High rate batteries, lithium-sulphur 12,17-42 construction of 185-186 dioxide 165-172 Leclanche batteries (carbon-zinc discharge characteristics of High temperature battery, lithium­ chloride) I 7- 42 187-188 copper oxide 190 Lithium-carbon fluoride batteries electrical characteristics of High temperature performance of 183-184 184-190 lithium-lead iodide batteries 190 Lithium-copper oxide batteries . energy density of 185-186 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries comparison with other types low temperature performance of 163 , 175 190 ,192 184 zinc-air cells 135, 137 discharge characteristics of 190, service life of 186, 188 High temperature thermally 192 storage life of 185 activated reserve batteries electrical characteristics of 190, types available 184-190 construction of 202, 205- 208, 192 venting of 186 2 10 energy density of 183, 190 voltage of 185-186 discharge characteristics of 207 high temperature operation of Lithium-silver chromate batteries electrical characteristics of 190 190-194 202-212 service life of 190 electrical characteristics of 194 energy density of 209 types available 190 types available 194 high voltage types 204 voltage of 190 Lithium-solid electrolyte batteries impedance of 203 Lithium-ferrous sulphide batteries 190-194 lithium based types 210- 212 185 Lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries operating temperature of Lithium-iodine batteries 1-17, 183, 1-17, 144-177 202-204 196-202 advantages of 145-148, 173-174 shock resistance of 202 cell reactions of 197 capacity retention of 163-164 types available 203-212 construction of 196, 199- 200 cell reactions of 144, 165 voltage of 203- 207 designs available 196-201 comparison with other types Honeywell discharge characteristics of 144-145, 158 ammonia reserve battery 215 197-201 construction of 152-158 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries electrical characteristics of cost of 147-148 152-158 196- 201 discharge characteristics of 148, lithium-thionyl chloride batteries energy density of 198 152-154,158-163,174 177-182 operating temperature of 201 discharge rate of 10-11 lithium-vanadium pentoxide pace-maker batteries 196-198 electrical characteristics of batteries 148- 152 shock resistance of 201 152-177 storage life of 198 energy density of 10-11,144-145, Lithium-lead bismuthate batteries 152,165,173 I.E. C. silver-zinc oxide batteries electrical characteristics of high rate types II , 165-172, 123 194-195 175 Impedance of operating temperature of 195 high temperature performance carbon- zinc batteries 22-24, 27 types available 194-195 of 163-175 238 Index

internal resistance of 175 low temperature performance of energy density of 129,130-131 low temperature performance of 146 high temperature operation of 10,146,153-155,163,174-175 non-reserve types 149-151 133 non-reserve types 152-153 reserve types 149-151 high temperature storage of 130 open-circuit voltage of 11 shelf life of 146-147 non-reserve types 128-133 operating temperatures of 11 storage characteristics of 149-150 operating temperature of 129 pressure excursions in 165-172, types available 148-152 reserve type 128 174 voltage of 148-149 self-discharge of 131 reserve types 153-158 Low drain batteries 117 , 121 service time of 129-130 self-discharge rate of 11 Low temperature performance storage life of 127-128,132-137 service life of 176 carbon-zinc batteries 19, 21 types available 128-133 shelf life of 146-147,152-153, carbon-zinc chloride batteries voltage characteristics of 127-134 155,173,176-177 20 Marathon storage life of 11 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries magnesium-organic electrolyte types available 152-177 141,153-155,163,174-175 batteries 133-134 venting of 158 lithium-vanadium pentoxide manganese dioxide-magnesium voltage characteristics of 145-146, batteries 146 perchlorate batteries 130-133 152 mercury-zinc.batteries 63,69 Matsuchita lithium-carbon fluoride voltage delay in 176 zinc-air cells 