}[ffi TYPESOF FILMS
Anlone who visiis video storcsknows rhat the srafffile litns under diilerenL hcddir5-. h\. -1a,.n\ |.r:od,-.-:1"r,n u\i,- , 1,,pla,. u,,,rie, ,.1,,r"ign r r.n- ). ln o',lrr ro unJ",.r1ndtr,B htrn-\,. t. \c,,..d d p,",i;inJ,. ."n:. 01some sisnifl.anr wavsaudiences, fitnnakers, a"d litm si,l,ola,ssol rhem
BASIC TYPES
Someof the nost basic ryFS of lilm line up as distinci attematives.We conmonly dGLinslishdocunentary from ficrion"live-action from animation, and "mainstrearn"Iron experimerralor avant gardefitmmahing. yet thesc crtegoriesar€ nor warerLighr;ihey often nix and combine.
I DOCI UL\TARY \ ERSI S FICTIO\ qer,trerre see a filn we nearly atwayshave sone sense $t,erher ir is a oocunentarl'or a piece ol fiction.
Dorumentarr. \,Jo,ume.,tan hlr, pLrpoij.oprF-pnrL,.uJ intbrn ", un ..1",.ttLr. trorld,,.t::JF rhp tllm. For , \ampl".f/hdll a_^-u- o ta(p ,t r- a al.account .tactu of John I(ennedyand Huberr HLrmphreycampaigning ro win rhe 1960 Drcmocraticpresidendat nominatlon (r.ig.:.ry. O_*,**i,., lilms are tlpically contrasredwith ficrionlilms (moreabout thern shorly). \\ haLjustifies our hetiel that a lilrn is a docurneniary?for one thins, a docurnentarytrpicatl,l rrmes to us labeledas such.This in turn leadsrts rrr assumerhat tLe pcrsons.places. and evcntsexist and thar the inlonnaiidl presertcdal)oul Lhcnris trushrothy. jnfontali('r. tn carning oul its prrpose rf prescntirg factual a dodr- mentan rnar ulilizc manl devices-Lhe lilmmaker rrlal recorderents as rhev actlallr occrrr,.ts the .a remnrendnl in lilming dte Dcmocrati{campaisns in Pr;nd,l. lhl a documentanmal ionle) inlirrmaLiorft other wavs as irell. Thc lilmmakcr nrighLsupplv <:harLs,maps, or otler lisnal aids. In ndditic,n.the docunrentar!lilmrnaLer mdy slage (rertain cvents lof the .anera
It is $r)rth pausingon rhis lasLpoint. Someliclvers tend lo snspe(1thrl a rlocumcntrn is unreliableif it nanip larcsthe elents that nfe lilnred. Ltis t.Lrethat. very oflcn" t|e docunent r filmnaker recordsan e'ent rvithout s.iptinlior itagirg ii. Ior eranrple,in inten'ie$irg an erc$itness'thc do .unieltadst trpicdl) conholswhere the camcrais pl&ed. rvhatis in focus. and so or; the lilmn,akerlikcwise tutLrols the final editing o{ thc images. Llut thc lilnnn er doesr!)t tL'I1ihe witress $'hatto sr] .,r horvlo dcl The lilurnker n,ar alsc,hale no chojceaboxt serringor ligltting SLiU.both liewcrs an(l lltlnmakers , egardsome staging a-' lcgitilute in a documentarlif the stagirg scn'eslhe larger purposeof presenlirtgi rrr- nratnr. Supposelou arefiliriilg a lanner'sdtily routires \ou migltt ask him or l,er ro \,alk k^!rd a fiell nr orderto lrarnea shotshownrg thc riliole {arrn. Snrritarh,the carncramansho is lhe {!'ntral ligure nr Dziga\rcrtov's docrr ne a4 llan. uilh a Marie Carrrero ir rlea|ly pcrlblrling for Vertot's .anrera rlis.2.2r seedso pp. 41u20). In somecases, slaging may intensifl the documentanralue oI the lLlrn Hurnphrci Jeunnrgsmade lir:s fl/ereStartctl during the OerrnanLombard- meDtof Londox during S orlil \lar II. Uual,le Lofilm during Llteair rank, JennirgslbLrnd ) groupofbombcd out l,uildnrgsand set tlternalire He then lllned fie ire patfol battl;ng the blaze (fig. 2.3) Althoughthc erenLwas :tdged,the a.tu. iirc lighteN lfho took part jrdged it an authcnricdepicti.'n ofrhe chdlcrges ther lar:edmder ieal l,on$ing Similarlr. aficrAllied troops liberired the .