Research on New Towns New on Research First International Seminar 2006

Editor: D.H. Frieling Research on New Towns New on Research First International Seminar 2006

Research on New Towns First International Seminar 2006 r challenge of our time is the rapid urbanization of the world. A major challenge of our time is the rapid urban settlements play in What role may new towns as planned rise of the urban population? accommodating the incredible ‘International New Town In its first seminar, the newly created a critical reappraisal of the Institute’ in Almere, Holland, combined to present conditions and an past with a matter of fact approach simulation models to support assessment of the potential of decisions on the future. twelve lectures on these subjects ‘Research on New Towns’ offers Willem Oosterberg, Han Meyer, by Len de Klerk, Wil van der Most, Klaas van Egmond, Juval Michelle Provoost, Rudy Rabbinge, Ashesh Maitra, Elke Beyer and Portugali, Jan Kragt, Arnold Reijndorp, some conclusions by Dirk Frieling.

Research on New Towns First International Seminar 2006

D. H. Frieling (ed.)

INTI-seminar.indb 1 20-9-2007 9:27:41 INTI-seminar.indb 2 20-9-2007 9:27:54 New towns in development policy: a summary Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk, University of Amsterdam prof. dr. K. van Egmond, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP) The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization drs. W. van der Most, Nieuw Land Heritage Centre Lelystad Models and their use in urban planning prof. J. Portugali, Tel Aviv University Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas ir. W. Oosterberg, Institute for Inland Water Management & Waste Zoetermeer game Water Treatment (Riza) drs. J. Kragt, municipaltiy of Zoetermeer

Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective Growing pains of new towns prof. dr. ir. V.J. Meyer, Delft University of Technology prof. ir. A. Reijndorp, University of Amsterdam / Han Lammers Chair

New towns of the modernist experiment: New Town movement in India and the changing expectations and experience paradigms of development dr. M. Provoost, Crimson Architectural Historians prof. A. Maitra, New Delhi

The role of new towns in relation to rural development Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge, Wageningen University and Post-Socialist New Towns Research Centre E. Beyer M.A. Project Shrinking Cities / ETH Zürich

INTI-seminar.indb Sec1:1 20-9-2007 9:27:54 List of contents

5 Preface

7 15 31 41 59 73 prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk drs. W. van der Most ir. W. Oosterberg prof. dr. ir. V.J. Meyer dr. M. Provoost prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge New towns in The Zuiderzeeproject, Urbanization and flood Spatial composition of New towns of the The role of new towns development policy: a an example of cultiva- risk management in new towns seen from modernist experiment: in relation to rural summary. University of tion and colonization. vulnerable delta areas. a historical perspective. expectations and development. Amsterdam. Nieuw Land Heritage Institute for Inland Delft University of experience. Crimson Wageningen University Centre Lelystad. Water Management & Technology. Architectural Historians. and Research Centre. “New towns are very Waste Water Treatment much related to the “…to create a new (Riza). “…the elements that “Ten years later the “…the traditional idea of reform....” society in a well support urban qualities same spot had already instruments, however, organized environment.” “...floods are a risk and urban life…” been abandoned...” do no longer work.” that can be reduced, but never eliminated.” List of contents 2

INTI-seminar.indb Sec1:2 20-9-2007 9:27:55 83 103 115 121 131 153 prof. dr. K. van Egmond prof. J. Portugali drs. J. Kragt prof. ir. A. Reijndorp prof. A. K. Maitra E. Beyer M.A. Ecological decision ESLab (Environmental The Zoetermeer game. Growing pains of new New Town movement in Shrinking Cities. New models and their use in Simulation Lab). Municipaltiy of towns. University of India and the changing Perspectives on Urban Dutch planning. Tel Aviv University. Zoetermeer. Amsterdam / Han paradigms of develop- Development and Post- Netherlands Environ- Lammers Chair. ment. New Delhi. Socialist New Towns. mental Assessment “This small act of an “A town can be Project Shrinking Cities Agency (MNP). individual citizen had a considered a product.” “…the question is what “…to study the ETH Zürich. major impact on opportunities do new contemporary new “…you can also see the the whole building towns offer them?” towns for their “…bringing to light the basic contrasts in our industry.” performance in the conflicts and desires society.” socio-political context that are present in the of India.” city.”

175 Round table discussion 183 Conclusions - Prof. ir. D. H. Frieling

188 Participants List of contents 191 Colophon 3

INTI-seminar.indb Sec1:3 20-9-2007 9:27:56 4

INTI-seminar.indb Sec1:4 20-9-2007 9:27:57 PREFACE

A major challenge of our time is the rapid urbanization of the world. the knowledge on new towns and new cities as a way of solving In the period 1970 – 2000 – 2030 the urban population will rise from one third of 3 billion people, via half of 6 billion to two thirds them. Almere invited the University of Amsterdam, the Technical of 8 billion. Most of the new urban dwellers are living and probably University of Delft, the Amsterdam Vocational Training Centre, New will live in squatter areas around mega cities in Asia, Africa and Land Heritage Centre and the Public Library to join it in this effort Latin America. What role might new towns and new cities play in the to establish an International New Town Institute (INTI). An initial accommodation of this incredible rise of the urban population? agreement was reached at the end of 2005, leading to a preliminary Meanwhile, the generation of new towns established since the 1950s institute called INTI Founders to prepare the way. INTI Founders in Europe and elsewhere are confronted with their own challenges then decided to organize their first scientific seminar already in that may vary from new growth targets - such as Almere, that has 2006, choosing ‘Research on New Towns’ as its main theme, to test to double its present population of 180.000 people - to population and concretize its provisional research program on the three issues decline - such as some ‘shrinking cities’ in Middle- and Eastern mentioned above. Europe, with various other developments in population and employment for new towns in between these extremes. INTI Founders were happy to find Len de Klerk, Wil van der Most, And, of course, historically, new towns are part and parcel of the Willem Oosterberg, Rudy Rabbinge, Klaas van Egmond, Juval colonization of the world by the human species. Ever since ancient Portugali, Jan Kragt, Arnold Reijndorp, Asesh Maitra and Elke times rulers all over the world have founded cities to define and Beyer willing to give a valuable contribution to this first seminar and defend their territory, establish their rule, govern their land and to take part in the discussions on the research program. Later on, foster trade. Marit Geluk, Drs. E.F. de Roon Hertoge, Doreen Pinkus and Roy Paes prepared these proceedings of the seminar, edited by Dirk Frieling. In this perspective, Almere in 2004 decided, as part of its devel- INTI Founders are grateful to all of them, as we are grateful for the opment policy with regard to higher education, to initiate an trust and support given by Johanna Haanstra and Martine Visser, international institute on new town development worldwide. aldermen of Almere. As part of the Zuiderzee project, one of the major land reclama- We see ‘Research on New Towns’ as a good start of the new institute tion projects in the world, Almere can offer information on new and we plan this book to be the first of a series of INTI Dialogues. town development in rural and urban settings, going back all the way to when it was still a sea bed. By offering opportunities to students and professionals for research and education on this sub- Han Meyer, ject, Almere endeavours to do its bit in clarifying the problems Chairman INTI Founders

that stem from the urbanization of the world and to contribute to Preface 5

INTI-seminar.indb Sec1:5 20-9-2007 9:27:58 INTI-seminar.indb Sec1:6 20-9-2007 9:27:58 prof. dr. Len A. de Klerk University of Amsterdam

New towns in development policy: an introduction

Len de Klerk: Summary Education and career: Urban and Regional Planning New towns in development policy: an introduction University of Nijmegen (1971). Plan- ning Officer City of Deventer (1971- According to Howard’s regional growth model the traditional urban 1974). Assistant Professor Depart- fabric of the industrial town can make a contribution to social ment of Geography and Urban and reform. New towns are successors to Howard’s Social City as a Regional Planning, Free University regional planning model and address the urban form and Amsterdam (1975-1978). Senior economy, as well as the social structure and municipal organization. Planning Officer City of Rotterdam Important characteristics were community land ownership and (1979-1985). Head of Housing balanced communities. In Europe and North America the spatial Research, City of Rotterdam Deputy part of these reforms has been partly achieved. Urbanization’s new Director of Urban Development and form of a multi-centered pattern of cities has become an alternative Management, City of Rotterdam to spontaneous urban sprawl. This 1950’s and 1960’s policy was (1990-2000). Professor of Urban connected to spectacular population and economic growth. Three and Regional Planning (RPD-seat) main problems have emerged since the early 1980’s: University of Utrecht, 1999-2001. - the decrease of population and economic growth and a change Professor of Urban and Regional from an industrial to a service economy; Planning University of Amsterdam. - the failure of new towns to attract sufficient well educated and new towns in development policy: an introduction Chair Department of Geography, higher income groups - the old cities recovered from the crisis, Planning and International Develop- becoming popular habitats for these groups. ment Studies, 2002 Projects: - the population growth of most new towns exceeded employment (1) History of Dutch Spatial Plan- opportunities, causing large commuter streams. ning; co-author Prof. dr. Hans van There is a future for a new towns policy, provided that it is der Cammen. reinvented as a large scale regional urbanization concept and (2) The Origins of the Dutch Town concentrates more on creation of new economic activities than

Planning Tradition in the Nineteenth on housing. An example is the Chinese Shenzhen Zone, of which prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk: Century. Howard would have been proud. 7

INTI-seminar.indb 7 20-9-2007 9:27:58 INTI-seminar.indb 8 8 prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk: new towns in development policy: an introduction duced theoriginalconcept ofa Morrow’ (1902),whichintro- Howard, ‘GardenCitiesof To- the famousbookofEbenezer The readermaywellremember spatial andsocio-spatialconcepts. new townsisbuiltoneconomic- design andimplementationof tion growthinasociety.The specifically relatedtopopula- regard tonewtowns,theyare organization ofcitiesand,with mensions generallyshapethe any villageortown.Thesedi- cal, asarethedimensionsof are spatial,socialandeconomi- The dimensionsofnewtowns which iscalledShenzhen. gion justnorthofHongKong, and morespecificallyinthere- what ishappeninginAsianow, erlands inthepast50yearsto dled ournewtownsintheNeth- I willcomparethewaywehan- with regardtonewtowns,and make someremarksonreform reform. InthiscontributionIwill very muchrelatedtotheideaof In myopinion,newtownsare New =Reform New townsweretheanswer time ofconsiderablegrowth. 19th century,whichwasalso a revolution attheendof the concept duringtheindustrial Howard publishedhisoriginal was growingaswell.Ebenezer year 2000,whiletheeconomy the sizeofpopulationin and ofgreatexpectationsabout time oflargepopulationgrowth the 1950’sand1960’s.Itwas create newtownsweretakenin we seethatmostdecisionsto Netherlands, FranceorBritain, urbanization. Ifwelookatthe so, especiallyurbangrowthor been themainreasonfordoing 70 years,populationgrowthhas new townsduringthelast50to In societiesthathavecreated further development. of reformsandaresubjectto cepts arelinkedtothesekinds shows thaturbandesigncon- democratic government.History self supportingeconomyanda the the conceptsof new town.Howardintroduced balanced community social city , the , 1. Regionalurbanization. Howard’s GardenCityis the The mostessentialpart of controlled urbansprawl. lems whichwerecausedby un- tion andinfrastructuralprob- answer togrowingtransporta- the 1960’s.Theywerealso lands inthelate1950’sand of thebigissuesinNether- mass housing,whichwasone needed toprovidehighquality housing conditions.Theywere conditions andbadspatial to poorhealthandeconomic The morerecentnewtowns mum of36,000inhabitants. den cityshouldhaveamaxi- belts. InHoward’sviewthe gar- tion size,surroundedbygreen garden citiesoflimitedpopula- The aimwastocreatepleasant countries inWesternEurope. in Britain,butalsoother trial concentrations,notonly breaking downtheuglyindus- In thefirstplace that itisallaboutreforms. book carefully,youwillnotice because ifyoureadHoward’s was alsothestartofreforms, That wasthebeginning.Andit ited to,about250,000people. housing altogether,butnotlim- rounded byafewgardencities, combination ofalargercitysur- The socialcity,inhisview,isa den citybutthesocialcity. growth conceptisnotthegar- At theheartofthisregional not somuchanurbandesign. was aregionalgrowthconcept, regional urbanisation(ill.1) almost forgottenschemeof urban reform, 20-9-2007 9:27:59 . It in the Netherlands, France or land use in mind. Moreover, in In illustration 3 we see one of Britain all have limited popula- accordance with the ideas about the many schemes that were tions, most of them between new towns, they have all been produced in Britain, to relieve 60,000 and 150,000 inhabitants. built on cheap land in order to the city of London. This is an Almere in the Netherlands is one provide better housing for the example of ‘how it could be of the exceptions, heading for working population than exist- done’. 260,000, in the long term pos- ing towns did. sibly 400,000. Growth control Last but not least there is col- In the second place social reform lective or municipal land own- Adapting Howard’s scheme to in terms of a ‘balanced commu- ership. In English literature one real urbanization politics must nity’. The idea of a balanced often encounters the confusing be considered as an act of community is an important one expression ‘corporation’ or growth control. In the Nether- for planners in the 20th century, ‘municipal corporation’. I prefer lands this growth control had in new as well as in existing to translate it with ‘municipality’. two facets. The first was to towns. Nowadays we also talk 2. Garden city ‘t Gooi. The word ‘corporation’ used prevent uncontrolled urban about balanced communities in America in the 19th century sprawl like the German Ruhrge- in our urban neighbourhoods. also means ‘municipality’ in biet or northern England. Gov- Perhaps everybody has his own our terms. Land must be owned ernments of the 1950’s and associations with this term, but by the municipality in order to 1960’s considered this undesir- I think there is a quite clear gen- control the development of the able for social as well as spatial eral idea about its meaning. municipality as a whole. The fol- reasons. Metropolitan areas lowing examples will illustrate were considered places where In the third place functional this. vice flourished and people drift- new towns in development policy: an introduction land use was an important ed away from the mainstream of reform of Howard’s scheme. Illustration 2 shows a plan of values and norms. The spatial It can be found in all more the late 1920’s for a new garden factor was important too: New recent new towns. Stevenage city to accommodate the over- towns policy was an alternative in the north of London, Zoe- spill of Amsterdam’s working for two unwanted developments: termeer east of The Hague and population. C.B. Purdom wrote (1) urban sprawl, which would the French banlieues have all 3. Satellite towns around many books about new towns destroy the open landscape and

been planned with functional London (19). and garden cities. nature and probably would lead prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk: 9

INTI-seminar.indb 9 20-9-2007 9:28:00 to the loss of important recrea- It is all about living in a conven- have become part of general base of all this is a lack of popu- tion areas. And (2) the unlimited ient urban environment. demographic and socio-cultural lation growth. Remember that growth of cities, which would Illustration 5 shows how it is trends in society, such as popu- the decisions to construct new turn into uncontrollable urban done in the Netherlands these lation decline. In the year 2050, towns were taken in an era of agglomerations. In 1963 Jaques days. It shows part of the Wa- for example, Italy’s population considerable growth. P. Thijsse designed a map (Ill. 4) terwijk (water neighbourhood) will have shrunk by 25% and Since 1970 most western coun- of such a future urban pattern. by Frits Palmboom, in one of Germany’s by 20%. tries experience the so-called the new residential areas of The On different spatial scales, re- second demographic revolution Garden cities have been devel- Hague, a so called VINEXwijk. gional or urban, ageing leads because of the invention of the oped in the Netherlands, Eng- to a socially unbalanced popula- pill as an easy way of birth con- land and Germany. Raymond Today our new towns have tion distribution, which causes trol. This resulted in a substan- Unwin and Barry Parker invent- several problems to cope with, job shortages and the disman- tially limited population growth, ed the design principles of the for instance an ageing popula- tling of commercial and non- to be followed, as now seems garden city, while working on tion. It shows that new towns commercial facilities. At the clear, by population decline. plans for the private development of Hampstead Garden City. During the 20th century this new ‘design language’ for garden cities has of course been developed and adapted to local circumstances as well as new general developments like growing car ownership. In England, France, Belgium, the Scandinavi- new towns in development policy: an introduction an countries, Germany, the USA and the Netherlands numerous examples exist. A beautiful example is Brussels with some nice and carefully designed garden cities, where people are at the heart of the urban design. 4. Plan Jaques P. Thijsse (1963). 5. Waterwijk by Frits Palmboom. prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk: 10

INTI-seminar.indb 10 20-9-2007 9:28:00 Urban growth in Asia and the population across the con- last four or five decades growth tion explosion. On the left (ill.9) Africa (1995) tinents today (ill. 7). Evidently rates have been very high, but is the situation between 1500 Asia dominates. Within Asia they will decrease in the next and 2000, on the right (ill.10) Meanwhile, elsewhere in the there are two countries with four to five decades. Neverthe- the situation from 1960 until world a lot is happening, as is more than one billion people, less, the total number of people 2050. Of course different pro- shown by the distribution of China and India. This map (ill. is still growing, due to the com- jections are possible, for coun- 6) is 12 years old, but it still position of the population. The tries as well as for continents. shows where our planet is most world population is very young It depends on your views on the densely populated. It is also ap- and, even with fewer children social behaviour of people in parent that large parts of conti- per family than 25 years ago, it connection with future economic nents like Asia and Australia are will still grow to about 9 billion developments. virtually empty. people in the year 2050, most of them again in Asia and Africa. As mentioned before, the new Another chart (ill.8) illustrates towns in the old world suffer 6. Population distribution. population growth. During the These charts show the popula- from a lack of growth in society.

World population Global population growth number annual Asia 4.000.000.000 (billion) growth rate

Africa 800.000.000 1960 2.5 2 %

Europe 650.000.000 1980 4.5 1.7% new towns in development policy: an introduction L-America 500.000.000 2000 6 1.3%

N. America 330.000.000 2025 8 1.0%

Australia 30.000.000 2050 9.3 0.5%

7. World population today. 8. Population growth 9. Population explosion 10. Population growth prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk: 11

INTI-seminar.indb 11 20-9-2007 9:28:02 INTI-seminar.indb 12 12 prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk: new towns in development policy: an introduction was integratedinthenational velopment ofsinglenewtowns 1960’s. Intheoldworld de- that ofEuropeinthe1950’s and approach willbedifferent from end ofthe19 large industrialcitieshadatthe same kindofproblemsthatour present megalopoliseshavethe in Africa,becausemostofthe need fornewtownsinAsiaand It ismyviewthattherewillbea oped countries. be locatedintheleastdevel- lises in2015,27ofwhichwill that therewillbe33megalopo- is awealthycity.Itexpected them, onlyoneofwhich,Tokyo, people each.Nowwehave22of New York,withabout9million megalopolises: Londonand In 1950therewereonlytwo est predictions. ing for65%accordingtothelat- lived incities.Nowwearehead- 10% oftheworldpopulation the urbanregions.In1900only growth happens, planet asawholepopulation It isstrikingtoseethatonthe th century.Butthe particularly in oping change: Ibelievethatindevel- Something elsemustalso spatial scaleofthenewtown. politan areaastheappropriate the scaleofacitytometro- call ascaleleap,leapfrom make whatDutchgeographers For AsiaandAfricawemust urbanization strategy. policies. and instrumentsofeconomic ning, i.e.planning sue for economicmarkets.Theis- spatial planningshouldcater not spatialplanning,butthat new developmentchallengeis think thatthemainissueofthis the 1950’sand1960’s.Ialso solve thehousingshortagein North Americaweremeantto towns intheoldworldand been doneinthepast.Thenew given farmoreprioritythanhas nomic developmentmustbe and townsastheirnuclei,eco- should be new metropolitanareas economic plan- by themeans

at theendof1970’s.In the ing villagethatShenzhen was a longwayfromthesmall fish- people onabout5000hectares, was about600,000to1million get ofthefirstregionalplan electronics. Thepopulationtar- the exportindustry,especially omy, theagriculturalsectorand develop twosectorsoftheecon- This startedwithaproposalto start ofanewregionaltown. economy wascombinedwiththe Region, wherethestartofanew in China,especiallytheShenzen of fourspecialeconomiczones proved tobetheestablishment successful instrumentforreform reform. Lookingback,avery was astrongneedforeconomic had totallycollapsed.There In 1979theeconomyofChina idea ofthenewtown:reform. also anexampleofthegenuine But itisinterestingthat opment byeconomicplanning. of thisnewdevelopment:devel- from HongKong,isanexample The regionofShenzhen,notfar Reform isstillanissue! was meantfortheHong Kong nies. Theagriculturalexport were madebyforeigncompa- however, themaininvestments domestic. Thelast10years, in theShenzhenregionwere vestments inthesetwosectors first 10to15yearsthemainin- industries inShenzhen.Inthe and agriculturewerethemain As mentionedbefore,electronics garden city. administration ofhisnew his originalschemeforthe of reformHowarddesignedin That isreminiscentofthekind tive reformshavetakenplace. at leastfivedifferentadministra- period between1980and2005, administrative reform.Inthe development wastheneedfor important partoftheShenzhen Like inHoward’smodel,an new townonaregionalscale. lion illegally.Onecouldcallita hectares, ofwhomatleast1mil- ple alreadylivethereon20,000 is saidthat6to7millionpeo- lion peopleon4900hectares.It last planthetargetwas1mil- 20-9-2007 9:28:03 and Canton region of about To conclude them, Zoetermeer is another, List of illustrations / credits: 60 million people. The govern- but a third example is hard to ment, being responsible for new It does not make sense to com- think of. Most of them have not 1. Ebenezer Howard ‘Garden Cities infrastructure, built new rail- pare the Netherlands or Western become complete towns, but of Tomorrow’. ways and highways. Europe to China. But it strikes only new suburban areas. 2. C.B. Purdom As a special economic zone, the me that in both cases new towns 4. Jaques P. Thijsse Shenzhen region had two tasks: are about growth and reform, 5. Frits Pamboom, Waterwijk, to become (1) a hub for inter- about rational economic plan- History shows that high growth Ypenburg. national investments in China ning and rational spatial plan- rates also cause problems. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 . Various United and (2) a successful example ning. The Netherlands planned Nowadays the main problem in Nations reports. of economic reform for inland its new towns as a top down the Shenzhen region is residen- China. In the socialist econo- bureaucratic central model, tial accommodation, as is the my, this internal reform was the Chinese did the same with case in other regions. Malaysia, the path to the ‘socialist mar- Shenzhen and the other special Thailand and certain regions of ket economy’. The experiment economic zones. This was their India struggle with the problem became very sucessful thanks planning framework. For this of illegal land use and illegal to a period of very intensive framework nowadays PPP&C, migration of people. The Shen- economic growth. Private Public Partnerships & zhen region is very successful As a result of the fast growth Co-operation, has become far in attracting highly educated after 1995 many coordination more important than in the people from all over the country problems occurred between 1960’s in Europe. Asia and who start their own business- different sectors, between dif- Africa have already adopted the es. This was how the special ferent spatial scales of physical American model of PPP&C. economic zone was originally development and between social envisaged: to provide a measure new towns in development policy: an introduction and economic developments. To The present problems of new of freedom that is not available solve these coordination prob- towns in the Netherlands are in other parts of the country. lems new administrative and low growth rates and ageing. commercial centres have been We have built about 10 or more founded. new towns. When assessing the present situation, one can call only two or three of them

a real success. Almere is one of prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk: 13

INTI-seminar.indb 13 20-9-2007 9:28:03 INTI-seminar.indb 14 20-9-2007 9:28:03 Mrs. drs. W. van der Most Nieuw Land Heritage Centre Lelystad

The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization

Wil van der Most, Summary MLS, MEd. (with praise) was born in Zwolle in 1961. She The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization studied Library Science in Deventer and The Hague and ‘The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization’ Philosophy and History will focus on the greatest and most costly land reclamation project of Education in Nijmegen. in Dutch history. The Zuiderzeeproject includes the enclosure and Since July 2005 she is Head partial reclamation of the Zuiderzee, and the planning and laying of Research and Director of out of the Wieringermeerpolder, Noordoostpolder, Oostelijk and Collections at the New Land Zuidelijk Flevoland. 165.000 hectares of fertile new land and more Heritage Center in Lelystad then twenty settlements (new towns) were added to the Netherlands (www.nieuwlanderfgoedcentrum.nl) in about eighty years. The polders were a playground for new Before that she was initiatives and experiments. Decision making and planning were General Manager of the constantly accompanied by scientific research and experimentation. Flevoland Center for Social Attention will be given to the Plan Lely (1891) that formed the and Historical Studies and basis for this project, the passage of the Zuiderzee Act (1918) by has published several parliament, and the great role that the government played in the reference books and agricultural and socio-economical development of the polders. articles on the history of the Special attention will be given to the colonization policy and

Province of Flevoland and rational selection of farmers and first settlers of the IJsselmeer- The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization the Zuiderzee and IJsellake polders, and the shift in goals of land reclamation for expansion territory. of farm land to urban expansion (recreation and nature reserves Wil van der Most lives in included) of the northern Randstad. Almere Buiten ([email protected]). drs. W. van der Most: 15

INTI-seminar.indb 15 20-9-2007 9:28:04 INTI-seminar.indb 16 16 drs. W. van der Most: The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization Sense’ Wal inhis‘InPraiseofCommon adequately bymr.Coenvander has alreadybeenhandledmost of AlmereandLelystad;this planners ortheactualplanning I willnotdiscussindividual esting forvariousreasons: The Zuiderzeeprojectisinter- The lowpartoftheNether- that isbywatermanagement. protect lifebyartificialmeans, scape inwhichwehavetried to consists ofpolders,aflatland- Almost halfoftheNetherlands gerial historyoftheproject. more onthepoliticalandmana- this text,beitthatwillfocus - Planningmethods:fromprod- - Colonizationpolicyandthe - Thecentralroleplayedbythe - Thestartoftheprojectand process planningafterwards. uct planningtillthe1970’sto shift inthispolicyovertime. for theproject. government anditsimplications its outcome. 1 . Thattitlewouldalsofit publication, titled‘Polders!’ shown here own lookandfeel.Themap history anddevelopment,its where everypolderhasitsown lands isalandscapeofpolders, in manyways. which nowreflectsthishistory ince wascreated,Flevoland, eighty years.Awholenew prov- of newland.Thattooksome gain ofsome165,000hectares ern andSouthernFlevoland,a North-eastern polderandEast- mation oftheWieringermeer, project resultedintherecla- was notseenherebefore.The ment. Thesizeofithowever years ofDutchwatermanage- one stageinsomethousand tion oftheZuiderzee,isonly enclosure andpartialreclama- The Zuiderzeeproject part ofDutchidentity. reclamation oflandhasbecome and watermanagement.The relationship betweentheDutch of poldersindicatesthestrong our country.Thislargeamount represents the4.000poldersin (ill. 1) , fromarecent (ill. 2) , the 2

1.Polders! 20-9-2007 9:28:04 First a bit of history. 3 Zuiderzeeproject, 165.000 hectares The Zuiderzee came into being in the Middle Ages. As Lake Polder Dry Cultivation/ Hectares Almere became an arm of the development North Sea, the great loss of land stimulated the Dutch to regain Wieringermeerpolder 1930 '30 20,000 these losses. The heavily navi- gated Zuiderzee around 1600 Noordoostpolder 1942 '40 - '50 48,000 had the shape shown on this map of 1866 (ill. 3). Oostelijk Flevoland 1957 '60 - '70 54,000 The first plan to enclose and Zuidelijk Flevoland 1968 '70 - '90 43,000 reclaim the Zuiderzee (ill. 4) came from Hendric Stevin, who 2. The Zuiderzeeproject in 1667 in his ‘Wisconstich en Filosofisch bedrijf’ proposed to “dissipate the violence and venom of the North Sea by link- ing the Frisian islands together and to the mainland”. At the time his proposal was unwork- able. Two centuries later, the introduction of steam power led to a torrent of new plans to

drain the Zuiderzee. It would The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization eventually be the Zuiderzee Association, founded in 1886, that presented the so called Lely Plan in 1891, which became the real starting point.

3. The Zuiderzee, 1600. 4. Plan Hendric Stevin 1667. drs. W. van der Most: 17

INTI-seminar.indb 17 20-9-2007 9:28:05 INTI-seminar.indb 18 18 drs. W. van der Most: The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization 5. CornelisLely. suggested orderofreclamation: At thebottomonefinds the ing damandthefuturepolders. Lely Plan all Dutchagriculturalland. This that timenearlytenpercentof to reclaim200,000hectares,at reports, provingthefeasibility He producedeighttechnical for thisZuiderzeeAssociation. neer CornelisLely From 1887onwardscivilengi- (ill. 6) showstheclos- (ill. 5) worked 6. Lelyplan1891. enlarge thefreshwaterbasin western polderwasreduced to Public Works by Lelyhimself,thenminister of Committee in1892,presided on basedareviewbyState by Lely, were made.First Some smallchangesinthisplan south-western polder. and thenthesouth-eastern first theWieringermeerpolder (ill. 7) : thesouth later 7. Statecommittee1892. governmental involvement in enterprise. Thereasonsfor this trast toatraditionofprivate tral government.Thisin con- eventually beexecutedby cen- decided thattheprojectwould At thattimeithadalreadybeen reasons. der waswidenedfordefensive western andsoutheasternpol- and thecanalbetweensouth 8. Thefloodingof1916. agricultural land. and peacefulexpansion of ment onfoodindependence stimulated thoughtsinParlia- the GreatWarof1914-1918, Secondly, thefaminecausedby (ill. 9) flood haddone boat toseethedamage ister ofPublicWorks,wentby project. Lely,atthattimemin- promotion oftheZuiderzee- which gaveanextraboosttothe the floodofJanuary1916, closure oftheZuiderzee.First Two factorspromptedthe trepreneurs. and longtermtobeleften- too intricate,large-scale,costly proposed byCornelisLelywere the projectarethatworks showsthefloodedareas. (ill. 8) . Themap 20-9-2007 9:28:06 9. Flooded areas 1916 10. Zuiderzee Act 1918. 11. South-western polder.

The Zuiderzee Act (ill. 10), offi- Enclosure dam and a bigger had to bear the consequences of the Ministry of Public Works. cially called ‘The Act on the En- south-western polder were its own acts. In those years the In 1919 the Zuiderzee Project closure and Partial Reclaimation planned (ill. 11). This south- Zuiderzee Board, to advise gov- Directorate, responsible for of the Zuiderzee’, was passed western polder has yet to be ernment, and a Zuiderzee Fund, planning and design of the pol-

by parliament on June 14, 1918. created as originally planned. to finance the Project, both ders, and all civil engineering, The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization The Act envisaged the enclosure Incorporated in the Act of 1918 started work. The works were of the sea and the reclamation In addition to the Act of 1918, were established. Until 1967 mainly executed by an associa- of the two western polders in a a Relief Act in 1925 regulated this Zuiderzee Fund was part tion of four major contractors, fifteen year period for almost relief grants to former fisher- of the National Budget, thus the Company for the Execution 50 million euro. In 1925 it was men of the Zuiderzee and relat- enabling parliament to control of the Zuiderzee Works, known decided to execute the whole ed business. As the government the project. Later on the fund in Dutch as the MUZ.

project. A new trace of the was responsible for the project it became part of the budget of In 1930 the Wieringermeer drs. W. van der Most: 19

INTI-seminar.indb 19 20-9-2007 9:28:08 INTI-seminar.indb 20 20 drs. W. van der Most: The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization normally providedbymunicipal as educationandhealth care, ment, includingfacilities such was socio-economicdevelop- of theDevelopmentAuthority the newland.Animportanttask areas alongtheborderlakesof ture reservesandrecreational and Almere–creatingna- also twonewcities–Lelystad only developruralareas,but a moregeneralone.Itdidnot a mainlyruralauthorityinto ity (IJDA)andchangedfrom polders DevelopmentAuthor- formed intotheIJsselmeer- In 1963theWDAwastrans- Public Works. accountable totheMinisterof Directorate andAuthoritywere mary cultivationofthesoil.Both land itselftoensureproperpri- The Agencyfirstfarmedthenew porary exploitationoftheland. agricultural companyfortem- agement. Italsocontainedabig land usepolicyandman- authority combinedresearch, agricultural area.Tothisendthe the newlandintoaproductive was establishedtotransform Development Authority(WDA) expressed inreportsbysocial given onDutchtelevision and social taskandadvicethat is way theIJDAperformed this many similaritiesbetween the old neighbourhoods.Thereare development ofneworeven still beusedtodayinthesocial expertise andknowledgecould ment ofnewtowns.Partthis tise onsocio-economicdevelop- evidently gainedalotofexper- organization, overtheyearshas past? TheIJDAasadevelopment What canwelearnfromthe enterprise. recreational facilitiestoprivate appropriate institutionsandof ernment, ofnaturereservesto over tonewlycreatedlocalgov- development ofthenewtowns of itsplanstohandongoing implemented thefirstphases process planningasIJDAonly Product planningchangedinto the colonizationpolicy. gion. Inthiswayitimplemented cultural life,fromsportstoreli- population, employmentand section oftheIJDAtookcare authorities. Thesocio-economic ...liveability...... futureperspectives... Provide forprofitablefarmsandbusinesses... Now wesaythatitisimportant IJsselmeerpolders. IJDA handlednewcomersin the ety iscomparabletotheway the ers totakeanactivepartin soci- His advisetostimulatenewcom- gration studies,twoyearsago. professor inmigrationandinte- ple byprof.dr.H.B.Entzinger, scientists nowadays,forexam- doctor whenneeded. with shopsnearbyandafamily IJDA providedgoodhousing of physicalwell-being.Then the Now wetalkabouttaking care along basicservices. farms andbusinessconditions Then IJDAprovidedprofitable vide appropriateconditions. to offerasafehavenandpro- 20-9-2007 9:28:09 ...physical well being...... mental well being...... social life...

professional background of new Let us get back to the Zuiderzee - settlers was promoted. Neigh- project. Its original aims were: bourhood associations were founded and the IJDA stimulated - To protect the surrounding celebrations like Sinterklaas, areas against flooding and to Christmas and Memorial Day improve their drainage. Nowadays a lot of discussion - To create a fresh water basin. takes place about the liveability - To reclaim fertile agricultural of neighbourhoods, then atten- land that would provide housing... and recreation... tion was paid to a nice house permanent employment. with a garden in a green (and - To improve infrastructure and Now we discuss taking care of tlers were checked. quiet) neighbourhood. communication between the mental well-being. Then the Now all mainstream political Lastly prospects, future per- west and north of the

IJDA accommodated religious parties think government should spectives and opportunities for country. The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization life by building churches and pay more attention to social personal improvement are often seeing to a minimum pres- cohesion. Then the IJDA sup- cited in reports on migration Looking back now, after almost ence of three clergymen, one ported all initiatives to start and social integration. Then ninety years, these original aims for every denomination. Also, recreational and sports clubs. extra attention was given to still hold in every respect. The during the selection procedure Neighbourhood contacts were good education and extra plan has stood the test of time. – I will address this further on – encouraged and in neighbour- facilities for economic support In the long run, even more func-

motivation and suitability of set- hoods a mix of religious and of business development. tions have been added to the drs. W. van der Most: 21

