Isidoro Orlanski GFDL/NOAA Princeton University Lecture 1

Acknowledgments: The material in these lectures were taken from different sources and if possible given credit, others from web sites were lectures that did not have any clear identification. What Drives Climate Change?

IPCC Third Assessment Report http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig1-1.htm The Energy Balance

The terrestrial system is in equilibrium. The equilibrium temperature is around 15C at the ground level. If we eliminate the greenhouse gases the equilibrium temperature would have been -18C. Graph of annual-mean absorbed solar radiation, OLR and net radiation averaged a latitude circles

Absorbed Solar 350 250 Emitted longwave ) 2 m / 150 W ( e 50 c n

a Net Radiation i

d 0 a r r I -50 -150 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 Latitude Energy Balance of the Atmosphere

R TOA E a R LP SH F t a a

Where LP Fa

Ra = R TOA - Rs

Energy balance SH Rs

Ra LP SH ~ Fa Sfc

LP is the heating of the atmosphere by latent heat release due to condensation. Ea is a dry Energy- it does not include the energy content in water vapor. SH is sensible heat from the surface and Fa is the transport by the atmospheric circulation. From Atmospheric circulation III, Berkeley University. Northward heat transport across each latitude (IPW=1015 W) Characteristics of Atmospheric and Oceanic Dynamics

g Gravitational attraction H U Shallow fluid: H << a a Hydrostatic balance: Pressure force ~ buoyancy force

Rapid rotation and large stratification a= earths radius= 6730 km. a ~ (gH)1/2 > (NH)1/2 > U H= atmospheric depth~20km U= relative velocity ~ 20m/s 465m/s 330m/s 100m/s 20m/s g= gravity ~ 9.81m/s2 = rotation frequency=2 /86400s=7.272e-5s-1 latitude f( coriolis parameter=2* sin N2=g/ d /dz

N Is the Buoyancy frequency For the atmosphere and oceans is about 0.01/sec

if the temperature profile has N2 > 0 the column is stable, if N2 <0 is convectively unstable Convective Instability dw ( ) Vertical acceleration = buoyancy g e p dt p d u v w 0 Mass conservation dt t x y z

_ , w 0 Assuming small perturbations, the local change t z of perturbation density= , the vertical advection of density change. p o

The buoyancy can be written as follow: 1 d e p z p dz g d g e p z N 2 z p dz

Where N2 is the square of the Brunt Vaisala frequency;

2 dw ( e p ) 2 d z g N z 2 dt p dt

For N2 > 0 the displacement has an oscillation with frequency +/- N and is called gravity waves. The period of N is: ~5 to 10 min for the atmosphere and oceans.

i t z z0e , N Z z z Z z z Z z z Z z z Z z z Z z z Z z z Z z z Z z z Gravitational or convective Instability

d 0, N 2 0 dz t z z0e

Where is real and the solution are exponential no oscillations. This is the basic of most of the atmospheric and ocean convection. Z z z Z z z Z z z Lagrangian conservation properties for adiabatic frictionless fluid in a rotating sphere: Po, o Er Entropy or Potential temperature

P1, 1 Er T (Po/P) R/cp = 287/1004 = 0.286

Potential Vorticity Er= -1(2 +curl u).grad

Conservation of mass d /dt=- *Div(u

Incompressible fluid Compressible fluid

Div(u) = 0 d dt d dt Statically stable Statically unstable

Temperature in K Temperature in K d c p T c p dT gdz 1 d 1 dT g ( ) dz T dz c p 1 d 1 ( ) dz T d Something about moisture

If we let qs denote the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air in a saturated parcel (qs is called the saturation mixing ratio). Then the rate of diabatic heating per unit mass is: Dq J L s c Dt

Where Lc is the latent heat of condensation, From the first law of thermodynamics:

D L Dq c c s p Dt T Dt

For a saturated parcel undergoing pseudoadiabatic ascent the rate of change of qs following the motion is much larger than the rate of change of Lc or T then:

L q d ln d c s c pT Integrating this equation from the initial state ( ,qs,T) to a state where qs~0 L q ln c s e cpT

Then the Equivalent Potential Temperature e for a saturated parcel is given:

Lcqs c pT e e

The Qe can be related to the moist static energy h=s+Lcq, where s is the dry static energy s=cpT+gz

c pTd ln e d h

The moist static energy is approximately conserved when e is conserved. The Psedoadiabatic lapse rate

Using the definition of Q we can derive

d ln R d ln p Lc dqs

dz c p dz c pT dz

And since qs(T,p) and using the hydrostatic equation and equation of state dT g L q dT q c s s g dz c p c p T p dz p T

One can derive the ascending saturated lapse rate

dT 1 Lcqs / RT s d 2 2 dz 1 Lcqs / c p RT

Where e=0.622 is the ratio of molecular weight of water to that of dry air. -1 d=g/cp. Observed range of s values range from ~4Km in warm humid air masses in the lower atmosphere to ~6-7Km-1 in the midtroposphere. Conditional Instability

Absolutely unstable s d

s d Conditionally unstable

s d Absolutely stable

These condition can be expressed as function of the vertical gradient of e

< 0 Conditional unstable e = 0 Saturated neutral z > 0 conditional stable B=g*(T-Tm)/Tm, buoyancy

Environmental temperature profile CAPE=B*H

Cape and its relation to Moist adiabatic vertical velocity. Lapse rate H/L < 1 w~H/L(BH)0.5 B H H/L >1 w~ (BH)0.5

Dew point temperature Temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated without changing the pressure.

Free Convection

Surface temperature Force Convection

Large scale subsidence

Co

Trade winds

V=Cd*|U|U/(f-Uy) Cold Ocean surface warm Ocean surface Explicit and Parameterized Convection

Parameterized Convection

The static energy =CpT+gz Explicit Convection v w Q Rad. In etach cloud, advectizon of h1eat and moisture from the surface Nise ttr ahnesapt odruteed t oto the interior of the atmosphceoren.v eIfc ctioonnd aennds essin k of prodquce latent heat. Tqhis hmeoaits itsu re compensvatedq in lawrge amounQt b2 y/ tLhe adiabtatic cooling of thez parcel that it is The moist asstacteicn deinnegr.g Tyh (eh d~eCspc eTn+dginz+g Laqir) is produced usually in a larger region outside of the hcloud. h v h w Q Rad. Q t z 1 2

On the time averaged flow the balance is: h w Rad Q Q z 1 2 Hadley Cells and tropical temp gradient

Conservation of angular of Angular momentum. (Umax+a cos )acos ~ a2

Jet Subsidence deep convection subsidence westerly Thermal wind balance

2 sin uz~ eddies

warm cold 40S 30S 20S Eq 20N 30N 40N mid latitudes sub-tropics tropics sub-tropics mid-latitudes – General Circulation of the Atmosphere – Jet Streams Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. Scales of Motion – How large of an area does a weather system affect? • Synoptic scale motions cover the US, 100 s to 1000 s of km. • Mesoscale motions are the size of thunderstorms, 10 s of km. • Microscale motions are 10 s to 100 s of meters.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere – General circulation of the atmosphere only represents the average (daily or monthly) air flow around the world and actual winds may vary significantly at any one place and time from this average. – It is difficult to see the large scale motions when all the noise of the smaller scale motions are super-imposed on the large scale motions. – Averages over several days or months are a way to remove the noise so the large scale motions are visible.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere – In that discussion it was shown that there was an uneven heating of the earth. • The energy balance is not maintained for each latitude as there is a net gain of energy at the tropics and a net loss at the poles. • As a result the poles are cool and the equator is warm. • The question is how does the earth restore the balance since we know that the poles are not at absolute zero and the equator does not melt lead. – To restore balance, the atmosphere transports warm air poleward and cool air equatorward. – We have seen before that, averaged over the entire earth, incoming solar radiation is roughly

Understandingeq theu Weatheral to EASthe-107 o uCornelltgo Univ.ing earth s radiation. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Single-Cell Model) – The british meteorologist George Hadley to try to understand how the earth comes into balance with a simple model. – Single-Cell model assumes that: • Earth s surface is uniformly covered with water (so that differential heating between the land and water does not come into play). • The sun is always directly over the equator (so that the winds will not shift seasonally). • The earth does not rotate (so that the only force we need to deal with is the pressure gradient force).