\usch$'itz(r'tceutrnl;on (,amf ucar the end of \ c'dd War lI, a neivsreelcameraman assemlcd a group rf children and had rherr roll up iheir sleer,esn, displav the prisonernuml,ers tattooed on thcir .rrns lltis :tdsins of an acti.,narsuablr cnhancedtlte liln's ieliability. Stagjngerents lbr tlte tanrern,tlLe!, need not (usign the lilln to lhe reatrnolliction. Regaidlessof ihe detailsof i|S pridu(1ion,fie documenran iLu asks us to assumeth{t il }iresentslfLrsh{orth,-v irformation about its .rrl,ject.Even if the lilmrnakerasks the famer to lait { nomcnt while the ,'ameraopcrator framcs the shot,rhc liln, suggestsrhat the Iomefs momins .isiL to thc lielrl is f.rd of tl,e drI'-q routine,anil iL is this suggestionwhich ii set L,rth as relid,le. As a trpe o{ IiIn, docLrmerLariesprcsent ihemrelves as lactually trust- rorth!. Slill" anr ore documentarvmar not proi,ereliable. Throughout fi]nr i,istor1.nrar,v docuncniaries hare lleen challengedas ina.corate.A re.,ent ,urtror,cr,.yinirihed llichael ]\'loore'sRogcr and rlle. Tl,e lllm presenls"in scqucnces raoging {r,rm thc hcairendiig to tlie alxurl. dre resporrseo1 tl,e pcop I of Flift. l'lichigan. ro a sern:s oI LioIIs {r Cenefal Nok)rs plarts dnfifg l|e 198{is.}'lrrh ol thc Ijlm iho$s iret)t effi)rts (f tiLe1{! rl golennrent io rL'!i!e thc Lo\\'ri! cconom\. Rc,nalil Heagan risiLs. a telerision evargetist holds a mass ra/h. and fic (ir\ ollicials LurL expe,rsire xe$' l,uildins carnpaigns.including Auto\orld. an "indoor theme park' draLis supposed tr)lurc lurrists to Flint. \o one distutci rhat all thcsf €\eilts LrrL ph<:e. lhe controrersv aro;c $.hcr criti.,s r:lain,cd rfar Rogcr aal,llc learls rle audier.e ro Leljeit rhnr the er,frts orcunrd in Lhr order ir rlli(tr tl,e\ d,e shxrn. ltonald Reagan .an,e to l,lirr in 1t80. rhc T\: oaigelisr in lc)82r Arnr$orld opencd in 1985. These ererti could not hnlc beol resporses to the plari .losjngs s|o$.n cafh in ihe tilm bccausc rhc plant llosilss st ted ii, I98aj. tr{oorc hliilie,l rhe errrral chiorolopl. oidrs charged. irL order to nalic the cjrl s1,\ern,nuLrtook lbotish. N'loores delerse is discusscd in NoLesanrl Qrreries nr the end ol thi: c|rpier. 1l,e rojft 1or orr pu4rolci is thnr hi. <:riLi<,sarrrrsetl his lilm o1 rtre.efting rnrelial,le inlomriiion. Eren if L|is rtrargeNere tnre, howL\cf, Ras., at l lle rurlrl not thcrdirrc rurtr irro r 1i(1ion hlm. An rnrc i:rble dorrunertrn i. still r do.nnrertar]. JusL:ts there e nh(rflute and nlis lerdilg r.r$s stories. there are inaccurrrLcrud misleadurg dorrrrnentarier. r\ n.rcrurentarr rnrv lake a stand. st{te a! o})!riol- arlvor:atea solution to r l)robldr. As $,esha I scc ill Chapter 5, rhun,elta es oiien nle rhckfnidl 1(x1!n) p.rrsrn(lean audiencc.But, ag.rnr,sinrpll tlking a sian.redoc-r nol tu! thc rlo.nDreninr! irto liction. ln order n, tersnd(le Lrs"rhc filnnaker nurslu s e\.i(ler.re.ard this s,idcncc is lrt f(rlli as Fing iacnral and rcli.r|le. A dor:unrentan rnal he strurgl"- pxrtisu. but as a docrmentan iL rui|,.-- ir--er,t-,t- lt r- p,^ ,r'. l': . ,t,. r ,,tr,.. . h. I r- !\l)Je Trg,s of cloc[ncrrtary. \ijcwcs feadil\ re(]ognizet1'pcs ol {locuncnrar\. { (nnron r\})e is tlre .,n4i.lorion iltv yoL]rr:eLll,r assenrhlingnnagcs lionr arcl nl ,ii,u(,es. Ilt. Atdni( (:.tc complles lter.reel footag-- nn,] ;u.,.u" tional 6lns Losu.ggest how 19;0s Amcrn ar culrue rer(Je.l to rhe prolilif{- tion o1 rrrclerr seapons (l,ig.2..1).T6( ntun.iotr or't,lkins heads" docu- nxltrN Ic(!)(ls testirnonlabort flcnrs r)f so(irl nr)renrcrrs.rbfl lr Oal .ons;rs argeh of inteniews witt, lcs|iars u(l s!\ nrei discussing Ll,elr 'llrc t!itctr-titann rlrnrnnentan chuk.terirtn.!ll\ rertrrls ar ongonrg evcnt "xs lt happers, with n,inin,a intr:ii:reirre l^ tl,e il,nnra(er. Dlrdrr cincma enl:rged lirllr';n the 1950! alld 196(ls.irl,en portablecanrcfa and sound e(ruiltrlert hecarre arailah e and allore tilrns are tjed to.tctualit! if anolherwar': Thq oltcl courrent tiahle li( tidu1 on tl,e real workl. Dare, rbrut ar irnagina4 U.S. presidclt and hi-. rurupL l1drnjnistrxtion,citicizes rrrrtenporar polirical conrlufl. In 19:l:l -\!ne !ie\!