135, 137 batteries 184 voltage stability of 159, 163 Memory core batteries 4- 5 Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries Mercury-cadmium batteries 1-17, 1-17,144-148,177-182 McGraw Edison zinc-air cells 70-71, 110 active types 179-181 137-144 applications of 71 advantages of 144-148 McMurdo Instruments magnesium­ discharge characteristics of 71, cell reactions of 178 silver chloride batteries 213 110 comparison with other types Magnesium-cuprous chloride low temperature performance of 144-145 batteries 214-215 71 construction of 177-178 Magnesium-organic electrolyte operating characteristics of 71, cost of 147-148 batteries 110 discharge characteristics of 148, discharge characteristics of Mercury-indium-bismuth batteries 177-182 133-134 1-17,70-71 electrical characteristics of electrical characteristics of Mercury-zinc batteries 1-17, 59-70 177-182 133-134 applications of 4-5,9-10,15-16 , energy density of 144-145,177, energy density of 134 62-67,69-70,108 182 suppliers of 134 capacity retention of 9 low temperature performance of Magnesium-silver chloride batteries construction of 59-61 146 213-214 designs available 96-98, 108 passivation in 178-179 Mallory discharge characteristics of reserve types 179-181 alkaline-manganese batteries 47, 62-68,85-95,99-109 shelf life of 146-147,187 63-68 electrical characteristics of types available 177-182 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries 59-110 venting of 177 158-172 high temperature operation of 63 voltage delay in 179-182 mercury-cadmium batteries 71 internal resistance of 9 voltage of 177 silver-zinc batteries 113 low temperature operation of Lithium-vanadium pentoxide Manganese dioxide-magnesium 63,69 batteries 1-17,144-152 perchlorate batteries 1-17, pace-maker batteries 69-70,82, advantages of 145-148 127-133 108 comparison with other types capacity retention of 129 service life of 63-64, 72-78, 144-145 cell reactions of 127 99-107 construction of 148-152 construction of 127,130 storage life of 62-65 cost of 147-148 cost of 128 terminals for 68-69 discharge characteristics of 'delayed action' of 127-128, types available 63-84 148-150 130 venting of 60-61 electrical characteristics of discharge characteristics of voltage characteristics of 59-110 144-152 129-133 Mine Safety Appliances high tem­ electrolyte decomposition in 151 electrical characteristics of perature thermally activated energy density of 144-145,149 127-134 reserve batteries 211-212 Index 239

Miniature batteries 9-10 Iithium-thionyl chloride type high temperature thermally Missile batteries 112-113 179-181 activated type 202 lithium-vanadium pentoxide lithium-iodine type 201 type 149-151 lithium-sulphur dioxide type National silver-zinc batteries 123 manganese dioxide-magnesium 146-147,155,173,176-177 Nickel-cadmium batteries, recharge­ perchlorate type 128 lithium-thionyl chloride type able 14-15 thermally activated type 202-211 146-147,182 Non-reserve batteries lithium-vanadium pentoxide lithium-sulphur dioxide type SAFT type 146-147 152-153 lithium-copper oxide batteries Silberkraft lithium-sulphur dioxide lithium-thionyl chloride type 184,190 batteries 172-173 179-182 lithium-lead bismuthate batteries Silver-zinc batteries 1-17, 111-126, lithium-vanadium pentoxide 194-195 172-173 type 149-151 lithium-manganese dioxide capacity retention of 123, 125 manganese dioxide-magnesium batteries 190 comparison with other types perchlorate type 128-133 lithium-silver chromate batteries 111,113 184,194 construction of 123- 126 lithium-thionyl chloride batteries discharge characteristics of 10, Operating temperatures of 182 117-120, 125 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries magnesium-cuprous chloride electrical characteristics of 11 batteries 214-215 111-126 primary batteries 3-4, 8 magnesium-silver chloride energy density of 125 Organic electrolyte batteries batteries 213-214 high drain types 117, 121 lithium type 144-196 zinc-silver chloride batteries 214 impedance of