Journal of and Criminology

Volume 32 | Issue 4 Article 5

1942 Embezzlement: Pathological Basis Svend H. Riemer

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Recommended Citation Svend H. Riemer, Embezzlement: Pathological Basis, 32 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 411 (1941-1942)

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology by an authorized editor of Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. EMBEZZLEMENT: PATHOLOGICAL BASIS1

Svend IL Biemer2

I Social Push and Pull The social constellation which we Embezzlement, in general, is the out- find at the background of the criminal come of a crisis at a relatively late act is to be defined as the cooperation stake of the individual career. In ex- of two different forces. In most cases ceptional cases only is there a record of the delinquent finds himself in a situa- juvenile delinquency in the life history tion which offers a special opportunity. of the embezzler. In many cases the But, also, the criminal act does not criminal act requires a special key-po- originate without a specific driving sition, the individual being trusted with force which necessitates the appropria- the administration of considerable sums tion of economic means. The delin- of money. A previous criminal record quent acts in an emergency situation. would exclude the individual from such Our material enables us to evaluate, responsible positions. Consequently, the furthermore, the influence of psycho- analysis of embezzlement more than pathological conditions in the origin of that of any other requires a con- this particular crime. They mitigate centration of attention upon the specific or emphasize the social constellation conflict situation in which the criminal that leads up to the criminal activity of act originates. We often find a contin- the embezzler. uous and accelerating progress of anti- social and delinquent behavior but the The Opportunity life career is, in most cases, not planned The economic system in our modern on the basis of crime. society presupposes highly complicated Three different aspects may be con- attitudes and voluntary self-restraint sidered in the conflict situation: in the participating members. Many 1) the social pull; the opportunity abstract business transactions are based 2) the social push; the emergency on a considerable amount of trust that situation the individual will play the rules of the 3) specific to our material; the psy- game or respect the "folkways" of the cho-pathological in- business world. There are short cuts volved in the prevailing financial communica-

1 This article is based upon 100 cases of em- attorney. General conclusions have to be drawn bezzlement which during the 1930ies were with caution. investigated in a two-months observation period The case material was collected without the in the Langholmen prison clinic in Stockholm, Sweden. The material represents a one-sided help of the sociologist, under the guidance of selection. Only such cases are transferred to Prof. Olof Kinberg, director of the prison clinic. the prison clinic in behalf of which insanity is 2 Department of Sociology, State University, pleaded by either , judge or district Seattle, Washington. [ 4111: SVEND H. RIEMER tions which yield economic profit as Unemployed ...... 8 long as the institutions of social con- Craft and Labor ...... - 18 Students ...... 3 trol can be deceived. These opportuni- Housewife, Housekeeper, etc ...... 4 ties are not restricted to trustees in ad- Professional Swindlers ...... 2 vanced positions only. In the form of Miscellaneous ...... - 9 any simple confidence game or as an Total ...... 100 installment , for example, they are In 45 of our 100 cases the criminal act open to any citizen of average intelli- did not require any other opportunities gence. If, nevertheless, embezzlement than those open to every citizen with is more restricted to trustees of one average insight in the functioning of kind or another, this is due only to two our most elementary economic institu- circumstances: 1) higher temptation tions. If more extensive research should inasmuch as the financial gains thus ob- confirm these conditions, the theory of tained more adequately balance the white collar crime originating in the risks involved; and 2) necessary expert professional atmosphere of civil service skill in anticipating and counteracting and business life might have to be some- the discovery by protective institutions. 3 what revised. A brief survey of our material as to However limited the scope of the key-positions held by the 100 embez- present investigation, a presentation of zlers reveals the following distribution. the occupational distribution of our 100 embezzlers is of interest in this connec- TABLE I tion. Embezzlement, obviously, is most Occupational Distribution frequent among the white collar group, though definitely not restricted to that Civil Servants ...... 7 Public Officials ...... 13 stratum of society only. Conditions, Clergymen ...... 7 however, might vary in different coun- Public Office ...... - 23 tries, especially if undiscovered crime Entrepreneurs, High Business Executives ...... 9 is also taken into account. ...... 4 There are certain loopholes in so- Salesmen ...... 5 ciety. They are based upon the fact Agents ...... 8 Exployees ...... 4 that the individual member of the group Small Enterprise ...... 5 must to some extent be trusted to ad- Private Business ...... - 35 here to certain folkways concerning Real Estate Owner ...... 1 Farm er ...... 5 money transactions. These loopholes Farm Labor ...... 9 represent the opportunities that are Agriculture ...... - 15 open to the embezzler. They form a Craftsmen ...... 6 Labor ...... "... 4 temptation if the embezzlers develop