- cls trrk Car'l Drclcir /lar .y' ll/drt, .r iilm about $ii.ih hultts nnd prejudn,e in ser,enteerlh ccniurv l)ermrarh, as r covctt protest against the Nuis { ur- rentll ot:cuPying lhe rrru!tr). lhough lhcrne, slr|je.t. chirictcrizdlion. dild orher rneans.a lictiorrd lilnl.tur dircctl] or obliq,reh presenl idcas:bout thc ror|l out:idc the tiltr. SorreLimcsour resporse Loa lictirrral filrr is shal,erl by our assurnptic,ns ahour Loii it ras rnade. tLe lypnral lictional film sarger its eventsr Lher are dcsigned, planlcd. rehearsed.frlned, aud reliln,erl. lhe stutlio mode oI pro- ducion is uell srLjtcdto .reatirg li(1ion liinrs, snn,e it allo{s sLofies ro l)e s.rrji,ted dnd action to l)e stqed rmtil Nhat is calriurerl on filn sntislics drr: dccision uralers. Similarlv. il a lictional iln, the qents arc porrfa\crl or (lirelLlr (as Gom depirredbr an nrtcmerlir!. not pho!)graphed ir a documcnrarv). Thc carneia lilns rot Yito Corleone Lur NTaion llranrk, portaring thc Don tera (Fis.2.5). This assun4tirrn aborrt how the {ilr rvas n,arle t1},i(all! comcs inro play rihcr we comnlcr histori<:allilns or Liographies. lpolb l)) ard Sr:lrrlli'r 1 on r, tud e!enrs. r'hile \. Heort I i.ltea llheel., /isr l,ase thern:c1r,es 'ltdkttn anrl other "biopics" tra.e the careers o{ people rho realh existed. Aic these documentmies or lictional GLm'i In practi.e r!)st -"Lt:h fi]n,s add prrell rnake'l,eliere characte,s, speechcs.or actions. LluLe\e! if the lilms did not tamper Nith Lhi:rccorr! in this ral. thc! woul(l remdr n.tiofnl according to orr assunrpti(,nsabort hn Lher wcre piorlu<:ed. lheir elents aie wholh stagcd ar.l the hisiori(al agerLs rue ponralerl tlLrough airors performanrts. Likc plays or nc,vcLsbased on real lile e!e,,ts, lisL.,fical and Liopaphn,al rnor,iesronrer idcas airout lisLr,\ bv nreansoI lictional 1xnrayal. SonreLi,rlcs,ho$ever. the tars in whi<:lt thc nnages and sourrls sere producerl iiill noL distinguislL.harpll betneen a licLion liln anrl a do I INIIIATED FIL]II l'lost fictbn antt documcnra4lilms phc,tographpcoplc and objectsin fti1- sized, tlrreerhrensional spaccs.As we huc sccn. thc starda,d shooting slreedlbr such 1n,cacitur lilmmakingis t\tnrally 24 hamesper second. Innnatal lllrls ue diitingL,i.hedIrun lilc-arrion oncs l).! rhe unusual kinds ol $ork that tuc donc at thr prcductio! stagc.Trstcaf of (ontinuous1 illming an ongonrg.rctionin real time, lnimrtors crcate a seriesol inrages l,y sl,ootnrgole liaut ar a tirnc. Ber$ee,rthc cxpoiurc o{ eachiian,e, ihe Bnslc'rt?Es /r ? :lninurorrhdngcs the subjcctbeins phoLogfaphed.Daf{1 Duck doesnot cxisL lo be filrned,but a carelullyplarned and e:tecutedseries o{ slightlv dillcrent irar.ingsofDally r:ar lr lilnredas sirt$e names.when projccted,the images L'reateillusory motionilmparable to Lhatc,flir,e acln', il,nnEkilrs. Anythnlg :n the world or n,deerl rhc unirerse that the filnnaler can manipulaLe .:an be annnatedbv meansol tworlnnensionalrlra{ gs, LhreednnensiomLl objects,or elecironicntlofmation sk,rcd in a complrrer. 'Ihereare several distincttyfes otanilnatjon The mostlalniliaris drd&n rniniation.From almrst the startofcincma, animators drtrv ard photogaphed .nns series01 cartoon images. Ar li$r rhe,!dres'or papcr, but (!p,-!jng c intire imagc,incllnlnrg the setti4. overand oi'ert,rc!ed too tinre{tnsumiltg. Duing Lhe19J0s, srudio animrrorsintroduced rteu rectangularsheets ,l1 rellulonl, licknarred "cels." Chakcren d obierts could bc drawnon dif ierentets (Fig.2.?), rurdthese rrul Lhenbe la,-veredlile a sardwichon top be photo- ',f ar opique panrtedscting. The wholesta.k ,rf cels would then rraphed. Ner'-cels sho$'iIrgthe charactemand oliecrs in slightll diflerent positiorscoulcl thel be placerlover rhc samebart 'l'his system,uiLh a len addidonallabor-sarilg techniques,is still in uset fruxnrs Iealulc length pLrl4retlilm of : - iretrjfen e-\Dos(res.The most i\igl narc b{orc Chtisttnos - - .rf.is liniflurt.isThe appliedro framejrrilamc morcmert of pr:opleand - , illrri.,' i! a tenn - 1r,a ol)iecr-..hi,rexarnlle' in l908 Ar$urlllelboufne-(i!)l)eranirnaLed of nnlemenr itt Dreujn\ oJ - a trrjnili re set n) c;erte derLselarcrs :.1:!. \lrhnul' ,. rnr- I' rro'' l-" t rrrl lilr''' I I rl i-. "'drr','r -l -rr . n,' ir' a - rl r lr I i- h- ,. ',.