Carrying cargo and affording decarbonised urban mobility - the integration of cargo bikes into urban load-carrying practices A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography at the University of Canterbury by Jane L M Pearce University of Canterbury 2016 i This thesis is dedicated to Brenda Pearce (1929-1976), my inspiring and determined mother, who taught me to believe in myself, that a healthy dose of stubbornness can be a virtue, and somehow saved the money to buy me my first bicycle. ii Abstract The logistical requirements of moving goods and people within the urban environment are used to justify the use of motorised transport, within the domestic as well as the commercial realm. Serious environmental and social problems are linked to this reliance on carbon-intensive forms of mobility. Researchers and policy makers have turned their attention to alternatives to petroleum-based modes of urban travel and goods delivery. A new (old) cargo-capable technology, the cargo bike is resurgent in some, predominantly European, cities and has been the focus of European Union funded studies into its viability particularly within the urban commercial freight logistics chain. This thesis makes an original contribution to current debate on promoting cycling by examining the ability of the cargo bike to meet urban load-carrying needs. This is achieved by extending consideration, from a social practice theoretical perspective to the freight function of domestic travel. This contribution is achieved in four main ways. Firstly, I extend study of cargo-cycling beyond the acclaimed cycling cities of Europe, to the US city of Portland, Oregon and to Christchurch, New Zealand. I focus attention on cities which have, by Anglophone but not European standards, relatively high cycling modal share, but until recent years only limited cargo bike availability. Secondly, by attending to domestic load-carrying, the relationship between transporting children, shopping, and other domestic goods, and achieving other daily mobility needs - the complexities of domestic logistical practices - are uncovered. Thirdly, I examine the nuanced relationship between cycling and driving in achieving cargo-capable mobility. Fourthly, by approaching the study of cargo- cycling from a practice-theoretical perspective, which challenges the dominance of policy formulations which rely on technical innovation and/or individual behaviour change, I focus on what people actually do, and examine the implications of a social practice theoretical approach. By combining research techniques of empirical investigation with refinement of existing conceptual models, this study contests simplistic, dualistic representations of cycling versus driving. Instead, fluid nuanced relationships are identified, of bifurcation and hybridisation within and between load-carrying practices, impacted by the rhythms and (a)synchronicities of meeting load-carrying need. Complexity rather than the compartmentalisation of the practices which constitute daily life is iii highlighted. Cargo cycles are found to be uniquely placed in offering a low-cost-in- use decarbonised mode of mobility, which can mesh with combinations of domestic and commercial practices. Access to the practice of cargo-cycling is found to be limited by availability and cost. This research, therefore, calls for innovation which facilitates access to the relatively environmentally and socially sustainable practice of cargo-cycling, as a low-cost-in-use cargo-capable mode of transport. iv Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been completed without the knowledge, help, support and guidance of many people. Without exception, the individuals who agreed to participate in this research have been highly supportive and giving of their time. From their collective knowledge, I have learned a huge amount. I offer my appreciation and thanks to my primary supervisor Professor Simon Kingham who has challenged and encouraged me throughout the research process, remaining constantly positive and affirming. My thanks also go to Dr Glen Koorey, for his input and advice during early stages of this research. A number of other people have helped me in multiple ways to complete this journey. Without specialist subject librarian Dave Clemens, I would never have found Peter Kennedy in the UC library who thrice rescued my final draft from software conflict disaster – you both have my endless appreciation and thanks for your speedy, helpful and good natured problem solving when all else had failed. I am grateful for the financial assistance provided for my fieldwork through the award of a Claude McCarthy Fellowship, and financial support from the New Zealand Federation of Graduate Women (Inc) Canterbury Branch Trust Board, and the University of Canterbury Geography Students Conference Fund. To my friends who have known when (and when not) to ask about my research progress, thank you for your support. Special thanks go to my friend and mentor Associate Professor Imran Muhammad, who has believed in and encouraged me for so long, and to Eroica and Claire for reading and checking sections of my work. On a more personal level, my heartfelt gratitude goes to the team of people who found and treated my cancer which interrupted my research. Thank you to Malcolm Ward, and the Christchurch breast care professionals, for your knowledge, skill, professionalism, humanity and compassion. Thank you to Frances and Georgia for your friendship and awesome osteopathic and acupuncture skills, so crucial to me regaining my well-being – without you all, there would have been no thesis. Most importantly, arohanui to my partner Jane, who has made this whole enterprise possible by agreeing to move to Christchurch, supporting me through my recovery, v and working diligently to bring in the lion’s share of our income, while I made my way through this project. vi Table of Contents ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... V TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... VII TABLE OF FIGURES ...................................................................................... XIII TABLE OF TABLES ......................................................................................... XV ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... XVI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1 THE SCOPE OF THIS STUDY ................................................................................................................ 1 RESEARCH MOTIVATIONS ................................................................................................................. 2 DECARBONISATION CONTEXTS ........................................................................................................... 5 1.3.1 Climate change and the decarbonisation of transport ................................................... 5 1.3.2 Peak oil ............................................................................................................................ 7 1.3.3 Peak car ........................................................................................................................... 7 THE PEDAL CYCLE AS A SOCIALLY AND ENVIRONMENTALLY EQUITABLE SOLUTION FOR SHORTER TRIPS ............ 8 1.4.1 Encouraging cycling ....................................................................................................... 11 1.4.2 Enter the cargo bike ...................................................................................................... 13 PRACTICING CYCLING ..................................................................................................................... 15 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................. 17 PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL JUSTIFICATION ..................................................................................... 18 THESIS STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................................ 19 PART A – ACCOUNTING FOR CYCLING ........................................................... 25 CHAPTER 2 CARGO-CYCLING CONTEXTS – WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN? A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................................................ 27 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 27 GLOBAL CHALLENGES AT THE SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT/MOBILITY INTERFACE ......................................... 27 TRANSPORT AND EQUITY ................................................................................................................ 31 THE ROLE OF CYCLING IN URBAN MOBILITY ........................................................................................ 33 CARGO-CYCLING ........................................................................................................................... 36 CYCLE LOGISTICS ........................................................................................................................... 41 2.6.1 Commercial logistics .....................................................................................................