3Cp. Prof. E. H. Sutherland: White Collar Swedish environment, and, finally, the term Criminality. Am. Soc. Review. Febr. 1940. Vol. embezzlement according to Swedish law covers 5, No. 1--Our field of observation, however, does a somewhat wider field. Our material contains not permit any definite conclusions as to the many cases (installment fraud) which accord- validity of Sutherland's thesis. Our attention ing to American Law would have to be classi- is limited to mainly pathological cases, to the fied as " by bailee." EMBEZZLEMENT

an anti-social attitude that makes pos- mental strain. Pathological deficiencies, sible an abandonment of the "folkways" however, that are apparent in the cul- of business behavior. Their character prit at the time of arrest will have to is more clearly brought out in an ac- be considered not only as a factor in count of the different techniquesof em- the of crime but also as a pos- bezzlement that were applied. sible consequence of worries and As a typical example of embezzle- energy consuming activities in connec- ment containing all basic elements in tion with the struggle against discovery. the sequence of criminal behavior,4 we In the most publicized cases of em- might mention those cases in which the bezzlement where considerable sums of institution of purchasing on the install- money are at stake, the application of ment plan was exploited as a basis for complicated techniques of bookkeeping systematic fraud. The fundamental and illegal transactions make it al- routine consists of acquiring possession most impossible for the layman to fully of the commodities in question by mak- understand the basic scheme of embez- ing the smallest possible first payment; zlement. Details in this respect are not thereafter the goods are sold or often of importance in the problem of crime exchanged for cash at the pawnbroker's. causation. The main feature in the de- As further payments on the installment velopment of the illegal practices, how- plan fall due, cash is being acquired ever, is the continuous effort to avoid by a continued series of similar trans- exposure. The embezzler might, with actions. Thus it is possible in principle TABLE: II to proceed indefinitely with this type Technique of Embezzlement* of embezzlement. Limitations, gen- 1. Confidence Game-Payments erally not anticipated, are of a practical promised and not carried out ..... 30 nature. In order not to arouse suspicion, Installment ...... 8 the purchases have to be made at dif- Purchases against Promise 5 ferent shops and the commodities have Trusted with Money ...... 15 Falsifications ...... 6 to be exchanged for cash at different II. Falsification of Signatures or pawnbrokers or sold to different per- Amount on receipts, etc ...... 37 sons. Embezzlement represents itself Savings Accounts ...... 7 as a cumulative process. The criminal Notes ...... 12 Wage Checks ...... 7 finally loses control of his manipula- Stamps used again ...... 14 tions. They outgrow the resources and Confidence Game ...... 6 the power of scheming available to the III. Embezzlement of Trusted Money Control is avoided or covered up culprit. by loans, payments might be de- In most cases it is only a matter of layed ...... 58 time until the final disdovery will be Control covered up ...... 37 made. At the time of discovery, we Bankruptcy ...... 5 Falsifications ...... 4 find the embezzler in a state of extreme Confidence Game ...... 15 4 The need of investigations into !behavior discussions of recent text-book editions. Cp. systems" or "behavior sequences" of crime has E. IL Sutherland and Walter C. Reckless. been stressed repeatedly in the methodological certain amount of overlapping occurs due SVEND H. RIEMER