-,-i ' 'i "- -n "'nl ',-. -,-,1 ol one image' thetr movesslighlll md -- - in :r nosefb, $e e\posurc is a jerkr' unnatural - : . aeain1i)r anothcr fn.", *a * The fesulr '' innovati{eanimrtor \ornt'in ' , ,, ,:r,,'rc,lltfe,."r tr,trrlorditur-1 afrins fhe and to . r.";', *." this {prroich to tell thc ston of d leud lr:/ghlors' piecc of fumiLureln I Clnnv - .. a rran sLrLqglingro tame a rel)ellious a trnl' - .. Daie BolLhir:icks TIL.Setret A&,.r|.nuts rI Tom ?[rm' adnutes real xctoti (lhe :-ri,ire {icureoJ'lixn as rvell as eeic gi ts pla}ed bv --,'. o- pi'illot.,l in scenesrdthout Torrr'l ""en 7ol--,i.l.o,t'* t ." t egun I revolutionir lnirnaiion On .t nnrndane nrxnv l. the comtrrter ri" pc#i"'n lhe relelilile task of mrking ihe of m)lcnrent Un a creatrve - :rth alLcrednnager nectled ro givc a -qense ot J..ofL'.o* 1,, dei'iserlrltat enableslilnmakers k) crerre inrases "r" ::,e. that coull noLbe lillned irl lhe real Nor!{i ''ft," .J;.", onimariorrrLcpended on inLensirehand laMr and ",,.pu*' (lmposiLion's Sihitrte'! :'l,l co.'iici,'g three-dinensioiul Jules 'Lot,,rcar. elaboraleand abshct -al ar a]laloeuc(!'nputcr k) gcneralelle Precise he still had to hard-prick ro ,.,t"Lrs t,r tl" f,ap;sllOO:r rOOOl.t'ut 'ards :i) :.uLetl,e mlriatl ilots of light 1oreach fratne (Color Plate far enough It Nasn;L Lultilthe 1980stbat omfrrterted rologtadranced o{ lr:tffe- ::,beuse '1he€rpcrirne r fil makerrnay tell no story.crerting poeticrele cs like \\,illard l\Taas'sGeosiq,i.l oJ rhe Bub Tis.2.16) or pulsatingrisLtal collagestiLe Baller ,'Lanigrre, $hich rle ililt exanrinelaLer (pp. ldtS-151 and 373-376). Aherrativclr, the frlnlnaler nu! createa lctional sn)r], bur ir rvill usualtr challenge rc vieler' Yvofne Raincr's , iLulabout a lVotnan lllro presenLsits storl patl! througha seriesofslides wLich a Surp o1mcrt and wmen are Nat(l ng At lhe slnre time, on the sound tracl(. \!e hcar alorvmoLrsr,oices calrl'on a dialr,guc,LLrt we cannot(uJidcntlv as-qig!aDr voiceto a particularitr,uacter. llairer thus i)rces us to $eigh ereryrhins{e see d hear or its o\!n tc ns. oulsidc anr ilLvoh'enrert$ith charailers' ThanksLo Ranrcr's (listnrciiedingi or Uxnefinentalistshave also used stagingto erpress oIlersstati( piciuresof adulrsrla!'ing -,-||. il;;sh,,,'r s,uotlor:J 'J"".".Jj;" n'-rrl"i'r't"'r'-'lirter-r't"'rri'"'-nl-lit'h'n'o) f'."' - *""', - Lf'':.Z.lo tr' l olin^'n t'LP\t"tt - er.i'r' ;ll,ri""li',n l'"nLal i,-1. r,^F h,r,rum..lh-' i- at rnterrde'rri'r:'I' -frii'i"" I ",r'ir,inr \ln lr'f Lr" r" r'P lr;r;'a ,- ' Bt"a' tLu; nrr' -rrn ' - ""i,, -; ' Fig.2.20). ' displav in " ir,"..i-*r"- to erreimelial Iilnr is ou ltamborant ""UA)le tle nrotorc\cie ,ir-"''".S-n;o Rhi?'s Anger hkes is his subiecr biLcrs $orkins on rhcir li.!.2.18 "-""iL.;r';;;,,fil" re60s. anrl he inituibs scencsor ',i;;'.'*, r\lorgside fooiqe of.bikers ;""1,rI..:. rereli'g' rud racing n'rnl stagedircide'nG- .ti;;,i'"; ,l* i'r purrl""' th"e are '"1.i' "i*"".' r ir trr ir tr l otn" liquF \ rr J '- ' ' ' - lJ ",1 t.t,,,-. '."Jam"-lr",n ' i' ',, ^.".1.,"..-."", l'r' t -tc,- lr"d'rilr^n. '1'r' '"rr'"rrr "1,' ru ironjc or otrinousioile io ,"c,"'p,"i'".i r,t . sougtlut rrlls "td-roll ri" rl' u uJ hr' Iil'F' '1- irn,g"-.f r ' .r-,,1 nl'l. r- nrh -r'i "- tA.'t rfr ard"n h' i"."t rr," r,*',- lo"'rinr "'"r rr'n ':2211 -""- comingalier " .."?,,i i.""t t'.Ji "mr boviriend'sback " and he's 1ou '* fctuns in oartoons rhi. J;"nc" links blking to a deathl'isl' an idea that creatcseluri'e but ul ..,i"ii'J. r-.*"". r" *t:]i*als, 'Scorp;o/?;sing l)orvc o1bike culture' rmpar- :..,,"i"t;",r., .;1,tg"*"'s thc iromoeroticdimersions thc possibilitl that IiE.:.1!) i.'ti-"i" ,i'l'*;*r and Chrisrjanitr,and eloking '," ilr::'- rr1'pli-'lL" rna*n"lt t' -^',i.,',,,' l'irr'rh^i"r"r ' ""f"f rulr' I r' ru' i' rft ' r.,".."iii" ro J ' rrr'rrlr ron "\J ' 'm? 'r"ri'.,- ."'. ,. r ,,rio"ou,'iJ' r,' ,, ;; i"i , , - ,.rr.,,r- "'i,,..