INTI-seminar.indb 21 20-9-2007 9:28:10 INTI-seminar.indb 22 22 drs. W. van der Most: The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization the Noordoostpolderto60 and enlarged from24hectares in port becamemotorized. Plots scaled upandurbanized.Trans- zation. Thepoldersalso were their farmforongoingurbani- Dutch farmerswhohadtoleave new landwasmadeavailableto industrialize agriculture.The policy becametoscaleupand Australia. Inthe1950’s,EEC der oremigratedtoCanada a farmintheNorth-easternpol- and manyfarmerstriedtoget War therewasaneedforland policy. AftertheSecondWorld of nationalplanningandhousing of thepoldershasbecomepart agricultural useonly.Planning The poldersarenolongerfor project: landscape. - Toenhancenatureand - To offeropportunitiesfor - Tohousepeople,asthe - To helpimprovethestructure recreation. the past100years. Dutch populationtripledin of thesurroundingareas. (ill. 12) Haarlemmermeer reclamation Zuiderzee Projectwiththe1851 shown bestifwecomparethe tude towardsreclamationsis This immensechangeinatti- pleasant environment. well organizedandaesthetically tural areaandanewsocietyin to createaproductiveagricul- primary aimoftheprojectwas lead inlandreclamation.The history thatthestatetook It wasforthefirsttimeinDutch policy. history ofthecolonization Let usnowhavealookatthe and recreationalareas. oped, aswerenaturereserves Lelystad andAlmereweredevel- more inSouthernFlevoland. described by social demographer described bysocialdemographer negative consequences were the Haarlemmermeerand its This survivalofthefittest in guidance andorganization. badly drained,deprivedofany settlers tocultivatesoilthatwas sez passer’,whichleftthefirst prevailed of‘laissezfaire,lais- tury, themoreliberalpolicy . Then,inthe19 th cen- 12. Haarlemmermeerproject should evenincludestarting up teachers. Government care family doctors,clergymen and like shops,schools,churches, farms, butalsobasicprovisions to providenotonlyhousesand leaving thepolderstatehad settlers fromlosingfaithand substantial. Topreventthefirst suffered byfarmerscouldbe would beenormous,andlosses years therisksinpolders financial loss.Duringthefirst necessary topreventmiseryand selection ofsettlerswouldbe far moreactiveandrational attitude wouldberequired.A to succeed,atotallydifferent if theZuiderzeeProjectwas 1925. TerVeenconcludedthat H.N. terVeen,inhisthesisof At thattime,afarmofover 50 the populationofnew land. try allshouldberepresented in and differentpartsofthecoun- Farmers ofdifferentreligions was animportantsocialissue. to the1950’s,selection At thattime,fromthe1930’s pected tobesuccessful. choosing settlerswhowereex- cants perfarm.Selectionmeant in 1937,therewere15appli- for 40farms.Threeyearslater, 1934 therewere190applicants In theWieringermeerpolderin then therewerefarmsavailable. there werefarmoreapplicants Selection wasneededbecause part ofcolonizationpolicy. So selectionprocedurebecame until then. in familylife,privatedomain in economicandsociallife,even State intervenedmoreand first halfofthe20thcentury the endof19thcenturyand change ofheartinsociety.At tion waspartofamoregeneral of theStateinlandreclama- This changeofviewontherole religious andsociallife. 20-9-2007 9:28:11

hectares was regarded as a big in social and religious life and farm. Family farms had less in sports clubs. What attitude than 10 hectares, the average did a catholic woman have to- farm being between 10 and 20 wards a protestant neighbour? hectares. Various sizes of farms Did she have a driver’s license? should be made available. Fur- How would she cope with break- thermore, the new polders, ing away from her old home being a national project financed and family? We have to remem- by the people, should absorb as ber that until the middle of the many labourers as possible and 1950’s the bicycle was still the provide even more small farms most important means of trans- than economic arguments portation for many settlers and would allow: the polders should the use of a telephone was not a give people an opportunity to 13. Selection procedure. general practice at that time. work their way up in society. chance to obtain a farm. One visit the families who were ini- The selection procedure changed All kinds of papers had to be of the economic requirements tially selected and inquire into slightly over time but was still filled in by an applicant (ill. 13). was the availability of a mini- the capacities of the wives as a in use when the first settlers of Sadly, though understandable, mum capital. Furthermore the mother and housewife. Dronten arrived in April 1962. these records have all been applicants had to have enough Later the attention shifted from destroyed for reasons of privacy. agricultural education in order At the New Land Heritage Center the selection of all first inhab- The selection of settlers was to qualify. Information was ob- in Lelystad there are numerous itants to selection of only the based on economic as well as tained as to their capacities and interviews on tape with the first farmers, retailers and key fig- socio-biological criteria, which particular attention was given inhabitants of the IJsselmeer- ures like the family doctor, the

again shows the full measure of to the condition of their farms polders, as well as with the men clergyman, the headmaster of a The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization state intervention in private life or those of their parents or em- and women who selected them. school etcetera. These key fig- at that time. ployers. After a first selection Research has shown that future ures were expected to play lead- All healthy and capable young on paper, a final selection was immigrants were expected to ing roles in building up a new Dutch married farmers from made after visiting the families, have progressive views and to society. well to do families and of all checking references and add- make extensive use of agricul- political and religious de- ing a certificate of good health. tural machines. Special attention This shift in the selection policy

nominations would be given a A woman inspector would also was given to future participation was also due to the fact that the drs. W. van der Most: 23

INTI-seminar.indb 23 20-9-2007 9:28:11 INTI-seminar.indb 24 24 drs. W. van der Most: The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization a changeincolonizationpolicy In Almeretheseinsightsled to ably welltodoyoungfamilies. by beingpopulatedreason- since newtownsgenerallystart self-evident butitwasnot, and theneat.Thismayseem winners andlosers,theslovenly the old,richandpoor, be populatedbytheyoungand society. Thenewtownshould had tobeareflectionofDutch that thepopulationofAlmere by theProjectbureauAlmere, Almere totheview,expressed These changesinsocietyledfor paternalistic andcustodial. selection procedurelookrather and self-realization,madethe the emphasisonemancipation 1960’s, democratizationand the culturalrevolutionof intensive selection.Moreover, on withthiskindoflabour practically impossibletocarry become toolarge.Itbecame to theIJsselmeerpoldershad ban. Theflowofnewsettlers less agriculturalandmoreur- IJsselmeerpolders hadbecome ning ofthenewsettlements in the creationofnewtowns, plan- At thestart,withnotradition in Lelystad, AlmereandZeewolde. his roleinthedevelopmentof pecially VanDuinisknownfor by selectingatownplanner.Es- an activeroleinplanning,ifonly authorities havealwaysplayed creased. Thedirectorsofthese and scopeofthenewtownsin- specifically intheUK,asscale visited newtownsabroad,more with professionalliteratureand of IJDAcertainlywerefamiliar Later ondesignersandplanners al polderplanoftheDirectorate. IJDA justhadtofillinthegener- cal planners,commissionedby were small.Asarulethephysi- ning staffsoftheseauthorities very welldefined.Theplan- of physicalplanningwerenot rate andtheIJDAindomain between theZuiderzeeDirecto- Originally thedemarcationlines and bringyourmom.” phrase: “ComeliveinAlmere recruit newsettlerswiththe and thestartofacampaignto ingerwerf (1934) Middenmeer (1932)andWier- the villages.Slootdorp(1931), farms, farmworkerslivedin pected. Farmerslivedontheir 15,000 inhabitantswereex- would beenoughaslessthan for thetimebeingthreevillages (ill. 14) assigned 14locationstovillages Zuiderzee Directoratehad The parcellationplanofthe ued hiscommission. IJDA, foundedin1930,contin- was appointedasadvisor.The town plannerGranpréMolière A yearlaterthearchitectand road systemwasreadyin1926. polder anditsmaincanal defining theoverallformof Directorate. Thepolderplan, were designedbytheZuiderzee polder planandvillageplans the Wieringermeergeneral ning intheNetherlands.For emergence ofregionalplan- the polderscoincidedwith central intersectionsofthe main the centreofpolder,at the were locatedclosetogether at . TheIJDAdecidedthat (ill. 15,16)

14. TheWieringermeerpolder. 15. Middenmeer,1934. 20-9-2007 9:28:11 canals and roads. All construction plan of 1938 shows a set- size, physical and social content tion activities were performed tlement pattern of five villages of the villages, in relation to new by IJDA’s Building Bureau led by around a central town. Com- estimates of size and composi- A.D. van Eck. Later on, Kreiler- pared to the Wieringermeer the tion of the population. oord was developed (1957). standard parcel size increased In 1948 the report ‘Population Similarities between these three from 20 to 24 hectares and road centres’ on the old and the new villages are: transport overtook water trans- land by Takes was published, its port. During and directly after purpose being to determine the - A green zone along the main the war, as reclamation work size, place, function and number road running through the was interrupted, more research of new towns in the yet to be re- centre of the village. was done on the distribution, claimed polders (ill. 18). 16. Wieringerwerf, 1938. - Side roads for local access. - three churches as focal points in the layout - a plan enabling natural growth. - Schools, shops, a bank and a community centre (as was customary throughout the development of the polders).

In the North-eastern polder the initial polder plan (1932) again was designed by the Zuiderzee Directorate (ill. 17). The IJDA

adjusted this plan with regard The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization to town locations and landscape design. Various architects/ planners were engaged in this adjustment and IJDA employed two social geographers to assist 17. The Noordoostpolder. in the planning. The parcella- 18. Settlements and their service functions by Takes. drs. W. van der Most: 25

INTI-seminar.indb 25 20-9-2007 9:28:12 INTI-seminar.indb 26 26 drs. W. van der Most: The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization trative functions(ill.19) settlements andtheiradminis- 45 A-towns.Hedidthesame for polders, fourB-townsand40 to C-town inthecentreof the could beprovidedwithone concluded thatthenewpolders Based onthisschemeTakes - theA-town,villageswithless - theB-townof5.000to10.000 - theC-townofmorethan hierarchy ofsettlements: on theoldlandandsetupa Takes studiedcomparableareas ministrative functionsbyTakes. 19. Settlementsandtheirad- than 2.000inhabitants inhabitans servinglimitedregions large regions 25.000 inhabitantstoserve . Emmeloord andtenvillages. 20. TheNoordoostpolder the North-easternPolder Also in1948,thefinalplanfor ing gridalongtheborders, leav- consisted ofasmall-scaleplant- this cross.Thelandscapedesign by omittingthesouthernleg of the openareathatwascreated age monument,wassituatedin of Schokland,aUnescoherit- spatial division.Theformerisle functional crossandbasisfor line Urk-Vollenhoveservedasa Kampereiland andthewest-east The north-southlineLemmer– the ruralpopulation. to provideadequatefacilities lages atareasonabledistance town, surroundedbytenvil- shows Emmeloordascentral (ill. 20)

theory. 21. Christaller´scentral-places offices. Alldetailshowever were ing Bureauandfivebyprivate designed bytheIJDA’sBuild- Five ofthevillages were - Church buildingspositioned streets. - Long - A confined centralopenspace. villages are(ill.22) Similarities inthedesignof places theory scheme ofChristaller’scentral- be seenasavariationonthe Emmeloord. Thefinalplancan ing anopenlandscapearound would dominateanyother. in suchawaythatnochurch (ill. 21) : . Verlaan 1947. 22. DesignMarknesseby anticipate allaspects,estima- chance. Theplannerstried to process nothingwasleft to (ill. 23) definite situation,astatic ideal planning; thedesignshowsa be characterizedasproduct- in the1930’sand40’scan ria. Thevillageplansdesigned hydraulic andagriculturalcrite- plans weremainlybasedon North-eastern polderthe In theWieringermeerand decided bythisbureauaswell. . Duringthisplanning 20-9-2007 9:28:13 23. Village plan Emmeloord. 24. Structure plan for Dronten 25. Lelystad - the original plan 26. Structure plan for Lelystad by Van Tol, 1959. by Cornelis van Eesteren.

tions of the polder population In Eastern Flevoland, Lelystad, The initial masterplan for Lely- included. the future provincial capital, stad was made by the advisor Dronten (ill. 24), a regional of the Zuiderzee Directorate, In Eastern and Southern Flevol- centre and two villages, Swift- C. van Eesteren. (ill. 25) The fi- and the general polder plans erbant and Biddinghuizen were nal structure plan was made by were based on a multitude of actually built. Various other the IJDA (ill. 26).

considerations. Planning after the villages that were originally The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization Second World War can be char- planned, were not developed, At the end of the 1950's out- acterized as process-planning mainly due to changes in ward radiation of the Randstad as it became part of national mobility and rise in living stand- became government policy (ill. and regional planning policies. ards with regard to availability 27). Flexibility of plans became an of services. People preferred to 27. Southern Flevoland village asset. live in larger villages and so Delft and Amsterdam planners patterns and the relationship

fewer were needed. and social scientists populated with Randstad. drs. W. van der Most: 27

INTI-seminar.indb 27 20-9-2007 9:28:14 INTI-seminar.indb 28 28 drs. W. van der Most: The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization the centres. 29. TheapprovedStructure Plan1974forAlmereHaven-oneof 28. ProjectburoAlmere. connect thevariouscentresin was allottedtonatureand to becomeAlmere.Muchspace the multi-centeredcitythatwas function, formandambianceof groups, discussedthedesired urban views.Numerouswork the formerruraltraditionwith 28) the ‘ProjectbureauAlmere’ inthe1970’sandreplaced (ill. 30. Muchspaceisallotted to nature. no longerthereandeveryhouse- the 1980’sfarmworkerswere optima forma an exampleofsuburbanismin The villageofZeewoldewas duced frequent busserviceswasintro- tern afine-meshednetworkof this multi-centeredurbanpat- (ills. 29and30) (ill. 31and32) . . In developed bythesameauthori- The factthatallpolderswere elsewhere intheNetherlands. distinguished fromplanning the polderscouldnolongerbe water andforests.Planningin phasis wasonliving,recreation, worked elsewhereandtheem- hold hadacar.Mostinhabitants 20-9-2007 9:28:16 ties, the Zuiderzee Directorate I expect this to change soon. Notes and the IJsselmeerpolders De- After writing the history of the velopment Authority, meant development authorities, the 1 C. van der Wal, In Praise of Com- 2 A. Geuze, F. Feddes ed., Polders! : that ongoing experiments could New Land Heritage Centre in mon Sense. Planning the ordinary : gedicht Nederland (Rotterdam : NAi in time lead to expertise. It is Lelystad has started writing a a physical planning history of the Uitgevers, 2005). often said that this also meant book on the life and work of new towns in the IJsselmeerpolders that little originality is shown in its most outstanding designer: (Rotterdam : 010 Publishers, 1997). 3 R.H.A. van Duin and G. de Kaste, the actual plans. I do not agree Teun Koolhaas. The book will Thesis Groningen University. The pocket guide to the Zuyder with this. The planners may not be published in 2007.4 Zee project (Lelystad : IJsselmeer yet be known to the public, but Polders Development Authority: [1985]).

4 Remco van Diepen, Teun Koolhaas. Polderperspectieven en waterfront- en (Lelystad : Nieuw Land Erfgoed- centrum / Almere : CASLa, 2007).

List of illustrations / credits:

1. From: Polders! : gedicht Neder- land, A. Geuze, F. Feddes ed., NAi Uitgevers, 2005.

All other illustrations: New Land

Heritage Center, Lelystad; Archives The Zuiderzeeproject, an example of cultivation and colonization Zuiderzeevereeniging and Rijksdienst voor de IJsselmeerpolders.

31. Zeewolde. 32. Zeewolde: Structure sketch 1969. drs. W. van der Most: 29

INTI-seminar.indb 29 20-9-2007 9:28:19 INTI-seminar.indb 30 20-9-2007 9:28:19 ir. W. Oosterberg Rijkswaterstaat - RIZA

Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas

Willem Oosterberg Summary is a senior advisor at the department of spatial Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas planning of Rijkswaterstaat-RIZA. The harmonization of urbanization and flood risk management is a He conducts surveys of newly evolving issue in water management in the Netherlands. The international policies on Netherlands has a long tradition of successfully combating flood spatial planning and risks and waterlogging by technical measures, which put little water management. restraint on urbanization. Instances of waterlogging and near- Previous projects include a floods of rivers in the mid ‘90s led to a change in the flood policy. decision support system to This policy, ´Water Policy in the 21st Century´ emphasizes “space assist the decision on future for water”. The policy is quite successful in making room for the water levels in the IJsselmeer rivers and in decreasing waterlogging in new urban areas. A recent lake area and aquatic- policy process - Water Safety 21st Century – introduces the safety ecological inventories of chain in the form of three main strategies – prevention, pro-action wetlands in the Netherlands and preparation - and proposes to use all strategies. These and the Romanian part of strategies are illustrated and evaluated by a description of the ap- the Danube Delta. He holds a proaches in a number of flood-prone cities outside the University degree in surface Netherlands. water quality management. Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas ir. W. Oosterberg: 31

INTI-seminar.indb 31 20-9-2007 9:28:20 INTI-seminar.indb 32 32 ir. W. Oosterberg: Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas

This partisthemosturbanized is locatedwellbelowsea level. western partoftheNetherlands Most ofyouareawarethat the A reddelta Town Institute. the researchagendaofNew ends withsomesuggestionsfor prone areasaroundtheworld.It affairs inotherurbanizedflood compares thiswiththestateof and floodriskmanagement, tempt toreconcileurbanization overview ofthepoliciesthatat- Netherlands faces;itgivesan introduces theproblemthat Water Management.Thispaper of Transport,PublicWorksand partment oftheDutchMinistry is thefreshwateradvisoryde- Rijkswaterstaat –RIZA,which from mypositionasadvisorof opportunity tolookatthisissue the pastyearsIhavehad issue inwatermanagement.In agement isanewlyevolving zation andfloodriskman- The reconciliationofurbani- Introduction grey. Plannedurbanexpansionsinthenextdecadeare inred. delta. Theblueareaisbelowsealevel.Existingurban areasarein 1. ThewesternpartoftheNetherlandsisanurbanized floodprone Waterlogging - rural Waterlogging -urban River floods Lake floods Sea floods Types offloods WATERLOGGING FLOOD SAFETY 2. (left)Variousfloodtypes. 21 Water Policyinthe of floods grouped basedonthesetypes safety andwaterloggingcanbe rural andurbanareas.Flood lake floodsandwaterloggingin sea floods,followedbyriverand of floods–themostseriousare part isatriskfromvarioustypes for urbanizedareas a reddelta,wherestands an urbanizedflood-pronedelta, large partoftheNetherlandsis of theGNPisbeingproduced.A of thepopulationlivesand65% part ofthecountry,where55% the Netherlandshasbeen con- nated. Fromthemid1990’s can bereduced,butneverelimi- However, floodsareariskthat the world,andarecompulsory. flood safetyarethehighestin with success.Thestandardsfor floods bytechnicalmeans.And dition offightingthesetypes The Netherlandshasalongtra- st Century (ill. 2). (ill. 1). This 20-9-2007 9:28:20 fronted by instances of floods safety by giving more room to and near-floods of the major the rivers is well on track rivers and serious waterlogging - the process of tackling water- (ills.3). This, together with the logging in rural areas is well prospect of climate change and under way, although the soil subsidence, has led to a amount of additional space change in the Dutch flood pol- reserved for water is not very icy. This policy, the Water Pol- high. icy in the 21st Century, can be captured by one slogan: more 3. Serious instances of near river floods and waterlogging in the In the urban arena, progress is space for water. Water should 1990s. slower and more difficult. become a leading factor and a On the issue of urban water- structuring principle in spatial logging: planning. There should be less - the new policy has been quite reliance on technical measures successful in the layout of new such as dykes and pumps; rivers urban developments (ill.4). For should be given more horizon- example, a spatial reservation tal space to accommodate extra for water in the order of 10% discharges; areas should be re- of the area is quite common in served to store surplus rainfall; new developments. periods of higher groundwater - waterlogging is seldom the levels should be accepted. decisive factor in the choice of location of new urban devel- Success of the policy opments however. - the policy has led to little

The policy has now been in change in the handling of Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas place for five years and its im- waterlogging in existing urban plementation is well under way. areas (eg. rebirth of old canals It has been quite successful on in city centers) a number of issues: - as of yet no demands are made 4. Finding space for water to prevent waterlogging in a new urban on urbanization from the

- the process of improving flood development – the case of Hengelo perspective of flood safety. ir. W. Oosterberg: 33

INTI-seminar.indb 33 20-9-2007 9:28:21 INTI-seminar.indb 34 34 ir. W. Oosterberg: Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas

strategies 2008. a policydocumentbytheendof safety. Theprocesswillleadto of thepresentpolicyforflood process evaluatestheadequacy appear tobeself-evident: progress intheurbanarena The reasonsfortheslow Safety 21 a newpolicyprocess-Water WV21 is the occasion for the formal WV21 istheoccasionforformal Safety chainandfloodrisk Water Safety21 - it isnearlyimpossibleto‘un- - space inurbanareasisexpen- - waterlogging isonlyoneof - the consequencesofaspatial In 2006astartwasmadewith ‘empty’ likewater develop’ spaceintosomething sive urban arena the multitudeofissuesin urbanized partofthecountry as itinvolvesthemostdensely areas wouldbefarreaching, policy forfloodsafetyinurban st Century(WV21).This st Century 5. Threebasicstrategiesforthereconciliationofurbanization andfloodriskmanagement. management of urbanizationandflood risk strategies forthereconciliation can begroupedintothree basic to reducefloodrisk.Theselinks sent varioustypesofmeasures consists offivelinksthatrepre- flood policy.Thesafetychain the safetychaininDutch introduction oftheconcept The firststrategy, Restraints on urbanization safety chain Links inthe measures rnil Avoidthe Principle Typical (ill. 5). investment in urbanization flood prone altogether r-cinPeeto rprto epneRecovery Response Preparation Prevention Pro-action problem eeeNn Intermediate None Severe Avoid areas pro-action and , pumps, retention surge barriers, Dykes, storm Reduce flood urbanization process. puts aseriousrestraintonthe areas. Evidently,thisstrategy urbanization infloodprone by preventinginvestmentsand avoids theproblemaltogether, iar tous–dykes,surgebarriers the strategythatismostfamil- that afloodwilloccur.This is tion, reducestheprobability The secondstrategy, probability areas Strategies Water resilient Early warning Emergency buildings planning Reduce thedamagebybeingwellprepared Drills preven- Communication Coordination where. restraint onurbanization else- claim somespace,butput no of thisstrategy:thesemeasures can beconsideredanexample passes andsecondarychannels, ures suchasdykelay-backs,by- Rivers, whichreliesonmeas- tion. AprojectlikeRoomforthe very fewrestraintsonurbaniza- and pumps.Thisstrategyputs Emergency measures compensation Rebuilding Aftercare Damage 20-9-2007 9:28:23 The third strategy consists of the three links: preparation, response and recovery, which are generally considered together – I refer to this strategy as preparation, the reduction of flood damage by being well prepared for a flood. Typical measures are early warning, emergency planning, coordination of evacuation and a rapid recovery after the flood. These measures can set restraints on the way cities are built and organized.

As indicated above, until now the emphasis in the Netherlands has been on prevention. Other countries apply a different mix 6. Left: Dhaka, a dyked city in a highly fllood-prone area (dyke in yellow, road system in red, water of strategies. system in blue). Right: a project developer tries his luck in the flood-prone area outside Dhaka where urban development is formally not allowed. Dhaka the strategy of prevention - this planners. Outside the city, the and build mounds as a flood-safe Dhaka, the capital of Bangla- area is urbanized rapidly and water manager attempts to basis for construction. desh, is a city that is growing uncontrollably. Bangladesh is protect the flood plains from

rapidly in an area with a very too poor to finance large scale city encroachment – the strategy New Orleans Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas high flood risk. The city is encir- dyke projects. The choice where of pro-action. In this, he is less cled by a dyke and surrounded to build dykes determines how successful. Project developers Like the Netherlands, New by rivers that flood every year. the city will grow. buy paddy rice fields and try to Orleans is confronted with vari- Flood safety is a prime require- The water manager is well aware sell them to prospective house ous flood types: hurricane re- ment for urban growth, but once of this process and is in a strong owners (ills. 6) Project develop- lated storm surges, river floods

an area has been dyked – that is position to negotiate with city ers circumvent the regulations and waterlogging of the urban ir. W. Oosterberg: 35

INTI-seminar.indb 35 20-9-2007 9:28:23 INTI-seminar.indb 36 36 ir. W. Oosterberg: Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas

preparation facing thehurricanerisk was the city,mainstrategy for the disasterofKatrinastruck surges duringhurricanes.Until little protectionagainststorm tection againstriverfloods,but dykes thatgiveadequatepro- area. Thecityisencircledby on theintensityofhurricane, surges byhurricaneswaspreparation. risk ofstorm 7. Left:NewOrleansisconfrontedwithvariousflood types. Middleandright:priortoKatrina,themainstrategyface (ills. 7.) Depending wrong, whichmayjustify the Still, duringKatrinaalot went authorities arewelldescribed. ments forcooperationbetween of foodandwater.Arrange- what theyshouldbringinterms routes. Peoplearewellawareof transformed intoone-wayexit for evacuation.Highwaysare different zonesareappointed neighbourhoods. At the moment neighbourhoods. Atthemoment port, publicparks,cohesive aspects aswell–publictrans- ient andmoreperfectin other city thatismoreflood resil- is anopportunitytocreatea floods inanurbansetting. not arobuststrategyforlarge conclusion thatpreparationis The rebuildingofNewOrleans the cityasitwas,quickly as many citizenswanttorebuild City plannersfavourthis, but of thestrategypro-action. cities beavoided?–anexample er andhardesthitpartsofthe the redevelopmentofdeep- the footprintofcity–should new city.Oneofthekeyissuesis city plannersaredesigningthis 20-9-2007 9:28:25 possible. Pro-action can be encouraged Summing up will avoid past mistakes. From in a number of ways the perspective of the WV21 As a consequence of the Katrina - parties responsible for spa- In the past century the Nether- process, two questions may be disaster, there is a strong de- tial decisions must take flood lands has relied on one strategy: relevant for the New Town Insti- mand from the public and local safety aspects into account prevention. This is changing tute: authorities for more emphasis - this can be done as a gradual slowly. The Water Policy for the 1. Is it possible to design a city on the strategy of prevention, in change in emphasis from a 21st Century emphasizes more or town that can withstand a the shape of a comprehensive long term perspective, as a space for water. This policy deep flood? The emphasis of dyke system along the whole rapid change in spatial deci- has led to a more pro-active this town is on preparation. coast of Louisiana. If this de- sions will be very expensive approach to waterlogging in the When a flood is imminent, mand is met, will the newly pro- - boundary conditions for spa- layout of new urban areas. The the town could evacuate or tected area be urbanized, as is tial decisions may be set. WV21 policy process, which is stay put. During the flood the case in Dhaka? - the usefulness of compart- currently under way, appears to there will be deep water in ments – to steer and slow put more emphasis on prepara- the streets and surrounding Preliminary recommendations for down the flooding process – tion and pro-action with regards areas; vital infrastructure the WV21 process will be investigated flood safety in urban areas. The is probably affected; it may - attention will be paid to the question whether urbanization take many weeks before the The WV21 progress report to protection of vital infrastruc- and agglomeration should be area is drained again. The Parliament gives the first con- ture (such as ICT, water and accomodated by more preven- return to normal of this town clusions and an outline of the energy provision) and vulner- tion, or should be steered by should not take too long. The future policy. From the stand- able objects (such as hospi- pro-action, is still open. adjustments necessary for point of urban planning, the fol- tals) preparation should be afford- lowing elements are of interest: Suggestions for the research able and not interfere with Preparation will receive more agenda of the New Town Institute the functioning of the town Prevention continues to be the attention when there is no flood.

mainstay of the policy - disaster management must be The above analysis is concerned 2. What would a gradual shift Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas - the flood safety levels of dykes put in order within two years, with urbanization in general of urbanization to higher may be adjusted to reflect the especially with regards to and has not focused specifically grounds, a large scale proc- present value (in terms of in- organizational aspects on ‘new towns’. New towns ess of pro-action look like? vestments and population) of - the possibility of introducing have the appeal that they can be Should this be envisaged as the protected areas insurance for major floods will ‘placed’ and designed accord- the creation of new cities or

be investigated ing to new ideas in a way that the expansion of existing ir. W. Oosterberg: 37

INTI-seminar.indb 37 20-9-2007 9:28:27 INTI-seminar.indb 38 38 ir. W. Oosterberg: Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas

7. PhotosHansBalfoort. CamielvanDrimmelen. 6. Photoontheright: 1. NieuwekaartvanNederland. List ofillustrations/credits: flood pronearea? the townsthatremainin – economical,socialfor And whataretheprospects moves, whostaysbehind? mensions ofthisshift–who cities? Whatarethesocialdi- 20-9-2007 9:28:27 Urbanization and flood risk management in vulnerable delta areas ir. W. Oosterberg: 39

INTI-seminar.indb 39 20-9-2007 9:28:27 INTI-seminar.indb 40 20-9-2007 9:28:28 prof. dr. ir. Han Meyer, Delft University of Technology Spatial composition of new towns seen from a historical perspective

Han Meyer (1951) is Professor Summary of Theory and Methods of Urban Design, TU-Delft since 2001. He Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective graduated as an engineer of architecture and specialised in Starting from a point of view that urbanism is a matter of ‘the urbanism at the TU-Delft longue durée’, and that the composition of a New Town should be Faculty of Architecture in 1979. lasting, we might wonder in which way the spatial composition of a From 1979 - 1990 he worked as New Town is able to ‘absorb’ social, technical and spatial develop- an urban planner for the City of ments in the course of time. Rotterdam. In 1997 he finished his The planning and design of a New Town is a special process, dissertation on City and Port - because it puts forward the essence of the meaning, content and Transformations of Port cities. position of a town or city in a very clear way. I would like to focus He is a member of the Scientific on three aspects of the design of a New Town: Committee of Europan, member 1. the city as a condition for a civic society; of the Flemish Fund for 2. the relation between urban form and landscape-morphology; Scientific Research and 3. the position of the city in a larger urban network. member of the Research Advisory Board of the Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective Netherlands Institute for Spatial Research (RPB). He has published books concerning the transformations of port-cities, Dutch urban block, the Dutch the fundamentals of the Water cities and the present discipline of urbanism, the state-of-the-art of Dutch development of the urbanism.

prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 41

INTI-seminar.indb 41 20-9-2007 9:28:28 INTI-seminar.indb 42 42 prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective of the20 town?’ Mostofthenewtowns ‘What makesanewtownreal we couldanswerquestionslike towns isevenlonger.Perhaps wide theexperiencewithnew new towndevelopment.World- 1,000 yearsofexperiencewith The Netherlandshasabout sons forthefuture. into theirevolutiontolearnles- towns presentedherewilllook The historicaloverviewofnew make atownsuccessful,such as Of coursemoreisneeded to ties andinitiativesmayhappen. individual andcollectiveactivi- complexity inwhichallkinds of cial environmentofenormous ent kindsofurbanlife,itisaso- A realcitycontainsmanydiffer- ditions thatsupportcomplexity. come acityandtodevelopcon- years. Acityneedstimetobe- city afteronly10,20oreven30 ficult toassessthesuccessofa Time isveryimportant.Itdif- nomic andculturalsense? development inasocial,eco- provide andfacilitatenewurban to becomearealtown?How gling withthisquestion.How th centuryarestrug- 1. Urbancomplexity. ling ofitsbuildingblocks,is im- and streetpatternsparcel- DNA’, consistingofurbanspace ly, onthelocallevel,‘urban al foritseconomicrole.Second- its regionalcontextiscondition- level, thepositionofatownin are important.Firsttheregional In generaltwolevelsofanalysis traction foroutsiders. joy foritsinhabitantsandanat- age ofthecity,areasource and buildingsenhancetheim- beauty. Beautifulpublicplaces be multifunctional.Andthe par- tion. Theinfrastructureshould one typeofeconomicorienta- town isnotonlydependent on should bemultiplesothat a development. Theorientation fundamental importancetoits handled intownplanningof urbanity, makethewaythisis being themaincriteriumofreal Complex formsofurbanlife, and transformation. portant foritspotentialgrowth 2. lar to20 this cityhashadproblemssimi- and reconstructionofitscentre, ample. Becauseofthebombing Rotterdam mayserveasanex- ible. celling systemshouldbeflex- ble orientation asdiversepossi- investments toguarantee an Rotterdam hasmadeenormous activities. Forthatreason not ed dependenceonitsharbour Rotterdam: Multipleorientation. (ill. 2.) (ill.1). th centurynewtowns. , toavoidaone-sid- 20-9-2007 9:28:28 3. Urban boulevards as a multifunctional infrastructure. 4. Flexible parcel systems in Rotterdam and 5. Groningen.

only the east-west connections, kinds of commercial, cultural, entire system was redesigned that support urban qualities or the waterway infrastructure, economic and social activities during the post war period. and urban life the next ques- were developed, but also the will find a place. The urban boul- This was done in order to at- tion is: how did the different roads and railroad infrastruc- evard combines street oriented tract larger building and eco- generations of new towns deal ture in other directions. buildings with public space that nomic activities. However, this with this? accommodates public transport new parcelling system made it Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective Something else Rotterdam dis- and car traffic as well as cyclists more difficult to absorb differ- From the 11th century onwards covered is that urban life is not and pedestrians. The boulevard ent kinds of activities. In Gron- four generations of new towns only concentrated in the city offers a wide variety of urban ingen, for instance, these can can be distinguished. centre. It is important that the facilities that can easily change be absorbed rather quickly, be- urban infrastructure links other over time. cause small parcels may change parts of the city to the urban hands more easy (ill. 5). centre by connections such Rotterdam has a rather flexible

as boulevards (ills. 3). Here all parcelling system (ill. 4). The When considering the elements prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 43

INTI-seminar.indb 43 20-9-2007 9:28:29 INTI-seminar.indb 44 44 prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective 6. Newtowns11 9. Frisiantowns(14thcentury) 8. TownsintheEast(14thcentury) 7. PortsintheWest(ca.1270–1400) 6. Latemedievalnewtowns(ca.1270-1400) 5. TownsinHollandduringthe13thcentury 4. Townsasaresultofrulerstownplanningandpolicies(ca.1200–1270) 3. PortsofFlemishZeeland 2. Townsfromthesecondhalfof12thcentury 1. Oldesturbansettlements(11th–12centuries) th till14 th century. which RotterdamandAmster- tury tween the11 towns wascreatedroughlybe- The firstgenerationofnew founded inthe13 A goodexampleisGoedereede, ceeded inbecomingrealcities. new townsthathavenotsuc- It isinstructivetotakealookat and water. against theinfluenceofwind be combinedwithprotection cess tothetraderoutescould preferably situatedwhereac- position. Newsettlementswere lands had(andhas)astrategic from easttowest,theNether- routes fromnorthtosouthand trade. Atthecrossroadsoftrade nearly alwaysdirectlylinkedto This newtowndevelopmentis to landreclamation. Netherlands isstronglyrelated New towndevelopmentinthe had beeninventedandapplied. land reclamationtechnologies this floodpronedeltabecause establish urbansettlementsin tury (ill. 7) (ill. 6). , thesameperiodin Itwaspossibleto th andthe14 th or14 th th cen- cen- 20-9-2007 9:28:30 8. Goedereede became completely enclosed by land.

town to dig new canals, until finally people gave up and the town became completely enclosed by land (ill. 8).