borrowed money, try to replace the em- different conditions to be considered. I bezzled amount on the day of control. discriminate between 1) extreme pov- Where bookkeeping manipulations are erty, uneniployment, etc., 2) a declin- applied, the general problem is that of ing career which is to be looked upon charging the money to a dead account as an emergency due to the individual's which will not be drawn upon by the habitual standard of living; and finally, owner for some time to come. If it is 3) instability and insecurity of a career possible to charge the amount to some which calls the individual's attention past expenditures Which are accepted to opportunities for embezzlement. as final by the administration or by the The most dramatic causation of em- business enterprise, the way is open bezzlement is to be found under section to the "perfect crime." two. The declining career poses against The Emergency Situation contrasting expectations of the environ- ment. The family is often left unaware The "social push" leading up to em- of the impending economic ruin. Em- bezzlement might consist of a variety bezzlement, in eight cases, means the of environmental constellations. In most last stand of defense against the neces- cases several elements of conflict co- sity of giving up the family home. Less operated. They should not be looked frequent (two cases), on the other upon as "factors causing crime." The hand, is the ambitious tendency to following account has only the function reach a higher social status than acces- of exploring generally the field of hu- sible with the available financial means. man interaction in which we discover The embezzlement. criminal behavior grows most naturally out of the occupational rou- OccupationalLife and Economic Status tine where a private entrepreneur is The material under consideration struggling against bankruptcy. Means of contradicts the widely spread notion delaying liquidation are abundant; in- that embezzlement is the outcome of debtedness may proceed to the utmost. deliberate to make "easy In not less than 33 cases altogether do money" in order to be able to spend it we find a sequence of increasing debts lavishly. The material might contain leading up to the time when embezzle- some bias. It is a challenge to research, ment is committed. however, that we have not been able to Embezzlement plays a somewhat dif- find more than 12 cases in which imme- ferent role where instability and uncer- diate economic strain is lacking in the tainty of the occupational career rather environmental background of the em- than a definite economic decline char- bezzler. Embezzlement in the great acterizes the life history of the culprit. majority of cases represents the only This type of career very often presents way out of an extreme economic emer- the environmental aspect of mental and gency situation. There are somewhat emotional deficiencies in the individual. to the difficulty of applying strict definitions to cation of several techniques in the individual the techniques used and also due to the appli- case. EMBEZZLEMENT

We find here continuous changes in oc- question becomes indifferent to the pos- cupation, short term jobs only, and sible consequences of his criminal be- possibly an inclination toward the havior. In some cases'he just becomes salesmen or agent type of career. The more careless and loses control of the inability to adjust to a permanent oc- rather complicated system of fraud- cupational position is obvious. An at- ulent manipulations which so far have titude develops which lets the person in hindered discovery. question look about consciously for op- Extreme poverty and immediate portunities of making a living in the needs for the sustenance of life, espe- easiest possible way. This attitude cially urgent if the person in question might become part of an established carries responsibilities toward other routine which causes the individual to members of his family, are obvious drift toward illegal behavior if, at the causes for any type of illegal behavior. time being, no legal opportunities offer The loyalties for society will be broken themselves. Thus, and not seldom, em- down in self-defense. If embezzlement bezzlement appears as a final, perhaps is the consequence, we find the culprit somewhat more extravagant, step in a has run into the particular scheme of series of speculative maneuvers in busi- manipulations more or less by accident ness or on the stock market. Needless or imitation. to say, the push in the direction of fraudful behavior is aggravated if eco- Conflict Situations in Regard nomic losses occur in this connection. to Family Life If the individual conceives his eco- In more cases than might be expected nomic losses as undeserved, he might we find a coordination of family conflict assume an attitude of general protest and ecQnomic emergency at the basis of against society and thus be prepared to the attitude that makes emliezzlement sever loyalties with his partners- in possible. The simplest connection be- business transactions. In many cases tween these two spheres of the individ- this attitude developed as a conse- ual life history prevails where provision quence of economic losses sustained for the family is the cause of economic during the peace crisis in, Sweden after needs. Not seldom, however, the rela- the last war. The situation gains in tionship is of a more complicated na- tension if the embezzlement is con- ture. Sudden elimination, by death or nected with the expectation of future otherwise, of a member of the family profits which will enable the culprit to who held an overwhelming authority extinguish the traces of his temporarily might throw the culprit into a con- illegal behavior. fusion in regard to his new responsibili- Overwork is to be mentionbd as an- ties. Where the primary group of the other environmental constellation which family has been extremely close-knit, might cause an attitude relevant to the behavior of the individual loses an criminal behavior. In a state 6f com- element of coniiol which-if economic plete nervous exhaustion the person in difficulties are added to the situation- SVEND H. RIEMER