-io', "\r'.n, " 'tn- | o'Lre"n lT'hn'q \r rhrr'orrrrlan'in'- 'r-" -."".,"-', ir nrusic ridcos; tl.nrer' ,;;",|'t;h ;. ara'L gardehai'e been deploled eart.rpioncem o1 the i;;"." ;;..4i-;",', ;"d other erperimenralisLs (ontinuarl'!'erc drariing upon the .;;;;;;,.*'" I"ut"."" [o" been -;;; l{stor ol fih' ihc basnrLvpes ="-.,*-a.. f* ;,1*" *A tchniques Oler rhc --e uoss-{errilizedca<:h othcr constmth FILM GENRES ge'rc' A genreis easierto !-llmurakersand licwers.rlso calegorize lilms bl lrr' rhPir':o" ,.',""',' i',',' A.n. tn n"-r'- rl rnu''r' ri'rurF' . r;,; ;"' .. i;. rr r"n'," - '- i'- .'"''' rr'F"'pura' ' ' '.r'. " ' '|r'h' Oennanli'xi I'nona ,,f rou tries rest'"upon genrcfilnrmaking 'ts ''ost .'l'o'"'ir' ll'HirrJi r''mJ'tIr'di 1''l '- t",,,",r,i' -'., '' ir"rr -,t.,r,",,,f-,-'n.nf' ' onrlr li\'- J 'Jinr-rn l r' l "iou- "' - '-,.',F'r i\F'l r'd lir'rar' r'*i' ' \l'\i J'l ,,il- '",t'; 'r' l'ur| 'r-" '"e r\pc'd r'r' "'1, ir rn d i'l rrrprnir-n'r"nrFrinE ,'",'"'r".- '|.'"1'n 'r "t1'|tt't - genrcs (xxne.to ' .ii",," ,rr""t pornlar 6lmnrakirrgis 6crioul' lictional nl rnFrr'r'\ :r- s-ll rr L r- r'" ,,,", a'fJ n"' f 'ro ' ".' "' '' "' "'-- irr"rrtal lrd-e"rrr'' r'"': - ||f' , r lr'' ri ' l rln L't' filnr ,,.r',e"", " ' 'r,-'a' 52/TtcEs o[ !lL t ixlriir*l'lr$:::iii:lil;ilr:*?"'1"'i'r;Hirx: T,'':'t;::;- \'l i:.i;; l;:;ii; :'' ::';''' ;"';:l;;::::l';;11 i:t',1;.,-..if.l,";;::'; ; l,"l;1":'-rFu.,'n'',,,,-:',",':', umln::l;l,l*[*tf:I*{,ffi il$*ilfiiiffi,'*5$*4$rffi't';':,,,ll: it;il:l#t1,*i;i'lii$li"'"""pu''"'''''i".' ' ",r',,,' -l l*r:;:i:l[l,i;*;*i t,:rjilfl;,1 "::llrt :rt,:,:':;;;:';,1 .':,:ri::l:r,i,,:r j.rr-::;lJ:;,:;ii I,l;' ll i::'q;l*[riiffii*,ffil'*f .,t*l*I,n, #r***+**i*$tpg;'''1, ilfr,i:ffi ,*ili'J'.',l.$ iirilri*Jil:li{l I"Jlirryql**1#ri#1'1;;:':.*niilJr*;i;f i;x,:l:;:ji"";i,,;i,li';l,i&ll'1":::t*::t*#i,;jl; ;,::,:;;#::;i,l.:jiili,ilii"i#,,'*.,, gcnres Lhaiseem pre'l' ;;f+ltfi'l'*m:*m$**::*l-; Lhe"Ic,urd-Ioorage" 6ln is acornuuione Arrl irr rlranycases genr.r categories cul acmsslhe basicrlpes. The nnnnatedfilm /Jcar'11'dndtrc Bed'stis dso a nLLsical,and thc Japanesccarroor llira ir a scienccfiftior lilnt. Defrrri4g r gerre, ,\udicncesklo$' the genresof their cLrlturelerv sell, and so do fiLnmakers.'llLe intriguingproblem runes in deliningiust iliLrt a geue is. \\ har makesa groupof lilns a gcnre? Most s<:holarsnow agrecihat no genrccan l,e dclined n a singlehud and lasr wa1.Somc genres stand ouL l,y thcir srtllects or thentcs.A sansster iln centerson large-slale urbal,rirne. A scielce tiction liln ieaturesa teclnologl berond rhe re{ch of (onlempofarysciencc. A S esrernis usudh al)otrllile or solnelrontier (not nece-.sa-ril,vthe \\iesl, as Norll lo 4/iald and Dru l,Iulg the X'loluuk r]:.lgesr). ^Yet suhjecrrnatier or rherneis noLso central Lodefinnrg other genres. Slusicalsare rccognizal,lechielh ltv Lheirmanner of presert.rrion:sinsing' dancing,or l,o$. The (lerectivefilm is panll delired bI the plor patiern 01 an inrcsiigrlion ihat sohes a nrrsle$. Ard lome g.enrcsare defincdbl iire distincli!e enotional elfecLthev ah for: arrusementin comed),tcfsion in thc ihriller. r\pparentlvIlo siridly logicaldistinolidrs can .aplurc the varet) of factorsilhich crerie thc genres$e havc Wirhnran,r one genre, things are alsol.:irh Lnsc A genreis besll honsltt o1|ls a louslr (alegol\ illruitireh shxed bl audienccand frlnm*er. 'lhrt cLrLegor)rontains lnth undcniablenrshnccs and i'Lzl.icrexaqrles as $ell Singin'trL lhe Rain is r tirimeerample oI a Irusi<:ll.but Davnl Brrnc's Trze Srric.r, wiLLirs ironir plescntati.noI musicalnuull'crs. is morec,I a border- lnre casc..\ud ar aurlienccs senseoI rhc core<:ases can r:hangeovcr historv For roda.''sardienres. a goil ftln likc The Silcnt:eol rhe lanbs probalnl cxemplifies$e thriller. trheieasfor audiencesof Lhc1950s a primc example an urbanc Hitrtrtk cxcrciselike ll .