Illustration 9 shows the city of Goedereede on a map by the famous 16th century Dutch cartog- 9. 16th century map of rapher Jacob van Deventer. It is Goedereede by Dutch still on the edge of the island, cartographer Jacob van Deventer. but as the sedimentation expanded around it, the town was The same process that created forced to change its economy favourable conditions for the from trade to agriculture. harbour city in the first place also closed the entrance to its This process resulted in a port. It was common in the 11th strange combination of building century to reclaim land from dry types in the city. You will find Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective sand plates, elevations in the harbour related buildings with sea, and to protect it against farms right behind it, orientated 7. Goedereede, founded in the 13th or 14th century. floods with hand built dikes. towards the agricultural econo- This created the necessary con- my that came later. Eventually dam were founded. The latter which once was a relatively im- ditions for sustainable settle- the town lost its connection to two have managed to become portant harbour town, failed. ment. But in this case the ongo- the sea completely and conse- important cities nationally and Why so? ing process of sedimentation in quently also nearly all its con-

internationally. Goedereede, front of the harbour forced the nections to the outside world. prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 45

INTI-seminar.indb 45 20-9-2007 9:28:32 INTI-seminar.indb 46 46 prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective dam hasbeenbuiltonthe dikes dam. NowalsoaroadtoRotter- delharnis connectedittoRotter- line totheharbourcityof Mid- Very muchlaterasingle tram 10. Goedereede,proposalStrootmanLandscapeArchitects. Landscape architectsproposed ants oftheRandstad.Strootman small touristresortforinhabit- The townnowaimstobecome a and damsoftheDeltaworks. 1900, 2000. 11, 12,13.Rotterdam,1600, bour the city,intoarecreation har- the mostimportantelement of to redesignthecanal,formerly (ill. 10) . 14. Inlandwaternetwork1600. were mainlydestinedfor agri- reclamation projects,which most ofthemarerelatedto land new townsintheNetherlands, As forthesecondgeneration of ways (ill.14) by anintricatenetworkofwater- was connectedtoitshinterland as the17thcenturyitsharbour exactly theopposite.Asearly (ills. 11,12,13) also primarilyrelatedtothesea land. ForRotterdam,whichwas lationship betweenwaterand text becauseofachangingre- connection withitswidercon- ample ofatownthatlostits Goedereede isanextremeex- . , thestoryis 20-9-2007 9:28:35 A

B 16. Large scale land reclamation was made possible.

cultural use. place in the 16th and 17th cen- Three examples may clarify tury, more specifically by the inthis: Middenbeemster, Hoofd- vention and improvement of the dorp and Colijnsplaat (ill. 15). It windmill (ill. 16). The Beemster, C is rather astonishing to see that at the time one of the biggest these towns maintained their polders north of Amsterdam, agricultural structure for three was a private initiative based on to four centuries. These towns a rational plan. Land reclama- are fine examples of durability tion and city development were Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective and sustainability, fashionable transformed from trial and error concepts nowadays. They owe into rational planning. this quality to the continuity of their economic base. Simon Stevin, played an im- 15. New Towns 16th -19th centuries. portant role in this process by A. Middenbeemster 1612. Large scale land reclamation summarizing the principles of B. Hoofddorp 1860. was made possible by the tech- city development in the Nether-

C. Colijnsplaat 1560. nological revolution that took lands. This remarkable man was prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 47

INTI-seminar.indb 47 20-9-2007 9:28:37 INTI-seminar.indb 48 48 prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective In Stevin’sconceptofthe ideal cities. be foundintraditionalDutch m. Thismeasurementcan often fitted inaparcelof100by city strip ofcityblocksinhisideal This wasexactlythesizeofone 1,000 to1,200metreslong. of about100metreswideand with largeagriculturalparcels this periodintheNetherlands, into thecommonlandscapeof His idealcityfittedexactly tual framework. generates apowerfulconcep- aspects ofcitydevelopment technical, politicalandsocial of thefactthatcombining public. Itisagoodillustration new civilsocietyintheRe- and politicalmanifestabouta he wroteamorephilosophical technical booksandinventions cal thinker.Inadditiontohis also apoliticalandphilosophi- ters tothePrinceofOrange,but on financialandmilitarymat- neer andaninfluentialadvisor not onlyahighlytalentedengi- (ills. 17and18) . Oneblock

a waterwayfortransport, pub- of canalswithmultipleuses as on thewatersystem:anetwork city theurbanstructureisbased 17 and18.Simonstevinsidealcityfittedexactlyintothe common landscape. 19 -21.ThelayoutoftheBeemster. ready commonpracticein cities along thecanals.Thiswas al- up theinteriorsofbuildings lic sewerandamirrorto light the city. tem wasthebasicframework of in Hollandthen:thewater sys- 20-9-2007 9:28:40 laat was founded. It was to serve as a basis for the workers of the polder, but also as a station for shipping the agricultural produce to the big cities Zierikzee and Rotterdam.

On this inverted map Colijns- plaat can be seen in the south (ill. 22). The town was located 22. Inverted map of Colijnsplaat. 23. A very small 24. Strong central urban space. immediately next to the mouth parcelling system. of the creek to the right of it, where the water was relatively Water elements were not only chants. day it exists more or less in its deep. But the land around it was used for transport, but they also original shape. The town fitted relatively low and wet, which constituted the main elements The layout of the Beemster fol- very well into the framework means low quality agricultural of public space. Their appear- lows the same design rules that of the parcelling system of the land. However, the deep water ance and quality would induce can be found in the treatise of Beemster itself. For that reason nearby made it a suitable place the most prominent citizens to Simon Stevin (ills. 19 - 21). The it could be extended quite eas- for a new town, to the benefit of build their homes along them. position and role of the market ily. Middenmeer could stay the the landowners at the time. Public buildings, public space, squares of Stevin’s ideal city are way it was planned 400 years The town has a very small par- churches and the prince’s pal- comparable with the intersec- ago until this very day: a local celling system (ill. 23). It is very ace were carefully situated in tions of the polder roads of the service centre for the farmers in much like the present day par- relation to each other. The pal- Beemster, which served as pub- the polder. celling system of our ‘Vinex’- Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective ace was not situated in the mid- lic spaces and focal points for areas, with almost the same dle of the city but at its edge: it public life in this area. The same story can be told dimensions. It is a suitable envi- was part of the city but it was about Colijnsplaat, on a land ronment for pedestrians. There not the most important element The most important example is reclamation in the south-west- is a strong central urban space in its composition. That central the main town, Middenbeem- ern province of Zeeland. The between the city hall, the har- position was given to the cen- ster. Its function was meant to reclamation area was diked in bour entrance and the central tral market place bordered by be the central trading point for the 16th century and at the same church, which is used for all

the houses of international mer- agricultural products. Until to- time the small town of Colijnsp- kinds of ceremonies (ill. 24). prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 49

INTI-seminar.indb 49 20-9-2007 9:28:41 INTI-seminar.indb 50 50 prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective 17 to theaspectsthatarepartof veloped withoutconsideration meer isapolderthatwasde- 26 and27) this categoryisHoofddorp to growrathersubstantiallyin The onlyplacethatsucceeded town (ill.25) for theeconomicfutureof to offerthebestperspectives At themomenttourismseems itants doublesinthesummer. sort wherethenumberofinhab- town changedintoatouristre- agriculture andtransport.The marginalized duetochangesin street, butthetownhasbeen There isalsoaveryniceMain 20 land reclamationperiodof the towns isdirectlyrelatedto the The fourthgenerationof new one ofthemainairportsEurope. proximity toSchipholAirport, Randstad andbecauseofits made possiblebythedevelop- cally locatedinthe20 mainly becauseitwasstrategi- Hoofddorp becamealargercity, as importantpublicspaces.Still th th century centurypoldercities,such . . TheHaarlemmer- (ill. 28) th . Itwas century (ill. 25. Colijnsplaat2000. 26. Hoofddorp 1900. 27.Hoofddorp2000. 26. Hoofddorp1900. project. same istruefortheZuiderzee gence ofanewsociety. The be conditionalfortheemer- environments isconsidered to parable. Creatingnewphysical south-west ofHollandarecom- after thefloodof1953in Rotterdam andtheDeltaworks sterdam, thereconstructionof general extensionplaninAm- For thatmatter,projectslikethe society. land andnewtownswitha proach aimstocombinenew ist project’.Thismodernistap- example ofagreat‘modern- as anillustrativeandimportant ment ofnewpolderscanbeseen Netherlands isthatthedevelop- The remarkablethingaboutthe 29 and30) reclaim largetracksofland dike toclosetheZuiderzeeand and stonestobuildthelong the enormousamountsofsand were instrumentalinhandling electric motor.Thesemachines nal combustionengineandthe as thesteamengine,inter- ment ofnewtechnologies,such . 20-9-2007 9:28:42 (ills. 31. Slootdorp.

28. Land reclamation of the 20th century 33. Lelystad - original plan of Cornelis van Eesteren.

Slootdorp (ill. 31), designed by 32. Nagele. Piet Verhagen and Granpré Mo- liere cum suis. It is composed of streets and street oriented Different opinions existed of buildings. Nagele (ill. 32), on course about the character the other hand, has a modernist 34 (above) and 35. Lelystad was Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective of this new society. And the layout: buildings are standing supposed to become a central Zuiderzee works are an illustra- free in an open landscape, with city. tion of the Dutch polder model: a completely independent road by creating villages in a tradi- system. Lelystad was supposed to be- tional as well as in a modern Another important example is come the central city of the way, different opinions were Lelystad. This design by Cornelis new land (ills. 34 and 35). But accommodated. An example van Eesteren (ill. 33) shows a first the van Eesteren plan was

29 and 30. New technologies. of a more traditional village is change in approach. Originally, turned down as being too ambi- prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 51

INTI-seminar.indb 51 20-9-2007 9:28:43 INTI-seminar.indb 52 52 prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective previous newtowns. ways completelydifferent from special position.Itisinmany new towns,Almereoccupies a In thepresentgeneration of (ill. 36) the westernpartofcountry sion ofexistinglargecitiesin policy toavoidmassiveexpan- lite townsbecamethenational later, developmentofnewsatel- Amsterdam. Sometenyears on it,asanexpansionareafor an extensionoftheGooiarea with somethinglookinglike the supervisionofEoWijers the firstmapsappearedunder Only threeyearslater,in1961, that lookslikeAlmereexisted. position andwithoutanything plans withLelystadinacentral Until theendof1950’sonly fourth generationofnewcities. Here wecanseetheriseof more andperipheral. while centralpositionbecame celled altogether.Sotheerst- was postponedandlateroncan- reclamation oftheMarkerwaard tious andtooexpensive.Then . 36. MasterplanAlmere,1978. 37. Almerewith180,000inhabitants. the cityandrelationship position ofthegroundplan of to theirurbanDNA,the com- Special careshouldbegiven position isnolongersufficient. of Almere,evenagoodregional day, andespeciallyinthecase In thecaseofnewtownsto- position. mainly duetoaweakregional become realcities.Thiswas first threegenerationsdidnot tions? Mostnewtownsofthe cities dealwithdifferentcondi- How dodifferentgenerationsof a multicenteredcity. Almere uniqueistheconceptof lite towns.Thirdly,whatmakes of today,likeAlmere,aresatel- agriculture, whilenewtowns trade, harbourfacilitiesand fined economicactivitieslike towns werebasedonwellde- Previous generationsofnew of itsundefinedeconomicbase. span oftime.Secondly,because developed withinsuchashort that suchanenormouscityis ed, atleastintheNetherlands, First itssize:itisunprecedent- 20-9-2007 9:28:45 between the road network or units (ills. 38). The strict sepa- street pattern and the parcelling ration between the main roads system. and the neighbourhood cul de sacs is characteristic of Almere. In 1971 ‘Explorations’, the pre- Building along the main roads is liminary plan for Almere, was prohibited. This seriously ham- published. The masterplan pre- pers recognition and orienta- sented here is a 1978 design by tion when you drive between the Teun Koolhaas cum suis. green walls of these parkways. The only links to the city are the This is the present day situation various uniform entrances to of Almere with 180,000 inhabit- the neighbourhoods. ants (ill. 37). It could be called ‘soft modernism’. It is a gen- 38. Cognitive maps: No coherance among residential units. eral characteristic that is seen in many new towns of the 1960’s scale development of modern separated from the residential and 1970’s, especially in West- housing estates in the post-war districts, is modernistic. The ern Europe. decades. It introduces variety neighbourhoods may vary very instead of uniformity. Refer- much from each other, but the Almere in fact is a hybrid town. ences are made to homo ludens fact that each neighbourhood is With regard to its regional po- and the concepts of Colin Rowe a fixed element with fixed par- sition and its size the question and, in the Netherlands, to New celling that inhibits individual arises: is it primarily a satellite Babylon of Constant. changes is modernistic again. town of Amsterdam or rather a These maps have been drawn Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective more or less independent city in This same approach can be in the Almere atelier by Peter Flevoland? recognized in Almere, with its de Bois, Karen Buurmans and enormous variety of different Frank de Josselin de Jong, with With regard to urban DNA, so- neighbourhoods. At the same students from the universities called ‘soft modernism’ deals time, the main elements of of Delft and Wageningen. They with issues like the reintroduc- the modernistic approach are analyzed the link, or rather the tion of the human scale, as a re- maintained. The mono-func- missing link, between the main

action to the dull image of large tional main road system, strictly road system and the residential prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 53

INTI-seminar.indb 53 20-9-2007 9:28:46 INTI-seminar.indb 54 54 prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective 39.Differenttypesofinfrastructurefor everykindoftransport. kind oftransport types ofinfrastructureforevery an example.Therearedifferent But changeispossible.This in somecitiestheUS,which The sameisbeingproposed the neighbourhoodsbehind it. boulevards, linkeddirectly to be transformedintourbanized work. Thegreenparkwayscan tential forchangeinthisframe- is anenormouscapacityandpo- (ill. 39) . There life. Theregulationsystem must can supportanewkindofurban sion andtoensureasystem that needed toprovidesocialcohe- rules andregulationswill be support urbanlife.Inaddition, for aphysicallayoutthatmay These designersarelooking day requirementsofurbanlife bourhoods andthepresent roads throughisolatedneigh- sions betweenthesetypesof also havetocopewiththeten- . tial forchange. produces anenormouspoten- proving itsinternalflexibility tems inthistypeoftown. Im- structure andparcelling sys- the relationshipbetweeninfra- So muchfortheinternalDNA, evards. the buildingsalongtheseboul- in theuseandfunctionalityof sion, butalsoensureflexibility not onlyguaranteeurbancohe- structuring anddensification. a hugepotentialforinternal re- necessary, asthereseems to be whether anextensionisreally First ofallonehastodecide commodated? where shouldthatgrowthbeac- If thecityistodoubleitssize, improve itsexternalflexibility. especially forAlmere,ishowto The secondimportantquestion, 20-9-2007 9:28:47 40. Proposal by Teun Koolhaas and Ellen Marcusse. 41. Proposal West 8. Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective

If an extension is deemed nec- The Koolhaas-Marcusse plan (ill. winning plan by West 8 Land- one of the first examples of the essary the question remains: to 40) fits in the ambition of the scape Architects cum suis in the architectonic quality of a new the east, to the west or both? To- cities of Amsterdam and Almere recent Eo Wijers competition, type of regional design, where day there is a tendency towards to develop together as a ‘dual which emphasizes the water in the empty space in the middle extension to the west, as shown city’. the middle as a new regional is the new centre of the urban by this recent proposal by Teun centre even more than the Kool- region. Instead of a bridge, an

Koolhaas and Ellen Marcusse. A variation on this is the prize haas proposal did (ill. 41). It is opportunity for a ferry system prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 55

INTI-seminar.indb 55 20-9-2007 9:28:48 INTI-seminar.indb 56 56 prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective banization oftheIJmeerwithin sterdam promisedtokeep ur- (‘Natuurmonumenten’), Am- Society ofNatureConservation in theIJmeer),triggeredby the on aseriesofartificialislands ward extensionofAmsterdam IJburg (themostrecenteast- the IJmeer.Inareferendumon Amsterdam andAlmerevia eventual connectionbetween reopens apublicdebateonthe The dualcityconceptactually waard isnotreclaimed. difference isthattheMarker- Wijers of45yearsago.Theonly pletion oftheoriginalideaEo can beconsideredthefinalcom- because theWest8proposal very stronghistoricalcontent, Illustrations 42and43 politan scale. sible recreationareaofmetro- Amsterdam andahighlyacces- tween Almereandthecentreof portunities fordirectferriesbe- areas areunited,creatingop- (‘Oranjesluizen’) thesewater the locksbetweenIJandIJmeer is beingcreated.Byabolishing havea 42 and43.Astronghistoricalcontent:DesignEoWijersc.s.,1961. 44. Anewperspectiveonthe urbanizationoftheFlevopolders. of agriculturecanbecombined gional airport.Therestructuring of Lely-stadwouldbecome are- lages. Inthisconcepttheairport tial ofitscoastlinewithnew vil- exploit therecreationalpoten- middle partofthepolderandto agricultural useoflandinthe to lookforadifferentkindof between AlmereandLelystad productive tolookforcohesion His conclusionisthatitmore tated towardsthenewland. city belongingtoandisorien- on aconceptwhereAlmereis dual cityconcept,heelaborated settlements there.Rejectingthe new cohesionbetweenurban and forurbanization,toforgea search onthepotentialofFlevol- Korteweg, justgraduatedonre- One ofourstudents,Floris view fromthecity’sedge. other city,notimmediatelyin the horizontherewouldbean- ended open, IJburgwaswherethecity open. Openwaterwastoremain kept anoptionforaconnection boundaries, butdeliberately

and somewherebehind 20-9-2007 9:28:51 , with new lakes in the middle. New villages around them will offer new opportunities for living. The concept opens a new perspective on the future urbanization of the Flevopolders (ill. 44).

In my opinion, regional orientation and the positioning of cities are the main issues for the research agenda for new towns.

List of illustrations / credits:

6. New towns 11th till 14th century. From: R. Rutte. 8. Goedereede became completely enclosed by land. From: Strootman Landscape Architects. 15. New Towns 16th -19th centuries. From: C. van der Wal. 44. Floris Korteweg, graduation Spatial composition of new towns in historical perspective project TU-Delft. prof. dr. ir. V. J. Meyer: 57

INTI-seminar.indb 57 20-9-2007 9:28:52 INTI-seminar.indb 58 20-9-2007 9:28:53 dr. M. Provoost Crimson Architectural Historians

New towns of the modernist experiment: expectations and experience

Michelle Provoost is an Summary architectural historian, curator and consultant on urban New towns of the modernist experiment: expectations and planning and architecture experience affairs. After finishing her studies at Groningen University The research project ‘The New Town’ focuses on the modernistic she taught and lectured there. satellite cities and urban extensions erected all over the world in In 1994 she established the firm the post-war period these were the idealistic and pragmatic answer Crimson Architectural to population growth, war damage, colonization and housing Historians in Rotterdam where shortage after World War II. The project is an initiative of Crimson she engaged in a large number and will be coordinated by the office and a variety of researchers of research and design projects will be incorporated in the project: not only architectural histo- in the field of urban planning, rians, but a network of sociologists, architects, urban planners, architecture and art. As a photographers, politicians, writers and cineasts will contribute as curator at the Netherlands ‘foreign correspondents’ to the knowledge on ‘The New Towns’ Architectural Institute, she worldwide. The three main topics are: the original concept and organized major exhibitions planning, the development since and the influence of local culture and edited the accompany- and way of living and lastly the future plans for redevelopment. In ing publications. Since 1999 2009 the project will be presented in a publication and a (travel- Michelle Provoost has been ling) exhibition, accompanied by a symposium, workshops and a staff member and project design seminars. leader of WiMBY!, an urban Michelle Provoost is the author New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience regeneration project in of many publications in national Rotterdam-Hoogvliet. and international magazines; In 2003 she wrote her PhD. she lectures in varous European publication on the Dutch countries and teaches regularly

architect Hugh at Academies of Architecture. dr. M. Provoost: Maaskant. www.thenewtown.nl 59

INTI-seminar.indb 59 20-9-2007 9:28:53 INTI-seminar.indb 60 60 dr. M. Provoost: New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience interesting. Aftertheurban plan- The presentiswhereitbecomes sions share. towns andlargeurbanexten- modernistic satellitecities,new tifying theDNAwhichallthose of theresearchisaimedatiden- Christaller andothers.Thispart of Howard,SteinandPerry, them backtothepre-warideas post warnewtowns,andtraces by analysingtheoriginsof architectural historians.Itstarts traditional typeofresearchfor The pastisevidentlythemost different parts: sequently itconsistsofthree future ofthenewtowns’.Con- project is‘Past,presentand 1975. Thesub-headingofthe post warperiodfrom1945to designed fromscratchinthe ernist citiesthatwerebuiltand of anewtown,namelythemod- It usesaveryspecificdefinition ing onforabouttwoyearsnow. project Crimsonhasbeenwork- project, aresearchanddesign glimpse intotheNewTown This articlewillprovidea ies areextremelydifferent and the modernizationofthose cit- tions ofthepolicymakers for beautiful. However,the solu- out, partlyoutdated, still the world.Theyarepartlyworn uated inverydifferentpartsof with ageing,eveniftheyaresit- common problemsconnected age andthereforeexperience are allmoreorlessthesame the momentthesenewtowns The thirdpartisthefuture.At unit ontheotherhand. bourhood unitandthehousing cepts likecollectivity,theneigh- architectural planningandcon- and representativefunctionsof the onehandandsymbolic tion betweentheunplannedon subject ofourresearch:therela- new townsarerare.Thisisthe with thelocalcultureofthese tion oftheplannerscoincides The instanceswheretheprojec- political andsocialinfluences. and theyhavebeensubjectto have beenadjustedtochanges used bytheirinhabitants.They towns havebeenlivedinand ners leftinthe1960’sthesenew usually inanegativeway: riots, hears aboutnewtowns it is This meansthatwhenever one of focus. new townsremainslargely out cal andsocialaspectsofthese current stateofboththephysi- the modernistdesigners, study theoriginalconceptsof future. Whilemanyscholars again blueprintsforanunknown one oflargescalerenewal:once policy ofthedesignersisoften these postwarnewtowns.The reflection abouttherenewalof moment thereisnotenough vliet weexperiencedthatatthe is thisimportant?InHoog- Of courseonecouldask:why lems. sign solutionstocommonprob- world, inordertodevelopde- exchange forcitiesalloverthe meant tobeaninstrumentof project isthereforeexplicitly views andexchangeideas.The come together,discusstheir policy makersofthosecitiesto as astageforalldesignersand them. Thisprojectcanbeused this isareasonforcomparing and anumberofothers.There in Pakistan,Rourkela India Reston intheUSA,Islamabad in Venezuela,Teheran Iran, also BaghdadinIraq,23Enero Toulouse-Le Mirailisone,but of thecasestudies,which you canalsoseethefirstresults we callthem.Onthiswebsite of ‘foreigncorrespondents’,as platform forthewholenetwork panying theprojectisusedasa film makers.Thewebsiteaccom- tists, artists,photographersand network ofresearchers,scien- are buildinganinternational the onlyonestoexecuteit.We ated byCrimson,butwearenot This researchprojectwasiniti- future. to usethisfortheirrenewaland developed inthenewtownsand spotlight onaculturethathas developed. Ourgoalistoputa and theurbanculturetheyhave possible qualitiesofthesecities concepts thatcompletelyignore al, tabularasaplansandother demolition, largescalerenew- on. Thisresultsinlargescale poverty, unemploymentandso 20-9-2007 9:28:53 is also a database in which we demolition and the replacement ‘Hoogvliets’ all over the world. of the modernist planning idea. have gathered all relevant in- of one third of the houses, which You can find them in Australia, Right after the war there was an formation. This has been grow- is not uncommon for cities like in North Korea, in communist enormous boost in the London ing slowly over the last couple this. Also not uncommon is countries, in capitalist coun- new towns movement, which of years. Until now it contains the fact that this replacement tries, in countries very remote resulted in a large spread of that almost 1,700 new towns, all dat- always follows the same pat- form each other. When we dis- same type of new town around ing back to the period between tern: high-rise replaced by covered this fascinating pat- the world. This export has be- 1945 and about 1980. single family houses and social tern we decided to turn it into come one of the themes of the housing replaced by privately a project: a project to research New Town project. Our New Towns research start- owned houses. Hoogvliet’s extended family. Other themes are the effect of ed with a project we have done What these towns have in com- decolonisation, the creation of in Hoogvliet. This is a typical Our project, which was called mon are the principles which new independent states, the satellite city of the 1960’s with WiMBY! (Welcome In My Back- date back to Howard and his effect of development policies high-rise buildings in a green Yard!), was to respond to this three magnets of country, town and of hydroelectric damming, environment in a repeated sort of standard reconstruc- and town-country, i.e. the in- which, particularly in Africa and orthogonal pattern. tion project with a number of termediate, the best of both Asia, generated hundreds of alternative projects which were worlds between town and coun- new towns and villages. added to the regular reconstruc- try. We also encounter his ideas tion. Thereby they formed a sort about ordering a city centre in A very good exponent of this of ‘acupuncture’ of about 20 a specific hierarchical way with export phenomenon is Constan- projects, aimed at making use housing districts surrounding tinos Doxiadis. He is a very well of Hoogvliet’s qualities, both in it. The hierarchical ordering, the known figure outside Europe a social and physical sense. At infrastructure which separates and in Greece, but not so well the same time the inhabitants’ neighbourhoods, the neigh- known in the Netherlands. Nev- 1. Hoogvliet initiatives, which already ex- bourhood unit, all these ingre- ertheless, he is the best exam- isted in Hoogvliet, were turned dients in different shapes and ple of the export of modernist

As illustration 1 shows, Hoog- into interesting architectural designs are found in new towns urban planning to third world New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience vliet used to look like a very op- projects, in order to improve all over the world. countries. How did this come timistic, modern environment, the future of this new town. into being and what were the as was envisaged by the planners. Looking across the border, one reasons for this export? The an- Unfortunately it has deteriorat- Hoogvliet is not unique: there of the first things that struck us swers are quite revealing about

ed since, resulting in large scale are actually about a 1,000 was the extent of the influence the symbolic and political issues dr. M. Provoost: 61

INTI-seminar.indb 61 20-9-2007 9:28:54 INTI-seminar.indb 62 62 dr. M. Provoost: New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience neutral introductionof large tion showshowtheso-called East andAfrica.Theircoopera- oping countriesintheMiddle lasting consequencesfordevel- intense relationshipwithlong- vision andmoney.Theyhadan a verypowerfulcombinationof the Fordfoundation.Theywere an Americanfoundationcalled was verystronglyconnectedto Constantinos Doxiadis involved innewtownplanning. 2. ConstantinosDoxiadis (ill.2)

ing systemcalled‘Ekistics’, the theoretical designandengineer- oped anextremelyhermetic, Constantinos Doxiadisdevel- amateur detectiverecently. crofilms hasbeenmyjobasan correspondence andfadedmi- people andgoingthroughdusty tricate networksbyinterviewing cold war.Unravellingthesein- all playedaroleinthecultural Rice andHarvardUniversities Carnegie foundations,MITand tions, theRockefeller,Fordand ment, theCIA,UnitedNa- communism’. TheStateDepart- cooperating withthe‘waron single Americaninstitutionnot the coldwar,therewasnota of thosedays,attheheight In thepolarizedatmosphere the 1960’s. the 1950’sandbeginningof cipation. Thiswasattheendof ideals ofcommunityandeman- and prosperityloadedwith ises offreedom,democracy In factitwasheavywithprom- ning wasanythingbutneutral. scale developmenturbanplan- structed moreurbansubstance only dreamof.Heprobably con- an oeuvrehiscolleaguescould abled himtodesignand build USA andUNofficials,which en- international networkofmany was abletoformanimpressive Because ofhispoliticaltalentshe to aWesternmodel. peace andprogressaccording models asvehiclesforfreedom, modernist planninganddesign of theexplicitapplication possibly theleadingexponent of development.Doxiadiswas tremely wellsuitedtoanykind on. Inthatsensetheywereex- population, money,carsandso date unlimitedgrowthofthe they shouldbeabletoaccomo- harsh aspects.Atthesametime modernism, butithadsome ment. Itcouldbecalledsoft provide ahumanscaleenviron- his gridironcitiesthatwould of those,Doxiadisproposed tion ofcarsandpeople.Instead torical citieswiththeirconges- alternative totheexistinghis- It wasarationalandscientific science ofhumansettlements. Foundation: itisaprivate foun- a NewYorkinstitution,the Ford That supportcamemostly from American supporthereceived. but mostofallbecausethe ma orthequalitiesofhiswork, cause ofhisphenomenalcharis- to buildthisempirenotonlybe- digarh. ObviouslyDoxiadisgot though heroicNewTown,Chan- to besatisfiedwithonlyone, can plansandLeCorbusierhad realize anyofhisSouthAmeri- Jose LuisSertwasneverableto planners failed?Forinstance: while themosteminenturban scale citiesaroundtheworld, one officebuiltsomanylarge How wasitpossiblethatthis non, Pakistan,IraqandtheUS. Ghana, Zambia,Sudan,Leba- new citiesallovertheworld,in left off.Hedesignedandbuilt meant totakeoverwhereCIAM conferences, whichwereclearly ganizations aswelltheDelos ate oftrainingandresearchor- ended, hesetupaconglomer- together. Infact,afterCIAM than allhisCIAM-colleagues 20-9-2007 9:28:54 dation established in the 1930’s 5 million dollars on Doxiadis’ The answer probably lies in the losophy of the Ford Foundation, by Henry Ford himself, and was design and research, the largest extremely rational character of which had formulated as its remodelled in 1950, during the sum they ever spent on any pri- Ekistics and the way Doxiadis goal the education of non-west- cold war, to extend its activities vate party. Starting with a grant promoted his work as a science. ern people into rational and outside the USA. Its main goals for Doxiadis’ design work for He presented the outcome of sensible persons, thereby doing were formulated under the lead- the city of Karachi in Pakistan in his studies and designs in grids, away with mistrust and latent vi- ership of Paul Hoffman, formerly the middle of the 1950’s, Doxi- charts, diagrams and schemes, olence. With this goal the Foun- the coordinator of the Marshall adis and the Ford Foundation almost like the work of a human dation exported in fact one of plan in Europe. In that capacity became a truly close couple. computer, completely objectiv- the most fundamental values of he befriended Doxiadis, who ated, with no aesthetics or per- the USA, rational action, civiliza- allegedly used his last dime to This still does not explain why sonal choices. In this precom- tion equals rationality. And the show Hoffman Greek hospitality the work of Doxiadis in par- puter era there was no possible Americans saw it as their task to by throwing a party in Athens ticular - and not that of Sert, way to approach computer work raise other nations to a civilized with a semi-authentic group of Gropius or Le Corbusier - was any closer. state. When considering urban Greek dancers. judged to fit so well into this Doxiadis was definitely not a planning, it would have been This proved to be a dime well consensus of American politics whimsical arty architect with hard to find an urban planning spent. Hoffman led the Ford that was symbolized by the Ford crayons. He was a trustworthy theory more rational and more Foundation on an ambitious foundation. Because the Ford engineer who could deliver. His suitable than Doxiadis’ Ekistics. quest for world peace, aiming foundation had very strong ties Ekistics was a visionary, but to better the world by educating to the American government nonetheless scientific system in But how to force other nations the ignorant, increasing their and all those other institutions, which local data had to be en- into a rational civilized state so-called “intellectual capacity one could say that in fact they tered and the design solution without military action? This and individual judgement” and were all collaborating on the followed automatically. A touch has been a difficult question easing them into democratic same project. What qualities did of local landscape and architec- for the Americans ever since. western civilization. the Ford Foundation detect in ture was inevitable and neces- Sometimes this went so far as to They tried to achieve these no- Doxiadis’ planning that made sary, but not too much, since exercise control through covert

ble goals mostly by investing in them recognize Ekistics as a this was in contradiction with operations. This was indicated New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience educational institutions, school useful instrument in their cold the universal pretensions of Ek- by two friends separately ask- building and agricultural mod- war cultural politics? And what istics. ing me to look into CIA-related ernization programs. Although political goals did they attach to issues. urban planning was definitely his urban planning? This objective and rational ap- One put the question very

not a main priority, Ford spent proach fitted well into the phi- bluntly: was Doxiadis a spy for dr. M. Provoost: 63

INTI-seminar.indb 63 20-9-2007 9:28:55 INTI-seminar.indb 64 64 dr. M. Provoost: New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience ropean culture,itwasnecessary that, inordertosafeguard Eu- ideology. Theywereconvinced might adoptthecommunist in Europe,andfearedthat they the traditionallyleftistartscene perceived aninherentdangerin Saunders explainedhowtheCIA tion theEnglishwriterFrances In anexciting1999publica- rope. visual artssceneinWesternEu- involved inmanipulatingthe that theCIAwasmostcertainly the Netherlands.Butitproved in themostpro-Americancityof volved infinancingworksofart would evenbothertogetin- highly unlikelythattheCIA At firstIthoughtthatitwas CIA. statue hadbeenfinancedbythe friend assuredmethatthis designed byMarcelBreuer.My right infrontofa1950’sstore est shoppingstreetofthecity, on aprominentspotinthebusi- stract metalsculpture,standing Gabo inRotterdam.Itisanab- concerned asculptureofNaum the CIA?Theotherquestion the helpofanassortedgroup fought bytheCongress with It wasa‘battleformen’sminds’, ‘the Americanway’. a viewmoreaccommodating to cination withMarxismtowards rope awayfromitslingeringfas- the intelligentsiaofWesternEu- of theCongresswastonudge to ‘theotherside’.Themission to preventEuropefromslipping nomical andculturalmeasures a parallelsetofpolitical,eco- Aid plan.Togethertheyformed and thelaunchofMarshall years afterTruman’sdoctrine for CulturalFreedom,justafew the CIAfoundedCongress institutionalized in1950,when This culturalmanipulationwas and artexhibits. rooms, recitals,filmshowings in afrenzyofconcerts,reading Soviet andalliedsidecompeting post warBerlin,withboththe in themiddleofrubble immediately afterthewar,right this enda“Kulturkampf”started be inchargeofthefuture.To tellectual elite,sincetheywould to winovertheculturalandin- 3. Pollock’spaintingradiatedtheideologyoffreedom, socialrealist Especially thepositionof Jack- gresses. with MoMa),concertsand con- painters (manyincooperation flood ofexhibitionsAmerican around theworld,organizinga third world.Theyhad27offices guages alloverEuropeandthe different countriesandlan- publishing magazinesinmany impressive culturaloffensive, The Congressorganizedan Paul SartreandJacksonPollock. names likeGeorgeOrwell,Jean tors andincludedwell-known musicians, writers,painters,ac- totalitarian USSR.Theywere them disappointedinStalin’s of radicalsandartists,most painting wasboyscoutandtraditional. Soviet culture. culture asvitalandsuperior to would presenttheAmerican Chevy-driving philistines’ and ren, anationofgum-chewing, of Americansas‘culturallybar- ingly fromthestereotypedidea that wouldsteerawayconvinc- European countries;animage new imageofAmericatotheold movement neededtoprojecta ists embodiedallvirtuesanart gress theabstractexpression- in thatcountry.ButtotheCon- the grainofprevailingtaste by theCongress,muchagainst new culturalmascotoftheUSA ing: theywereadoptedasthe stract expressionistsisfascinat- son Pollockandhisfellowab- 20-9-2007 9:28:55 To the American elite Pollock’s a real, masculine and rough 1960 he was a member of a Towns were built all over the painting radiated the ideology American, and a drunk moreo- select group that attended the enormous country, using a well of freedom (ill. 3) and of free ver, which was regarded as a congress on the New Arab Me- known and historical repertoire enterprise. It was non-figurative proper asset for an artistic fig- tropolis, together with Hassan both in urban planning and in and politically silent, it was the urehead. Fathy, then a member of his architecture. The vista, the axe, very antithesis to socialist real- office. These CIA initiated con- the square, the closed housing ism. Pollock was new, active, Now, returning to Doxiadis and gresses were paid for by Ford. block, the monumental, palazzo and energetic, while social re- urban planning: although the Of course Doxiadis’ involvement inspired architecture; they all alist art was stiff, rigid and re- Congress for Cultural Freedom in the congress does not prove evoked an urban image aspiring producing historical styles. Ab- did not have architecture or ur- that he was a CIA-agent, but it to be recognizable and familiar stract expressionism was seen ban issues as a priority, Doxiadis does allude to a hypothesis on to the common people. the meaning of his work for the CIA and the Ford Foundation. While Pollock proposed a com- This would explain their strong pletely new direction in paint- preference for Doxiadis’ work. ing, and freed himself from historical precedents and ico- So, in my opinion, to the Ameri- nography, Doxiadis’ Ekistics cans of the Ford foundation and posed a completely new system the CIA Doxiadis was as much in urban planning. He liberated a mascot in the field of urban it from formal design and re- 4. The work of Doxiadis was the complete opposite of planning as Jackson Pollock was placed it by organizing the ur- social realist urban planning and architecture. in the art scene. Whereas Pollock ban area in ever enlarging grids was the antidote to social realist and systems, eliminating monu- as a specifically American in- was among the very few archi- painting, the work of Doxiadis mental composition and replac- vention conquering the world, tects involved in the activities of was the complete opposite of ing it with schemes for unlim- replacing the old centre of the the Congress. In their important social realist urban planning ited growth and change.