acts as a destructive force upon the of reaction patterns as an additional inhibitions which stand between legal approach to the discussion of pertinent and illegal behavior. environmental constellations. Most frequent is an even more in- Not much need to be said about the direct influence upon the attitude of character of distortions in the defini- the individual. Where married life is tion of the situation as related to the unhappy to the point of general emo- well-known psychiatric terminology. tional frustration or where other The depressive individual shows lack family difficulties lead the individual of efficient initiative and is apt to see to a state of exhaustion or indifference no legitimate way out of a somewhat -embezzlement becomes possible. Just as in cases of acute overwork, we seem entangled situation of economic emer- to observe an exceedingly narrowed gency. In the manic phase future prof- horizon of planned action. Future con- its, promising a final settlement of the sequences might be overlooked while illegal transactions, are unduly antici- the mind is pre-occupied with an im- pated. Feeble-mindedness causes lack mediate conflict which either demands of insight into the consequences, espe- speedy economic relief at any price or cially as far as the institutions of con- does not allow for sufficient energy for trol in society are concerned. The gen- economic self-protection on a legal erally psychopathic individual en- basis. Crime sometimes poses as a counters difficulties in the adjustment gesture of protest against the environ- to occupational life in our society. The ment that makes life intolerable to the consequence is the above mentioned culprit. The implications are similar to type of embezzler who--as a matter of those frequently observed in the moti- life routine-fluctuates between differ- vation of suicidal behavior; a call for sympathy in a situation which repre- ent speculative attempts of making ''easy money," easily sents an emergency without any pos- overstepping the sible way out. borderline between legal and illegal behavior. Nervous exhaustion is the Definition of the Situation complementary pathological condition to various environmental constellations Pathological conditions are here con- mentioned above. Alcoholism, men- sidered only inasmuch as they have a tioned explicitly in not less than 18 bearing upon the environmental situ- cases, is obviously to be looked upon ation as experienced by the individual. as a symptom of environmental mal- Our observations center around a re- We need not go into action pattern that colors social inter- adjustment. action rather than around different en- further detail. It should be kept in vironmental constellations as such. As mind, however, that our interest is re- a matter of convenience we adhere to lated entirely to the ensuing distortion the traditional psychiatric classification of the definition of the situation. EMBEZZLEMENT

II Types of Embezzlers "factors"-pertinent in the specific way In our discussion of environmental of their cooperation in the causation of constellations and individual reaction crime-need to be taken into considera- patterns we repeatedly indicated close tion as far as the separate types are concerned. cooperation or connection between For this configuration, then, the probability of adequate behavior various of the "factors" or "causes." prediction might be expected to be The discussion of pathological condi- higher than what would be the case tions revealed itself as a special aspect in a summation of factors that have been of the environmental explanation of found to be relevant in the field of em- embezzlement. We proceed now to a reintegration of "factors" and "causes" bezzlement in general. This approach also seems more practical for the an- which have been isolated for the sake alysis and handling of individual cases. of a first broad analysis. This reintegra- tion will not be carried out in form of This is especially true in regard to a mechanical summation of relevait the pathological component in the proc- ess of crime causation. With a sub- "factors" in the individual case. This division of the total material into procedure has been used for the pre- types, significant correlations might diction of "crime risks,"'conceiving the be found. Pathological conditions can individual as being' weighed down by be explained in their functional rela- an increasing number of disadvan- tionship to the criminal behavior in tageous "factors," being broken at last question. This is not surprising. Em- just as the camel by the last straw. In- bezzlement is a primarily legal unit and sight into our 100 case studies sug- it is only in the construction of 'our gests the elaboration of typical configu- types of embezzlers that we arrive at rations of previously separated factors. a unit of primarily socio-genetic rele- From the socio-genetic point of view, vance.5 embezzlement comprehends a variety of rather heterogeneous behavio" se- Socio-genetic Types quences which lead up to the illegal of Embezzlement activities. It is possible, however, to 1) Embezzlement in civil service and discriminate between a limited number in administrative functions. of "types," characterized by 'extraor- Embezzlement in the civil service dinary uniformity in the process of and in similar public functions occurs crime causation. In regard to the pbs- in our material under circumstances sibility of crime -prediction these con- which show great similarity from case figurations represent a more adequaie to case. Table III represents those 15 unit of approach than isolated factors. cases which closely approach the socio- In regard to the different types of em- genetic type. Indebtedness is at the bezzlers only a limited number of these background in each individual case. We