\iortlr.uest. would havebcen '\brti Despik rhe ileil,iliLy ol geme caLcgories,r'e usuallv have no rouble idcntiliins coherentsnrups offilnN *ithin a gente what are usuall,rcalled srr6genres.There is, {or eran,ple,the 'bachtage" musical"vhich ccnterson prolessionalspurtirB on entertai,)rncnt(as ni fa're or 42nd St/eet). lhis rrrhgerrecar be disLinguishedlrom tle "folk" musical.in which ordinarr pcople sirrgor dance $cir wal tltlough the stuN lMect Me h Sr' lorr or llair). Subgenresofrumedv inclu Genrcnilng is rommonrhroughout popular lilmmaking Ne car hale musical Wcsterns(Lhe Ror Rogerssinging-(^!boi rnovjesl,musical melo- dramas(l'enl and.4 Srar 1, aorl), and a music.rlhorror nor'ic (Zhe /larn;r Honor Pi.cnre Shou'). nerges rhc horrorlilm, srienr:eliction, and tlte 'llien thriller: Aliensrrnl,ines Iomr and scicnce1i(,rion rdth the irru molie. /Jlralc Ruarer mircr s<,ie[:efidio. md tLc dctectile stc,rr'.I'hile Billl the ( rs. ilrorzlo links the \\icsrernanrl Lhehorror filrn. tivo Senresrhrr seenrPrett! in.ompatible.Qnedr, it reems.can conrbine $ith an1rhins. 'Ihe 1a.t llLrt gcnfescrn intenningledoes nol, ho$'e!er,nrean thal lherc dre no distinrliolrsarnong thern. Instead of abstractdelilition. the best$a) (lifierclr ti, nlentif a seue i! to recognizehon ardient,esand filulakcrs. at Frltl ollNRrls /53 ha|e inluirn'elt distnrguishedorc sortofnLovie :::tori,ial l,erioclsan(l places' i: :i;:::i l": f;:;i;;'1, lil' :.i: Itli;";l* :i:il:;:i:;.',i1rj; : "l, ;: ru:;::lii:r,;l,r: rr'ni r ll l":'"''-' "i-i r,rl 'i:i'",1illllllll',-." -'",," "'";;rt,il:'ill"r ' "- -"nb-Fj' ;1,r"-;..,;,,;"'--,.,' -,p: ::r"r "'. ".", )i, ;';;1; r:'.ili'ili*:l::':.'ji;:iil'il1'ii";il'liii;;-.,,,," ".n''""i,r.'r'i"r', clespairsof getLi4the squaddetfdn'cs n' lbll(^! ,i"''-""it""i".0.* "rlo t'""',liili; ffe morethenraric' irn'orvins generil nrerniriss *""." ",,"".'rtiix*q,agai, anr,"i.'i ,,*,"." ",i,'"".-a ']:,l"in,ii::,,il:i'i]i:j:ili sLrcc,'ss,wi,h,,Le '::il::11J.:L:":'i";Hl'i';""ii":T':ll;',,",,,"rirni'- ;li:,1:*ff::lll;l.x'liilli;'"1';::,l'lJllil:;'ili"""?.;li'xli':il:lll:1ortce(lom and r ro(ient .tir. *ctl ,rrilicuan(l chamr.lcrs' urgcs """t"],r'"* .,,lil;,lr':::"ti;"illi' j;-;.l:;l;; j;;;l:i,.',-,' "Il''z': ;'l l:l':l ": Jll:;,i :l:''; :i' l: ;l l,lt"li lf;li',"'l;';':t::l Fie.2.12 '' "li:]:'Lll,n:flIi :ii'.*:r!iii):tii:.j,,,:"1ilH;.11;:;"r:[:] .er',ocrnt,ht A gPrrf" i'1n"Arafh\ "'rr'r ihrt rn) nrPrninP,Ir"rnlilm to tdnr' ' . r' l"r 1 iFr'r' \ lor n _' lri'rc' ullFn ' "n;'rr nrror'rn"' ' "n -.l- rr,,l : ;::'it;lr":ii:ll-:l;,:,:::;lil "'i:ll.i :Tlli :"":l;':1": I,l;iu: .l;:,lr il:'l. l,l; ;';::'lr,'il:: I i til'::;, .u,,i:;. , :i"i_ l,,ii"; r,-ii t: ' T,,l'i-lll;i,1,.li'-,;;].l,ll'"i. il:,:,iT;f ,i;:::l:iillifll'{1,i,,-jil:-,i; i",:ir," "lii"" i,,"i*.. s'u '''';l i: ::,.'r1.",,,o,,.. ,. \, \' ;;l .'l;l .',1'*'i' ,rl tlrcs'n'c L"'''nr :;;.:;:'I,l ;j:l ,-xuilftlH*i*;:t'' 'no'i.r:::1"*;t,il"li';'ili::',1i:'.1,"."''l:li .;;i'ti" !il: j;;fi;;';;1;;i[] :i:l::,lit:l:ff:ffi j;:'j'.lI',|JJH, 'JJtJl;l*:l1i,lil''gil:";l:l::l,rl ;il:il'l:liT:l::l::'11'l; ,iffi rdrh I le seqrLi\r'reso u rre- if,".1,1"",,e-r.,." genre:lieginrring sihl ', historictimes" sruclrroliznB classicalnNsic to ontef-rpacer(iti'rn arrdend ing l.ith an eni.ctrrrticallrsunIrlir,lcnrs rlrilting lirn)ughsprcc' Filmor'tkcrs mal reek to su4rriseor sho,:Lvieircr: 6r lrreakingllcir erlrertntionstlul a ccrtin conr,enLiinr"ill lt 1l,loired. {rrjierce. crpect thc genrelilm i(, oficr somethinglimiliar' but thcl also rlernanri[e!h lafidtions or ir. T]re lilmnrakermar delilc somethins mi rllr or radn,ah rlilTetnt, lnr lt will still be l,ased on tmditiotr The irti'nlal ol crDcntjdr rclinrovation,laniiliaritr aocl noleltr, is rerrLraito GcIrc hisrorl. and social {UDction. Xtosliilm gcnresoriginate b\ Lof jn rornrg hrn orhcrnedia. The nielodrarnaltas clear antccederts stryePla!s lilc tn,la Ton s Cul,itt Trpes o1r:rxredr can bc ha'ed l'jrck to ";'dr stage-'d larces or cornicuor,cls. Once a gcnreis laurrched,thcre seem-*to be no fired pattcrnot dei'cl- ' opmerL.