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School Readiness: Closing Racial and Ethnic Gaps The Future of Children PRINCETON - BROOKINGS School Readiness: Closing Racial and Ethnic Gaps VOLUME 15 NUMBER 1 SPRING 2005 3 Preface 5 Introducing the Issue 15 Assessment Issues in the Testing of Children at School Entry 35 Can Family Socioeconomic Resources Account for Racial and Ethnic Test Score Gaps? 55 Genetic Differences and School Readiness 71 Neuroscience Perspectives on Disparities in School Readiness and Cognitive Achievement 91 Low Birth Weight and School Readiness 117 Health Disparities and Gaps in School Readiness 139 The Contribution of Parenting to Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness 169 Early Childhood Care and Education: Effects on Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness A PUBLICATION OF THE WOODROW WILSON SCHOOL OF PUBLIC AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AT PRINCETON UNIVERSITY AND THE BROOKINGS INSTITUTION The Future of Children seeks to translate high-level research into information that is useful to policymakers, practitioners, and the media. The Future of Children is a publication of the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and Interna- tional Affairs at Princeton University and the Brookings Institution. Senior Editorial Staff Journal Staff Sara McLanahan Elisabeth Hirschhorn Donahue Editor-in-Chief Associate Editor Princeton University Princeton University Director of the Center for Research on Brenda Szittya Child Wellbeing and Professor of Sociology Managing Editor and Public Affairs Brookings Institution Ron Haskins Margy Waller Senior Editor Outreach Director Brookings Institution Brookings Institution Senior Fellow, Economic Studies Program Lisa Markman Christina Paxson Senior Outreach Coordinator Senior Editor Princeton University Princeton University Director of the Center for Health and Julie Clover Wellbeing and Professor of Economics and Outreach Coordinator Public Affairs Brookings Institution Cecilia Rouse Maureen Marchetta Senior Editor Outreach Coordinator Princeton University Princeton University Director of the Education Research Section Anne Hardenbergh and Professor of Economics and Public Editorial Assistant Affairs Brookings Institution Isabel Sawhill Stacey O’Brien Senior Editor Webmaster Brookings Institution Princeton University Vice President and Director, Economic Studies Program The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University or the Brookings Institution. ISSN: 1550-1558 ISBN: 0-8157-5559-7 Board of Advisors Jeanne Brooks-Gunn Kay S. Hymowitz Virginia and Leonard Marx Professor of Senior Fellow and Contributing Editor, Child Development and Education, Manhattan Institute for Policy Research Teachers College and College of Physicians Charles N. Kahn III and Surgeons, Columbia University President, Federation of American Hospitals Peter Budetti Rebecca Maynard Bartlett Foundation Professor and Chairman, University Trustee Professor of Education Department of Health Administration and and Social Policy, University of Pennsylvania Policy, University of Oklahoma Marguerite W. Sallee Judith Feder President and CEO Dean of Public Policy, Georgetown America’s Promise University Lynn Thoman Sandra Feldman Managing Partner, Corporate Perspectives President Emeritus, American Federation of Teachers Heather B. Weiss Director, Harvard Family Research Project, William Galston Harvard University Interim Dean, School of Public Policy, University of Maryland Amy Wilkins Principal Partner, The Education Trust Jean B. Grossman Senior Vice President for Research, Public/Private Ventures, and Lecturer in Economics and Public Affairs, Princeton University The Future of Children would like to thank the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the Annie E. Casey Foundation, the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation for their generous support. The Future of Children is copyrighted by Princeton University and the Brookings Institution, all rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy articles for personal use is authorized by The Future of Children. Reprinting is also allowed, so long as the journal article is properly given at- tribution. For volumes 14, no. 1, and before, please use this attribution: “From The Future of Children, a publication of the David and Lucile Packard Foundation.” For subsequent jour- nals, please use this attribution: “From The Future of Children, a publication of The Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University and the Brookings In- stitution.” It is the current policy of the journal not to charge for reprinting, but this policy is subject to change. To purchase a subscription, access free electronic copies, or sign up for our e-newsletter, go to our website, www.futureofchildren.org. If you would like additional information about the