5 In some cases the legal definition of a crime Am. Journal of Sociology. Vol. XLV. No. 4. coincides strictly with one sociogenetie type. January 1940. Cp. Svend Riemer: A Research Note on Incest. SVEND H. RIEMER observe growing debts for a long num- emotional isolation of the criminal, ber of years before the final break with breaking down loyalties to family or the professional ethics occurs. In all society in general. In five cases the cases but one is the criminal career embezzler is totally absorbed by his entered via a gradual transition from professional work, complicated by the not strictly ethical to overtly criminal requirement of avoiding the discovery behavior. To begin with, money is of his crime; he seems cut off from out- "borrowed" in a temporary emergency side interests. situation and replaced at times of offi- Undoubtedly, some of the elements in cial control. Later on, this replacement the behavior sequence of this criminal is regularly repeated. Money is bor- type are related to very specific Swed- rowed from other sources to cover up ish conditions. The system of munici- the lack of funds for the period of con- pal government make public service in trol only. Finally, however, these or many cases an honorary or at least other means of covering up the em- underpaid function. The duty of a bezzlement fail. With furthermore in- sheriff is taken over as a matter of creasing debts and nervous exhaustion prestige. Difficulties arise when the the complicated protective mechanism actual burden of work is understood. grows out of the hands of the culprit. In the administration of highway funds In the great majority of these cases we there is often no strict separation be- find the embezzler, at the time of crime tween private and public cash money, detection, in a state of overwork and which at a given time is in the hands of exhaustion. We are bound to use this the official. A slight latter, rather general, term. The tabu- oversight very lation of pathological conditions indi- easily develops into actual embezzle- cates that embezzlement, here, is not ment. Often insight is even lacking specifically related to one or the other into the fact that a crime has been com- type of neurosis or psychosis. A great mitted. Allusion is made to the pos- variety of patterns may be observed, sibilities of replacing the money in a all of which are causing adjustment week to come or so. difficulties, although in somewhat dif- This type of embezzlement might be ferent ways. Nervous tension in the looked upon as the outcome of an un- process of embezzlement aggravates a usual degree of trust in the honesty of condition which previously appears as the individual functionary. Conflicts an unobstrusive tendency only in the arise, life history of the criminal. The same where public functions are dele- is true in regard to the family situ- gated to personnel that is not thoroughly ation. There is a great variety of pat- conditioned by the folkways of civil terns of maladjustment. They all tend service proper. Debts and distress in to break down the ability of planning the family situation as well as the men- life and the economic career on a con- tal health in general of the personnel siderate basis. Often they lead to an in question should be watched as a 419 EMBEZZLEMENT