\\e rright erpecLthat tLe cLlrljestlilms in e gcnrede rhe 't)ufesl. ividr geue uriring rurring nt a lale stage But gerre nriring can take pllcc rerv soor. ltfmopeel(1930). a mLsicalliom thc lrginning of Lalkirgpn:turcs. is .rlsoa \lesiern. ./rerr/iDagn,e (19;10). onf of tLe lirsr :ound science-licLion Iilns, conrainsa ttmic srrLg.Sorne listo ans ha|c also spcculatedLhat a gelrc inNiLablr pa,.scsfron a phaseot nraturir\ ro one oI parodr' $hcn it l,egils rc'mock iis onn conieutions.Yer an enrlt Ncstern. I"he(jrai '1i& l 'liiLn RoLLen(1926) is an all out pat d clcle is r batrtr of gcnre filns $at err.jotsinter$ popxlarirr an'l irfluence orer r distir.r pcriod Crclcs car oircurwher a srrt.esslul fi n pnlures a hust of i,nirxri rs. 'llu: GodJottu rissere(l a briel -'patc o1 gangstermolies. Drnnrg thc l9i0s t|crc r{a-.a cl.le ol "disastermovier ihahqutu:.'1i7n Pce ol 4d*rrrarc) Nroe rerccrtI rherehale Leencrcle' ol.olne,lies ( errc ng or spacedlut tfcnasers(floyte's frrtrH n T|e lact Lhatevcrr genrehas {luctuaredin popularitr remindsus ihrt genfcsare tisLtlv l,ouf(l ic,unLuial Iactois Whr do audicncesenjor seeiug ii. *"* *.r"rrl*" ,'er ard oveil \{anr'1ihn srholarsbclievc thar genres ahntr ,'" ;1,*U-f dranas rescmirlirrgLolidal cclelrrariors-ceremonic-' arc satisfiins bdrausctLey reaf{irmcLrltural \'alues uitlL litlle |ariatior' '\nd In'r' rh--. r"rn.nF- r- l'-rl | '"n I itJ' l';fc'' 'h' " ",i.|| --" ' ;;i'-...- ;ur r- r,. \'.rlJ. rl," ,,ir',r ' l, rrr' "ri.'"ri"n' ard rl"r' 'r"a '-p., "r "' ;r.is" disrracthe audienccfr.rn guunre *riaLproblens ""."",,, "J;'""' S-n. *t'ol-" turld argucthat genresgo further and lctrlallv erpl()it nares rmbilrLlcrt socjalvalues and aLritules The gangsLcrfiLnlbr instance wltile if,-""ilr. r.. au(licntesto relisL rhc mLrterr-qs*aggcring lrcedon stnnd sti]l Fcling saiislicdNhcn he receivcshi-'puriJrmenL Seer lrornthis un uoint. c.n." conrertiors arouseelnotio! by n'uching Lrpondccp social retainiies Lul rlr,n cltannelthose cmotiolli inlo alproled rttitudes' Llecauseof thc .l)ntrari betrecn lllnmrakerand audiencc'lhe l)r('mise reslo'lcl o1 somt'rhinsnel based on sornethirgIamitiar, gerLrcsm{r also l 9:i0s quj cklr ro bioarlsoci al Lrcnds.Du iug the econonicdeprcssion of rhe ' fo. i,'"iar,., tr," \liainer Brcs. msical llltrs intro TIIE V FJSTERN The \\esrern enr:rge(learll ir the hlrtorr ol .incnra bcctnirg iir:l1estab .. l.l'-1,,'rlc.. l, olr'. l,i-pr'll'Ir--,,,n'ir^ ''l r-'l t t' \'ti' r \" . -r rrl-' ul \u. ru !\e-. '.r "' "' " ""- -'" " Americaus.Filrrrs also based Lheir porrraral of rlc trortio or songs'poprrlrr ficti.,n.and \\ild Ue-.t" sho$s.l-;rh actorsirtrnctirnclnitrorerl thi! l)lerd rf rerisr anl tllth: t|'Jnatj' lnlere.lin:tlt. thc tlpi( al X esternhero -'tanrls bclrcen thc t$l) p,nc". Ar ho." i', Lheiiiltlcmess Lu1naturullv inclif'd n)$ar'l jrrsticf anrl ( Li'rclncss,d,e iu'bor is olier lxrised lreLrcen safnger :tni i!iliTnti(nr' orc of ilte mosr eutv \\reitcnr str-c, t[e \,LilliamS. Hart. lx4llar 'rasLalizccl r'haract,:rol the "good brd rnan".rs the rrx)slc(nuton proldgonist ln Hcll:' Hnigo (1916)a nnnister'ssistcr tries to refo n hinr: o|c slrrt rcpresenrsrhe readsLhc llilrlc. a l)ortl'roi $hiikl lnlit'cr"eu tw, sa's of lilc as llarr 'r Li. elbos([is.2.23). Thc ir het\ccf positionof Lltr hcio aflccts Htutol,y. l,ikc lhe $icster!, rhe horror fln cnrelgedin Lltucra 01 silcnt ('enun no|ienraking.Sonre oI Lhcmr)st ilnporlr]rl \orks in the gcnrercrc rctablt TheCabinet oJ Dr' Oligari (192u)arrl l\bi&ft'! ( l922l dre eulicit (lisrofre(l aclaptatioro{ rhc *,"e1 D"","la l'he ,rngrrlrrper'fomunr:es ard jcttjfgscharrctcristic ol GernanE\l)re.sionijt cinenrrconve\ed nn ouuous' supernatLnalarmosphcrc. Lir lbslirara, \Iar Schre|L'snrale up dnd actin: rrade his (inLut O,loi,[ ceiih tike a rat or lrtt (Fig 2 2U]. jxrpacl ller.lrse :r horrurlilnr can crerteiLs ern(nional {ith nr' (e-rp and oiher 1o$-te(tlrol,,g]spccid cllects.thc horrorgoue har lurg heor larotn br' lorl,urlga lilmirukcrs Duringthe 1930s'a serrnlarr l|rllltrxl sLLLdio, fi"ir..oL. l..n,,h.l a ci:cle ot horror ji rns Lu uLu (19tll). Fnntunsrein ll931l, and Tlre,llarnmr i1932: lig. 2 29) prr:rverlmorn(ntqlj Ut1)ul'unl(l drnparl .