jour- nal, please send questions to [email protected]. The Future of Children PRINCETON - BROOKINGS VOLUME 15 NUMBER 1 SPRING 2005 School Readiness: Closing Racial and Ethnic Gaps 3 Preface 5 Introducing the Issue by Cecilia Rouse, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Sara McLanahan 15 Assessment Issues in the Testing of Children at School Entry by Donald A. Rock and A. Jackson Stenner 35 Can Family Socioeconomic Resources Account for Racial and Ethnic Test Score Gaps? by Greg J. Duncan and Katherine A. Magnuson 55 Genetic Differences and School Readiness by William T. Dickens 71 Neuroscience Perspectives on Disparities in School Readiness and Cognitive Achievement by Kimberly G. Noble, Nim Tottenham, and B. J. Casey 91 Low Birth Weight and School Readiness by Nancy E. Reichman 117 Health Disparities and Gaps in School Readiness by Janet Currie 139 The Contribution of Parenting to Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness by Jeanne Brooks-Gunn and Lisa B. Markman 169 Early Childhood Care and Education: Effects on Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness by Katherine A. Magnuson and Jane Waldfogel www.futureofchildren.org Preface elcome to the new Probably the biggest change is that we have Future of Children. In become primarily a web-based journal. Al- addition to the new look, though some print copies of the journal will the journal has a new continue to be produced, for the most part home—the Woodrow readers will find us on the web. We made this WilsonW School at Princeton University in part- decision based on the reality of the high costs nership with the Brookings Institution. We of producing and mailing large numbers of are excited about this new venture and are print volumes for free, coupled with the honored to have been given the reins of such growing access people have to the internet. a respected journal by the Packard Founda- We do understand, however, that many read- tion. ers would like to keep receiving print copies of the journal, so we now offer moderately Although the journal has a new publisher, the priced subscriptions as well as single-copy overall mission remains the same: translating sales. the best social science research into informa- tion that is useful to policymakers, practition- We hope you like our changes and continue to ers, and the media. We have developed plans read and use the journal. We have received a to ensure that we get our information into the great gift in being able to produce The Future hands (and heads) of as many people as possi- of Children, and we will work hard to ensure ble: shorter publications on our website and its quality, integrity, and accessibility. public events and conferences aimed at poli- cymakers and practitioners. All the informa- Sara McLanahan tion about our outreach efforts can be found Editor-in-Chief on our website, www.futureofchildren.org, The Future of Children and we encourage you to visit and sign up for the e-newsletter so that we can keep you ap- prised of our efforts. VOL. 15 / NO. 1 / SPRING 2005 3 Introducing the Issue Cecilia Rouse, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Sara McLanahan lthough racial and ethnic gaps achievement among school-aged children. in educational achievement And yet by many estimates sizable racial and have narrowed over the past ethnic gaps already exist by the time children thirty years, test score dispari- enter kindergarten. Indeed, according to one ties among American students report, about half of the test score gap be- remain significant. In the 2002 National As- tween black and white high school students is A 3 sessment of Educational Progress, 16 percent evident when children start school. of black and 22 percent of Hispanic twelfth- grade students displayed “solid academic Why is so much attention focused on school- performance” in reading, as against 42 per- aged children? One reason is the lack of data cent of their white classmates.1 Similar gaps on younger children. Many large and detailed exist in mathematics, science, and writing. In surveys include only older children, and response to such findings, policymakers have school-based administrative data necessarily devised high-profile education initiatives to exclude preschoolers. A second reason is that help schools address these disparities. The federal, state, and local policy focuses on No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, for exam- public education, which has traditionally ple, explicitly aims at closing achievement started with kindergarten. Finally, until re- gaps. And such policies are important. As cently the lives of preschool children were Christopher Jencks and Meredith Phillips, largely viewed as falling under the purview of two highly regarded social scientists, con- the family and outside the scope of public clude, “reducing the black-white
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