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aemn m0 wD w 0 CO3 - 04 - 0n - C 1-4 C'2 %m VI '' ' 0 CD C SVEND H. RIEMER matter of defining the crime risk in ious employees to break loose from the these cases. enterprise in which they are engaged 2) Embezzlement of the entrepre- and to establish a business of their own, neur in his struggle for economic primarily on a speculative basis. During independence. the following economic depression these new entrepreneurs meet a previ- TABLE IV ously unexperienced situation. They fail in their own enterprise, succumb Types of Embezzlers economically and face the of Embezzlement in civil service and ad- ministrative functions ...... 15 resuming their old status of employees. Embezzlement of entrepreneurs in This retreat might be cut off by the struggle for economic independence. 12 increasing unemployment or also by Embezzlement for the preservation of status ...... 5 the unwillingness on the part of the Embezzlement as a quasi-professional individual to give up the status of an routine ...... 26 independent entrepreneur. Difficulties a) Systematic exploitation of the increase while they fight for economic loopholes of social control.. 11 b) Occasional lapse into embez- survival. Speculation and scheming zlement in a life of restless va- has been the basis of their previous grancy ...... 7 success. They cling to this attitude for c) The confidence man ...... 8 Petty embezzlement due to temptation self-defense, finally overstepping the and pressing needs ...... 19 borderline of legal business transac- a) The feebleminded embez- tions. There is a prevalence of slightly zler ...... 8 b) Extreme poverty ...... 11 paranoid to outspoken paranoid cases, Embezzlement for the sake of amuse- which in sociological terms implies an ment and luxurious consumption .... 4 attitude of protest and ensuing dis- loyalty against society which has be- Total number of classified cases ...... 81 Borderline cases ...... 19 reaved them of their . In Sweden there is added to this Total ...... 100 close relation to the fluctuation of the Another typical sequence of criminal business cycle another constellation of behavior is that of the business man importance. Frequently, in these par- who is caught in a desperate struggle ticular cases, a transition has been for survival of his business enterprise. made from farming and other agri- The frequency of embezzlement rose cultural pursuits to business activities. considerably in Sweden a few years A wealthy peasant's son, owner of after the peace crisis in the early forest land, might turn to the lumber twenties. Business fluctuations affect business for economic profit and fail in this particular crime wave-as we learn this activity for which he is not pre- from our case material-in the follow- pared by experience. Or a small cot- ing way: tager might use an unexpected inheri- At the time of business properity tance to buy a truck and try himself there is a tendency on the part of prey- in the truck-driving business. In all EMBEZZLEMENT these cases loss of property breaks course on the basis of family status, down the loyalty toward society and they were unable to adjust their stand- the rest of the business world in par- ard of living to decreasing financial ticular. means. Close affections toward depen- It is the sudden reverse in the trend dents agg:avated the crime risk inas- of the economic career and lack of much as they made the loss of status an previous experience to meet the emer- even more undesirable or impossible gency which predominates in the causa- step to take. tion of crime. Slight paranoid tenden- The behavior sequence is very simi- cies make the transition to the status lar in those other cases, where an af- of an employee impossible. As far as fectionate son of the owner of a large the private life in these cases is con- country estate struggles in vain against cerned, maladjustment is not infre- economic ruin or where the oldest son, quent. It represents, however, a symp- trusted with the liquidation of his ad-' tom of the situational strain rather than mired father's rather entangled eco- an important element in the configura- nomic affairs on behalf of the family, tion of circumstances which in them- is led into illegal transactions, or where selves are inducive to criminal behav- a female postal official is suddenly iui. Twelve cases in our material fall faced with the responsibility of pro- strictly under the category here dis- viding means for the support of mother cussed. and siblings. Although there are only 3) Embezzlement for the preserva- very few cases of this kind in our mate- tion of status. rial, they represent a distinct type of Preservation of status alone leads crime causation. toward embezzlement in a few (5) 4) Embezzlement as a professional cases. All these cases concern rather routine. timid individuals whose life is embed- a) Systematic exploitation of the ded in family contacts of close cohesion, loopholes of social control (eleven The family, on its part, is grown into cases) fixed relations with a social environ- In contrast to the previously men- ment that requires economic means of tioned types of embezzlement we are a certain order for an adequate stand- dealing here with individuals who--on ard of living. Two members of the the basis of emotional instability-have higher Swedish nobility give the best been unable to acquire a firm position illustration of this particular type. in occupational life. They are described They committed embezzlement out of as adventurous, as restless, unreliable, sheer anxiety, or rather confused help- extremely egotistical and disloyal al- lessness, when adverse economy should ready in early childhood or adolescence have induced them to severe connec- even in their dealing with members of tions with their "social set." Sheltered their own family. Thev shift from one from early childhood by economic help to another to make some and natronage, given as a matter of money. With three exceptkw_- thev SVEND H. RIEMER