Ill, 123-125 magnesium type 133-135 Sayo lithium-manganese dioxide low drain types 117, 121 batteries 184 remotely activated types Sea-water batteries 123-126 Pace-maker batteries 10,69-70, magnesium-cuprous chloride service time of 113, 115, 122­ 82,108,196-198 type 214-215 123 Passivation in lithium-thionyl magnesium-silver chloride type shelf life of 124, 126 chloride batteries 178-179 213-214 storage life of 113 Portable in use batteries 10-14 zinc-air cells 141,143 Storage life of Pressure excursions in lithium­ zinc-silver type 214- 215 alkaline-manganese batteries 57 sulphur dioxide batteries 165-172, Secondary voltage standards 62 carbon-zinc batteries 12, 21-24, 174 Self-discharge rate II 27,40 Service life of lithium-iodine batteries 198 alkaline-manganese batteries lithium-lead iodide batteries 190, Ray-O-Vac 13,47,54-57 192 lithium-manganese dioxide carbon-zinc batteries 12-13, lithium-manganese dioxide batteries 184 19,22-23 batteries 185 silver- zinc batteries 123 lithium-manganese dioxide lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries Reliability of primary batteries batteries 186, 188 11 3-4 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries lithium-vanadium pentoxide Remotely activated silver-zinc 176 batteries 149-150 batteries 123-126 mercury-zinc batteries 63-64, manganese dioxide-magnesium charge retention of 125 72-78,99-107 perchlorate batteries 127-128, construction of 123-125 silver-zinc batteries 113 , 115, 132-133 discharge characteristics of 125 122-123 mercury-zinc batteries 62-63 electrical characteristics of Service times of silver-zinc batteries 113, 124, 123-126 alkaline-manganese batteries 126 energy density of 125 45-46,50-51 shelf life of 124, 126 carbon-zinc batteries 22-24 Tape recorder batteries 4-5 voltage of 123- 126 manganese dioxide-magnesium Terminals 68-69 Reserve batteries perchlorate batteries 129-130 Testing of ammonia type 215 Shelf life of batteries 2-4, 8, carbon-zinc batteries 21,25 lithium-sulphur dioxide type 146-147,152-153,173-177, carbon-zinc chloride batteries 153-158 182,201-202 21,25 240 Index

Thermal batteries 1-17, 202-213 Voltage characteristics of Water activated batteries Transceiver batteries 4- 5 alkaline-manganese batteries magnesium-cuprous chloride Transportable batteries 14-16 42-58 214 carbon-zinc batteries 18-40 magnesium-silver chloride Ucar silver-zinc batteries 123 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries 213-214 Union Carbide 145-146,152 zinc-silver 214 alkaline-manganese batteries 47 , lithium-thionyl chloride batteries 59-63 177 Yardney silver-zinc batteries 113 carbon-zinc batteries 25- 36 lithium-vanadium pentoxide Yuasa carbon-zinc chloride batteries batteries 148-149 carbon-zinc batteries 41 25-36 magnesium-organic electrolyte silver-zinc batteries 117, 123 silver-zinc batteries 113 batteries 133-134 manganese dioxide-magnesium perchlorate batteries 127-134 Zinc-air cells 1-17,135-143 Varta mercury-zinc batteries 59-110 button cell 12 alkaline-manganese batteries 57 silver-zinc batteries 111-126 construction of 135-139 carbon-zinc batteries 40 zinc-air cells 141- 143 cost of 12 lithium-manganese dioxide 'Voltage delay' in discharge characteristics of 135, batteries 190 lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries 137-138,140 mercury-zinc batteries 70, 109 176 electrical characteristics of silver-zinc batteries 117 Iithium-thionyl chloride batteries 135-143 zinc-air cells 136-137 179, 182 energy density of 135, 137 Venting of Voltage stability of lithium-sulphur high temperature performance lithium-manganese dioxide dioxide batteries 159, 163 of 135, 137 batteries 186 low temperature performance of lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries 135,137 158 sea-water activation 141, 143 lithium-thionyl chloride batteries Watch batteries types available 135-142 177 silver-zinc 116- 117, 121- 122 voltage of 141,143 mercury-zinc batteries 60-61 zinc-air 12 Zinc-silver chloride batteries 214