What’s in a Name? How migrants are changing social codes in a Nepali municipality Sarah Elisabeth Shrestha-Howlett Master thesis in Development, Environment and Cultural Change Centre for Development and the Environment UNIVERSITY OF OSLO 2018 © Author Sarah Elisabeth Shrestha-Howlett 2018 What’s in a Name? How migrants are changing social codes in a Nepali municipality http://www.duo.uio.no/ Print: Reprosentralen, University of Oslo II Abstract Everyday 1500 Nepalis of all different castes migrate overseas in pursuit of a better life, sending money home to family and returning when they can, often laden with foreign gifts. As a result, the economic capital of families and individuals in Nepal is growing, allowing many to escape from poverty, invest in the education of their children and generally enjoy more leisure time. With more money circulating among communities across Nepal, it appears that social codes are changing, moving from traditional ideas of caste to more economically rooted ideas of class. This thesis explores how out-migration from Nepal is impacting the social structure of an area called Waling. Inspired by Bourdieu’s theories of Capital and Habitus, I use a mixed methods approach to understand how an increasing ability to accumulate capital in its various forms is influencing how social position is determined. I consider the historical events that have helped shape Nepali society today, including the formation of the caste system and the rise of migration. I then detail how migration has changed perceptions of the caste system in Waling, and discuss how class appears to be growing in relevance. With this in mind, I question whether changing class also means changing caste. III IV Acknowledgements They say it takes a village to raise a child, and I believe the same can be said for this thesis. I am so grateful for the support and guidance I have received from many people throughout my research; this experience would not have been the same without them. Firstly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the people of Waling who over the years have welcomed me into their community; in particular, I wish to thank my informants who opened their homes to me and sacrificed their time to answer my questions. Thank you to Puja Sainju, who speedily translated and transcribed a number of my interviews and to Sarah Shackelford for connecting us. Community life is one of the things I miss the most about Nepal, and I am thankful to always find a welcoming home there. Secondly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Desmond McNeill, whose knowledgeable insights, constructive feedback and ongoing encouragement were invaluable to my work. Thank you to Anne-Line and Gudrun for making SUM the warm environment that it is, and for always being there to listen, talk with, or simply laugh with. And special thanks to my fellow SUM students for your friendships; each one of you is an inspiration and I’m looking-forward to seeing where the world takes us all. To my husband, Sudaman, my thanks cannot be adequately expressed. This thesis is as much his as mine, from helping me conduct interviews, to cheering for me right through to the end, his support has undoubtedly pulled me through the Masters course. To my son, Anuvhav Alexander, who truly is our great experience, thanks for injecting so much joy into life. And to my family in the UK and Nepal, for their love, patience and continuous encouragement even from so many miles away. V Table of contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................... III Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... V Table of contents ........................................................................................................ VI List of figures .......................................................................................................... VIII List of abbreviations and acronyms ........................................................................... IX 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 My Journey to Nepal ..................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Questions........................................................................................ 2 1.3 Notes on the Text ........................................................................................... 3 1.4 A Himalayan Mountain Trail: Overview of this Thesis ................................ 4 2 Breaking Borders: Nepal’s Relationship with the World, 1800s-Today ............. 6 2.1 The Waling Context..................................................................................... 16 3 Analytical Framework and Methodological Approach ...................................... 18 3.1 Understanding Social Position ..................................................................... 19 3.2 Bourdieu’s Theory of Capital ...................................................................... 22 3.2.1 Economic Capital ................................................................................. 22 3.2.2 Cultural Capital .................................................................................... 23 3.2.3 Social Capital ....................................................................................... 25 3.3 Bourdieu in the Context of Nepal ................................................................ 25 3.4 A Mixed Methodological Approach ............................................................ 28 3.5 Conducting Research as a Nepali Buhari .................................................... 30 3.6 Data Collection ............................................................................................ 33 3.7 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................. 39 4 Shifting Social Codes – Caste, Ethnicity and the Revolution of 1990 ............... 40 4.1 What’s in a Name? The History of Caste and Ethnicity in Nepal ............... 40 4.2 The Caste Revolution - 1990s and Beyond ................................................ 47 4.2.1 Caste in State Policies .......................................................................... 47 4.2.2 Caste in Practice ................................................................................... 49 4.3 Perceptions of Manual Labour and Caste at Home and Abroad ................. 52 4.3.1 Occupation and Social Position ............................................................ 55 4.4 Casting out Caste? ....................................................................................... 60 4.5 Summary ...................................................................................................... 63 5 “What can be done with wealth?” Increasing Economic Capital and the Rise of Class ........................................................................................................................... 65 5.1 Class............................................................................................................. 66 5.2 The Remittance Economy ........................................................................... 68 5.3 Investment Decisions and the Status Quo ................................................... 72 VI 5.4 A New Social Order? .................................................................................. 82 5.5 Summary ..................................................................................................... 83 6 Summary and Conclusion .................................................................................. 85 References .................................................................................................................. 89 Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 95 Appendix A ................................................................................................................ 97 Appendix B ................................................................................................................ 99 VII List of figures Figure 1: Labour permit trends 2008/09-2014/15 Source: (Ministry of Labour and Employment 2016) ..................................................................................................... 13 Figure 2: Syangja District, Waling Municiplaity (Nagarpalika) and surrounding rural municipalities (Guanpalika). Source: (Bhattarai 2017) .............................................. 17 Figure 3: Fieldwork area. Source: (Google Maps 2018) ............................................ 17 Figure 4: Migrants return to Nepal with 'original' quality electronics and blankets. Source: (Ojha 2015) ................................................................................................... 24 Figure 5: The Hindu caste system in Nepal. Source: (Nepal Federalism Debate 2015) .................................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 6: Ethnic groups in Nepal and their typical geographical location. Source: (Mapsland 2018) ........................................................................................................ 44 Figure 7: Average Monthly Salary by Occupation, based on questionnaire data. ..... 54 Figure 8: Average monthly