have not been gainfully employed for tives might be broken. This occurs, any length of time. however, on the basis of a complete ab- The technique of embezzlement va- sence of feeling of responsibility. The ries all the way from counterfeiting to person is not completely isolated in its fraudal installment purchases. They ex- egotistical scheming as the above men- ploit institutions as well as friends and tioned type. relatives. The source of their criminal c) the confidence man. (4 cases) behavior is to be found in a patho- Well-known as a criminal type, the logical condition of their emotional life confidence man might occasionally be which makes adjustment to the routine arrested for embezzlement. He shows of occupational life impossible and al- marked deviation from all other em- lows for an -egotistical scheming for bezzlers. He does not apply an ab- profits that is void of any social loyal- stract scheme for his illegal enrichment. ties. They are psycho-pathological in- He betrays face to face, often by impro- dividuals, not specifically related to any vising along the general framework of type of psychosis. They might be of a standard confidence game. He runs very different family background. In- into just embezzlement only perchance, dividually their social status is hard while whimsical craving for sympathy to define inasmuch as they are fluctuat- and shrewd acting appear as the main ing at the borderline of the occupa- features in his criminal technique. In- tional hierarchy, seeking closer attach- fantilism, uncontrolled emotional ex- ment temporarily only wherever they hibitionism and failure to establish re- see a possibility of making "easy liable relationships with his environ- money" without settling down to the ment are outstanding in the psychologi- monotony of a regular job. cal set-up of the confidence man. b) Occasional lapse into embezzle- Fraud represents a domineering fea- ment in a life of restless vagrancy ture in his life career. He shares with (7 cases) the last mentioned two types of em- This type has in common with the bezzlement the lack of occupational above mentioned the lack of adjust- adjustment. ment to occupational life on the basis 5) Petty embezzlement due to temp- of emotional, restlessness. It varies, tation and pressing needs. however, in the attitude toward crim- a) The feebleminded embezzler. (8 inal behavior. Embezzlement or similar cases) pursuits do not enter systematically The configuration of circumstances into the plan of li:e. Crime is resorted relating to the criminal actions show to only occasionally in a situation of a surprising degree of similarity as far economic embarrassment. It replaces as this limited number of feebleminded for the time being one of those short- embezzlers is concerned. All but one term jobs by which the person in ques- are living in a farming environment tion is used to keep financially afloat. and are less than thirty years old. Oc- Loyalties toward close friends and rela- cupationally they are not firmly estab- EMBEZZLEMENT

lished yet, fluctuating between unem- tion does the person in question resort ployment, work on the parental farm to some of the more primitive means of and odd jobs. Embezzlement appears embezzlement. Installment are as an irresistable temptation once the relatively frequent. In the emergency opportunity has been discovered. The situation, we find these individuals in technique applied is ridiculously simple a state of complete social deterioration. and the crime easily and quickly dis- Loyalties toward society at large are covered. Stamps are being used again easily broken down. There is no spe- after having been devalidated, wage- cific relation, however, to mental de- checks are falsified to the benefit of ficiency. the receiver, the savings account of a 6) Embezzlement for the sake of relative is misused, etc. Characteris- amusement and luxurious con- tic is the short-lived but repetitious sumption. (4 cases) sequence of criminal acts of a similar kind. Once the opportunity is dis- In four cases only is the embezzle- covered as a matter of chance, the temp- ment the outcome of a sudden and ir- tation and lack of foresight carry the resistible desire to spend money lav- culprit away who very soon oversteps ishly for luxurious consumption. The the most primitive caution and actually two women in this category use their solicits the discovery of his illegal ma- illegal manipulations in order to dress elegantly and beyond their economic nipulations. Thus, the sequence of possibilities. The two men break out criminal acts stops as suddenly as it into a sudden bout of an amusement was started. Relative poverty and es- pecially the entire lack of pocket money trip, relations with prostitutes, etc., during which they spend irresponsibly at a young age are the general social a sum of money they have been trusted background upon which this type of with. The case material indicates neu- embezzlement might originate in a rotic tendencies in the two women, a limited number of feebleminded indi- manic condition in the latter two cases. viduals. General environment and family situa- g) Temptation on the basis of extreme tion vary in the individual cases. poverty. (11 cases) Although further types such as those This type of embezzlement merges of the drug-addict and those of em- into the above mentioned. The temp- bezzlement mainly on the basis of fam- tation, however, is less due to a sudden ily conflict are indicated among our insight into opportunity and the fail- cases, they cannot be clearly established ure to appreciate the consequences of criminal behavior: the social push without unduly forcing the available predominates. The culprit acts in an material. The rest of about 10 cases extreme emergency situation. He or appear as borderline cases between the his family is starving and under the in- above mentioned types of embezzle- fluence of impending physical annihila- ment.