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Single-Cell Model) – For the single-cell model described above, the air near the equator heats and as it does it becomes less dense. – The air near the equator then begins to rise and the surface pressure drops. – Conversely, the air near the poles cools and becomes more dense. – The air near the poles then begins to sink and the surface pressure rises.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Single-Cell Model) – At this point, a pressure gradient force develops between the poles and the equator and the cold air flows from the high pressure at the poles to the low pressure at the equator. – The opposite occurs in the upper portion of the troposphere. The rising air at the equator strikes the tropopause and must flow both north and south towards the poles which creates high pressure aloft. – At the poles, the sinking air creates low pressure aloft and another pressure gradient develops in the upper part of the troposphere between the poles and equator.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Single-Cell Model)

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Single-Cell Model) – Obviously, this circulation does not really occur on the earth. • Earth is not uniformly covered with water. • The sun does not always stay above the equator. • Coriolis forces will turn the winds to the right. – However, Hadley s model did provide grounds for further study.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Three-Cell Model) – In the three-cell model, the first step is to remove the restriction of a non-rotating earth. – Although this model is much more complex than the single-cell model, there are some similarities. – As with the single cell model, the air at the equator is heated by the sun, becomes less dense, and rises to the tropopause creating a low pressure at the surface. – In addition, above the equator, the rising air creates high pressure aloft. – The poleward flow of air at upper-levels is then deflected by the Coriolis force toward the right in the NH and to the left in the SH.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Three-Cell Model) – As the air aloft moves northward, it s volume is slowly reduced. • The volume is reduced because of the spherical surface. • As you move closer to the poles the latitude lines get closer together to reflect the reduced radius. – The slowly reducing volume creates a region of convergence near 30°. – The air becomes so compacted at 30° that it must sink. – The sinking air strikes the surface and spreads out in all directions. – This creates a belt of high pressure called subtropical highs.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Three-Cell Model) – The air from the high pressure belt that is directed south curves to the right and eventually flows into the equatorial surface low (trade winds).

– The air from the high pressure belt that is directed northwards is again deflected to the right (westerlies).

– The subsiding air produces generally clear skies and warm surface temperatures. Here are where the major deserts of the world are found.

– This region is know as the horse latitudes.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Three-Cell Model) – The mild air from the high pressure belt that is called the westerlies moves poleward and encounters cold air moving down from the poles.

– The cold air from the poles meets the air from the subtropical high in the horse latitudes.

– This convergent zone causes the air to rise once again, and is called the polar front.

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 General Circulation of the Atmosphere (Three-Cell Model)

Understanding the Weather EAS-107 Cornell Univ.

Mid latitudes storm tracks

Sub tropics subsidence

Tropical Convection

Sub tropics subsidence

Mid latitudes storm tracks

Things to remember from Lecture 1.

The energy balance is not maintained for each latitude as there is a net gain of energy at the tropics and a net loss at the poles. as a result the poles are cool and the equator is warm.

To restore balance, the atmosphere transports warm air poleward and cools air equatorward.

We have seen before that, averaged over the entire earth, incoming solar radiation is roughly equal to the outgoing earth s radiation.

The heat at the tropical regions produce convection, transport heat upward and spread the heat to the subtropics, producing a circulation called the Hadley cell.

As the air moves to higher latitudes, since the earth has shorter radius to its axies, the air has an excess of eastward angular momentum. Producing an eastward jet.