arts, Paris, with New York. Also 1955 congress in Milan he was and architecture (ill. 4). Until the The neighbourhood unit, known New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience Pollock was exactly the right one of the lecturers, speaking arrival of Khrushchev at the end from the English New Towns, was person to oppose the boy scout about the ‘Economic progress of the 1950’s, the social realist stretched and repeated and put Soviet painters, who were obe- in underdeveloped countries USSR cities after the war strong- in an endless spaced-out grid, diently portraying the collective and the rivalry of democratic ly showed the mark of Stalin- until every reference to existing

communist values. Pollock was and communist methods’. In ist planning. Up to 1,000 New urban settings had vanished. dr. M. Provoost: 65

INTI-seminar.indb 65 20-9-2007 9:28:56 INTI-seminar.indb 66 66 dr. M. Provoost: New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience the MiddleEastwaslocated right on theMiddleEast.Ofcourse, The focusofDoxiadis’work was in thedevelopingcountries. tural andeconomicimperialism adis’ workpartofwesterncul- an exaggerationtocallDoxi- autonomy. Inthissenseitisnot to growtowardsawelldeserved come rationalcivilizationsand the thirdworldcountriestobe- efficient andpeaceful,help for adifferentlifestyle,western, His studiescouldpavetheway ideology oftheUSA. fect vehicleforthedevelopment made Doxiadis’visiontheper- ethnic andsocialunrest,allthis to economicbackwardness energy shortagetopollution from demographicgrowthto for everypossibleproblem, and oftechnologicalsolutions and growthwithoutboundaries Moreover, theideasofchange bottom-up communities. was replacedbyanemphasison tivism ofsocialrealistplanning that thestateimposedcollec- Ideologically itwasimportant 5 and6.ExtensionplanforBaghdad,SadrCity,byConstantinos Doxiadis. the planforBaghdad Iraq. Amongstothershemade Doxiadis didalotofworkin ican architectsinthe1950’s. virtually aplaygroundforAmer- for ColdWaractivities.Itwas USSR andthereforeamainstage below thesoftunderbellyof ministry ofhousing,planning, own hebroughtinacomplete capable of:practicallyon his Doxiadis showedwhathe was gram, Baghdadincluded. And a modernnationalhousingpro- 6). Firsthewashiredtodesign (ill. 5and team madesurveys,wrote re- problems: hismultidisciplinary But Doxiadisdidnothave any over fromKingFaisalin1958. the revolutionaryregime took thrown outofthewindowwhen plans fortheBaghdadOpera Lloyd Wrightsawhisgrandiose twenty yearslater,whileFrank ceeded inrealizingonetower University built,andonlysuc- get thedesignsforBaghdad Gropius’ officewasstrugglingto training. architecture, andarchitecture Doxiadis hadbuiltareasin Iraqi CNN. Bytheendof1950’s seen theresultsofhiswork on Unknowingly everybody has adis. more influentialworkofDoxi- and others,neglectingthefar like Gropius,FrankLoydWright signs ofhighprofilearchitects tionate interestinthefailedde- history hasshownadispropor- Still, theofficialarchitectural to buildthemaswell. sands ofhousesandwasable ports, designedtensofthou- 20-9-2007 9:28:57 towns which bear the now well adis as part of his 1958 master the extension of Baghdad as a to turn in frustration to com- known names of Mosul, Basrah plan for Baghdad. His design whole was a generic, universal munism or to revert to archaic and Kirkuk. follows the Ekistics rules and is system Doxiadis thought appro- traditions of superstition and practically identical to his other priate for almost any developing violence. We could therefore The largest number of houses contemporary urban designs, city with a hot climate. regard the cities designed by was realized in Baghdad, on the be it Islamabad, Tema or Khar- The architecture was also ge- Doxiadis with their small scale east bank of the Tigris; the end- toum. neric with some local touches; urban design of gossip squares, less repetition of square neigh- Doxiadis encased the histori- a restrained modernist architec- small streets and community bourhood units is easily recog- cal centre of Baghdad in an ture with decorated panels in a centres, as precisely tuned nizable on any satellite image. orthogonal grid extending on pattern slightly reminiscent of “emancipation machines”. This This is the area called Sadr both sides of the Tigris/Euphra- Arab motives, built with local emancipation was part of the City. tes, composed of 40 sectors of materials, but not in any out- modernisation package, which some 2 square kilometres each, spoken vernacular style. Local included democratic institutions By now Sadr City is mostly separated from each other by influences had a very limited, and economic reforms to create known as a nightmarish ghetto wide thoroughfares. Each sector technical meaning to Doxiadis: a free market. and a gruesome background for was subdivided into a number it meant using local techniques war footage. The area has been of ‘communities’, with smaller and building methods, but it did From Doxiadis as an example a hotbed of resistance against neighbourhood centres and not involve using local identity of our research themes we now the Americans, inhabited by housing areas served by a net- or cultural traditions. turn to the database and the two million mostly Shia Iraqis. work of cul-de-sacs. Each com- drawings we are making to ana- It consists of endless areas of munity centre consisted of a For his American patrons and lyze the case studies. Our meth- low rise but high density devel- modernist composition of mar- the Ford Foundation in particu- od of visualizing the spatial opment, with narrow alleys and ket buildings, public services lar, the most appealing feature analysis is demonstrated by the cul-de-sacs, grey concrete slums and a mosque. of Doxiadis’ plans was the em- example of Toulouse-Le Mirail. and small row houses. Sadr City The row-housing was organized phasis on community building. even has the questionable hon- in such a way that the smallest Something to be avoided at

our of being featured in a multi- communities each had a ‘gossip any cost was the cities having New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience player computer war game on square’, an intimate open meet- an alienating effect on the mil- Internet, called Kuma War: Mis- ing space inspired by existing lions who were often the first in sion 16, Battle in Sadr City. local Iraqi customs. Although their families to lead a modern these small oases could be inter- urban lifestyle. After all, aliena-

Sadr City was designed by Doxi- preted as contextual elements, tion would lead the population dr. M. Provoost: 67

INTI-seminar.indb 67 20-9-2007 9:28:58 INTI-seminar.indb 68 68 dr. M. Provoost: New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience comparable. town inordertomake them in thedrawingsofevery new acteristic features.Weuse them symbols todescribetheir char- For eachscalewehavedevised the flatandfinallyperson. the neighbourhood,house, the newtownlevel,district, gion, thenindicatingthetown, starting withthecityinre- erarchy ofnewtownplanning, the leftcornerthereishi- (ill. 7) new townsondifferentlevels describe, analyseandvisualize We havedevelopedatoolboxto 7. Toolboxtovisualizenewtownsondifferentlevels. . Onthecircularshapein APPROX. POPULATION100.000 districts toformCOMMUNITIES New Townsaredevidedinto recreation green area/ town center accessibility infrastructure, accessibility hierarchy / NEW TOWNTOOLBOXSCALE1:20.000 One ofthereasonswhywe have analyzed andvisualized. the greenareasthatarebeing the neighbourhoodcentre and Again itistheinfrastructure, proximately 5,000people. The neighbourhoodshaveap- city hasapopulationof20,000. of thedistrictscomprising 100,000 inhabitants,whileeach The newtownoftenhasabout uniform inallthesenewtowns. city, whichistoalargedegree number ofpeoplelivinginthe shape ontheleftrepresents the district.Thepink-grey This illustration(ill.8) green corridors,centralpark,sea greenery entersdeeplyintothetown: superior facilities pedestrian zoneprovidedwith the towncenterisusuallya overlaying thetwonetworks pedestrian network,usuallyby seperation oftheautomobileand highways ontheedgesoftown usually goodaccessibilitybycarthrough towards the(new)towncenters the mostdenseareasorganised functional zones strict seperationofthe shows 8.District toolboxwithcoloursandsymbols cratic, opencity,encouraging a city wasmeanttobeademo- because thistypeofmodern riots wereespeciallyshocking ots inNovember2005.These it playedamainroleintheri- impressive city,ifonlybecause Toulouse-Le Mirailisabigand cific countries. web andusethemintheirspe- manual-like documentsoffthe respondents canjustpickthe website andallourforeigncor- We haveputthesystemonour with aninternationalnetwork. ly asthis,isbecausewework systematized itasmeticulous- APPROX. POPULATION20.000 Districts are devided into Districts aredevidedinto neighbourhoods to form neighbourhoods toform COMMUNITIES RECREATION GREEN AREAS, SUBCENTER ACCESSIBILITY INFRASTRUCTURE, DISTRICT TOOLBOXSCALE1:10.000 is GeorgeCandilis.Others are (ill. 9) in thefirstnewlydeveloped part the middleofashoppingcentre selves picturedtriumphantly in Le Mirailandtheyhadthem- meeting washeldinToulouse- in 1962.In1971theTeam10- sign byCandilis,Josic&Woods built accordingtoawinningde- Toulouse-Le Mirailhadbeen intention backinthe1960’s. Of coursethisneverwasthe ly, somethingwentwrong… among itsinhabitants.Obvious- democratic andopenmentality . Thepersoninthemiddle allotments belts includingplayingfields, surrounded orseparatedbygreen advanced facilities parkways embeddedingreenbelts districts areseparatedbywide 20-9-2007 9:28:58 9. Team X, gathered on the Dalle in 10. The same spot ten years later. 11. The same spot now. Toulouse le Mirail, 1971.

Bakema, Giancarlo de Carlo, Pe- ture in Toulouse-Le Mirail. It ter Smithson and Aldo van Eyck. connects all buildings and was Everybody was there, celebrat- the symbol and means of sepa- ing the success of Toulouse-Le rating pedestrians from cars.

Mirail as an example of Team10 Therefore the Dalle was the ide- 20,000 INHABITANTS architectural and urban plan- al background for the portrait ning. of Team 10. Ten years later (ill. One important aspect of the 10) the same spot had already

Team10 mentality was not to been abandoned, and by now it residential houses facilities schools, shops zone the different functions of has been torn down (ill. 11). It = 100 main pedestrian network green areas the city in a horizontal way, but is quite tragic to see what hap- sport fields car network parkings to stack them and thereby cre- pened and it is symbolic of the next zoom step ate a more lively environment, demise of the ideas this city was 12. Plan Toulouse-Le Mirail. New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience with the vivaciousness and ac- based on. The Dalle was to have tivity of traditional cities. This been the most lively place, the where children would play and dren could play or ride their bi- was aimed at by introducing an place that would replace the generations would mix. It is an cycle. elevated street called the Dalle, French square, where locals elevated, elongated square like For Toulouse-Le Mirail the same

which is a very important fea- would sit and eat their croissant, in a traditional city, where chil- analysis has been made (ill. 12), dr. M. Provoost: 69

INTI-seminar.indb 69 20-9-2007 9:28:59 INTI-seminar.indb 70 70 dr. M. Provoost: New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience plans forthedevelopment of Furthermore, thedifferent have beenphotographed. are shown.Hundredsofplaces picture andashortcomment ing onthemthecorresponding Toulouse-Le Mirail.Whenclick- pictures thathavebeentakenin Google Earthimagepointtothe the world.Thesymbolson ible mediumforpeoplearound cause itisafreeandaccess- to GoogleEarth We decidedtolinkallourdata rated inthismegastructure. a traditionalcitywereincorpo- evated streets.Allelementsof via theDalleanditalsohadel- Every buildingwasaccessible bourhood. most intimateleveloftheneigh- ings canbeseen.Thisisthe Dalle, thegreenandbuild- the interactionbetween trian area.Onasmallerscale pink, showingthelargepedes- timeline. TheDalleiscoloured lation isshown,aswellthe city Toulouse.Thetargetpopu- the regionandwithitsmother picturing theconnectionwith (ill. 13) , be- (Google earth, original plan and present photographies). (Google earth,originalplanandpresentphotographies). 13. PresentationofToulouseleMirailonthewebsite neath, hasbeendropped. destrians, whilecarsstayunder- whole principleofelevating pe- Dalle willbedemolished. The of thisrenewalplanisthat the Mirail. Themoststrikingfeature made newplansforToulouse-Le was initiatedinFrance2002, The grandprojetdeville,which situation. be seeninrelationtoitspresent the developmentofcitycan Google earthimage.Thatway images andprojectedonthe drawn asthree-dimensional Toulouse-Le Mirailhavebeen tures ofthecity. by demolishingimportant fea- rasa’ pointofview,andbegins existing. Itworksfroma‘tabula of acityonsomethingalready projects akindofidealimage plan onaverylargescale,which The grandprojectdevilleisa looks likeanormalcity. looks morelikeBaghdadthanit still existsbutthelowerlevel seen. AsmallpartoftheDalle the formerDalle On thepictureremnantsof proceeded quitefaralready. The executionofthisplanhas (ill. 14) 14. TheremnantsoftheformerDalle. 14. can be After thedemolitionof Dalle oped duringthelastdecades. thriving world,whichhasdevel- So underneaththereisasecret top oftheDalle. expensive tostartabusinesson easy toguesswhy:itwastoo by theTeam10designers.Itis not ontopofit,aswasmeant veloped undertheDalle veloped. However,theywerede- shops andbusinesseshavede- a kindoflocalcultureand overlooked. Asaconsequence, exists 40yearsalreadyhasbeen The factthatToulouse-LeMirail (ill. 15) 20-9-2007 9:29:01 , 15. Businesses have developed under the Dalle.

this part of local culture has also old fashioned top down plan- disappeared. ning models. Hopefully this will In our opinion it is a complete be something we can explore waste to spend all this money through the new town platform. and create all these cultural buildings and new infrastructure while destroying the local initiatives and culture, which are, after all, at the core of this city. Using existing sources of economic and social strength should be at the core of any New towns of the modernist experiment: expectation and experience renewal project. New town research should focus more on initiatives like this, and on ex- ploring the possibilities of lo-

cal businesses, rather than on dr. M. Provoost: 71

INTI-seminar.indb 71 20-9-2007 9:29:02 INTI-seminar.indb 72 20-9-2007 9:29:02 prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge Wageningen University and Research Centre

The role of new towns in relation to rural development

Rudy Rabbinge (1946) spent his Summary scientific career in universities, academies of science and research The role of new towns in relation to rural development institutes. He held a considerable number of functions, authored Contents: many scientific publications and 1. Megatrends in agricultural development was supervisor of more than 40 Five mega-trends are distinguished: PhD students and over 500 MSc a. productivity rise per ha, per man-hour, per kg input; students, as well as being an admin- b. change in character of agricultural production; istrator and dean of faculties and c. chains, from soil to shelf; research institutes. Rudy Rabbinge d. multiple goals of land use, was also active in the private and e. food and health. public sector as well as in politics. 2. Planning and spatial development politics He served as senator of the province Change in spatial planning possibilities and limitations. of Gelderland, was a member of the 3. Rural development and urbanization in Western Europe Scientific Council for Government Continuing urbanization and different use options for rural Policy and of the Dutch Senate. He areas. was also a member of numerous 4. Future developments

national and international research An explorative study on future land use in Europe, based on The role of new towns in relation to rural development and business councils. He was policy various policy views. advisor at regional, national, Euro- 5. New role of policymakers pean and global levels. At present Traditional role of planners and restrictive spatial policy should Rudy Rabbinge is university be replaced by spatial development policies. professor of Sustainable Research. He is considered one of Development & Food Security and the most important opinion leaders chairman of the ScienceCouncil in matters of agriculture, environ-

of the Consultative Group on ment and development collabora- prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: International Agricultural tion in The Netherlands. 73

INTI-seminar.indb 73 20-9-2007 9:29:03 INTI-seminar.indb 74 74 prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: The role of new towns in relation to rural development nessed sixmega-trendsin agri- three decades,wehave wit- more specificallyoverthe past During thelast150years, but it usedtobe. is dramaticallydifferenttowhat role ofpolicymakers,becauseit development. Andfinallythe lowed byafewwordsonfuture the worldwillbediscussed,fol- rope andotherplacesaround and urbanizationinWesternEu- After that,theruraldevelopment ent towhattheyusedbe. ment policies,whicharediffer- planning andspatialdevelop- for otherfunctions.Secondly, they alsodictatethespaceleft ricultural development,because First ofallthemega-trendsinag- Five elementswillbediscussed. duction. ties otherthanagriculturalpro- also increatingspaceforactivi- only infeedingtheworld,but plays animportantrole,not sees agriculture.Agriculture one looksbeyondthecity, rural areasisveryimportant.If Awareness ofwhathappensin 50-60% ofthepopulation was increased 300fold:inthe past productivity permanhour has hectare. Moreover,agricultural kg to9,000ofwheat per it wentupfromabout1,400 illustrate this.Startingin1900 tion overthelastcenturymay The exampleofwheatproduc- ductivity perhectare. mainly duetotheriseinpro- is availablepercapita.This even somorefoodthanbefore some 1billionto6billion,and of theworldpopulationfrom tare. Wehaveseenanincrease tare, i.e.moreproduceperhec- rise intheproductivityperhec- mega-trends, oneofwhichisa This isexplainedbylookingat agriculture ishighlyintensive. 40 billioneuros.Thisisbecause produce intheworld,exporting or thirdexporterofagricultural by agriculture.Itisthesecond lands isstillanationdominated are notawareofit,theNether- Netherlands. Althoughpeople world, butmostespeciallyinthe encountered everywhereinthe cultural development.Theyare Not onlytheproductisimpor- method. That isanindustrialproduction per inputandkgofwater. tivity increasecanbeseen,also and whereanenormousproduc- circumstances arecontrolled place inhothouses,wherethe most extremeproductiontakes the productionprocess.Atits can influencethemandmanage living systems.Asaresultone sic processesthattakeplacein come morefamiliarwiththeba- skill, butnowadayswehavebe- al’. Inthepastagriculturewasa methods ‘fromskilltoindustri- transformation ofproduction The secondmega-trendisthe can beproduced. the samequantitiesasbefore land, water,inputandlabour, because itmeansthatwithless This situationisverysignificant, substantially inthelastdecades. pesticides etc.)hasincreased kg ofinput(water,nitrogen, intuitively alsoproductivityper days itislessthan2%.Counter employed inagriculture,nowa- Finally, thesixthmega-trend, can bedeterminedinfuture. sure alongandattractive life of people,thebestdietto en- know thegeneticcharacteristics food, nutritionandhealth.Ifwe become possible.Thisconcerns cific needsofindividualshas is thatfine-tuningtothespe- Another, thefifth,mega-trend environment. the negativesideeffectsfor animal welfareandreductionof Other importantobjectivesare ible innewtownslikeAlmere. activities. Thisisespeciallyvis- tion ofagriculturalandspatial to seesomedegreeofintegra- duction offood.Peoplewant objectives thanmerelythepro- Nowadays agriculturehasmore cerns broadeningobjectives. The fourthmega-trendcon- That isthethirdmega-trend. that theycanbeinfluenced. well understood,whichmeans to theshelf,allchainsarenow to theplateandfromsoil duction chain.Fromthespade tant, butsoisthewholepro- 20-9-2007 9:29:03 power has shifted considerably Scenario A Illustration 1 shows the differ- in chain management. In the Free market and free trade ent scenarios and their outcome past primary producers were in terms of land use in million very influential, but their power Scenario B hectares in Europe. Scenario A, has decreased considerably. Regional development free market and free trade, uses 40-50 million hectares of land. These mega-trends are seen es- Scenario C Scenario B, regional develop- pecially in the Netherlands, but Nature and landscape ment, uses about 80 million, occur in other places in Europe scenario D about 60 million. and around the world as well. Scenario D Depending on one’s goals dif- Environmental protection ferent scenarios lead to differ- In the early 1990’s, we analyzed ent results. However, the ref- possible choices and their ef- erence scenario of the present fects, taking all objectives into situation shows that far fewer consideration. Different objec- 1. Land use. hectares are required to achieve tives exist: economic objectives, the objectives. Although the such as a high income per hec- Scenario A scenarios A to D are all different tare or per farmer, social objec- Free market and free trade to each other, being dictated by tives, such as employment, and different policies, they are also environmental objectives like Scenario B substantially different to the minimalization of the emission Regional development present situation. of nitrates and of the emission of pesticides. Spatial objectives Scenario C The same is true for employ-

are also possible, like the mini- Nature and landscape ment (ill. 2). These scenarios The role of new towns in relation to rural development malization of agricultural space show the different outcomes for in favour of more nature, or even Scenario D employment in terms of man golf courses or cities. These are Environmental protection years. Here there are also con- conflicting goals. But depend- siderable differences between ing on their relative importance the scenarios, but the contrast one can indicate quite well what with the present situation is can be done. 2. Employment. even more dramatic. prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: 75

INTI-seminar.indb 75 20-9-2007 9:29:04 INTI-seminar.indb 76 76 prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: The role of new towns in relation to rural development tern put showexactlythesamepat- The scenariosfortheuseofin- is theunavoidableresultof too sible. Notintentionally,but it try topreventitasmuch pos- dynamics. Onthecontrary, they Policy makersdonotstimulate stimulated bypolicymakers. policy createsinertia.Inertiais this: theprevailingagricultural There isasimpleexplanationfor are wenotachievingUtopia? Why isthisnothappening? above. with themega-trendsdescribed what wewant.Andthisisinline labour, inputandland.Utopiais cleaner andrequiremuchless done. Agriculturecanbemuch which itcouldpotentiallybe at present,tofivemillionwith active ingredients,whichisused It runsfrom400millionkgof the differenceisenormous. ticide maybeused scenarios showhowmuchpes- Finally, mostdramatic,these erence scenario. differ substantiallyfromtheref- (ill. 3) . Againallofthem (ill. 4) . Here 3. Nitrogenuse. 4. Cropprotection. Environmental protection Scenario D Nature andlandscape Scenario C Regional development Scenario B Free marketandfreetrade Scenario A Environmental protection Scenario D Nature andlandscape Scenario C Regional development Scenario B Free marketandfreetrade Scenario A ronment, animalwelfare,water be attained:productivity, envi- riculture, manyobjectives may i.e. aformofmetropolitan ag- called agro-productionparks, types ofdevelopment.Intheso anything else,inlinewithall of incomeanditis,morethan this country.Itgeneratesalot fact themostprevalenttypein glass housesandfeedlabsisin non landrelatedagriculturelike land relatedagriculture.But The scenariosonlyconcern ‘Distopia’, theotherextreme. a dramaticshift,willresultin the opposite,i.e.notmaking Utopia ispossible.Inmyopinion, It isimportanttoknowthat struments shouldbeused. But therightargumentsandin- opportunities toachievethis. should beclean,thereareample is convincedthatagriculture tunities forpolicymakers.Ifone But italsocreatesampleoppor- It isafrustratingexperience. of rulesandregulations. much interferencewithalltypes 20-9-2007 9:29:04 conservation etc. It is very ef- coming very popular. Every fective, productive and efficient young girl between the age of 10 and it produces much fewer and 15 likes horse riding, and it side effects for the environment is now an industry of 800 mil- and a better quality of life for China lion euros. Or take golf courses. animals. India The golf course of Tilburg occu- Indonesia These are attractive for highly pies the same area as the city of intensive activities such as cut Tilburg. There is enough room flowers, bulbs, seed potatoes, for all these facilities. but also for many of the meat industries. Turning to planning and spatial 5. Population levels in 6. Asia’s “Top 3”. development: are we in a posi- As for the use of land, much developing countries. tion to plan this in such a way less land is required. Arable that it is achievable? The answer farming, traditional dairy farm- is no. Spatial development can ing and mixed farming. And if 7. Mega-cities and delta metropolises not be approached the same that takes place in an ecologi- way it was in the past. There are cally sophisticated and modern three types of reasons for this. way, it will result in an enor- mously productive agriculture First there are contextual rea- with very low environmental sons. In the past, the propo- side effects, 80% less than what nents of agriculture had eco- it is at present. nomic power and were in a

position to demand that space The role of new towns in relation to rural development Highly productive and environ- be allocated to agriculture ex- mentally friendly agriculture clusively. Also, there was less creates room for other forms freedom in the choice of loca- of land use and other forms of tion for cities and expansion agriculture. of housing and industries. The There will also be room for free market system has made various other goals. For ex- this nearly impossible. In short,

ample, horse riding is be- contextual factors make the prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: 77

INTI-seminar.indb 77 20-9-2007 9:29:05 INTI-seminar.indb 78 78 prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: The role of new towns in relation to rural development lises aroundtheworld. They mega-cities anddeltametropo- tion andthedevelopment of the increaseinurbanpopula- 7 example. the developmentofcitiesfor This alsocreatesproblemsfor longer possible. ent planningtechniques,isno powerful instrumentanddiffer- planning, withrepressionasa Therefore thetraditionalwayof ning fieldhavebeenabolished. which wereactiveintheplan- reasons. Manyoftheinstitutions Finally, thereareinstitutional tioned. ning, theywerenolongermen- fourth reportonspatialplan- and prevailing. fying conceptswerepresented spatial planningdifferentuni- the fourpositiondocumentson in thiscountry.Forexample be presentinallspatialplanning sons. Unifyingconceptsusedto Then thereareconceptualrea- traditional approachimpossible. (on thepreviouspage) Illustrations 5,6and

But afterthe

show 8.Europolis. tural productionareaofEurope. also themostimportantagricul- in thisarea.ButtheEuropolis is national headofficesarelocated and thelargestnumberofmulti- gest seaport,thethirdairport the capitalofEurope:big- lion peoplelivehere.Itisinfact Cologne between Lille,Amsterdamand north-western Europeissituated The Europolisofthedeltain more tothewest. rope canbeseendeveloping ‘Europolis’ innorth-westernEu- greatest increaseisinAsia.The are continuouslygrowing.The (ill. 8) . About40mil- ed where theiragricultureislocat- where theChineselive(ill.9) An examplefromChinashows much indemand. fresh seedsandsoonarevery cut flowers,freshvegetables, duction parks,becausefreshly intensive production,agro-pro- area. Itisanareawithhighly also averyactiveagricultural In additiontourbanizationitis ization andintensiveagriculture combination ofintensiveurban- tze deltametropolis exactly thesamearea,Yang- (ill.10) . Theyarelocatedin (ill.11) . The and lack ofcommonmethodologies, al unifyingconcepts,there isa lack ofnationalandinternation- gies andprocedures.There isa with newconcepts,methodolo- have toplaninadifferentway, mentioned earlier.Thereforewe tutional andconceptualreasons because ofthecontextual,insti- no longereffective,however, The traditionalinstrumentsare instruments. to stimulatethroughdifferent tain andwhichoneshouldtry which oneshouldtrytomain- These arethebasicprinciples regional andnationalfairness. entiation, spatialhierarchy,and spatial cohesion,differ- tration ofurbandevelopment, 50 years.Theyaretheconcen- spatial planningformorethan using thefivebasicprinciplesof the Netherlandswehavebeen ciples ofspatialplanning.In also inlinewiththebasicprin- to takeplacenowadays.Itis This ishowdevelopmentsseem a moreorlesssustainableway. to feedtheurbanpopulationin is againclearandtheonlyway 20-9-2007 9:29:06 instruments. It also means that one should be orientated more towards development than towards planning with repressive systems, as was the case in the past. By using the dynamics and applying a flexible approach a new Utopia could be created.

The inertia that has been seen in planning techniques has created a situation that is sub- optimal in terms of land use, 9. Where the Chinese live. 10. Agriculture in China. dramatic in terms of pollution and ineffective in terms of eco- and the procedures and rules nomic achievements. This is still are too strict. In many other the case. countries we encounter exactly the same situation. If we want to change this we need the aforementioned flexible re- Moreover, there is considerable sponse and an absence of rigid- neglect of bottom up-move- ity in planning techniques. What ments. What is needed is no we need most of all are unify-

longer strict top-down planning, ing concepts, a typical example The role of new towns in relation to rural development but coordinating mechanisms. of which is an agricultural main In that way a system could be infrastructure for Europe. This created that maintains the five means that one would probably basic principles. use about 40 out of 140 million This requires a multitude of in- hectares of cultivated land. struments, a flexible approach and flexibility in the develop- We also need an ecological

ment and application of these 11. The Yangtze Delta metropolis. main infrastructure, because we prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: 79

INTI-seminar.indb 79 20-9-2007 9:29:07 INTI-seminar.indb 80 80 prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: The role of new towns in relation to rural development of walkingbeetlethat, when tles forinstance.Thereisa type cause theycanfly,butfor bee- biodiversity. Notforbirds be- way toconserveandpromote structue becauseitisthebest We needanecologicalinfra- conservation area. have anexpansionofthenature rope. Andthatmeansyou cal maininfrastructureforEu- grounds forchoicesanecologi- erlands. Wealsodevelopedin is alreadypresentintheNeth- ecological maininfrastructure It isinterestingtoseethatan ecological maininfrastructure. rigidity andanagricultural In short,aflexibleresponse,no plant additionalforests. ecological infrastructureand To befair,weshouldrepairour tion inotherpartsoftheworld. while preachingwaterconsump- could saythatwedrinkwine do notcutdowntheirs.One advocate thatBrazilandAfrica forests ofEuropeandnowwe nature. Wehavedestroyedthe may andshouldinfactextend at thelowerlevelsofregional overregulation, ascanbe seen approach. Anothertendency is cept, andcertainlynounifying methodology, nounifying con- ation wherethereisnounifying free forallwillresultinasitu- cate ofthis.Inmyopinion,a the Netherlandswasanadvo- minister ofspatialplanningin of a‘freeforall’.Theformer days wewitnessthepromotion place inthreedirections.Nowa- Future developmentscantake ‘environment’ fornewtowns. create asituationenablingan should beintegrated.Thiswill separated, whilemultiplegoals sity. Mainfunctionsshouldbe tenance ofasuccessfulbiodiver- logical infrastructure:themain- That isatthebasisofeco- next. will movefromoneplacetothe are connectedhungrybeetles place. Whenthemajorareas thereby stayinginthesame become drunkandturnaround, line. Whentheyarewellfed hungry, walksalongastraight different places. them andtoimplementin mature concepts,tointroduce of newtowns,toturntheminto them toworkontheconcepts to createampleopportunityfor left tospecialists.Myworkis The executionofthisisbest is anurgentneedforthem. and stimulated,becausethere They canandshouldbecreated cated, newtownsareexamples. concepts, ofwhich,asIindi- trying todeveloptheseunifying ning. Aflexibleresponse,while opment thantowardsrigidplan- orientated moretowardsdevel- ing andstimulating.Anattitude power, whichismoreconvinc- icymakers: authorityinsteadof It requiresanewattitudeofpol- direction weshouldtake. and thatis,inmyopinion,the have coordinatingmechanisms, policy making.Finallyonecan 1992. Regeringsbeleid (WRR),report42, Wetenschappelijke Raadvoorhet 1-4 ‘GrondvoorKeuzen’, List ofillustrations/credits: 20-9-2007 9:29:09 The role of new towns in relation to rural development prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge: 81

INTI-seminar.indb 81 20-9-2007 9:29:10 INTI-seminar.indb 82 20-9-2007 9:29:10 prof. dr. K. van Egmond Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP)

Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning

Professor ir. Klaas (N.D.) van Summary Egmond (1946) graduated from Wageningen University in 1972 Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning in Food Technology. He was employed that same year at The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP) supports the RIVM as researcher in air national and international policy makers by analysing the envi- quality and became Head of the ronmental impact of policies and trends in society. MNP provides Laboratory for Air Research 10 independent integrated assessments on such topics as sustainable years later, in 1982. In 1987 development, energy and climate change, biodiversity, transport, he moved to the Laboratory for land use and air quality. MNP reports these findings in reports, Soils and Groundwater produced both on request and at the MNP’s own initiative. All our Research, where he became reports are available to the public. MNP functions as an interface Head, and then on to the between science and policy. From our position at the centre of Division of Chemistry and national and global knowledge networks, we supply both the Dutch Physics to become Director in government and international organisations (e.g. EEA, UN, OECD 1988. In 1989 he was appointed and the World Bank) with sound, evidence-based assessments on RIVM’s Director of Environment. core issues of environmental importance. Since 2002, Van Egmond has Some questions that MNP considers are:

occupied the position of • How polluted are the Netherlands, Europe and the world, and Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning Director of the Netherlands what are the implications and prospects for people, plants and Environmental Assessment animals? What is the fate of nature? Agency, functioning until •What is the environmental role in economic and social develop- recently under the RIVM. ments, both nationally and internationally? What does climate In 1995 Van Egmond assumed change mean for the Netherlands and the rest of the world? the post of Professor of •What are governments doing to protect nature and the environ- Environmental Studies at the ment? Are they doing enough? What does it cost? Where can

Utrecht University on a part- improvements be made? How effective are they? prof. dr. K. van Egmond: time basis, which he continues •What factors contribute to sustainable development and in what 83 to combine with his present duties. dimension (socio-cultural, ecological or economic)?