\ de(xdc later'RT(O's LJ pichrfe hel1rd the -.Ludioluon,e r major FII,NI GtrNRI,5/;4 lt!.2.29 l ilrr' r ritrtt'' .r :r I,1, \,l |-."nI'd ''d 'rrl' -^'rhcr "n "l' "'cr-ul k''r g rl'- r''" .'f"- f" - lh n'nl- "| 'lrr.'ur'pr'""'' l b'1,'n'r' '.r- 'l"Lr"* lrt t lP"pt 'lqr2\' '''r"' -,r."r'r,' arul$'eonh glimpse .",'**"".ir," r';-,ln. rransibrm hersell inLo a |anrltr' ,",n,;,' The liln rchieles irs elfcctstltrough shadows' ,i" ..",i"'"; ".eles ;I-.creer urnrl- and characterrerction (Fig 2 27)' (ifa$'nlo Lhcge!rc' ln iaier dei,ades'othcr lonJrudget 6lrural(ers iiere l *irr' r'-n\ H ,.,,,, I rr ,,,r-ut lir'n- I .'. i,,,r.nF,,J.nrn ' 'ri"n ':.,;", r". r'rr r,' 1,,.tJ:.r.d.IlL ' -"""' {l l ";""'"'n'rrFr"'\rshr"///r'r'n0r) lr'l |'_'r" ilr''il FcP i ;.r,.j D-,JLl',o.iJ $i- lrr'r:, I r','rr'. ."'" h.:r'rr' l"l \' h'r"n tilr'r - I h' no'l ,-"; - - " '"1 "' 1," In krn"' n,rul. I r\r' - ',1 p.-r'i;lr-"'il'ufilr a Irer respcctal)ilitr' '"''"ii,,.i']- tr'" ro:i.' th'ig-'" a NotEs r\l) QLr'lHltjs BASTCTIPES O}'TIT,I}' Iir hisLi,riesof do I ON ROGDRNND IfE 1lT :jT' i ll:l r;-l,;:'l:. -,i"::i::,1.'11 l'.l-;i'i;1,'-;;, -"J rir,::ll;, l' :i;:' l:;l'tt*:1;;t,t:r' I'iiti"il:!,.il;: ::.;;;.-ri-,."u"',i'|*o'|'uj'iur 'rr.1,.tl::r:::, l,l: ll;,llll;;:.; J; r^ r.'i. ..r'" 'lu'-n"nr " ' -dr'o"'\lrnr'-'rir'""n"unr'lriurr-or "iii.,,,",'",,-','''-::'i:::,,[r.l;:,"i;::"r],1:ljL:';:li l;ii; ;;l"ii:'.i,'"ii'i: l:L i::'"i, ; .:l't; j:t'll lll,:' hi''lo ii:i'iffi::il1::il15i:[';ln'';];.;;.r'ini"g'"r'rto'*d: :; ,,:,tl;"1;.1": ;,;1;11;;;1';lI"; i)",:;:: l' i !:"'''|''. r'; :r';u:il;;,:r; I* lt,*lJ:+,,,1]: t;;";iriii:i,i:;tl r"ni" ::i;-';;;"l: i:;lili'.il."' i"ii-l- ;' r''"'-""".,'r'a t3. 2 i \l,Lrl1'rol l: lo 5ll' I GENRESAND SOCIETY .n,,di,..n,.r,,i,,n,.,.:: Ir,, ": :. ill:'i]i1..:,;l;H:;ll,:1,fi H'L 5FF it;;::;i.':,;lii%i,,")[l;:;''::il*,l, "*'" 'o'|l'| also Fcucr, The ll,nLyuutl (London: Jare 'ttastcal iiritish t'ilrlr Insrirure. 1982)ard Rick .t\man.'llLe Anerirtn Firn,tlurnd1 lBl(i)nrinslon:Indiatld Urivcrsitv Press,J9tl7). Anotherrn,ceprion o1a genre'ssocial lLLrttu| hol(ls rhar senrc iilms ue .enrrallr r:oncemcdsiLh socialsoups par iulrrlj wonrenand rac;. nn,orities-which arc oppre-rsedarrliearcdLr malr iri a sorietr'.Thc genre's storiesi:ird i nrographvpoltrx\ thosegro[pr as rheatening '.nonnal" life. 'Ihe tilnis actiof $iti fier) $ork r{, containand clelerrthese elemcnrs. One arsunrcnLlbr this appmar:Lcar Le lbulld nr RoLnr \\ioorl""An Inrrodu(irion to the ,{meri.,rnHorfor IiLn," il Bill \ichols, ed.,Xk,,ies .rnd il,letho.h.\oI. II (8e*cle1: tlniversitt ol C{lifomia Press.l!)85). pr,. 195 22i1.For a criL- icisn oftlre tlreorv. see No:il Calrr\ll's 1'k: Phi.k^ophy ol lkrnr; or, Pat aLloxct o/ lx, Hedl1lNew York: Itoudedse.l9q0), pp. 16{1206. I SPECIFIC CtrNRI]S The r.astaltLy of ru,renri.,n,.ir tl,e !1iestcrn gcmre Lave lrer codlftrl. rlng idth anjorlilns ard figl,ts, in rwouselirl .elert,rcc books: ?)i., ltep/r, Plil Hardr, ed. (Lorrdor: l9!)l) ard The RFI '\xrnrn, Conpanionkr the lleslcrn. FldwardBuscolrlr. ed. (NewYorL: lLleneLrm. 1988).Ou. dis(r,ssionoI rhe corvcxtjonsoI LLe\festern hasbeer shapedbl Johl Carielri's7le Sir: dzr Ur.!rlqu.,(Bo*lilg Creen.Ohior Borvlins Grccn f,opul:u |rcss, 1975). Noct {:afn,ll extloies rc "aflecrn'eaes rcrics"o1 tiLe honor tiln il ?7re Philo:oph.tof lltnor,.ned abolc. Carrolls anal1sis,slntr has gunlcd our dis.ussn)nol rhc lienre,is corrplcmerLedl,i the soci.rlarrrrurr o{lercd 1,1 xndrc{ l\,d or'! ,Uorrrerio.nd llo.d. ScietLists: 4 CulttLralllislot).d the Hoffor lloitc (Oxford:Blacl$ell" I98rlj. Phn llard.v"ed.. llor?or (Lonlon: Auflur. 1985)is a comprrtrensive, elercnce lnok.