INTI-seminar.indb 83 20-9-2007 9:29:10 INTI-seminar.indb 84 84 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning sented. Onecanseeacarbon climate changearealsorepre- The emissionofCO from landusesuchasmethane. right, andalsotheemissions and vegetation.Energyisonthe Then wegodowntolanduse course animportantdriver. economy ontop,whichisof tion developmentandtheworld a whole.Itshowsthepopula- we useformodellingearthas Illustration 1showsthemodel work. also bearsarelationtoour The foodsituationintheworld sure onthesystemasawhole. mary causesofecologicalpres- tion andpopulationasthepri- We studytechnology,consump- also workingonglobalchanges. them. Thatmeansthatweare levels, whiletryingtointerlink We domodellingworkonall of theNetherlands. urban areasandtothestreets el. Thenitwilldescendtothe planning willstartatworldlev- decision modellingandDutch This publicationonecological 2 andthe 1. Modelofpopulationdevelopmentandworldeconomy (ill. 3) with givingontheright side parts: peoplemoreconcerned The chartisdividedinto two on aEuropeanscale. lands andalsotosomeextent interviews, doneintheNether- mindsets afteranalyzinglong ry. Wehaveconstructedthese leading tothepresentcentu- time andgiveusscenarios, These viewsarefollowedover mindsets ofhowpeoplethink. might alsocallthemscenarios: We workwithworldviews.One the worldduringthiscentury. sues wewillpaintapictureof By interconnectingalltheseis- tance forthisverylowcountry. rise, whichisofcrucialimpor- and, ofcourse,thesealevel on thewater,landdegradation earth temperatures,theeffects ricultural productionwithrising issues, theimprovementofag- all naturalsystems,agricultural The impactisshowninpurple: global scaleandclimatechange. try, ozoneformation,smogona cycle, theatmosphericchemis- , andthosewithtakingon 20-9-2007 9:29:11 the left (ill. 2). ‘Giving’ people From these basic mind sets of care more about the environ- people, be it on a global or on a ment, solidarity, family and so local scale, we try to model the on. ‘Taking’ people are more world. interested in possessing luxury goods, high economic growth So we assume there are four and so on. basic world views. At the upper left is the combination of In a statistical sense the outcome globalization and market effi- was a small world below and a ciency. It is our society of today. big world above. This means One could call it the global mar- that there is either an attitude ket where free enterprise exists. in which one’s own family and The words ‘End of history’ in regional scale are important, or 2. People ‘taking’. 3. People ‘giving’. green are referring to Francis one has a more cosmopolitan 4. Four attitudes. Fukuyama’s work in 1992. When orientation. the Berlin wall fell in 1989 the idea was that communism had Looking at these four (or two by failed. There was only one sys- two) basic attitudes of people tem left in the world, the liberal (ill. 4), they can be generalized free democratic market system. into the mindsets on the right. It could not be improved any- It is translated into regionaliza- more, so history was over and tion below and globalization on the solution was there. This was

top, free market efficiency on seen as the only surviving ideol- Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning the left and solidarity on the ogy. The World Trade Organiza- right. These four mindsets one tion is also an icon of this view may see as basic contrasts in of the world. our society in a political sense. We have made maps of political On the other hand, a few years parties in order to see the pref- earlier in an important report erences of the party members, by the Bruntland commission,

to validate this scheme. ‘Our common future’, it was prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 85

INTI-seminar.indb 85 20-9-2007 9:29:12 INTI-seminar.indb 86 86 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning or smallerscale:family,village there issolidarityonaregional seen onthelowerright,where this socialdilemma.Itcan be has beencreatedtoovercome In principle,everygovernment mental restrictions. wants tobethefirstinenviron- to actinconcertbutnoone ity. Toattainthiscountrieshave between profitandsustainabil- tries toovercomethedilemma ist onaEuropeanscale.TheEU These twoworldviewsalsoex- the agenda. tainability issuewasplacedon and Johannesburg,thesus- es wereheldinRiodeJaneiro ordinate this.Globalconferenc- amongst others,inordertoco- the UnitedNationsintoaction, This worldviewthenbrought global solidaritywasneeded. bal problems.Somethinglike world couldnotsolvetheseglo- ket mechanismoftheupperleft The ideawasthatthefreemar- of enormousecologicalthreats. coming morecomplexbecause argued thattheworldwasbe- and culturalblocslower left. dividual behaviourlower right the governmentupperright, in- are thefreemarketupper left, In short,thefourworldviews of 2001. that foresawthedevelopments clash ofcivilisations’in1993 ber thatHuntingtonwrote‘The the paperseveryday.Remem- confrontation, ascanbeseenin and theIslamicbloc.Itisareal tural blocsexist,theChristian left worldwheretwolargecul- ma worldof1992intothelower we havefallenfromtheFukiya- One mightsaythatafter9/11 as weseehappeningnowadays. the formationofculturalblocks left. Itisregionalization,with The finalworldviewisonthe core ofitall. with people’sbehaviouratthe cy alsoplaysanimportantrole, scale. Theideaofself-sufficien- optimal functioningonaglobal scale functioningwillleadto deals withtheideathatsmall of 1972,‘Smallisbeautiful’, or region.Schumacher’sbook lower rightworldvieware anti- moving toofast.Peoplein the tution, becauseglobalization is would beagainsttheEUConsti- majority oftheNetherlands have alsopredictedthatthe Knowing thesepreferenceswe nia isobvioushere. A certaindegreeofschizophre- 5.00 p.m.onFridayafternoon. same peopleare‘lowerright’at on Mondaymorning,whilethe ple are‘upperleft’at9.00a.m. our interviewsshowedthatpeo- left tolowerright.Moreover, witnessed ashiftfromupper 2006 intheNetherlands,we ter theelectionsofNovember darity andregionalization.Af- world, thesmallworldofsoli- wants toliveinthelowerright world. Thelargestgroup,40%, the peoplepreferupperleft population, lessthan10%of terviews theDutchorEuropean It isstrikingthatwhenonein- from astatisticalpointofview. are themostimportantones other 87worldviews,butthese One mightarguetherearean- than wearenow.Inthelower we willbe2.3timeswealthier per leftworld,thefreemarket, for 2040.Accordingtothe up- of theeconomiccomputations Illustration 5showstheresults tions for2040. illustrations showourcomputa- coming century.Thenextfew seen asfourscenariosforthe These fourmindsetscanbe drawal intothelowerleftworld. vival. Thisleadstoculturalwith- view istoohighforculturalsur- the speedofupperleftworld the samestoryagainandagain: by Americanculture,onehears industry arebeingoverwhelmed French chansonsandthemovie In France,forexample,where balization ismovingtoofast. more recentlyinhistory:glo- It hashappenedearlierbutalso in aculturalsense. that wecannotkeepupwithit left worldismovingtoofastand tle. Theycontendthattheupper the streetsofGenoaandSeat- globalistic, demonstratingin 20-9-2007 9:29:13 5. Economic computations for the Netherlands 6. Increasing wealth.

right world, which is preferred example, but for primary neces- seen health is slowly improving by most people, the difference sities like housing and scarce everywhere in the world, but is only 1.3. commodities like space, the there are still big differences.

number 2.3 could be mislead- Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning One might wonder what would ing of course. happen if the prices of houses in the upper left world would This is the human development also grow by 2.3. What will we index world wide (ill. 6), which have won? Maybe we will be able represents income, life expect- to buy 2.3 times more tickets ancy and education. The green for a holiday in Patagonia or 2.3 areas are positive, the red ar-

times more digital cameras for eas problematic. As can be prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 87

INTI-seminar.indb 87 20-9-2007 9:29:13 INTI-seminar.indb 88 88 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning 7. Populationmodel. the educationofwomen will and theChristiancultural bloc frontation betweentheIslamic crucial difference.Inthe con- this isnotthecase,which isa tury. Inthelowerleftworldview its topinthemiddleofcen- views, thepopulationreaches views, theglobalizationworld shows thatintheupperworld The populationmodel (ill. 7) middle ofthecenturycure is to stabilizepatientearthin the system asawhole.Whenhaving of ecologicalpressureon the is oneofthethreemajordrivers per worlds.Populationpressure transition takingplaceintheup- going throughthedemographic preventing thesecountriesfrom the economicprocess,thereby stay behind.Theywillnotjoin 9. Regional. 8. Globalization. tion tofoodconsumptionin the This istheratiooffoodproduc- sense. tion isalsobadinanecological of thisclash,thepresentsitua- from thesocialconsequences ecological pointofview.Apart lower leftisadisasterfroman worlds areneededbecausethe globalization (Ill. 8) . Theupper production possibilities. population pressureand food for sometimetocome,given population willbeproblematic in theredareas.Feeding so. Thisleadstothelowratio pressure ishighandwillremain is difficult,whilethepopulation instance (ill.9) lower leftworld.InAfrica,for , foodproduction 20-9-2007 9:29:15 10. Biodiversity 1700. 11. Biodiversity 2050.

Illustrations 10 and 11 show utilization of the world’s natural tive of equal opportunities eve- accept that other people will do biodiversity, or the variation of resources until 2050, transform- rybody is entitled to the use of likewise in the next 100 years.

plant species around the world. ing ecology into economy. our global ecosystems. We have There is no alternative. Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning The model starts with the year used trees to build ships and on 1700, when the steam engine Large parts of the world are red Cyprus trees were used to melt One can see that by the mid- was invented and the popula- areas already, but when other copper from the mines, which dle of the present century our tion explosion began. By using parts of the world develop they is why the Netherlands and Cy- energy consumption will have nature we are actually trans- will also need those ecosys- prus have prospered for centu- increased three- to fourfold, forming ecology into economy. tems. From an ecological point ries. Everybody uses the ecosys- which is also more or less the

If this process continues we will of view this would seem objec- tem for economic purposes. We case with CO2 emission. This as-

witness a further increase in our tionable, but from the perspec- have done so and we have to sumes no major changes in the prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 89

INTI-seminar.indb 89 20-9-2007 9:29:16 INTI-seminar.indb 90 90 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning our economyneedstochange point ofview.Inotherwords, will besustainablefromaglobal tion toareasonablelevel,which crease theirenergyconsump- Other countriescanthenin- be reducedtoaslittle30%. the earth’satmosphereithasto countries totaketheirshareof in ordertoallowfordeveloping sumption by50%ormore.But us toreduceourenergycon- presents aproblem,requiring example. Theclimatechange use ofsustainableenergyfor 12. Costeffectivesolutions. and willhaveanegativeeffect climate changeswillbesevere an irreversibleprocess.Global warming hasalreadybecome of thiscentury,becauseglobal be transgressedbythemiddle be achieved.Thisthresholdwill degree warminglimit.Itwillnot sents theEuropeanUnion’stwo- change andtheredlinerepre- Illustration 13isaboutclimate (ill. 12) constitutes aglobaltransition during thenext50years.This . 13. Climatechange. CO out anymeasuresbeingtaken. shows theclimatechangewith- considerably. Theupperline warming uphastobereduced supplies forexample.Therefore on foodproductionandwater Illustration 14showsthebest what shouldhappenisstriking. tween whatishappening and the lightofdiscrepancy be- of anydevelopmentpolicyin low thatof1990.Theabsence duced toalevelwhichisfarbe- 2 emissionshavetobere- tial results.Finally,reduction of time beforetheyyieldsubstan- lustration showsittakesa long the CO are otherpossibilitiestoreduce Solar, windandnuclearenergy sity. food productionandbiodiver- required incompetitionwith the enormousamountofland is asensiblealternative,given one couldquestionwhetherthis Biomass isalsoapossibility,but solution: undergroundstorage. 2 emissions,butastheil- 20-9-2007 9:29:18 16. Model of the development of urbanization and land use up to 2020 in north-western Europe.

energy consumption is one of say that Europe, more or less the most attainable possibili- by inventing the steam engine ties, but it is very difficult to get and the industrial revolution, 14. The best solution. this accepted in a rich country has caused the problem and like the Netherlands, let alone so should solve it during the in poor countries that are just present century. starting to grow economically. Now we descend from a global Illustration 15 shows that the scale to north-western Europe. Netherlands, as small as it is, Illustration 16 shows a cellu- is an important global player in lar automata model in which

the network. We use only 1 % of the development of urbaniza- Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning the energy in the world, but our tion and land use up to 2020 is commercial activities are abun- shown. Below the line between dant. We have inventorized the the middle of the Netherlands network of our relationships. and central Europe there is a The same is true for Europe: strong tendency towards high within Europe the Netherlands development, because spatial could play a role in the issue pressures are increasing.

15. The Netherlands - an important global player. of global change. One might prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 91

INTI-seminar.indb 91 20-9-2007 9:29:19 INTI-seminar.indb 92 92 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning of thecombustionproductNO in thissatelliteanalysis The sametendencycanbeseen 17. Satelliteanalysisofnitrogenoxideairpollution. are increasingnowadays. One The capabilitiesofsatellites France andthePoareainItaly. Belgium, thenorthernpart of are theNetherlands,Germany, The mostheavilypollutedareas ing fromtrafficandindustry. an airpollutantmainlyemanat- or nitrogendioxide,whichis (ill. 17) 2

prime ministerclaimed that tions ofNovember2006 the The lastdaybeforethe elec- logical pressure. lands reallyisintermsofeco- how overcrowdedtheNether- cal pointofview.Onecansee step forward,alsofromapoliti- levels afull100%.Thatisbig making thecomparabilityof pollutants atthesametime, instrument measuresallthese to extractsulphur,cadmium which requireadditionalenergy installations andpowerplants We arebuildinghugechemical energy toremoveallpollutants. we areusingmoreand the vacuumcleanerathome: What wearedoingisjustlike with asmallincreaseof1%. up. CO line ofnationalincomeisgoing lution aregoingdownandthe of pollutants.Alllinespol- year, showingdifferentkinds We takeapicturelikethisevery referring tothispicture country wasdecreasing.He the ecologicalpressureinthis 2 however isstillgoingup 18. Differentkindsofpollutantsdecreasing. (ill. 18). up. AndenergyisCO we areusingenergytoclean and otherpollutants.Inshort, velopment ofCO Illustration 19showsthede- change. CO we fulfilpartlybypurchasing have aKyotoobligation,which the Netherlandsuntil2010.We Nowadays thesealevel rise has thehighestcontribution. consumption, thelineon top, ample. Thereductionofenergy ergy hassomepotentialforex- to doourselves.Sustainableen- What remainsiswhatwehave 2 rightsinothercountries. 2 emissionin 2 isclimate 20-9-2007 9:29:21 20. Physical impact in the Netherlands with sea level rise.

19. CO2 Projections for the Netherlands. There are only a few physicists On the other hand one could who understand the problem argue that it takes a while for poses a real threat to the Neth- ed with the red line. One could in Greenland. It is happening all ice in Greenland to melt. De- erlands. The bandwidth (in blue) say that the future of the Neth- very fast: earth quakes occur frosting one’s freezer at home (ill. 20) has been agreed upon erlands depends on Greenland. that cause glaciers to suddenly also takes the whole night. On internationally. This means that If this country’s ice would melt shift forward a few metres. One Greenland it could take hun-

during the present century the the sea level would rise between can monitor these ‘icequakes’ dreds of years for the ice to dis- Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning sea level will rise between half six and seven metres. We can in the Netherlands. At the mo- appear. However, there are vari- a metre and one metre, with the hardly cope with this. We can ment nobody understands why ous uncertainties and it might latter being more likely. We are handle 1-1.5 metre in a cen- it is happening at such a speed. take less time. in the upper part of the band- tury. But if something happens Some scientists say: 100 000 width. in Greenland and that level is years ago we had plus 5 metres exceeded, we have a substantial already, why should that not We think that there is a small problem. happen again?

chance that we will be confront- prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 93

INTI-seminar.indb 93 20-9-2007 9:29:22 INTI-seminar.indb 94 94 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning 21. Dikedareas‘dijkringen’. vested inthelowerpartsof the 100 yearsalothasbeen in- lems couldoccur.Overthe last (dijkringen) These arethediked areas the countryagainstthisthreat. We aredevisingwaystoprotect (ill. 21) whereprob- ing thecoastaldefencesin the Adaptation optionsareupgrad- vulnerable. As aconsequenceweare quite economic activitytakesplace. Netherlands, wheremostofthe through ourdelta water fromtheEuropeanrivers west andredirectingtheflowof the Rhine?Theideaistodirect of thewaterfromrivers like sible. Secondly,howtoget rid how tokeeptheharbouracces- water outlet.Onequestion is dam shouldnotbeusedasa means thattheareaofRotter- In low westernparts. the northernpart,avoiding idea istodirectmorewater illustration 23theredcross 22. Adaptationoptions:upgradingthecoastaldefences. (ill 22) . The Rotterdam. 23. Directingthewatertoavoid 20-9-2007 9:29:23 24. Analytical model. 25. Attractive distance to highways. 26. Restrictions by water.

it to the north and south, avoid- more housing is needed. And fi- where can one live, where do of the upper left more highways ing the vulnerable Rotterdam nally, the country’s population. water problems exist, etcetera. will be built, while this is not the area. All these claims are shown on This results in the future land case in the lower right world. the lower left hand side. use on the lower right. These maps are the outcome of We employ several models on one’s view of the world and of a national scale. Illustration 24 At the upper right there are sev- Examples of attractiveness and scenarios. is an analytical model. At the eral suitability maps. They deal restrictions can be seen in the

upper left is current land use, with questions like: what could distance to highways (ill. 25), Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning the lower left represents the be done where, which areas which is an important factor for numerical scenarios which are are attractive from an empirical the settlement of industry. In shown above: traffic, energy point of view, where do people illustration 26 one can see the consumption and social issues want to live and work and so restrictions by water. like housing. The individualiza- on. tion of people, typical for the It should be noted that the scenarios on the left side of this Another factor is the physi- choices depend on one’s view

illustration, is increasing, so cal background of the country: of the world. In the world view prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 95

INTI-seminar.indb 95 20-9-2007 9:29:25 INTI-seminar.indb 96 96 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning the upperleft Take theaccessibilityofjobsin tions exist my fewernaturerelatedrestric- In theworldofaglobalecono- tion bigger. left isstrongerandthepopula- cause theeconomyinupper lower rightworld.Thisisbe- the upperleftworldthanin The numberofjobsishigherin right claims inthismodel. to bemergedwithalltheother for example.Theseclaimshave claims onareasforbirdhabitats world come second.Inthelowerright comes firstandecologicalissues (ill.28) (ill. 30) (ill. 29) worldsforinstance. the EUhasmany (ill.27) . Theeconomy andlower 27. 9 e auersrcin. 30.Morenature restrictions. 29. Fewnaturerestrictions. oejb nteuprlf ol.28.Lessjobsinthelowerrightworld. More jobsintheupperleftworld. down to15million. ple, intheotheritmayevengo will stabilizeat17millionpeo- of thelowerworldspopulation in Europetoworkhere.Inone influx ofpeoplefromelsewhere philosophy therewillalsobean According tothefreemarket by themiddleofcentury. modate 19to20millionpeople Netherlands willhavetoaccom- population. Inthetophalf erlands seenagainstworld with thepopulationofNeth- views oftheworld(ills.31-35) Here wecomebacktothefour 20-9-2007 9:29:26 , 32. Global market. 33. Global solidarity.

31. The four views of the world.

At the same time individualiza- tion will follow its own path in the various scenario’s. Taking

these into account, we can cal- Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning culate the number of houses we will need in the future.

34. Safe region. 35. Regional communities. prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 97

INTI-seminar.indb 97 20-9-2007 9:29:27 INTI-seminar.indb 98 98 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning tation These aretheideasforadap- 19 or20million. high pressurefuture,withupto 17 millioninhabitants,notthe this isthelowerleftfuture,with period 2000-2040 This isthedevelopmentfor cetera ofthepastfewdecades industrial buildings,people et- cal behaviourofsettlements, In otherwords,iftheempiri- a futurewithoutstrictpolicies. increase towards2040.Itshows the world,andthereisastrong ance withtheupperleftviewof have beengrowinginaccord- one. Thepastfewdecadeswe assumption thantheprevious This worldisamorerealistic next 40years the upperleftworld,during This showstheglobalmarket,or ready. solving halfoftheproblemal- because coastaldefencemeans against theseadecadesago, a secondcoastlineasdefence other people.Wehaveproposed working ontogetherwithmany (ill. 37) (ills. 38and39). , whichweare (ills.36) . And

present situation. cost effectiveasopposedto the would makepublictransport are pushedtotheedges,which urban areasoftheNetherlands straints tothecentrefuture or Paris.Byapplyingmorecon- not ashighitisinLondon lation densityinDutchcitiesis port isanotherissue.Thepopu- policy nowadays.Publictrans- maintenance. Thatispublic fact thatgreenareasrequire green areas,startingfromthe constraints onthecountry’s We alsomakemodelswithmore tion. then movetothenextbestloca- highways orbuildings.Theywill the numberofpeople,housing, claims remainthesame,like not buildinsuchareas.Butthe very lowforexample.Weshould country. TheareaofGoudais building inlowpartsofthe constraints, likerefrainingfrom shown here)withadditional We havealsomadeamodel(not picture. continues, weendupwiththis

37. Ideasforadaptation. 36. Thedevelopment2000-2040lowerleftfuture. 20-9-2007 9:29:29 38. Global market - upper left world in 2000. 40. Noise levels in the Nether- 41. Highways to the city. 39. Global market - upper left world in 2040. lands.

Calculation of noise levels in the street in this country. When Netherlands is another aspect these concentrations exceed of our work. The Amsterdam their limits, no building activi- area is red due to the proxim- ties are allowed to take place in ity of the national airport. We the area. This is a big conflict

make these calculations for between the economy, ecology Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning every street to see if it does not and Brussels, which claims that exceed the standard noise level the limits may not be exceeded limit (ill. 40). under any circumstances.

We also look at air pollution We also calculate visual deterio- levels. As scientists, we are ex- ration by and along highways pected to calculate the air pol- (ill. 41). The so-called ‘verrom-

lution concentrations of every meling’, the disturbance of prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 99

INTI-seminar.indb 99 20-9-2007 9:29:31 INTI-seminar.indb 100 100 prof. dr. K. van Egmond: Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning sions dress theimpactofnewdeci- We usethesetechniquestoad- left ofthepicture. modelled, representedonthe landscape views,hasalsobeen or later. be returnedtothewatersooner parts ofthisnicecountryshall ment itseemslikelythatcertain ticular landscape.Atthismo- of anewhighwaythroughpar- (ills. 42-45) , forexample 42 -45.Moreandmoredecisionmaking! 20-9-2007 9:29:33 Ecological decision models and their use in Dutch planning prof. dr. K. van Egmond: 101

INTI-seminar.indb 101 20-9-2007 9:29:34 INTI-seminar.indb 102 20-9-2007 9:29:35 prof. J. Portugali Tel Aviv University

Models and their use in urban planning

Juval Portugali Summary has his specialisation in social geography with Models and their use in urban planning respect to cognitive geography and mapping, In the last decades we have been witnessing a growing interest in socio-spatial change, theories of complexity and self-organization and their relationship urbanism, theories of to cities. We further see an intensive use of urban simulation mod- self-organization and els as means to study urban dynamics and as tools for city plan- spatial and regional ning. The aim of this paper is to discuss these issues. The discus- archaeology. His current sion will start by introducing some phenomena of self-organization research is about and complexity in general and their relation to cities. It will then inter-representation turn to urban simulation models, in particular to agent based and networks and the cellular automata simulation models that have become the main construction of cognitive approach in this field. Two kinds of models will be discussed: the maps and the city as a prevalent bottom-up urban simulation models and the cognitively self-organizing system. orientated top-down urban simulation models that derive agents’ ESLab (Environmental behavior from first principles of cognition. Next we will Simulation Lab) Department examine urban simulation models as components in PSS (Planning of Geography and the Support Systems), and the more fundamental issue that concerns Human Environment, the implications of complexity and self-organization theories to Tel Aviv University, the process and structure of planning. Finally a few notes concern- Models and their use in urban planning Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel, ing the relevance to new towns will be mentioned. Tel: 972(+3)640-8661, Fax: 972(+3)640-6243, E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://eslab.tau.ac.il prof. J. Portugali: 103

INTI-seminar.indb 103 20-9-2007 9:29:35 INTI-seminar.indb 104 104 prof. J. Portugali: Models and their use in urban planning from belowandwatched what liquid inacircularvessel, hit it Bénard in 1904bytheFrenchphysicist with anexperimentconducted organization, wehavetostart To explainthenotionofself- and newtowns. of relevanceinurbanplanning conclude withsomeexamples ulation models.Thisarticlewill words ongamesandurbansim- This willbefollowedbyafew cities willbediscussedbriefly. tion, complexityinrelationto on thenotionofself-organiza- as follows:afteranintroduction These issueswillbediscussed tool forcityplanning. dynamics ingeneralandasa els asameanstostudyurban terest inurbansimulationmod- Batty. Wealsoseeagrowingin- ies andComplexity’,byMichael this domain,forinstance‘Cit- are anumberofpublicationson zation inrelationtocities.There the phenomenonofself-organi- witnessed agrowinginterestin During thelastdecadeswehave (ill. 1) . Heputacertain 1. TheBénardexperiment. has beenworkinginBrussels for instanceIlyaPrigogine, who mous peopleinthisdomain are Today wecallitcomplexity. Fa- was calledself-organization. main ofstudy,whichatthetime major paradigmforanewdo- experiment actuallybecamethe but 60yearslatertheBénard of manystrangeexperiments, In 1904thiswastreatedasone set ofhexagons. became highlyorganizedintoa big surprise,thewholesurface But suddenly,andthiswasthe see: bubbles,chaosetcetera. ning hesawwhatweusually happened ontop.Inthebegin- complex becauseitexplains day, butatthesametime itis in thesensethatweuseit every nition issomethingverysimple, tern of modelsinthedomainpat- tion anddevelopedawholeset dynamic tothedomainofcogni- Haken hasappliedthisliquid sentially amovement. What happensintheliquidises- entire systemtoitsmovement. the orderswinsandenslaves between themselvesuntiloneof eters. Theystartacompetition actually asetoforderparam- fined asorderparameters,or gives risetowhatHakende- and molecules.Theinteraction of liquid,thesepartsareatoms parts ofthesystem.Incase interaction betweenthevarious ginning thereissomekindof by HermannHaken.Inthebe- this experimentwassuggested One oftheinterpretations in Stuttgart. systems, andHermannHaken his studiesonselforganizing and receivedaNobelPrizefor recognition. Pattern recog- several orderstates.They start rections andthentheycreate parts aremovinginvarious di- very similar.Inthebeginning What happensinthiscase is ogy oflaserlight. the developersoftechnol- fact HermannHakenwasoneof known laserphenomenon.In the secondexampleisawell example wasliquiddynamics, developed inphysics.Thefirst organizing systemswasfirst cle. Thewholeconceptofself- physics, thisisalmostamira- self. Fromthepointofview is createdspontaneously,byit- interference orplanning.Order an ordercanbecreatedwithout suddenly takeplacemeansthat The factthatsuchaprocesscan self-organization. described bythisprocessof there isadynamismwhich the personforsecondtime, to startwith.Then,whenwesee we createsomekindofimage saw yesterday?Theideaisthat that weknowapersonwho questions like:howdoweknow 20-9-2007 9:29:35 2. Hysteresis. 3. Moving fingers at the speed of a metronome 4. ...and legs at the speed of a metronome

a competition and eventually row. Suddenly one sees a woman examples of the self-organizing their behaviour spontaneously, one order state enslaves the en- and it continues to be a woman system is the brain of humans not because they decided to. It tire system, thus creating order. until the end. However, if one and other animals. happened by means of self-or- All this happens spontaneously, views the same drawings start- ganization. by means of self-organization. ing from the bottom right, one Another interesting experiment starts by seeing a woman and is in the domain of cognition There are many examples like Very soon the whole idea of self- one keeps seeing her. One real- and behaviour, conducted by this. Another experiment fol- organization was recognized as izes that it could be a face only Scott Kelso from the University lows the finger movement par- a general paradigm that has after moving to the top row. The of Florida. He asked people to adigm. It works in exactly the been applied in many domains. breaking point is not exactly the move their fingers parallel to same way, but it involves two One of these domains is cogni- same in both cases. This is why each other at the speed of a people. They are asked to move tion. Here are a few examples. it is called hysteresis. metronome. At first people their legs parallel to each other. were doing this (ill.3 left). Grad- As the speed of the metronome Models and their use in urban planning Illustration 2 is a phenomenon Again this is a matter of self- ually he increased the speed of increases, they both switch to called hysteresis. If one views organization. These processes the metronome. It went faster a different kind of movement this series of drawings starting happen spontaneously: we do and faster and suddenly, spon- spontaneously (ill. 4). from the top left, one starts by not have to tell our mind to taneously, the movement of the seeing a face. It remains a face change its view, it does so by fingers changed (ill. 3 right). In This is interesting because it

until one moves to the second itself. One of the most complex other words, people changed does not concern a single per- prof. J. Portugali: 105

INTI-seminar.indb 105 20-9-2007 9:29:36 INTI-seminar.indb 106 106 prof. J. Portugali: Models and their use in urban planning since theyarehumanbeings, system, arehumanbeings. And the veryelementarypartsof the which everypartofthesystem, society thereisasituation in of studiesweperformed.In have learnedfromawholeset is oneofthemainlessonswe the situationisdifferent,which in theglobalsystem.Insociety the complexityphenomenon atoms inliquids,andwehave We havesimpleparts,like property ofasystemaswhole. plexity orself-organizationisa In physicsthenotionofcom- cities wasonetoone. society andtothedynamicsof models takenfromphysicsto the beginningapplicationof of cities,orhumansystems.At self-organization isthedomain applied thephenomenonof The domaintowhichwehave society. and ithappensalotincities tive behaviour.Thisisessential and stillonewitnessescollec- are twopeoplewithbrains son withasinglebrain.There rules andorganization. They of this,languageshaveorder, for instanceEsperanto.In spite a languagehavealwaysfailed, neously. Attemptsatplanning They havedevelopedsponta- one hasplanneditcompletely. control overalanguageandno dividuals. Noonehascomplete between alargenumberofin- that emergesfrominteraction language isacomplexsystem, guage isanopensystem.Each systems. Bydefinitionalan- which takesplaceonlyinopen nomenon ofself-organization, is apreconditionforthephe- open system.Ansystem languages. Eachlanguageisan self-organization arethehuman whole ideaofcomplexityand this phenomenonandofthe one ofthenicestexamples is notuniqueforcities.Infact, ation ismorecomplex,butit person. Inthisdomainthesitu- the dynamicsofeachsingle and atthesametimewehave the cityasacomplexsystem, mism: wehavethedynamicsof So itisadual(ordouble)dyna- each ofthemisacomplexsystem. guages. Firstofall,unlike a ences betweencitiesand lan- There are,however,bigdiffer- means ofself-organization. tion, setupspontaneouslyby it hasorder,rulesandorganiza- exists asaprofession.Andyet them, eventhoughcityplanning and noonehasfullyplanned ple. Noonefullycontrolsthem between alargenumberofpeo- the beginning,frominteraction system thatemerged,atleastin Each cityisacomplexsystem, is bydefinitionanopensystem. Similar tolanguageseachcity behind theorder. in theliquid,butalsorules creates order,likethehexagons zation isaprocessthatnotonly spontaneously. Soself-organi- even theseruleshaveoriginated learning grammaticalrules.And school welearnlanguagesby teresting example,becausein Languages constituteaveryin- organization. ously andbymeansofself- have beencreatedspontane- to cities?Wedoitbymeans of zation ingeneralandrelation of complexityandself-organi- How doesonestudyphenomena so on. companies, ofgovernmentsand tions, someofthemareplans of themareplansorganiza- them areindividualplans,some large numberofplans.Some about theinteractionbetweena ganization incities,wespeak when wespeakaboutself-or- A cityisfullofplanning.And simple plan. ing, oneisactuallyexecutinga cides togoworkinthemorn- city isaplanner.Whenonede- being actinginthecontextofa planner. Likewise,everyhuman human property.Eachofusisa is becauseplanningabasic ventional planningtheory.This is usuallyappreciatedbycon- planning, muchmoresothan guages, citiesundergoalotof languages. Secondly,unlikelan- is moresimilartotextthan itself. Bystandingonitsownit language, acityisanartefactin 20-9-2007 9:29:37 games and by means of urban ated on the floor. The result is a similar within this game. The in mind and what one produces simulation models. well organized city: small build- purpose of this game is to de- in the world. This interaction is ings on the left, high buildings termine people’s perceptions of very significant. It happens at The first example is what we call on the other side, etcetera. cities. In other words: what do an individual level when making the ‘city game’. The participants people have in mind when they a design or writing a poem or an are seated around a playing These games are simple but speak about a city in general? article. As soon as one external- area on the floor. Each partici- very efficient. On the one hand We call it a conceptual or cat- izes ideas, one’s mind is free to pant gets a model of a building they serve as a tool to teach egorical cognitive map. continue thinking about it. We at a scale of 1:100. The models students phenomena such as cannot think very far within the represent houses, office build- self-organization. On the other What is the outcome of this set brain. ings and so on. Each participant hand we learn a lot ourselves of experiments? On the one is asked to place the building and it gives us insights we use hand there are people who are The famous 1950’s article by somewhere on the floor. The in building models. centric in their perception of cit- George Miller, ‘The magical only rule is that one is not al- ies: they think of cities in terms number seven, plus or minus lowed to block the entrance to We add another rule to the of a strong center and large ter- two’, shows that we have a another building. Beyond that, game: when placing a building, ritory. On the other hand there limited ability to process in- every person is allowed to do as one also has to provide a road. are people who are multicen- formation. This is also seen in he or she pleases. It is interesting to see how the tric (or polycentric): they think chess. The player who can think roads, once they exist, partici- of cities in terms of many focal one move further ahead than The interesting result is that pate in the process. Every ele- points as in Los Angeles, for in- the opponent wins the game. an order emerges on the floor. ment in this small world takes stance. Although our head is full of long It can already be seen at a very part in the process, the dynam- term memories our short term early stage of the game. Once ics of which originate from the We learn a lot from these games, memory is very limited. this potential order is perceived, minds of the participants. not only about self-organization, people start locating their build- but also about a process that we Back to the SIRN. We have de- ings in line with this order. The previous games are called have defined as the synergetic veloped the notion of inter- Models and their use in urban planning interpersonal games, because inter-representation network, representation for this process. This is similar to the enslave- they involve group dynamics. or SIRN. The idea is that in all The first two games are actually ment principle defined by There is another game which these open dynamics, as well processors of inter-represen- Hermann Haken. No one tells we call intropersonal because as in many other design proc- tation. The participants come anyone else what to do, but still each person plays it with herself esses, an ongoing interaction with a certain idea of a city in

everybody follows the order cre- or himself, and the results are occurs between what one has mind and take a decision in ac- prof. J. Portugali: 107

INTI-seminar.indb 107 20-9-2007 9:29:37 INTI-seminar.indb 108 108 prof. J. Portugali: Models and their use in urban planning lation toitsneighbourhood dur- every cellaredeterminedin re- mism inwhichtheproperties of tion model.Itisatypeofdyna- CA (cellularautomata)simula- In forward andeasytouse. models areverysimple,straight- reasons forthisisthatthese based models of cellularautomataoragent- plexity ingeneralisbymeans of self-organizationandcom- way tostudythephenomenon Nowadays themostcommon develops likethis. major partofourbehaviour resentation thatwecallcity.A to thiscollectiveexternalrep- behave accordingly,according see whatishappeningandwe When wearriveinacity, place intheevolutionofcities. We suggestthatthisalsotakes interact allthetime. so thecityandindividuals ideas becomeexternalized.And the buildingonfloortheir resentation. Oncetheyhaveput cordance withtheirinternalrep- illustration 5ontheleftisa (ill. 5) . Oneofthe el ispresentedon The basicstructureofthe mod- use. tion andintheevolutionof land also inmobilityofthepopula- tural segregationincities,but in phenomenaofethnicandcul- We werespecificallyinterested phenomena ofurbandynamics. This enablesustostudyseveral panies, etcetera. They couldbeindividuals,com- man agentsinteractinginacity. movements ofagents,thehu- automata. Thisgivesusthe based modelontopofcellular space’. Wehaveputtheagent- we call‘Freeagentofcellular models wehavebuiltsomething By combiningthetwosetsof memory. may evenhavesomekindof ronment. Insomemodelsthey that goesbeyondthelocalenvi- they mightpossessinformation mals orhumans,whichmeans ‘mimic’ thebehaviourofani- are calledagent-based.They 5 right)isthesetofmodelsthat ing eachiteration.Opposite left. Itisinteresting,bythe way, illustration 6 (ill.

6. Thestructureofthemodels -thebasicflow. 5. Freeagentofcellularspace. 20-9-2007 9:29:37 that most models start with an is, we identify the area which is empty space. Imagine a new most appropriate to our needs area which is going to be a city. and then we make a location de- The first agent arrives. It looks cision. around and studies the state of the cells. Then it identifies the Within the realm of cities a top- empty cells and chooses the one down process occurs. Therefore which suits him best. Finally it we developed a model we call makes a location decision. This the ‘cognitive city’ (CogCity) two location decision is basic to cel- years ago. It is slightly different lular automata and agent-based from the standard one. urban simulation models. It affects the whole city structure, The diagrams (ill. 6 right and ill. because each cell is influenced 7) show agents arriving at a new by its neighbours. And so it con- city. When facing the city there tinues iteratively. is interaction between their internal representation (which we As one can see (ill.6 left), the call conceptional cognitive map) standard model is typically and the information afforded bottom-up. It starts with inter- by the city (affordance is a very action between individuals or important notion in cognitive individuals and the area and science). This interaction gives moves up from there. We have 7. Agents behaviour in Cogcity rise to what we call ‘order pa- come to the conclusion that this rameter’, which in this case is very nice and simple model tells a specific cognitive map of a us a lot, but it has one draw- city, meaning a person’s real Models and their use in urban planning back: humans never come to a thoughts about the city. On this city without any conceptions. basis the person or the agent is We never approach the city bot- actually taking action in the city. tom-up, we always approach it It also changes his or her cog- top-down. We arrive at a city, nitive map and so it continues

we consider what kind of city it iteratively. prof. J. Portugali: 109

INTI-seminar.indb 109 20-9-2007 9:29:38 INTI-seminar.indb 110 110 prof. J. Portugali: Models and their use in urban planning if allofthemaremulticentric in posite question:whathappens (ill. 8) monocentric intheirperception all agentsarrivingatthecity are one canaskwhathappenswhen tions canbeasked.Forinstance, model isthatallkindsofques- The advantageofthistype the cityaredeveloping. maps ofthevariousresidents left mapshowshowcognitive process evolvesandthebottom centres whicharecreatedasthe ing. Thetopleftmapshowsthe with differentpropertiesareliv- central mapshowswhereagents In eachof results fromourCogCitymodel. Illustrations 8-11 8. Mono-centricagent. . Oronecanasktheop- illustrations 8-10 showsome the 9. Multi-centricagents. models? What istherelevanceofthese the cityandsoon. various agents,thestructureof tion ofthecognitivemaps city. Andonecanseetheevolu- measures thestructureof There isacertainformulathat stable afterveryfewiterations. one canseethecitybecoming are kept.Inthediagram the screenallkindsofstatistics In additiontowhathappenson (ill.10) kind ofcityresultsfromthem of combinationsandseewhat Besides, onecanmakeallsorts their perceptionofcities? . (ill. 11) (Ill.9) 10. Multi-centricand mono-centric agents other programhandlesarchitec- coming publicdomain. The Internet, thusimmediately be- tage thatitcanbeputon the Skyline hastherelativeadvan- virtual citiescanbecreated. line, withwhichcomplete ware. OneofthemisSky- types ofvisualizationsoft- In ourlaboratorywehavetwo devices. standard GISandvisualization of urbansimulationmodels,a of threecomponents:afamily ning supportsystemconsists system’ the so-called‘planningsupport been usedasacomponentof urban simulationmodelshave During thelastcoupleofyears (ill. 12) . Atypicalplan- 11. Multi-centricagents. 12. AtypicalPSS. ization castsabigshadow on the wholenotionofself-organ- in predictions,though,because tion. Iamnotagreatbeliever ation orasameansofpredic- ther asadescriptionofthesitu- simulation modelsareusedei- tems, theresultsofurban In thoseplanningsupportsys- inside. wearing ahelmetoneisvirtually create ‘real’virtualrealities:by tural detailsmuchbetter.Itcan 20-9-2007 9:29:39 13. Cut - Paste - Plan. 14. Visualization analysis. 15. Add and evaluate.

the process of prediction. around it, because in the virtual Another relevance or applica- city of balconies (ill.16). In sum- reality one can move freely. One tion of the notion of self-organi- mer people would sit here, eat ‘Cut, Paste and Plan’ is an ex- can even enter a building and zation, complexity and planning watermelon, get some fresh ample of a planning support look outside in order to experi- concerns the property of non- air etcetera. But in the 1950’s system which was developed ence the view from each of the linearity. Non-linearity means an unknown person decided to in our laboratory. The platform windows. there is no direct causal relation close the balcony and turn it used is Skyline. Potential users between causal effects. It is also into a small room. We do not are city planners, architects or Besides, all kinds of analyses explained by the famous butter- know for what reason this was anybody acting in the city. It is can be added. Illustration 14 is fly effect: if a butterfly flaps its done. Then his neighbours did a kind of environmental impact a visualization analysis, a kind wings in Sumatra, there will be a analysis: having made a small of procedure that immediately storm in Holland. A little cause change to the environment we shows what can be seen from in a non-linear system can have examine how this change might the building and what not. dramatic effects and vice versa: Models and their use in urban planning affect it. a dramatic cause can have al- Next one can add another set most no impact. A building can be cut out of of buildings (ill. 15) and again An example from real life illus- the city (ill.13) and another one evaluate the impact on the land trates this. pasted in to see how it fits in the users around, or on land value Tel Aviv, which is the largest

environment. We can also walk and other aspects. city in Israel, has always been a 16. Balconies in Tel Aviv. prof. J. Portugali: 111

INTI-seminar.indb 111 20-9-2007 9:29:39 INTI-seminar.indb 112 112 prof. J. Portugali: Models and their use in urban planning conies topreventtheinhabit- were tobebuiltatopother bal- on conditionthatnobalconies days. Themunicipalityagreed which wasfashionableinthose and wantedtobuildbalconies, ism, architectscametothecity with theadventofpostmodern- story. Tentofifteenyearsago, But thisisnottheendof alternate floors. 17. BalconiesinTelAvivion the wholebuildingindustry. citizen hadamajorimpacton This smallactofanindividual architectural elementofTelAviv. balcony wasthemostdominant conies. Eventuallytheclosed city wasdottedwithclosedbal- the same,andbeforelong lowing: assumethatyou are a planning paradoxisthe fol- A goodexampleofanimaginary Zeno-paradox les andtheturtle,so-called the competitionbetweenAchil- (ill. 18) be wrongwhenitlooksright. cause theyshowsomethingto Paradoxes areveryusefulbe- contradiction. valid deductiontoanapparent tion andleadsbyanapparently apparently acceptableassump- an argumentthatstartsfrom issue ofplanning.Aparadoxis are verysignificanttothewhole ity concernsparadoxes,which Another applicationofcomplex- be closed. where balconiesarenotlikelyto has evenbeenappliedtohotels, landscape, somuchthatit nant elementinTelAviv’surban this hasbecomethemostdomi- 17) er onlyonalternatefloors cate balconiesaboveoneanoth- Therefore itwasdecidedtolo- ants fromclosingthemagain. . Duringthelasttenyears . Awellknownparadoxis (ill. 19) . (ill.

18. Physicsparadox. similar thenextmorning,for in- when youannouncesomething but alsotheconsequences. For just yourpersonalreputation, alize. Thedilemmahereis not chance thatitwillnotmateri- the prediction,greater The paradoxisthatthebetter loose yourcredibility. As aconsequenceyoumight thus falsifyingtheprediction. nobody comestothejunction, radio. Everybodyhearsitand tion, whichyouannounceonthe jam willoccuratacertainjunc- data andseethatamajortraffic ing youobservetheincoming ing aroadnetwork.Onemorn- transportation expertmonitor- 19. Zenoparadox. side theworldweareplanning. plan, wearenotstanding out- we makeapredictionoreven a not outsidethesystem.When In planning,theprediction is the situation. actually ledtothecreationof of casesinwhichtheprediction should notbedifficulttothink a selffulfillingprophecies.It ecies. Theoppositeiscalled of so-calledselfdenyingproph- This paradoxisatypicalcase happen. listen toyouandthereforeitwill a majorcaraccident,noonewill stance thatthereisgoingtobe 20-9-2007 9:29:41 The prediction or plan becomes an opportunity to make some up or local. The first type refers control. This is the case with all a player, it becomes a force par- profit and transformed their to planning by professional gov- kinds of plans. ticipating in reality. Let us say storehouses into small apart- ernments, the second refers to On the surface there seems to you want to buy a house and ments. Suddenly the market the response of individuals to be no relevance to new towns: somebody tells you to beware was flooded with many apart- the plans being implemented complexity and self-organiza- because a big motorway has ments, because the planner on a personal level. tion are about spontaneous been planned there in 20 years could not have anticipated this urban change and growth. But time. You will not buy it even behaviour. As a result the gov- A distinction can also be made urban simulation models com- though there is no guarantee ernment spent a lot of money between engineered/entropic monly start from an empty cellu- that the motorway will ever be on mobile homes, 90% of which and self-organized planning, lar space, similar to new towns. built. were never used by the new- which can refer to the same ob- Therefore, building a new town A real case of planning paradox comers. Because the city centre ject. For example, in a bridge is just a trigger for complex due to a self falsifying predic- is preferable to the outskirts of we are actually trying to close self-organizing dynamics. tion occurred in Israel in the remote towns the government the system, to create a planning 1990’s. It was a time when a had to sell the homes again. process which is fully control- List of illustrations / credits: wave of immigrants came to led, for obvious reasons. On the Israel from the former USSR. From the above examples sev- other hand, in the case of a new 1,5 From: Self Organization and the Planners predicted that Israel eral distinctions can be derived. town, the plan is an example of City, J. Portugali, Springer, 2000. was going to face a major hous- First, a distinction has to be the second situation. Once the 2-4 From: Synergetic Computers and ing shortage because of the in- made between two types of pre- bridge has been built, its fate is Cognition, H. Haken, Springer, 1978. flux of immigrants. Therefore a dictions: predictions of which predictable. Due to natural and 6-11 From: Toward a cognitive plan was implemented to pur- the outcome does not partici- artificial processes of decay and approach to urban dynamics. chase a large number of mobile pate in the dynamics of the pre- deterioration it will eventually In: Environment and Planning B: homes and locate them on the dicted system, for example the disintegrate. To say it in formal Planning and Design 31, p. 589- outskirts of towns and cities all weather forecast; and predic- language, it will reach a state 613, 2004. over the country. However, this tions, like the one described, of maximum entropy. Once a 12-17,19 Environmental Simula- Models and their use in urban planning policy became a big failure be- whose outcome does participate city plan has been completed tion Laboratory (ESLab), Tel Aviv cause of the spontaneous initia- in the dynamics of the predicted and implemented the story only University tives taken by a large number of system. starts. The plan or object that 18 From: Quantum Paradoxes: individuals. Many people in the Another distinction is between has been implemented triggers Quantum Theory for the Per- cities thought, as a consequence different types of planning: top- complex and unpredictable dy- plexed. Y. Aharonov and Rohr-

of the prediction, that this was down or global versus bottom- namics that no one can fully lich, Wiley, 2005. prof. J. Portugali: 113

INTI-seminar.indb 113 20-9-2007 9:29:42 INTI-seminar.indb 114 20-9-2007 9:29:42 Drs. J. Kragt Municipality of Zoetermeer

Popular models in town planning: the Zoetermeer game

Jan Kragt (1964) graduated from Summary the Zwolle Teachers College of education as a teacher of geogra- Popular models in town planning: the Zoetermeer game phy and history in 1989. During his student years he was head of Virtual Zoetermeer is a computer game developed by the municipality. It is a tourist information office, where part of a teaching program on urban development and administration. Its he developed tourist campaigns. theme is ‘Do you make a good mayor?’ The homework consists of playing Being attracted to the creative op- the game, in which the pupils can build Zoetermeer digitally district by dis- portunities that marketing tourism trict, including such facilities as Snow World, City centre and the Siemens offered, he switched from teaching Complex. The game takes the player back to 1962, when Zoetermeer was to marketing. He started his career still a village and was designated as a centre of urban expansion by the in a one-man tourist information Ministry of the Interior. The player has to guide this expansion. The virtual office in Tiel, which he expanded to inhabitants of Zoetermeer are demanding and respond with their criti- an organization with 26 employees, cisms on an electronic billboard: they expect excellent facilities, sufficient five branches and several agencies employment and a good infrastructure. In Virtual Zoetermeer pupils are in 13 cities. In 2001 he became introduced in a direct and playful way to urban development, planning and senior advisor of city marketing in administration, as well as to Zoetermeer and its facilities. Zoetermeer, where his assignment was to create publicity for this town The teaching program accompanying the computer game has been of 120,000 inhabitants. In 2005 his developed in cooperation with two Zoetermeer primary schools, Tjalk and Zoetermeer campaign was pro- Saffier. After completion of a successful pilot at these schools the teach- claimed the Dutch government cam- establishment and administration ing program and the computer game were distributed to all Dutch primary

paign of the year. Jan Kragt was of several foundations. His latest schools in 2003. The response was overwhelming. In 2005 an agreement Zoetermeergame involved in initiating and developing endeavour is the establishment of was reached with one of the biggest publishers of teaching programs, European subsidy projects in the the non-profit organization ‘Eure- Wolters-Noordhoff, to integrate Virtual Zoetermeer in their geography les- fields of spatial planning, economic ducation’, which aims at enhancing sons for secondary education. The computer game is an integral part of

development and city marketing. respect for and knowledge of differ- geography lessons at secondary schools now. drs. J. Kragt: He is involved in the ent cultures amongst the youth. 115

INTI-seminar.indb 115 20-9-2007 9:29:43 INTI-seminar.indb 116 116 drs. J. Kragt: Zoetermeergame planning. to urbandevelopmentand town building haveastrongrelation computer gamesabout town of thisseminarreassuredme: planning. Buttheorganization as apopularmodelintown speak onourcomputergame I thoughtwhenwasinvitedto keting! Andthatisexactlywhat is notaseminaraboutcitymar- is hedoingatthisseminar?This I canalmosthearyouthink:what marketing. urban developmentbutcity you thisbecausemyjobisnot Rotterdam. Ijustwantedtotell Holland, nearTheHagueand in thesocalledgreenheartof canoeing. Zoetermeerislocated wild waterriverforraftingand surfing hallwithanoutdoor skating hall,andevenanindoor indoor climbinghall,an skiing andsnowboarding,an such asanindoorsnowhallfor city withgreatleisurefacilities itants. ItisacompactITminded town withabout116,000inhab- Zoetermeer isadynamicDutch the playersplayroleof ur- education. Itisagameinwhich link tourbandevelopment and marketing productwithastrong computer gamebornasa city it intheillustrationabove-isa Virtual Zoetermeer-youcansee (The directlinktothegamecanbefoundatendof thisarticle). The computergame‘VirtualZoetermeer’www.zoetermeer.nl mands oftheinhabitants. what tobuild,basedonthe de- have tomakedecisionsabout mayor atthesametime. They as acitycounciloreven the build Zoetermeer,whileacting ban developers.Theyhaveto reason todosomethingabout intense. Youhaveavery good in Europehasneverbeen more has said:theplacecompetition famous citymarketingexpert, poor image.AsPhilipKotler,the is anexcellentproductwitha termeer, likemanynewtowns, product. OnecouldsaythatZoe- A towncanbeconsidereda the shoppingcentreandsoon. housing, theleisurefacilities, are quitesatisfiedwiththeir the inhabitantsofZoetermeer perceive thisasaproblem,while are notfamiliarwithZoetermeer address thisissue.Peoplewho Understandably weneededto less thesameimageproblems. new townssufferfrommoreor Almere. Inmanycasesother a socallednewtown,justlike no imageatall.Zoetermeeris ‘grey’ imageorinmanycases lem. Zoetermeersuffersfroma with aratherbigimageprob- was thatZoetermeerisatown The mostimportantreason and, ofcourse,forwhom? Why didwestartthisproject 20-9-2007 9:29:43 your town image. wants to change an image? That age, one should give young- One of the components of the was not difficult to determine, sters a tool to build a virtual IT policy was to create a plat- But what can be done? Large city because in my opinion a change town just like an urban planner. form for IT related businesses campaigns with lots of posters, of image often starts with the During the process of building to meet, exchange new ideas flyers, TV commercials etcetera? young. They can adapt to new they will learn everything there and support young and crea- Personally I do not think this will images and mental pictures of a is to learn about the city and its tive starters. More importantly, work, while it is extremely ex- city much quicker than anyone urban services. the city and the IT businesses pensive. Such large campaigns else. And if one can manage to joined forces to create a fund can not be sustained, because teach them or, even better, let It was decided to develop a in support of new and inovative the funds will be depleted in them experience something computer game for building a ideas for IT applications in gen- one or maybe two years. More about their city at a young age, virtual town. In the game virtual eral and education in particular. over, in the end the mental im- they will remember it for the citizens try to influence you as Instead of waiting for new and age being promoted would not rest of their lives. the developer and administrator creative ideas we wanted to stick in the minds of the target of that virtual city. They are not stimulate them, since a city’s groups. But what do children like? That satisfied with the decisions you growth always starts with crea- is easy. We were all young once, make and always complain, just tive ideas. One of the results of Zoetermeer had quite a prob- so we are all experts in that like in real life. this joint venture was a new IT lem. As only a small budget was field. Children like sports, com- academy in Zoetermeer, which available for marketing, it was ics, computer games, shopping. Not being experts in software was founded two years ago. out of the question to start up From these we chose the one development we needed advice big, expensive campaigns. We which was most suitable for our from IT experts. Money was re- The IT platform was of great had to resort to creativity. We purpose…a computer game. quired as well. As it happens, help in getting access to profes- wanted to use known methods Zoetermeer decided to develop sional advice from a big inter- and take a timeless approach, But what computer game should a policy to promote the IT sec- national company such as Sie- as we wanted the good image we use? It was actually the pro- tor a few years ago, since IT is mens, which also contributed to last a long time. It had to be fession of my colleague Marcel one of its important industries. to the project financially. The attractive and also some kind Keijzer that triggered the an- Just over 13% of employment in largest part was financed by the

of experience. We had set our- swer. We happen to be involved Zoetermeer is IT related, which IT fund. Thus there were suffi- Zoetermeergame selves quite a big task, since we in several EU projects. I was is the highest percentage in cient financial resources to get also had to present and sell a fascinated by his profession of the whole of Holland. In short, access to European co-funding, whole city. urban developer. My idea was we want to be the IT city of the which solved one problem. We

But where does one start if one that, in order to change an im- Netherlands (or Europe). could start building our computer drs. J. Kragt: 117

INTI-seminar.indb 117 20-9-2007 9:29:44 INTI-seminar.indb 118 118 drs. J. Kragt: Zoetermeergame schools intheNetherlands. The to senditall7,000primary At thatstagewewereready work. were thrilledaboutthehome- hours. Surprisingly,thepupils we setupapilotduringschool Together withthesetwoschools to buildavirtualZoetermeer. to playthecomputergameand required bytheselessonswas as anexample.Thehomework of course,Zoetermeerwasused ed. And,purelybycoincidence But anexampletownwasneed- developed. council/city administrationwere ject ofcitydevelopmentand Zoetermeer lessonsonthesub- ers fromtwoprimaryschoolsin with afewenthusiasticteach- specific, teachers.Together children: schoolsor,tobemore First wecontactedexpertson get grouponceitwasfinished. troducing thegametoitstar- lems left.Oneofthemwasin- There werestillenoughprob- game. computer game.Toachieve this a structuralplatformfor our The thirdphasewastocreate therefore forus. very encouragingforthemand their students.Theresultswere were usingitaslessonsfor game fromourwebsiteand fact theyhaddownloadedthe heard ofthegamealready.In well asoutsideZoetermeerhad ondary schoolteachersinas necessary, becauseseveralsec- termeer. Nointroductionwas two secondaryschoolsinZoe- of enthusiasticteachersfrom schools, ofcoursewiththehelp istration foruseinsecondary and citycouncil/cityadmin- the lessonsoncitydevelopment The nextphasewastoupgrade even gratefulforthat. about Zoetermeernowandare schools teachtheirpupilsall The bottomlineisthatthese work. sons andtheinnovativehome- thanking usforthegreatles- mail wasreceivedfromschools response wasamazing.Alotof about delicateissues,such as as amodelforcommunicating how tousethiscomputergame ideas nowbeingconsidered is And thisisnotall.Oneof the them tolearn. will learneverythingwewant can notescapeanymore.They our city.Theycanhide,butthey not least,theywillpickupon administration. And,lastbut ban developmentandaboutcity Holland willbetaughtaboutur- ‘Cities’. Asfrom2007,pupilsin the finalexerciseforchapter the VirtualZoetermeergameas lands. Theyhaveagreedtouse raphy methodsintheNether- the biggestpublisherofgeog- a dealwithWoltersNoordhoff, last yearwemanagedtostrike teaching method.InJuneof meer asanexamplecityintheir must useourcityofZoeter- only conditionwasthatthey ing methodmoreattractive.The of chargetomaketheirteach- offered themoursoftwarefree al booksintheNetherlands.We biggest publisherofeducation- we havebeenlobbyingwiththe district andlettheinhabitants of criteriaintoarealisticvirtual is possibletoputthesekinds of urbandensity.Technically it understanding oftheconcept words, itmightgivethemmore by theinhabitants.Inother to face,willnowbeexperienced which thecouncilnormallyhas sometimes unexpectedissues, at thedesiredlevel?Allkindsof one keepone’surbanservices fect governmentspending?Can is decreasing,howwillthisaf- city? Ifthegrowthrateofacity for theagingpopulationofour consequences willthishave one’s citizenssatisfied?What not buildatall?Willonekeep ple, whathappensifonedoes the consequences.Forexam- meer andletthemexperience or rebuildanareaofZoeter- one canlettheinhabitantsbuild and whyithastobeincreased, the criteriaforurbandensity by simulation.Ifoneformulates the necessityofurbandensity tual neighbourhoodstoexplain bilities ofcreatingseveralvir- We arelookingintothepossi- urban density,withourcitizens. 20-9-2007 9:29:45 experience the consequences of Zoetermeer in more ways than decisions on urban density. only for city marketing purposes.

On the other hand it is also in- Of course the game can be teresting to give local citizens downloaded from our web- an opportunity to build or re- site www.zoetermeer.nl free of build parts of their own district, charge. giving them a choice between different types of buildings And last but not least, we have such as low and high rise, old created a promotional bro- age homes, single family dwell- chure ‘Bob and Bobette’, which ings, community centres and is called ‘Suske and Wiske’ in leisure facilities. It presents citi- Dutch. These comic figures take zens with an opportunity to see you on an exciting adventure what it will look like and to walk in Zoetermeer, enabling you to around it. But more importantly, experience our town in a differ- they can experience how different way. I have been told that ent buildings have a different Almere is now following our impact on expenses and also on initiative to promote their the value of the town in terms of town with a comic. There will tax income and quality of life. be a comic of Bob and Bobette in Almere too. I would say to The quest to explore the pos- our dear colleagues in Almere sibilities of this game has not that we will always be glad to ended yet. But one thing is cer- help them out with innovative tain: we are going to use Virtual marketing ideas. Zoetermeergame

The direct link to the game is:

www.zoetermeer.nl/virtueelzoetermeer drs. J. Kragt: 119

INTI-seminar.indb 119 20-9-2007 9:29:45 INTI-seminar.indb 120 20-9-2007 9:29:45 prof. ir. A. Reijndorp, University of Amsterdam / Han Lammers Chair

Growing pains of new towns

Arnold Reijndorp (1948) is Summary an independent researcher and consultant at the Growing pains of new towns cutting edge of urbanism, social developments and cul- Most new towns nowadays want to become real cities. They don’t tural trends. He received sev- want to be another city’s satellite. But what is a city? Almere be- eral grants from the Dutch longs to a generation of new towns in the Netherlands, started in Foundation for Architecture the 70s, developed to relieve population pressure on major cities for his innovative studies on nearby. Now they aim to become real cities. new urban and suburban New towns, at their conception, are places of hope and expectation. ways of life and the condi- They compensate the lack of individual history by a collective tions of urban public utopian orientation on the future. Individually they may be young, domain. He is a member of as a family they have a genealogy reaching back to the origins of the Advisory Board of the modern town planning. Part of that however is the suburban myth: Dutch Ministry of Housing, the idea that new towns are dull places housing middle class Spatial Planning and families, far away from the big bad city. Environment. He lectured To become a city is an ambiguous ambition as new towns have to at several universities and come to grips with the loss of erstwhile Ideals and expectations schools of architecture in as they are confronted with the social dynamics of real life and its

the Netherlands and abroad. inherent contradictions. In a phase of adolescence, they struggle Growing pains of new towns From 1968 till 2000 he was with growing pains and explore the awakening of their erotic life. visiting professor at the As an article on a GDR new town put it: ‘Can one kiss in Hoyerswerda?’ Technical University of Berlin. Social and spatial develop- Kissing in public may mark the transition of the new town as a At the moment he holds the ment of new urban areas at place of family life into a place to explore human relations, the Han Lammers Chair for the University of Amsterdam. city as theatre where everybody is both spectator and actor. prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: 121

INTI-seminar.indb 121 20-9-2007 9:29:46 INTI-seminar.indb 122 122 prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: Growing pains of new towns become cities parts ofEuropereallywantisto lands andprobablyalsoinother the newtownsinNether- But theyaremerelytowns.What ized etcetera. tractive, howtheycanbeorgan- termine whatmakesthemat- American townsinordertode- which researched200small as fortheDisneyCorporation, for urbanistsnowadaysaswell this townservedasareference rural areas.Iliketheideathat relationship tothesurrounding citizens, itsciviccultureand fect Americantown’,withits description ofthe‘nearlyper- Jackson, onefindsabeautiful fect town’byJohnBrinckerhoff In anarticle‘Thealmostper- histories areinvolved. this isnottrue,becauseseveral velop anidentity.Inmyopinion Its historyistooshortto de- identity becauseitlackshistory. ten saidthatanewtownhasno to dealwithishistories.Itof- wanting tobecomeacityhas The firstthingeverynewtown (ill. 1) . 1. Townsreallywanttobecomecities. 2. MapbyCornelisvanEesteren. van Eesteren(ill.2) new areaisthismapbyCornelis One ofmyfavouritedesignsa ries. serve toillustratethesehisto- The followingexamplescan and thoseoftheirchildren. trying toimprovetheirownlives histories ofmiddleclasspeople also havetodealwithpersonal way oflife.Ofcourse,newtowns dle classpeopledefendingtheir to asuburbanmythaboutmid- from theidealofsuburbanism science andsocietyhavemoved myth. Sincethe1950’ssocial tory oftheso-calledsuburban etcetera. Theyalsohaveahis- nity, ofhope,modernlife They haveahistoryofmoder- a historyofhundredsyears. about idealcities,andthatis a historyofUtopia,thinking Every newtowncarrieswithit tory ofthinkingaboutthe city coastal city.Itispartofthe his- coast, creatinganewbay and new cityfromthepolderto the He changedthepositionof the volved intheplansforLelystad. , whowasin- 20-9-2007 9:29:46 as an ideal city or Utopia. At that time collective space was not only a town planning Fine examples are the modern- issue, but in society it also be- ist cities of the post-war period, came a space for emancipation, the kind that Crimson, the ar- for class struggle, for people chitectural historians in Rotter- striving to improve their lives. It dam, are doing research on. The was the collective organization problem of these cities was that of society, something between they had a lot of collective space the public space of the city, (ill. 3). When going back in his- the public space of social life tory one sees the closed space and the private life of people. of streets and building blocks of Collective space in that sense the traditional ‘street’-city being can be regarded as room for opened up in a certain way dur- various groups in society, more ing the post-war period into the specifically blue collar workers, modern ‘park’-city of greenery, 3. Modernist post-war city with a lot of collective space. to organize themselves and to light and fresh air. 4. Amsterdam - ‘new’ kind of town planning. emancipate. With regard to the integration of the immigrants of Modernist town planning start- today it may still have that func- ed with the idea of creating tion. collective space. Illustration 4 shows a certain part of Amster- As mentioned before, new dam, one of the first designs towns also carry a history of the of the ‘new’ kind of town plan- suburban myth. It is a concept

ning, that is different to 19th of a protected life and of people Growing pains of new towns century planning. The layout striving to improve their lives. It of streets and blocks of houses stands for homeliness, a certain was configured in a completely way of withdrawing from public new way, implying also a new social life into the safe haven of kind of space: collective space, their own families. to be distinguished from public

space. prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: 123

INTI-seminar.indb 123 20-9-2007 9:29:47 INTI-seminar.indb 124 124 prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: Growing pains of new towns other examplesexist.This was city isnotatree’(1965). Many and ChristopherAlexander’s ‘A of GreatAmericanCities’(1961) Jane Jacobswith‘LifeandDeath ation ofthecity,triggeredby and societywasthere-evalu- tant developmentsinplanning In the1970’soneofimpor- date backtothe1970’s 1970’s and1980’s.Thesecities society thanpeopleborninthe ues anddifferentideasabout the 1940’shavedifferentval- tion. Peoplewhowerebornin belongs toacertaingenera- to beawareofthefactthatone a moreconcreteway,onehas like AlmereandZoetermeerin When lookingatnewtowns with thatmyth. to growintoacityithasdeal 5 and6) urbs arepartofthemyth dictions. Thestoriesaboutsub- all kindsofprognosesandpre- Myths arepartofreality,as confronting themwithreality. myths cannotbefalsifiedby whether itistrueornot,but So farthemyth.Onecanargue . Andifatownwants (ill. 7) (ills. . 5 and6.Thesuburbanmyth. 7. Anexamplefromthe70’s. - urbanrenewal. 8. Amsterdam 20-9-2007 9:29:49 9. Labyrinthic structures 10. Almere Haven

a global movement. One could It is a striking fact that both for only a model for urban renewal the same time it tries to make

call it ‘soft modernism’ or ‘sof- inner city renewal and for city of inner city areas, but also for references to what a city should Growing pains of new towns tening of modernism’. In my extensions the same models are urban extensions, as is shown be. It includes labyrinthic struc- opinion it was really a longing used during the same periods. by this picture of Amsterdam tures and nature. The first part for the essentials of the city and The modernized model for city (ill. 8). of Almere, Almere-Haven, the for urbanity. extension during the post-war harbour area, has also been period was also the model for Illustration 9 is a type of urban built in this new urban fashion The re-evaluation of the city also inner city renewal. In the 1970’s design that has been adapted (ill. 10).

came with a new urban revival. this re-evaluation produced not more to the human scale, but at prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: 125

INTI-seminar.indb 125 20-9-2007 9:29:51 INTI-seminar.indb 126 126 prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: Growing pains of new towns city centreofAlmere tad arefineexamples.Thenew new overlay.AlmereandLelys- the originalcitycentreand town. Henceithastwolayers: as anoverlayuponthe‘old’new ours tobecomeisbuiltinaway that thecitytownendeav- to thisnewidea.Onecouldsay 11) the theatreasitssymbol created anewcitycentrewith in theNetherlandshasrecently Every townofthisgeneration volved intransforminga town There areseveralissues in- returning. The modelsforcitybuilding are of theV&Ddepartmentstore. this fromthecafetariaontop One cangetagoodviewof along collectiveroofgardens. ous passagesandfootbridges level, ahousingarea,withvari- cilities; ontopofthatisanew centre withvariousculturalfa- (first floor)isthemainshopping of parkingspaces;abovethat been reorganizedintoapattern ers: theoriginalstreetlevelhas is evenorganizedinthreelay- . Itisakindof‘Stadtkrone’ (ill. 12) (ill.

12. ThenewcitycentreofAlmere. 11. ThetheatreinAlmere. (ill. 13) er incomesandmoreeducation new groupsofpeoplewith high- Every newtownwantstoattract different tothefirstpioneers. tion. Thenewcomersarequite parents toanewcitygenera- people borninthecitybecome issue, becauseafter30years city. Thatisanotherimportant New groupskeepcomingtothe The influxofpeoplecontinues. their lifeasitisinbigcities. turns outtobeasmuchpartof to dealwiththeseissues,asit ill etcetera.Everynewtownhas street people,itsownmentally town isconfrontedwithitsown fact theydo.Besides,everynew new townenvironment,whilein belonging to‘their’suburban They maynotconsiderthemas ed withothergroupsofpeople. original newtownsareconfront- that middleclassfamiliesofthe city inasocialsense.Thismeans Every newtownwillbecomea upon anewtownasitwere. into acity,inbuildingcity . Theyconsidertheirpop- 20-9-2007 9:29:52 Dutch average = 18,200

Very low (<12,500) Low (12,500 - 15,000) Below average (15,000 - 17,500

Average (17,500 - 20,000 Above average (20,000 - 22,500)

High (22,500 - 25,000) Very high (>25,000)

Agriculture Forest, heath and sand

13. Income levels in Amsterdam (2000). 14. Growth of the immigrant population.

ulation to be middle class, but it In new towns it will reach the ‘urban geography of opportuni- the older neighbourhoods? And is rather ‘middle middle class’. same level in a few years. This ties’? Or is there only a geogra- how will this be dealt with? They want the new groups to means that new towns will be- phy of exclusion? bring new values, based on their come more like real cities from Every new town thinks that its higher education, and a broader a social point of view. Another important tendency is young people are leaving. Are base for facilities because of for people to climb the social they leaving – as the suburban their higher incomes. Possibly the growth of the im- ladder. In most of the new towns myth says – because they are migrant population in the new every extension creates new dy- bored with suburban life and Estimates are that in the Nether- towns to 30% is mainly a result namics: people moving out of longing to go to the city when

lands the immigrant population of renewal and restructuring the older areas into the newer reaching the age of 18? Or is Growing pains of new towns may grow to 30% of total popu- processes in the big cities. Peo- ones. This means that they are that a myth and do young peo- lation (ill.14). This percentage ple do not move because they moving upwards. And when ple want to stay and live there, is already attained in big cities see new opportunities, but be- social climbers move out, their but see no possibilities? Most of like Amsterdam and Rotterdam, cause they have to. The ques- old neighbourhoods often tend the new towns, with their con- where the immigrant population tion is what opportunities do to move down in a social sense. centration on family life, are not consists of people from Turkey, new towns offer them. Is there What is the effect of this inter- very ‘adolescent-friendly’.

Morocco and other countries. really what Americans call an nal migration within the city on prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: 127

INTI-seminar.indb 127 20-9-2007 9:29:54 INTI-seminar.indb 128 128 prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: Growing pains of new towns cetera. Mediterranean restaurants et- ating anurbanatmosphere with urban modelofthe1970’s, cre- areas weremeanttobethe new older areas?Afterall,the And howdoesonedealwiththe How doesonedealwiththat? Zoetermeer andPurmerend. will cometoplaceslikeAlmere, In myopinionmoreofthem the newimmigrantpopulation? 15). that isshowninthepicture? land andthekindofhousing groups withlargerparcelsof Is itasolutiontoattractnew build acityuponthenewtown. into anurbanenvironment,to transform theerstwhilesuburb The questionbecomeshowto 15. Attractingnewgroups. Arewereallyseriousabout (ill. 16. OpenspacesinAlmere. Illustrations 18and19 Koolhaas. er. Theplanwasmadeby Teun claring their‘love’foreach oth- Job, mayorofAmsterdam,de- nemarie, mayorofAlmere,and ere. between AmsterdamandAlm- example thetwincityalliance pening intheNetherlands,for towns intocitiesisalreadyhap- This transformationofnew a newreality. new urbanism,integrationwith es. Thiscanalsobepartofthe them fortheirponiesandhors- spaces inAlmere.Peopleuse slum areas,buttheyareopen Illustration 16maylooklike Illustration 17showsAn- showa

17. ThetwincityalliancebetweenAmsterdamandAlmere. ter, theriver. eroticism ofcitiesbeingthe wa- most importantpartsof the eroticism ofcities,one the cities inwhichhestressed the 1990’s. Hewroteanarticleon ionable inthe1980’sand semiotician, whobecamefash- a Frenchphilosopherand taken fromRolandBarthes, to mind.Itisareference another referencetocities ment ofthisregion,bringing different planforthedevelop- development ofthetown. Then who washerboss,about the her andformerprofessor, town. Aconflictarosebetween erswerda tohelpbuildthe new her diplomashewenttoHoy- tecture inBerlin.Afterreceiving a youngfemalestudentofarchi- is toldofFranziskaLinkerhand, the DDR.Inthisbookstory on Hoyerswerda,anewtownin torian EdTaverneaboutabook written bythearchitecturalhis- Another interestingarticlewas 20-9-2007 9:29:55 List of illustrations / credits:

1, 5, 6. Postcard. 2. Van Eesteren Archive (Nether- lands Architecture Institute) V-184. 3, 4. From: Atlas of the Dutch Urban Block, Thoth publishers, Bussum, 2005, photo Peter van Bolhuis. 7-10. From: Ulla Schreiber, ‘Modelle für humanes Wohnen: Moderne Stadtarchitektur in den Nied- erlanden’, DuMont Buchverlag, Koeln, 1982. 11, 12, 15, 16. Arnold Reijndorp. 13. Ruimtelijk Planbureau, Den Haag. 14. Ivan Nio, Amsterdam. 18 and 19. Alternative plans for the development of this region. 17. City of Almere. 18, 19. Adriaan Geuze e.a., the question is posed: kann I am a collector of pictures suburbs, to the city as a stage EOWijers competition 2006. man küssen in Hoyerswerda? of people kissing in cities (ill. for watching and being watched. 20. Postcard ‘Kiss by the Hotel de Can one kiss in Hoyerswerda? 20). You know how collections This may be an essential differ- Ville’ , Robert Doisneau. are formed: one never plans to ence. Maybe this is essential for think- create a collection, but having Maybe this is a typical western ing about cities as opposed to bought five pictures of people view on the city. Do people from

towns. Can one kiss in Almere? kissing in cities one then starts different cultures have different Growing pains of new towns The question is a symbol of the looking for them. By now I have ideas about what ‘real’ cities eroticism that is essential for about 140 of them. are? This needs to be discussed. cities. One might put the ques- Nevertheless, these kinds of tion in a different way. Not ‘can Maybe going from a new town questions about the eroticism one kiss in Almere?’, but ‘can to a city is equivalent to going of cities should have a place in one see people kissing in Alm- from some kind of homeliness the research of the International

ere?’ and cosiness, associated with New Town Institute. 20. Kissing in cities. prof. ir. A. Reijndorp: 129

INTI-seminar.indb 129 20-9-2007 9:29:57 INTI-seminar.indb 130 20-9-2007 9:29:59 prof. A. K. Maitra School of Planning and Architecture New Delhi

New Town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development

Asesh Kumar Maitra is dean Summary (emeritus), School of Planning and architecture, Apeejay New Town movement in India and the changing paradigms of Institute of Technology, UP development Technical University and former director, School of Planning India is at the threshold of a major transition from rural to urban. and Architecture, New Delhi It may have an urban population of more than 800 million by 2025 (deemed to be a university). He compared to the present less than 300 million. India will need to has represented India in the build many new towns as well as expand existing ones rapidly. Commonwealth Association Re-examinations of paradigms of development to arrive at a sus- of Universities. Member of the tainable structure is a crucial challenge for the nation. Royal Town Planning Institute This paper follows the evolution of new towns through history to since 1973, he held important link past and present. positions including senior plan- New towns are as old as history. City building in ancient India was ning officer, London Borough of based on elaborate codes, called Shilpashastras. Cities like Mohen- Hillingdon, architect planner, jodaro, Harappa and Lothal (2500 B.C. or earlier) evidently were Greater London Council, based on sound planning principles. Chanakya (4th century B.C.) architect planner Calcutta made a compendium called Arthashastra, providing a treatise for Metropolitan Development both city building and its sustainable management. City building Authority and planner of the provided the State with a well ordered spatial distribution of settle- New sub- City for Delhi called ments.

Dwarka for 1 million people. He The tradition of ordered layout in orthogonal form has been a New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development became professor in 1981. He major paradigm. There have been significant deviations from this is a member of several commit- pattern in the cities built during Islamic rule as well as in the plan- tees of both state and central ENVIS Journal of human ning of the British capital in New Delhi. government. He authored settlements and contributed to The colonial period of India witnessed construction of many new

several books, was editor of many journals and books. towns: Harbour cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras as well prof. A. Maitra: as Railway towns and Civil Lines. Their layouts are quite alien to 131 Indian morphology of cities.

INTI-seminar.indb 131 20-9-2007 9:29:59 INTI-seminar.indb 132 132 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development sidered tobetheoldesturban development (Varanasiis con- lain bysuccessivecenturies of as theoriginalhavebeenover- of whichsurviveonlyinname, over thenext5,000years,some progression ofnewtownsbuilt vey ofIndia.Therehasbeena tury bytheArchaeologicalSur- in theearlypartoflastcen- were discoveredandexcavated ies ofMohenjodaroandHarappa then developedworld.Thecit- the fertilerivervalleysin along withothercountries,in the northwesternpartofIndia, pattern intheIndusvalley veloped anurbansettlement of newtownbuilding.Indiade- India hasafairlylongtradition ture. tion tothepastorfu- transitory. Wepayeitheratten- towns. Thepresentisalways new townsaretoday’shistoric toric towns.Andyesterday’s new townsaretomorrow’shis- history ofurbanization.Today’s New Townsareasoldthe nese travellerHeuenSang(7 been obliterated.ThegreatChi- be traced).Manyothershave settlement, theoriginalcannot as amajorparadigm.There have tern ofurbanformhasremained hierarchy andorthogonal pat- tradition oforderedsettlement to beaconstantthread.The tation. However,thereappears in communicationandtranspor- and technologicaladvancement omy, socio-politicalstructure change withthechangingecon- may alsohaveundergone The paradigmsofdevelopment building cities. all becamepartofthecode written byvariousauthorsand form andpattern.Theywere shastras, determinedtheurban city building,knownasShilpa- codified seriesoftreatiseson from prehistorictimes,whena to codifiedparadigms.Itstarts these citieswerebuiltaccording of themstillexisttoday.Most recorded them.Morethan100 century) hadvisitedcitiesand th

of asubdistrict)foreachgroup sangrahana (theheadquarters istration. “Heshallestablish a cornerstone ofefficientadmin- tion ofsettlementswasthe Regional hierarchyindistribu- ing citiesinthosedays. became aguideforconstruct- Chanakya’s Arthashastra,andit ing. Thedocumentisknownas one wouldgetfornotcomply- need orthekindofpunishment the kindofofficialsonewould cluding administration,finance, collated theShilpashastras,in- of ChandraguptaMaurya.He called Chanakyaatthecourt Great, therewasaminister the invasionofAlexander In the4 paradigms. mainstream ofIndianplanning have notbeenabletoaffectthe roville inPondicherry),butthey spiritually motivatedplan(Au- lims andtheBritish)in came fromoutsideIndia(Mus- in thecitiesbuiltbyrulerswho been deviationsfromthisorder th centuryBC,after interpretation ofspacedeter- and spacedivision.Cosmic building typology,roadlayout digms ofclimate,soil,landuse, The codeswerebasedonpara- bearing capacityverywell. worked outthesystemof Therefore theymusthave not oneofthemhascollapsed. after morethana1000years floors. Theywereverystrong: storeyed buildingsofuptoten the Indiantemplesweremulti- to betested,becausemanyof soil tosupportbuildingshad be chosen.Thecapacityofthe sites thatcouldornot clear directionsweregivenof tremendous importance.Very the selectionofsitewas clear guidelines.Firstofall, Shilpashashtras hadprovided ter) foreveryeighthundred“ sthaniya (provincialheadquar- middle offourhundredanda (divisional headquarter)inthe of 200villages,adronamukha trict headquarter)inthemiddle of tenvillages,akarvatika(dis- 20-9-2007 9:30:00 1. Vastupurusha mandala. 2. System of nine divisions.

mined the basic principles of closed polygon). Vastupurusha Indian planning. Each house the creator of the universe. Un- space division. is a diagram representing a was divided into nine quadrants. like modern cities, where the person (ill. 1). The person is There are two varieties, one of palace is not located in the cen- The essence of Indian city plan- lying face down, always in the nine and one of eight. Usually tre, in the Indian system the

ning and building is what is diagonal axis between north we follow the nine squares ver- temple is right at the centre. New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development known as the Vastupurusha and south. The mandala is di- sion providing 81 squares (ill. Then each house was given to mandala (vastu – the site, puru- vided into squares, because the 2). The centre of the square was various gods. sha – the cosmic man, mandala- square is the essential form in invariably given to Lord Brahma, prof. A. Maitra: 133

INTI-seminar.indb 133 20-9-2007 9:30:00 INTI-seminar.indb 134 134 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development 7. Nandyavarta. .Mnua 5.Dandaka. 3. Manduka. 11. Karmuka. 4. Paramasayika. 8. Padmaka. 9. Swastika. 12. Chaturmukha. 6. Sarvatobhadra. 10. Prastara. 20-9-2007 9:30:01 15. Medieval town of Jaipur.

studied the Indian Shilpashas- tras. He built the city according to the canons of the Shilpashas- 13. Mohenjodaro. 14. Shrirangapatnam a temple town. tras, so the nine squares are to be found in the formation of his There are ten major layout pat- water supply system. It had two nam (ill. 14). We can not trace town. Only one square was left terns (ill 3-12), depending on great baths, shown in illustra- the exact layout because of all open, because there was a su- the site. They were very prag- tion 13. the damage. But it can still be perstition that the ninth square matic, so that one could have seen that Shrirangapatnam is a belongs to the lord of death. It an ordered layout. Every house was drained prop- temple town, laid out in one of was not a place to build on, but erly and had a water supply. the ten patterns shown above. otherwise this was the same pat- The ancient Indian city of Mo- The bricks that were used are tern of nine squares. The centre henjodaro dates back to before exactly the same size as mod- One of the medieval new towns of the city was for the king’s 2500 BC. The site has survived, ern bricks. And unlike Sumer is Jaipur (ill. 15) built in 1726. palace and the temple. having been buried under sand bricks, which were sun dried, The king of that time wanted

and sea. It is now located in these were baked. The bond- to relocate the capital from the This city has a tremendous ar- New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development Pakistan, in the Sindh province. ing is what is known as “English mountains to the plains. He em- chitectural cohesion in the sense bond” today. ployed a person called Vidyad- that the buildings have a more The layout is very orthogonal. hara, who was trained to be an or less uniform pattern in their Mohenjodaro had a drainage The only ancient town in India architect. He went to Europe, appearance. They are therefore

system, a road system and a that still exists is Shrirangapat- examined the cities and then very unified cities. prof. A. Maitra: 135

INTI-seminar.indb 135 20-9-2007 9:30:04 INTI-seminar.indb 136 136 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development 16. Conservenaturalresources. not followingthediscipline. individual projectowners are architectural cohesion,because been abletomaintainthe same terns. Unfortunatelyhehasnot of thetraditionallayoutpat- has followedtheprastara,one (ill.17) It iscalledVidhyadharNagar built asanextensiontoJaipur. Nowadays anewcityisbeing reaching thecity. of waterandcoolsdownbefore jasthan desert,passesthisbody air, whichcomesfromtheRa- just outsidethecity resources, andtocreatealake was toconservethenatural Something elseVidyadharadid , designedbyDoshi.He (ill. 16) . The 17. ThenewcityofVidhyadharNagar. Fatehpur Sikri. 18.The medievalcapitalof utilized theIndianorthogonal emperors, calledAkbar.Akbar by thegreatestofMogul Fatehpur Sikri Another medievalcapital is (ill. 18) , built art andIslamicarchitecture. 19. AblendbetweenancientIndian architecture ancient IndianartandIslamic ings representablendbetween all hisstructures.Thebuild- system ofplanninginalmost (ill. 19) . seventeen capitals. 20.The mapofDelhiwithits the succeedingone. have notbeencannibalized by are ingoodshapebecause they another. Manyofthesecapitals ing capital.Sohewouldbuild one wouldnotliveintheexist- peror whosucceededtheearlier tals of Delhi.Ithadseventeencapi- areas. Theyweretheoldcapitals The mapofDelhihassomegrey (ill. 20) , becauseeveryem- 20-9-2007 9:30:05 The next period of new towns is The railways revolutionized the colonial period which start- the whole transportation sys- ed in India in the 18th century. tem in India. In doing so, large A large number of European na- numbers of people had to be tions came to India, but it ulti- employed. Around the station, mately fell into the hands of the towns had to be set up to man- British. age the railway system with all its employees. That is how the Somehow the British did not like railway towns were developed. Indian cities. They decided to build their own places, accord- One example is the town of ing to their own ideas. These Jamalpur. This was not only a were called ‘civil lines’ and ‘Can- major railway station, it was 21, 22 and 23. tonments’. They were usually also a major railway workshop Shahjahanabad. built as extensions of existing and a railway training centre. So Indian cities, planned on sim- they had a variety of people. The last one, Shahjahanabad, ple gridiron patterns at a very is still there. It was built by the low density, which was alien to The railways developed a hous- emperor Shahjahan, the man Indian city building tradition, ing system for their employees who made the Taj Mahal (ill. 21, where the cities used to be in accordance with their sala- 22, 23). densely populated. This result- ries. ed in unnecessary expansion In many of these cities a strong of urban areas and these have Even in those days they had a geometry exists, which was remained as pockets of luxury golf course. This was where the normal in Indian planning. The in the middle of chaotic urban elite of the railways would live, Muslim emperors did not use mosque. During the period of growth, as the colonial rulers while the other quarters would

geometry, except in their own Muslim rule traditional Indian spent no effort in regulating be for the workers or lower level New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development palaces, which can be seen in city construction according to urban growth and local admin- staff. All was done according to the picture of the palace com- geometrical patterns was aban- istration played no role in man- certain layouts, which became plex. There is no geometry in doned. Most probably this was aging the cities. the pattern of subsequent de- the town except in one axis done in order to confuse invaders. velopment of railway towns.

which terminates at the women’s prof. A. Maitra: 137

INTI-seminar.indb 137 20-9-2007 9:30:07 INTI-seminar.indb 138 138 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development European employees style ofIndian,Euro-Indianand railway architectstosuitthelife or European.Itwasdesignedby ther MughalnorHindu,Islamic tion ofthesebuildingsisnei- nor fullyEuropean.Theeleva- hybrid evolved isveryimportant.Itwas The housingtypologythat ited, exceptbylocaltribes. But Hills inIndiawerenotinhab- large numberofhillstations. The Britishalsodeveloped a in postcolonialarchitecture. adopted fromtherailwaytowns, and thehousingvocabularywas most ofthespacevocabulary provided innewtowns.Infact in thehousingsystemthatwas quarters. Thishasremainedso lower staffthereweresmaller this style.Forthecomparatively neers, officers,areexamplesof which weremeantforengi- dia. Thesebeautifulbungalows, the officialarchitectureofIn- It hadatremendousimpacton fore calledrailwayarchitecture. This typicalarchitectureisthere- (ill. 24) , notatallIndian (ill. 25) . by beautifulmountains, so it around thelakeandsurrounded scene contribution totheIndianurban also hasamall,typicalEnglish governor’s housewasbuilt.It Nainital isalaketownwherethe and Darjeeling,etc. new citieslikeNainital,Shimla to thehillsandstartedfounding very hot,theBritishweredrawn since theplainsofIndiawere 24. Hybridhousingtypology. 25. Railwayarchitecture. (ill. 26) . Thecityisbuilt Tudor, GeorgianandEdwardian with gothicarchesbutalso in la developedbuildingsnot only would relocatetoShimla.Shim- ing summertheentirecapital tal oftheBritish.Everyyeardur- developed asthesummercapi- Shimla isanotherhillcity.Itwas summer. the populationisquadrupledin not havemanyinhabitants,but was akindofretreat.Itstilldoes 26. Amall:atypicalEnglish contribution. 27 Shimla. dras about6million. has nearly12millionand Ma- more than13million,Bombay Calcutta hasapopulation of the Indianurbanscene. ed developmentisstillhaunting tion. Theimpactofthislopsid- order basedonspatialdistribu- archy aswelladministrative chy, bothintermsofsocialhier- breakdown oftheurbanhierar- country resultedinacomplete people fromvariouspartsofthe and consequentmigrationof south. Themassiveinvestment in thewestandMadras in Calcuttatheeast,Bombay by thedevelopmentofPortcities Indian urbansystemwasmade Major impactontheentire vocabulary. it hasbecomethevernacular tually fullofthesebuildingsand of thehills,becausetheyareac- come thearchitecturalheritage period architecturehasnowbe- in thebackground urban scenewiththemountains ings. Theresultisapleasant styles aswellhybridbuild- (ill. 27) . This 20-9-2007 9:30:08 32. The original frontage of the writer’s building.

age can be seen in illustration 32.

Neither Calcutta nor Bombay or 28. Calcutta divided into three. 29 and 30. The growth of Calcutta. Madras were designed as capital cities but they became so. Illustration 28 shows how Cal- ture. Calcutta was called the city The only capital city which was cutta has been divided into of palaces, and there are many built and designed as a capital three. The north was the Indian examples of various residential city by the colonial rulers was part, the middle was the inter- buildings. None of them look New Delhi. mediate town which had all like a pure European building, other functions and the yellow but they also do not look like In- part at the bottom was the dian buildings. All these build- European city. ings are now designated as heritage buildings in Calcutta .

In the course of growth Calcutta New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development ( ills. 29 and 30) has been mov- Illustration 31 shows the Writ- ing eastwards towards the so- ers Building, an 18th century called salt lakes. The architec- structure. The frontage has ture that evolved in Calcutta is been changed by the British 31. The writer’s building.

again a kind of hybrid architec- themselves. The original front- prof. A. Maitra: 139

INTI-seminar.indb 139 20-9-2007 9:30:09 INTI-seminar.indb 140 140 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development superiority oftheKingabove designer, inordertoimpose the renaissance cities.Lutyens, the New Delhiwasthelastof the city design.Accordingtosome, the renaissancevocabularyof planning ofVersailles,using umental conceptusedinthe New Delhihadtohaveamon- monumental axis. 33. Lutyenssketchofthe 34. Monumentalplanning. 35. Attractivevistas. ever, Lutyensthoughtthat the before theJamaMasjid. How- nobility wouldbehavehumbly unwritten ruleinDelhiwas that taller thantheJamaMasjid. The house. Theviceroy’shouseis and ontherightViceroy’s the JamaMasjid,mosque signed of themonumentalaxishede- be seenonthiscurioussketch British Majestyascanclearly to createthegrandeurof everyone else,imposedascale (ill. 33). Ontheleftis 36. Indianpatterns. ate, alsodesignedbuildings in Herbert Baker,Lutyens’associ- tive vista turned outtobeaveryattrac- were placedtowardstheend.It the palacesofnativeRaja’s were Indiansubjectkings.Soall was thechurch,andathisfeet chief ofthearmy,hislefthand the houseofCommanderin The rightarmofthekingwas at thenorthernendofaxis. had putthekingashead (ill. 34) His planningwasmonumental house. jid andoughttohaveabigger viceroy isabovetheJamaMas- , inthesensethathe (ill. 35) .

complex rightattheheadof the made aplanwiththecapitol For Chandigarh,LeCorbusier It wasdesignedbyMewada. capital wascalledGandhinagar. came fromGujarat,thenew capital. SinceMahatmaGandhi another newstateinneedofa Koenigsberger. Gujaratwas design taskwasgiventoOtto new statefoundedin1936.The the capitalofstateOrissa,a designer. Bhubaneswarbecame capital andLeCorbusierthe that Chandigarhwouldbe needed acapital.Itwasdecided kistan, soNeworEastPunjab jab. West-PunjabwenttoPa- into WestPunjabandEastPun- Partition, Punjabwasdivided them wasChandigarh.Afterthe in independentIndia.Oneof Three othercapitalsweremade (ill. 36) and havealotofIndianpatterns designed areverymonumental of planning.Thebuildingshe dian patternsandIndiansystem But headoptedsomeoftheIn- the typicalrenaissancefashion. . 20-9-2007 9:30:10

37. Plan for Chandigarh 38. Layout of a sector

city (ill. 37) He adopted the grid Apart from this Capitol complex ed into the structure of the old roads which is never more than system of planning, using each Le Corbusier did not design city on a very strong grid. 450 metres from any place. block of the grid as a neigh- any building. Other buildings bourhood unit, which were to were designed by his associ- Illustration 38 shows the layout Le Corbusier thought that the be reasonably self contained. ates, Pierre Jeanneret, who was of a sector. Its density is not all assembly hall should have a

He followed the Jaipur example his cousin, and Maxwell Fry and that low. The infrastructure was mural. He created one, in his New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development in creating a lake by impound- Jane Drew. Many Indian archi- done by Le Corbusier’s associ- own style, but he introduced ing the water that was coming tects were also involved. ates. There is a very strong pe- many Indian patterns and myth- down from the hills. This addi- The basic concept of the Chan- destrian link and an accessible ological elements, like the tor- tion created a tremendous cli- digarh plan shows how nature neighbourhood road, while bus- toise and the snake.

matic change in Chandigarh. and green spaces were integrat- es are only allowed on the main prof. A. Maitra: 141

INTI-seminar.indb 141 20-9-2007 9:30:12 INTI-seminar.indb 142 142 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development 39. high court secretarial building These illustrationsshow the 40. Secretarial building. High court. (ill.40) , theassembly (ill.39) , the 41 42. ever, Punjabwasagainbifur- garh wouldbeextended. How- The planwasthatoldChandi- wind. monument thatrotatesinthe famous hand(ill.42) hall Assembly building. The famoushand. (ill. 41) andLeCorbusier’s , akindof Punjab andthegovernment of government, thegovernment of governments now:thecentral step in.Chandigarhhas three the centralgovernmenthad to city ofChandigarh?Therefore ana. Butthen,whoruledthe for Punjab,theotherHary- was splitintwo.Onehalf ital. Thereforethesecretariat wanted Chandigarhastheircap- Haryana. Bothofthenewstates was calledPunjab,theotherone cated intotwostates:onehalf 43. Panchkula taking PanchkulaandMohali exceeding 500,000.But when planned forapopulation not Chandigarh wasoriginally the gridofChandigarh. this ismerelyanextensionof a newcitycalledMohali,but 43) a newcitycalledPanchkula Haryana governmentdeveloped As ananswertoChandigarhthe Haryana. . Likewise,Punjabdeveloped 20-9-2007 9:30:12 (ill. said that the new city must be connected to the historic city of Bhubaneswar, because it was a very old historic city.

Unfortunately, Koenigsberger did not think that this was necessary. He wanted to design a city that could expand (ill. 45). 44. Bhubaneswar on the east He was given a population tar- coast. get of 20,000, but he said that no city would survive with such into account it is already over a small population. He designed one million. the city in a way that would en- The other capital built in inde- able growth. He developed a pendent India is Bhubaneswar kind of linear grid (ill. 46) that (ill. 44), located on the east could easily be extended hori- coast of India as the capital of zontally and vertically, but he Orissa. The city was given to forgot something very impor- Otto Koenigsberger to design. tant. He did not study the drain- He was an architect for the ma- 45. Koenigsberger wanted to design a city that could expand. age pattern or the ecology, like haraja of Mysore at that time. Le Corbusier had done. The When prime minister Pandit result was that the internal Nehru once visited Mysore he water supply system of the old liked Koenigsberger. city was destroyed by the new Bhubaneswar. Because of this

In the time of building Chan- all tanks have dried up. New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development digarh, Pandit Nehru said that Bhubaneswar has been extend- the city would be made in a ed many times now and it has modern tradition, unshackled become a fairly large city. to connections from the past. The layout of the sector is rigid

In the case of Bhubaneswar he 46. Linear grid. 47. The layout is very rigid (ill. 47). prof. A. Maitra: 143

INTI-seminar.indb 143 20-9-2007 9:30:15 INTI-seminar.indb 144 144 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development The mandategiventoMewada Indian architectMewada. which wascommissionedtothe Gandhinagar, thedesignof The othernewcapitalwas Chandigarh is unimpressive,notatalllike architecture ofBhubaneswar did whatevertheywanted.The influenced bylocalpoliticians, left toIndianarchitectswho, by Koenigsbergerhimself.Itwas of Bhubaneswarwasnotdone Unfortunately, thearchitecture them. made noattempttorelate temples ( Bhubaneswar hadacoupleof 48. Temples ofBhubaneswar. ill. 48) . . Koenigsberger 49 and50.Gandhinagar 51 and the following page 51 andthefollowingpage of Gandhiinaprominent loca- open space,andheputastatue nection withthecitybyalinear Gandhi’s ideas.Hemadeacon- not reconcilethecapitalcitywith Unfortunately, Mewadacould very simple,piousman. eat verylittle.Inshort,hewasa used tobedressedsparselyand an oxandcalleditOxford.He ucts. Hehadhiscardrawnby he called‘homegrown’prod- ostentation. Hebelievedinwhat simplicity. Hedidnotbelievein Gandhi wasamanknownforhis the idealsofMahatmaGandhi. was thatthecitymustreflect way multiple sectorsintheusual dividing theentirespaceinto was createdoforthogonalgrids ideas. Theremainderofthecity no wayofrepresentingGandhi’s tion. Otherthanthathefound beyond it. centre, whilethecityextends plexes aretobefoundinthe the head.Allmainofficialcom- the centreofcityandnotat functions ofthegovernmentin others, Mewadaputthecentral Unlike LeCorbusierandthe (ills. 49and50) . 20-9-2007 9:30:16 Provision for future cross road

Major road

Dead end type toad

Loop type road

Play space for small children Servants compound 52 and 53. Durgapur: Professor Stein made a typical American Space for future garages suburban layout. Park strip containing cycle and pedestrian paths to bus stop, school and market

The next generation of new designing the town was given there is an urban corridor of 60 towns were built exclusively for to Professor Stein. Stein made a km long, connecting Durgapur the employees of industry and typically American suburban lay- to another city in the north, irrigation projects. Up to 1980 out with a very low density (ills. called Asansol. there were 150 of them. After 51, 52 and 53). It proved to be This was the kind of layout that that these types of towns fell a very attractive place, entirely Stein advocated and followed, into decline. Three of them de- financed by the government very simple and without any serve some special attention. and entirely lived in by employ- architectural pretensions. It is

ees of that particular steel fac- very unlike Stein’s later work. New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development Durgapur was made for a steel tory. Taking advantage of this, a plant which was commissioned large number of other factories in the 1950’s, and the task of have come to the region. Today prof. A. Maitra: 145

INTI-seminar.indb 145 20-9-2007 9:30:17 INTI-seminar.indb 146 146 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development Naya Nangal middle iswhatcalled the esoteric The Aurovilleconceptis very ideals. the worldandbelievedin their as longhewasacitizenof body couldcomeandlivethere, to anycountryorplace.Any- international city,notbelonging city, andsaidthatitwouldbean ‘The Mother’.Shedreamtofthe had adisciplewhowascalled called SriAurobindo.Thisman lieve intheviewsofasaint It isatrustofpeoplewhobe- the so-calledinternationalcity. The thirdexampleisAuroville, Corbusier’s sectorplan. tem. ItisagoodreflectionofLe layout andtheopenspacesys- the basicconceptofsector the capitalcomplex.Heutilized form whatLeCorbusierdidwith township representsinasmaller deeply influencedbyhim.His time ofLeCorbusier,andhewas to thePunjabgovernmentat designed bythechiefarchitect Nangal damproject.Itwas built becauseoftheBhakra (ill. 55) (ill. 54) . Rightinthe isatown 54. cities. TheexamplesofBombay, urban expansionsofvarious Finally, wecometothe new galaxy. and afurtherrefinementofthe cepts thatareanebula,galaxy a nebula.Thethree-fourcon- spreads fromthecentrelike the divinemother.Thelayout Matrimandir, orthetempleto Naya Nangal. 55. Aurovilleanditsexperimentinspiritualspaceorganization. a twincityofBombay,butacross Bombay decided in1970tocreatea new gested city.Thereforeit was expansion andisahighly con- a peninsula.Ithasnoroomfor been joinedtogethertobecome seven islandswhichhaveslowly Main Bombay this phenomenon. Calcutta andDelhimayillustrate (ill. 57) 1968 Galaxy 1967 galaxy Emerging 1966 Nebula 1965 sketch mother’s The (ill. 56) . Itwouldbelike usedtobe which iscalledAmbyValley. Itis bay, acityhasbeendeveloped Taking advantageofNew Bom- city. The resultisaverymodern city would belikeanindependent ing ninenodes,eachofwhich rapid transitnetworkconnect- the sea.Itwouldbelinkedbya (ills. 58and59) . 20-9-2007 9:30:18 56. Main Bombay. 57. New Bombay.

meant exclusively for the super where the city used to drain. rich. There is not a single prop- The lakes would act as a reten- erty under 10 million rupees tion basin, because during high and prices are still going up. We tide it could not be drained. are waiting to see what the so- Therefore the water had to cial impact of this kind of city remain. will be. Where will the working people come from for instance? By reclaiming marsh lands to build a new city we have reduced 58 and 59. The result is a very modern city.

A city has been built next to the size of the basin. As a result New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development Calcutta. Like the Netherlands, Calcutta is flooded every year the Dutch system of poldering pendent town, with its own city Calcutta is also a very low area now. Waterlogging and flooding would work. centre and its own facilities. not more than three metres have become endemic. There is The new town has been planned It has also been planned on a above sea level. It has a se- nothing much that can be done as an extension of Calcutta, linear corridor, very much like

ries of salt lakes in the east, about this. I doubt whether but it is very much like an inde- New Bombay. Another charac- prof. A. Maitra: 147

INTI-seminar.indb 147 20-9-2007 9:30:19 INTI-seminar.indb 148 148 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development 60. 61. Dwarka. Airport restrictions. 62. Theninesquaresystem. at all.Itwasrightnexttothe air- should nothavebeendeveloped first thoughtwasthatthis site When lookingatthesite, our called Dwarka The redzoneistheexpansion expand Delhitowardstheeast. Delhi. In1982itwasdecidedto city. Dwarkaisanexpansionof the planningofthatparticular I havebeenassociatedwith conclude thispaper,because A fewwordsaboutDwarkawill has beenstretched. teristic isthatthecentralarea (ill. 60) . 63. Structure plan: Each sector a self contained unit. 63. Structureplan:Eachsector aselfcontainedunit. 20-9-2007 9:30:21 very high banks were put on Conclusion: urbation and metropolises. The both sides because the area future of India’s urbanization used to flood. Now there are no Although India has a long tradi- depends on its ability to order floods, but as a consequence tion of new town development human settlement development. there is no ground water left. and also an ancient code, this It is conservatively estimated tradition has not been the guid- that 50% of the population of First of all we reintroduced the ing design principle for post India may live in urban areas by nine square system (ill. 62) independence new towns. The 2025, which means a population in order to bring back some majority of them appear to be of approximately 800 million Indian elements. Secondly, we based on the vocabulary of the against an urban population of breached the banks with a sluice colonial period or the principles less than 300 million at the turn gate, so that water would come enunciated by Le Corbusier and of the century. This means that in and the ground water would the CIAM. Since the concept of an additional 500 million would be recharged. We made each orthogonal planning converges have to be accommodated in sector into a self contained unit with the ancient principles of new or expanded urban areas. (ill. 63). It would have an open orthogonal space division, it Only a study of the existing, its space in which the recharging may appear to be a continu- successes and failures and the basin would be situated. Then, ous trend, but in reality the link evolution of paradigms of devel- 64. Linear centre. instead of having a centre in the does not exist. The only mean- opment can ensure a peaceful middle, we made a linear centre ingful attempt was made by Vi- transition to an ordered human port. We found that a large area (ill. 64), stretching along the dyadhara in the 18th century to settlement pattern. of this site could not be devel- corridors. This is very typical revive the ancient principles of oped because of the noise and of Indian cities, many of which city development. This is a soli- the dangers related to air traffic tend to have linear commercial tary example. (ill. 61). An entire part had to be corridors. left out. There is need to study the con-

It is being implemented now. temporary new towns for their New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development Another serious problem was performance in the sociopoliti- the lack of ground water. This cal context of India. Many of was mainly because the sur- them have grown way beyond rounding water channels were their postulated boundaries;

cut off completely. In the past, some have even become con- prof. A. Maitra: 149

INTI-seminar.indb 149 20-9-2007 9:30:23 INTI-seminar.indb 150 150 prof. A. Maitra: New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development Ahmedabad V. Prakash:MapinPublishing; 8. Chandigarh´sLeCorbusier: Delhi P.K.Acharya: OrientalBooks,New shastra ): 7. ArchitectureofManasara(Shilpa New Delhi B.B.Dutta: NewAsianPublishers, 6.Town PlanninginAncientIndia: New Delhi P. Begde:NewAsianPublishers, ning: 5. AncientandMedievalTownPlan- Varanasi Cunningham: BhartiyaPublishers, 4. AncientGeographyofIndia: Delhi 110007 Bungalow Road,JawaharNagarNew tilal BanarasidasPublishers41UA Vol IandII:StellaKramrisch:Mo- 3.The HinduTemple: Dhulia.424001 M.P 4, Lane , Street Bank Home ing A.R. Takhelkar:CosmoPublish- 2.Vastu Shastra: Ansari Road.NewDelhi1 Niranjan Babu:UBSPublishers,5 1.Handbook ofVastu: References: 12. Unpublisheddissertations L.N.Rangarajan: Penguin 11.Kautilya –Arthashastra: Ravi Kalia:OxfordUniversitypress 10. Gandhinagar: Ravi Kalia:OxfotdUniversityPress 9. Bhubaneswar: 47 From:Bhubaneswar:From a 45, 46From:MasterPlanforBhu- 39, 40,41,42From:Chandigarh’s 37 OfficialPlan 35, 36NDMCbrochure 33, 34NewDelhiExhibitionby 26, 27,43,48Prof.A.K.Maitra. 22 Delhiinternet 20, 21From:Shahjahanabad,SPA 18, 23LateProf.SatishGrover. 16, 17TanikaNair. 13, 14,15,19,24,25,28,29,30, 1-12 From:ReportofNationalCom- List ofillustrations/credits: 1994. ern IllinoisUniversityPress, Kalia, Ravi,Carbondale,South- Temple TowntoaCapitalCity, baneswar Publishers, 2002. Prakash, V.,Ahmedabad,Mapin Modernity inPostcolonialIndia, Le Corbusier:TheStrugglefor tecture School ofPlanningandArchi- publication. (SPA), NewDelhi. of PlanningandArchitecture sertations ofstudentsSchool 31, 32From:unpublisheddis- mission onUrbanisation. 60, 61,62,63,64A+DMagazine: 58, 59From:Internet 56, 57From:UnpublishedThesis 55 From:MasterPlanforAuroville 51 ,52,53,54From:Urbanand 49, 50From:MasterPlanforGan- material byProf.A.K.Maitra. Architecture (SPA),NewDelhi. reports, SchoolofPlanningand (SPA), NewDelhi. of PlanningandArchitecture Rural PlanningThought,School dhinagar 20-9-2007 9:30:24 New town movement in India and the changing paradigms of development prof. A. Maitra: 151

INTI-seminar.indb 151 20-9-2007 9:30:24 INTI-seminar.indb 152 20-9-2007 9:30:24 E. Beyer M.A. Project Shrinking Cities ETH / Zürich

Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-Socialist New Towns

Elke Beyer, born 1974, holds Summary an M.A. in History and Slavic Studies; university studies in Shrinking Cities – New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-Socialist Cologne, London and New York; New Towns since 2000, free lance development and realization of events, A relatively new and entirely unplanned trend of urban development has city walks, film programs on taken hold in old industrial societies: For increasing numbers of towns and urban history and a temporary cities, economic and demographic indicators point towards stagnation or archive for staatsbankberlin; even shrinkage. Declining birthrates and aging societies, declining demand 2002-2006 research associate for labour and global relocation of industrial production, suburbanization in the project Shrinking Cities, and increased mobility as well as the fragmentation of growth pockets have Office Philipp Oswalt, Berlin; inverted the development of many urban regions. The growth paradigm 2004-2005 guest editor of the which informs much urban planning and our concepts of cities in general, journal An Architektur for a requires revision. Countries affected by the massive economic and social special issue on the eastern reorganization after the collapse of state socialism and the Soviet-centered border of the EU for the exhibi- economic realm offer cases in point: Entire towns in Russia or eastern Ger- tion Projekt Migration, Cologne; many seem to become obsolete after having existed barely two-three dec- since March 2006, assistant at ades. In Germany’s eastern states, unemployment, population decline and the gta (Institute for History abandonment of housing continue in alarming figures while planners and and Theory of Architecture), politicians find themselves at loss how to “solve” the structural problems ETH Zürich; research project on and how to deal with the heritage of the state socialist new towns, satellites planning, production and and large-scale housing estates. The cultural and urbanist research project current transformation of Shrinking Cities was initiated by the German Federal Culture Foundation in

1960s city centres in Russia and order to establish new perspectives on these developments. This paper dis- Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns eastern Germany. cusses some conclusions that can be drawn from the multifaceted respons- es and how they could be applied to shrinking and maybe also to growing

state socialist new towns under post-socialist conditions in Germany and E. Beyer: Russia. 153

INTI-seminar.indb 153 20-9-2007 9:30:24 INTI-seminar.indb 154 154 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns order toinvestigatepossible Federal CulturalFoundation in Cities initiatedbytheGerman scribes theprojectShrinking In asecondpart,thispaper de- Zelenograd closetoMoscow. currently boomingNewTown small factorytownYuzhaorthe examples suchastheshrinking and comparingitwithRussian under post-socialistconditions, context ofurbandevelopment global contextandwithinthe example, settingitwithinthe New TownHalle-Neustadtasan ern Germany,takingtheGDR of manytownsandcitiesineast- discusses thecurrentsituation The firstpartofthepaperthus nevertheless toawidercontext. out growthmaybeapplicable about urbandevelopmentwith- thoughts andideasgenerated genuine NewTowns.Butthe analysed inthiscontextwere some ofthechosenexamples cused onshrinkingcities.Only rily aboutNewTowns,butfo- project whichwasn’tprima- upon anurbanistresearch of caution,asitlargelydraws This paperhastostartonanote 1 1. DemolitionandSprawlseenbyphotographerNikolaus Brade. ers’ bonanzaandfurtheraggra- were snatchedupinadevelop- socio-spatial arrangements – ing up”withWestGermany’s facturing andhousing–“catch- developments intrade,manu- ed statesupportsforsuburban the pre-1989levels.Short-sight- sharp dropinbirthrates–tohalf towards thewest,aswella was accompaniedbyanexodus sands ofjobs.Thisprocess regions ofhundredsthou- privatization hasdeprivedthe dustrialization inthewakeof Kohl, arapidandmassivedein- promised byChancellorHelmut ing or“bloominglandscapes” stead oftheoftencitedprosper- and citiesbotholdnew.In- many easternGermantowns developments havesetinfor the FRGin1990,quitedramatic Since theGDRbecamepartof Germany Shrinking citiesineastern established initscourse. conclusions andfieldsofaction ies anddiscussessomeofthe interventions forshrinkingcit- 20-9-2007 9:30:25 2. Demolition in Wolfen-Nord near Halle and 3. Vacant Wilhelminian Buildings in Leipzig, 4. The town centre of Merseburg, 2001. Leipzig, 2001. 2001.

vated the cities’ economic and Leipzig or Dresden, and espe- clearance to stabilize owners) core, preferably the old town, demographic losses. Gaping cially middle towns. More than and upgrading urban “problem and competition with all means windows of abandoned apart- one million apartments in east- zones” (which has been of sec- for investment and funding pro- ments caused by vacancy rates ern Germany are not occupied ondary importance in the imple- grams.3 This desire for “shrink- of more than 30% and demoli- at the time of writing. Cities and mentation so far)2. The program ing back to the core” is based tion crews became a common regions are subject to a continu- with a volume of 2.5 billion Euro on wishful thinking about a re- feature in large-scale prefab ing fragmentation and polariza- is to last until 2009. The huge establishment of the traditional estates and GDR New Towns tion. Planners and politicians investment made by the state european city and elimination like Hoyerswerda, Schwedt and find themselves at a loss how to into the demolition of hundreds of the GDR’s not always pretty Halle-Neustadt, built not more “solve” the structural problems of thousands of apartments is physical remnants. Meanwhile, than twenty to thirty years ago or how to trigger growth. still not sufficient to balance a majority of the population ap- in the desperate effort by the As an urbanist agenda, the Ger- the housing market. And the pears to prefer either suburban GDR to provide housing for its man state attempts since 2002 urbanist concepts presented settings or the habitual estates, baby-friendly young society, with the huge program Stadt- by the municipalities in com- if they offer an established so-

but equally in the little cared umbau Ost (City Restructur- petition for funding all seem to cial structure and lots of free Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns for inner city districts with Wil- ing East) to integrate substan- offer the same desperate solu- parking and communal green helminian or older structures, tial financial support for the tion: demolition of prefab es- space.

for example in large cities like demolition of housing (market tates versus strengthening the E. Beyer: 155

INTI-seminar.indb 155 20-9-2007 9:30:27 INTI-seminar.indb 156 156 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns demolished inHalle-Silberhöhe. buildings abouttobe continues inasceneryofvacant 5. and6.Everydaylife 7. TheurbanregionofHalle andLeipzigineasternGermany. 20-9-2007 9:30:30 For Example: Halle-Neustadt Then, since 1990, about 60.000 tirely automated production of eastern German chemical work- West German companies such as The dimension of deindustriali- ers lost their jobs in the non- Bayer – the same profit is made zation and its effects on a GDR compromising privatization of today again, but with a tiny frac- New Town can be grasped by a the worn out GDR combines. Un- tion of the work base involved look at the chemical industry, of employment rates in the states previously. Today one under- longstanding tradition in the re- of Saxonia and Saxonia-Anhalt stands how important it would gion of Halle-Leipzig.4 The New stand at almost 20 percent at have been to maintain an indus- Town of Halle-Neustadt, pro- the time of writing6, not count- trial base and also branches of jected for more than 100 000 ing the state subsidised second management and development inhabitants, was built up since labour market or qualification in the East in order to keep the 8. Planned town centre of 1964 in order to house the programs. The region became a regions’ endogenous potential Halle-Neustadt, 1972. workers of the nearby chemical mere work-bench for almost en- for innovations.7 combines and their families. The “Chemiearbeiterstadt” (Chemi- cal Workers Town), composed as a satellite to the city of Halle with a direct train connection to the chemical works in nearby Buna and Leuna, was the last and probably most ambitiously modernist New Town founded in the GDR, following Eisenhüt- tenstadt (since 1951), Schwedt (since 1960), and Hoyerswerda (since 1955).5 All of them were partly still under construction in 1989 – the building of commu-

nal facilities and civic centres Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns lagged way behind the provi- 9. “A town of our time: Halle- sion of standardized housing Neustadt” (Cover of Architektur

estates. der DDR, June 1974). 10. New town and old town of Halle. E. Beyer: 157

INTI-seminar.indb 157 20-9-2007 9:30:32 INTI-seminar.indb 158 158 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns edges ofitshousingcomplexes gradual demolition,from the situation whichmayleadto its stadt findsitselfinaprecarious of inhabitants,todayHalle Neu- tion, increasedagingandloss tinously difficultincomesitua- were completed.Butwithacon- and thetramlinktooldcity ema, administrativebuildings on thesiteofformercin- quented mallwasestablished some investment–aquitefre- centre ofNeustadthasseen early 1990stheunfinishedtown and lossofoccupation. balance betweenliberatedtime the negotiationofaprecarious terns oflife–onecanobserve work haschangedthedailypat- of theyoung.Theabsence retirement) andthedeparture of pensioners(orthoseinearly unemployment, alargeshare Neustadt isnowdominatedby the socialstructureofHalle- today andtellsowithpride in thelate1960sstilllivethere the NewTownofHalle-Neustadt came asthefirstinhabitantsof Even thoughmanyofthosewho 9 Inthe 8 , 11. CentreofHalle-Neustadt,2001. blocks (formerstudentdormito- The five22-storeyapartment central district. and fromthepartlyabandoned trian arcadebelowthem. Their many oftheshopsinpedes- district arevacantaswell as shape theoutlookofcentral ries inneedofrenovation) that For someyearsalready,culture servation ofthewholecomplex. ties, isbeingdebated–or con- railway stationandotherfacili- demolition, aswellof the 20-9-2007 9:30:34 of which Neustadt became part again in 1990, aims to generate cultural capital with an image policy of a doubled city, playing on the juxtaposition of the extremely diverse urban settings of its Old Town and New Town. “Balanceakt Doppelstadt” (Balancing the Double City) was thus the motto of its competition entry for the Cultural Capi- tal of Europe 2010 as well as for its contribution to the Interna- tional Building Exhibition “City Restructuring 2010”.11

The global context

The entirely unplanned urban development hitting the former GDR after unification was not at all a historical accident or singular phenomenon, as our comparative study shows.12 A trend towards shrinking has 12. Global shrinking. taken hold in old industrial societies over the second half of initiatives and urban planners posal made in 2006 to list the or maintain an identity of an the twentieth century, in those

have traced Halle-Neustadt’s entire New Town for conser- avantgarde through an innova- of capitalist orientation some Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns history as a showcase of GDR vation.10 Part of this debate is tive “mise-en-scene” of the place decades earlier as in the former modernity and there is a heated the question of musealization by cultural productions and the state socialist countries. While

debate going on about the pro- and whether one can achieve like. The municipality of Halle, in a global perspective the long E. Beyer: 159

INTI-seminar.indb 159 20-9-2007 9:30:35 INTI-seminar.indb 160 160 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns ban development. a substantiallynewtrendof ur- even shrinkage.Thisrepresents tors pointtowardsstagnation or nomic anddemographicindica- bers oftownsandcities,eco- to anend,forincreasingnum- urbanization stillhasn’tcome era ofdemographicgrowthand migration, theshiftingdemand vention, mostcommonly wars, due tosocialandpolitical inter- quakes, floodsorillnesses –or natural disasterssuchasearth- diminished ordestroyedby history: urbansettlementswere disruption allthroughhuman amples ofcitiesindeclineor Of coursetherehavebeenex- 13, 14,15,16.Postcardsofshrinkingcities. of shrinking: linked processesorpathways it isshapedbyseveral inter- towns aswellbigcities. And both oldandnewtowns, small specific patterns.Ithasaffected follows historicallynewand of shrinkingcitiesworldwide services. for certaingoods,facilitiesor 13 Butthecurrenttrend

Firstly, historically economies. trial productioninpost-fordist the globalrelocationofindus- because ofautomatization and declining demandforlabour and sprawl,thirdly,anever- vidual mobility,suburbanization ly, equallyunprecedentedindi- and agingofsocieties,second- unprecedented lowbirthrates 14 Shrinking cities ap- 20-9-2007 9:30:36 17, 18, 19, 20. Postcards of shrinking cities.

pear to be with us to stay. The to have been forgotten in the “transformation”15 to capitalism old structures and regulatory growth paradigm which still in- very moment when the collapse was triggering a cumulation and measures, and the emergence forms much urban planning and of the Soviet economic realm compression of the shrinking of new ones (the one excep- our imaginary of cities in gen- promised new opportunities processes mentioned above. tion to this may be the former eral requires revision. for expansion and economic GDR).16 Alongside the dynamic This was much discussed al- growth. But, simultaneously, Post-Socialist Conditions neo-capitalist boomtowns such

ready during the deindustriali- for many cities of the former as Moscow, Budapest, Ljubljana, Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns zation crises of West European state socialist countries an even Characteristic of post-socialist and Prague, other towns and re- and North American cities in the more dramatic development conditions was the simultane- gions are bearing the brunt of

1970s and 1980s but seems set in in the 1990s, where the ity of the gradual dissolution of mass migration, stagnation, and E. Beyer: 161

INTI-seminar.indb 161 20-9-2007 9:30:40 INTI-seminar.indb 162 162 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns new industryorminingtowns cially validforthehundreds of defined character.Thisis espe- leaving widevacantlotsof un- often neverreallydeveloped, cilities andconsumptionwere central areasmarkedforfa- underdeveloped. Thatis,those and servicestendedtoremain housing estates.Civicfacilities al combineandits(large-scale) exclusively tothelocalindustri- were typicallyorientedalmost aspects ofurbandevelopment frastructural andarchitectural trolled plannedeconomies,in- In thecentralized,state-con- jority oflargecitiesshrank. large citiesdeclinedandthema- Germany, thepopulationof Hungary, Ukraineandeastern sia alone.There,asinBulgaria, tion losses,93oftheminRus- every 2)experiencedpopula- cities (approximately1outof societies. Morethan200large landslide inmostpost-socialist pectancy causedademographic rates, andadecreasinglifeex- Emigration, sharpdropsinbirth economic andmaterialdecline. 21. TheurbanregionofIvanovoincentralRussia. the SovietUnion. ful industrializationdrivesof that werefoundedintheforce- monofunctional specialization of differentscalesandoften economically unviablebranches duction declineddramatically; and distribution,industrial pro- cialized networksofproduction to thesuddendisruptionof spe- At thestartof1990s,due 17 a fewyears,e.g.,citiesin the of theirinhabitantswithin only loss oftwentypercentor more mobile populationsuffered the prospects aswella more places withlimitedemployment combines begantoshrink.Many ages tonowobsoleteindustrial primarily asresidentialappend- or settlementsthathadserved sectors wereshutdown.Cities and sometimesentireindustrial tlement programs. sometimes supportedbyreset- thousands ofinhabitantsleft, were officiallydisbandedafter of Russia,completesmalltowns such astheFarNorthorEast extremely unfavorablelocations 30 percentofitspopulation.In in theKomiRepublic,whichlost which lost20percent,orVorkuta Leninsk-Kuznetski, bothof like Andzhero-Sudzhenskand Kuzbass coalminingdistrict, of theUSSR,theyareoften little tion. Likesomanynewtowns results ofSovietstyleurbaniza- the townYuzha,areverytypical tively newtowns,forexample facilities. Thesesmallandrela- highly specializedproduction often dependingononeortwo small ormiddletextiletowns densely settled,butdottedwith region Ivanovo.Itisnotvery tile producingcentralRussian research focusedonthetex- post-socialist conditions,our dustrial regionshrinkingunder As acaseinpointforanoldin- For Example:Yuzha 18

20-9-2007 9:30:42 more than an assembly of the basic urban equipment thrown together in the subsequent moves for urbanization and improvement of life in the USSR. Their town status, social infrastructure and physical appearance was created by way of pro- grammatic interventions by the state aimed at the establishment 22. Aerial view of central 23. Cinema in Yuzha, closed in 24. Garden lots surrounding of a specific and similar way of Yuzha, factory town in Ivanovo the mid-1990’s. the textile factory in the town life for all its citizens, and this region. centre of Yuzha. meant placing the same kind of institutions, facilities, housing about, in a complex interaction patchwork jobs, shuttle trade, doned. Shrinking meant being and services at different loca- between the inherited struc- seasonal migration, if one can- cut off from the economic and tions everywhere in the Soviet tures and patterns of cultural not make it to leave altogether communication networks, a loss Union – thus determining the production on the one hand and to a more promising location. of the urban life quality as serv- outlook of urban life. In the case the search for new directions Deindustrialization was fol- ices and amenities are not pro- of Yuzha – as in countless other by institutions and citizens of a lowed neither by a smooth tran- vided any longer by the factory places – this process was never city. The textile industry in the sition to the third sector nor by or state. This has been mediat- completed, the small towns re- region came to a standstill dur- long term structural unemploy- ed by a gradual adaptation and tained a very strong rural resi- ing the 1990s, but it was avoid- ment subsidized by the state, a replacement of state-run serv- due and seasonal lifestyle.19 ed to close down the factories. but rather by a dissolution of ices by more or less functionally Even though many employees the division of work.20 equivalent private enterprises Today, these quite young facto- were kept on payrolls nominally (e.g., instead of the cinema, a ry towns are faced with the end to ensure social benefits and in- Because of the severe housing small video rental is now op- of the factory as the city-found- surance, unemployment soared. shortage inherited from the So- erational in Yuzha) which tend ing institution. This embodies a Shrinking for these towns has viet era, in Ivanovo region just to exclude a much larger share

fundamental re-negotiation of meant a decline in living stand- those buildings unfit for liv- of the inhabitants for financial Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns cultural patterns and networks ard, regarding the individual ing are abandoned. As a rule, reasons. Against the sudden producing the concepts and financial means and a restruc- the smaller and more remote disruption of state planning and

the consensus what the city is turing of work patterns to a place, the more of it is aban- intervention there has been a E. Beyer: 163

INTI-seminar.indb 163 20-9-2007 9:30:44 INTI-seminar.indb 164 164 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns 25. PlanforthecentreofNewTownZelenogradnearMoscow,1969. 7 eetbidn ciiyi eeord 06 28.RecentbuildingactivityinZelenograd, 2006. 27. Recentbuildingactivity inZelenograd,2006. 26. RecentbuildingactivityinZelenograd,2006. 20-9-2007 9:30:46 continuity of development by the new era. The ample open the difficult situation on the real journal archplus, and the Muse- “soft” or “weak” factors shaping public and green spaces are estate market and remained um for Contemporary Art Leip- the everyday and the appearance well maintained and equipped within the limits of conventional zig directed by Barbara Steiner. of towns through bricolage and – and frequented by many. Pub- planning wisdom, always fo- The project’s aims were to private improvisation in public lic transport facilities, schools, cused on growth potentials. But make the shrinking of cities spaces as well as through net- creches etc. appear freshly shrinking is an unplanned and a subject for a broad general works of self-organization. renovated. And ever more high- hardly managable development, public, and by doing so, to in- rise apartment blocks are be- a fundamental challenge to our troduce new approaches to ur- But it is important to keep in ing added on the fringes and conceptual framework, percep- ban analysis and intervention mind that shrinking is only one also in a densification process tion and imaginary of cities and to the public discourse, com- side of the coin in post-socialist along the main communication urbanity. The German Federal bining methods and means of countries: Some industries, in routes. The growth patterns Culture Foundation initiated in communication from the arts, Russia, e.g. oil and gas, auto- of these New Towns appear to 2002 the cultural and urbanist social sciences, architecture, mobile or electronics, managed follow the urbanist principles research project Shrinking Cit- and planning. Cities were not to establish a new hold on the given in the 1960s – clearly with ies with the aim to investigate to be conceptualized as built international or domestic mar- some changes in the ideological and communicate how shrink- matter, transport infrastructure kets. After a period of insecurity premises – instead of counter- ing affects all social processes and potential growth machine, in the 1990s, they are now grow- acting or reversing them. and structures. The growth but as spaces of practice and ing fast. Some of the 1960s-70s paradigms commonly founding negotiation, places of multiple New Towns based on presently The Project Shrinking Cities assumptions about develop- everyday realities. Shrinking cit- successful industry branches, ment and, subsequently, poli- ies allow a case study of chang- such as Zelenograd, a satel- The German debate on shrink- cies need to be questioned and ing paradigms in our society: lite of Moscow, or Togliatti on ing cities was dominated by revised. Cultural factors may how people live in a situation the Volga, today offer well-paid the large housing corporations have surprising impacts in this conditioned by unemployment, jobs and show a population in- and limited to questions of real complex and long-term proc- emigration and abandonment flux and high living standards. estate and housing policies up ess. Project partners with dif- and how these problems are They expand: Shopping, enter- until the late 1990s. The strat- ferent backgrounds worked to- dealt with locally. The project tainment and services and a egies proposed and embraced, gether with chief curator Philipp focused especially on cultural

church are now settling in those such as the already mentioned Oswalt (architect) and his office: production in shrinking cities, Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns central locations originally in- program Stadtumbau Ost (now the Bauhaus Dessau Founda- e.g. new music, and the images tended for civic facilities – the there’s one for the West, as tion, represented by sociologist of urban decay and aesthetic of

standard urban equipments of well), were mainly reactions to Walter Prigge, the architecture shrinking cities existing in our E. Beyer: 165

INTI-seminar.indb 165 20-9-2007 9:30:48 INTI-seminar.indb 166 166 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns project exhibition,2004. 29. Posterannouncingthe different pathwaysofshrinking, tive urbanregionsaffected by (2002-2004) fourrepresenta- phase ofinternationalresearch shrinking andwhy.Inthis first was whereelsecitieshadbeen Germany, thefirstquestion dramatic situationineastern from thepreviouslydescribed vided intwophases:Departing The four-yearprojectwasdi- and musicvideoclips. culture, forexampleinmovies petition launched aninternational com- Architecture magazinearchplus ways ofcommissioningentries: ner institutionschosedifferent ern Germany.Theprojectpart- ios forshrinkingcitiesineast- interventions, ideasandscenar- invited todevelopandpresent teams andindividualartistswere about thirtycross-disciplinary designs andinitiatives.Again successful policies,strategies, or promotedsuccessfulandun- research intoalreadyexistant possible interventions:abroad project (2004-2006)focusedon tive. presenting aglobalperspec- world mapofshrinkingcities complemented byanatlasand comparing thefourregions, plus aninformationalbackbone planners andanthropologists tributions byarchitects,artists, mostly cross-disciplinarycon- Berlin in2004–withaboutfifty presented inanexhibition were compared.Results erpool, Ivanovo,Halle/Leipzig, namely Detroit,Manchester/Liv- foundation commissioned inter- 21 The secondphaseofthe 22 , theBauhausDessau op projects. politics intheirworkstodevel- tion, representationandurban dressing questionsofparticipa- invited anumberofartistsad- of ContemporaryArtsLeipzig work oraging,andtheMuseum as suburbanization,withdrawal, work onspecificsubjectssuch disciplinary projectteamsto cussions. by manypubliceventsand dis- and publications,accompanied intensely reviewedexhibitions fields. Itsmeansweresomevery over 200authorsfromdifferent on manylevels,involvingwell self adiscursiveintervention planning workshop,butinit- strictly academicprojectnora Shrinking Citieswasneithera may sufficetoexplainthat strategy, oronedesign.This tempting tocomeupwithone one coherentnarrationorat- tices, ratherthantoestablish urban studiesandprac- of verydiverseapproachesto tions aimedtogiveanoverview Both exhibitionsandpublica- 24

23 Saisonstadt” ments. Thestudy“(Inverse) into themeparksandmonu- of HalleandLeipzigareturned Neustadt andcentraldistricts while theNewTownofHalle- ing thenewfocusofgrowth, tween HalleandLeipzigbecom- the Autobahnintersectionbe- plores spatialconsequencesof the culturalheritageexplored estates aretransformed into place andtheruinsofpre-fab until –maybeareversal takes the AlpsandeasternGermany shrinking) touristregionsof transfer betweenthe(formerly work exchangeandcultural stronger transnationalseasonal map offuture“Schkreutz” pinpoint themainissues:A oped byarchitectsandartists Two playfulscenariosdevel- 1. Polarization. the projectShrinkingCities. multifaceted responseswithin ing asexamplessomeofthe tion shallbeoutlinedhere,cit- the debateonurbaninterven- To conclude,themainfieldsof 26 envisionsanever 25 20-9-2007 9:30:49 ex- A B C D E F G H I J K L

&ED R

12 ERAL# 12

SCHKREUTZ "AYE 'LOBAL'OODS&LOW 3. Urban Landscape. APITAL of equal living conditions in dire City Map

1st EDITION Eyecatcher PEP 11 Shopping Mall 11 local circumstances. 1:20,000 Investment WAREHOUSE Fromthirtyeurosanight WEST BIGBOX Edeka To accept the consequences of Fresh Goods Center Easytoreach 10 Halle Center Fully Equipped 10

Walther Furnishings HallePark A9A9 2. Perforation and Withdrawal. shrinking requires other con- open-air museum Porta Showhouseville Regional Development “Metropolis in the 19th century” Manymany Central storage depot Usedmercedes Plan Axis MOREPOSSIBLE 9 North Park 9 Propertyvalue Kibek Carpets Upper Retail Promarkt Plaza Porta Furnishings cepts than expensive parks or

Hamster Preserve urban monument Morefavorable Mercedes FIVE TOWERS MALL Morereasonable Neustadt Citizens’ Advice Center Optimal single women: free entrance Access 8 A14 8 fencing off brownfields. These PensionersPlace To take away what’s no longer Noprovision LOGISTICS HEP Write-Off City center map NEW HOME READY TO DEVELOP District map much more ShoppingPark Hectare CENTER Idealidyll Surrounding areas City cemetery HECTAREFORSALE Old Cross Distribution Tunnel Arcade and Silberhöhe Gone-Bust Hectare POTENTIAL EMPLOYMENT Still-Available NOT YET DEVELOPED needed requires a political as could be urban wildernesses or 7 CatalogHome Hectare 7 Globalacting Initial Branch Innovation COMMISSION FREE Event Center City Information DHL Erbe Furnishings BMW ARAL Porsche Saxony Park IWANTTOLIVEHERE IWANTTOLIVEHERE NORTH Flourishing Labor Service Trade Fair well as an urbanist agenda, forests, but also changing the HomeWithGarden LOTSFORRENT DISPATCH Historic Landscape Quelle American Buna BESTLOCATION 6 City Park 6 Little Lake Weekend BB66 HolidayInn Little Bigbox Dow Iwanttolivehere AfterWork South PRINTERS’ MALL SCHKREUTZ it concerns the hardware of property regulations to make Meeting place Neighborhood Center EAST BIGBOX 1 2 Ikea 6 4 Lion Center 5 3 Culture Forum 2 WAL MART 1. ADAC Practice Circuit Urban area 2. Go-cart Track B18B1188181 3. Swinger Club Path 5 TurnkeyReady 1 5 Commercial zone, 4. Bowling St. Paunsdorfcenter 5. Mega-Party Square original size and offset physical structures as well as possible the appropiation of 6. Three Hotels Promenade LeipzigCenter %XTENDED-ARKETS Alleecenter New residential area, NEW MARKET 1 Event Center “Leipzig Arcades” original size and offset Ownfourwalls Tunnel Arcade Grünau 2 Leisure Center Historic Landscape “Urban Flair” Village centers Future Guide City Cemetery French Leuna Quick and happy the software of services, facili- neighbourhood gardens. In ESSO 4 4 Public building Neighborhood Association Former shopping center with STO Building Materials Pösnapark entertainment program, Gradiergarden REST-STOP Globus perimeter in proportion to retail area ties and programmes provided some post-socialist New Towns Park formerly open spaces 3 3 and renaturation zones Longweekend South Park “Pedestrian zone” City limits within a town. It is not suffi- such as Zelenograd, the quali- Longweekend Lake Rippach Valley Motor-racing track Periphery Halle/Leipzig 2 2 Leisure park or cinema cient to invest mentally and fi- ties those “undefined” open M Logistics company Housing project after ‘89 Gas station 1 1 nancially only in the re-creation spaces inherited by modernist

)NVESTMENT"ANANA Place-names are based on billboards, advertising brochures, newspaper articles, and individual associations. A B C D E F G H I J K L of old towns and to attempt to city planning may have are be- 30. Schkreutz – Fictional map of the future centre around the “heal” the cities from modern in- coming more and more appar- motorway exchange of the urban region Halle and Leipzig. terventions. The new challenge ent – with the trees grown to for planning is to honestly and the ninth floor. Changing work by a new generation of tourists. ous social and economic base. sensibly accept and implement regimes may in the long run These scenarios are based on But to set the weakest cities and a fractured city, with areas of make possible – or, as can be the continuing fragmentation of neighbourhoods in competition desertion (or reserves). There observed in economic crises in the physical and social spaces for scarce funds seems not only are many other options beyond industrial countries throughout cities and regions are facing in unjust – it is not to the point, the already mentioned mantra the 20th century, necessary – a post-fordist global economy. either, because it overlooks the of shrinking back to the core – lifestyles with more seasonal The problem is much more ex- links and transfers between the the task is to project new quali- activity and even a reversal of treme and tangible in Russia local, regional and transnational ties that withdrawal can gener- the organization of agricultural and other post-socialist East economies which may be way ate and each city and town has production.

European countries, and New beyond reach of municipal pow- to find a suitable pattern suited Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns Towns are more easily singled ers.27 New ideas are required to the local interests concerned 4. Vacancies. out as winners or losers because for fulfilling the state’s avowed – for example, the need for af-

of their often rather homogene- responsibility for the provision fordable housing. In shrinking cities, there’s not E. Beyer: 167

INTI-seminar.indb 167 20-9-2007 9:30:49 INTI-seminar.indb 168 168 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns graphically restrictedsocial and of specialzonescreatedby geo- quire ashaking-up.Scenarios upon urbandevelopment re- Regulations andrulesbearing 5. SpecialZonesandMigration. of structurestonegotiation. ulating growthandthebuilding reverts fromdesigningandreg- cities, theroleofurbanplanning in thecityofGera. prefab buildingsoftypeWBS70 schlaege.de forGDRstandard plan drawnupbythegroupan- room farms,asinthebusiness Complizen architects,ormush- onstrated in“sportification”by into climbingranges,asindem- partment blockscanbeturned “catalyst” projects.Vacantap- of startcapitalandsupportfor ning andalsoontheavailability and use,theopennessofplan- course, ontherulesofproperty city premises.Thisdepends,of source comparedtoexpensive that canbeseenasvaluablere- are under-orunusedbuildings just emptyspace,butfirstthere 28 Inshrinking a guaranteedbasicincome. on aparticipatorybudgetand the townwhichwouldbebased means alreadydistributedto tion schemeforthesamestate of Forstsuggestedanewalloca- cial WelfareZone”forthetown ample, astudyon“SpecialSo- the rulesofshrinking.Forex- may notalsobeusedtobreak responsible forextremegrowth question, whytheinstruments economic programspointtothe The project“Exterritories” na-based groupWochenklausur tion “Wire.V.”drawnupby Vien- structures –asintheassocia- be thedesignoforganization velopment processes.Tools can the firststepinopen-endedde- interests andresourcesmustbe look andnewvaluationoflocal Instead ofgrandvisions,aclose zation. 6. ModerationandSelf-organi- on migrationhierarchies. lenged commonassumptions media stirandsuccessfullychal- nomic zoneinHalle,createda visioned aChinesespecialeco- 30 en- 29 mushroom farms. to turnvacantbuildingsinto 32. Grow!–Abusinessplan vacant buildings. 31. Sportification–Activitiesfor other manifestationsof“local networks, citizens’groups and tion andnewuses.Informal ing communication,appropia- selves coulddefine–,stimulat- in jobswithaprofiletheythem- benefit fromstatesponsoring ridical bodyallowingpeopleto in Leipzigordertocreateaju- ventions inpublicspace and Cultural factorssuchas inter- Cultural Production. 7. Image,Communication and towards theNewTown. taken byHalle’scitygovernment mation oftheproactiveposition tainly playedaroleinthefor- ing Cities.Allthisactivitycer- Anhalt, totheexhibitionShrink- mer SchoolheldbyIBASachsen stadt” toanInternationalSum- often-cited spectacle“HotelNeu- contemporary culture:fromthe and turningitintoacentrefor former railwaystationbuilding ing topreservethelate1960s port ofculturalproducershop- of projectsaddingupinsup- to takealookatthesequence Halle-Neustadt, itisinstructing e.g. inDessauandLeipzig.In of ownershipanddevelopment, those withalternativemodels flagship projectsturnouttobe tors anddevelopers,thereal ties. Inabsenceofclassicinves- ning departmentsofmunicipali- renewed interestintheplan- social capital”aregreetedwith 20-9-2007 9:31:26 34. Hotel Neustadt – Turning a vacant building in Halle-Neus- tadt into a performance space with a temporary theme hotel and multiple events run by local young people, Thalia Theater 33. Exterritories – A media intervention subverting common Halle in cooperation with notions about migration by suggesting the creation of a Chinese raumlabor. Special Economic Zone near Halle. 35. ZfzK – An initiative to create public media, art and cultural cussion, setting examples and a Centre for contemporary cul- interventions, and projects opening up possibilities beyond ture in the abandoned railway about memory, perception and the usual logic of financial and station of Halle-Neustadt, venue identity appear to be of primary administrative concerns. Cultur- of the exhibition Shrinking Cit- importance in today’s “econo- al interventions and image poli- ies in 2005. my of attention”. The “creative cies cannot, of course, replace class” is touted as the saviour urban planning and social poli- for every city aspiring to follow cies, but they can inspire them Manchester and Barcelona in and point out new directions. putting itself on the map again, often resulting in streamlined branding policies mainly lining the pockets of communication agencies, star architects and real estate brokers. Instead of trying to attract only outside attention, more weight should be placed on cultural projects with

the potential of bringing to light Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns the conflicts and desires that are present in a city and of making

them work – by triggering dis- E. Beyer: 169

INTI-seminar.indb 169 20-9-2007 9:31:28 INTI-seminar.indb 170 170 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns Zurich. Towns foradissertationatETH the authoronformerSovietNew in October2006andresearchby the courseofavisittoZelenograd 3 2 1 Bundeswettbewerb Stadtumbau zum BundeswettbewerbStadtumbau tation derWettbewerbsbeiträge chure: BMVBS/BBR(eds.):Dokumen- Building andHousinginthebro- the FederalMinistryforTraffic, by Notes p. 660-666. Ostfildern: HatjeCantz,2005, Cities. Vol.1:InternationalResearch, Oswalt, Philipp(ed.):Shrinking “Demolition ProgramEast”,in: cal assessment:BERNT,Mathias: Schader Foundation;orforacriti- www.stadtumbau-ost.de runbythe download ontheinformativesite Shrinking Cities2004,availablefor turing inWolfen-Nord,Berlin: Why Demolition?UrbanRestruc- brochure byWIEDEMER,Rochus: Garten+Landschaft 2002, of theissue in Additional materialwascollected Competition Entries were published Competition Entrieswerepublished See e.g. the various contributions See e.g.thevariouscontributions “Stadtumbau Ost”, in: “Stadtumbau Ost”,in: No. 2; the programm/wettbewerb.php. ost.info/index.php?request=/ load at:http://www.stadtumbau- Ost, 03/2003,availablefordown- 5 4 Cities, Vol.1. each regioninOSWALT,Shrinking sia. Seetherespectivechapterson pool, Detroit,andIvanovoinRus- Cities, aswellManchester/Liver- areas oftheProjectShrinking was oneofthefourmainresearch Träume. Herrschaft,Stadtent- 1999; SPRINGER,Philipp:Verbaute Eisenhüttenstadt, Dortmund:IRPUD der frühenDDR–aufgesuchtin tadt Stalinstadt.EinGrundriss Hatje, 1997;MAY,Ruth:Plans- in derNachkriegszeit,Ostfildern: Wolfsburg undEisenhüttenstadt West AufbauOst.DiePlanstädte BEIER, Rosmarie(Hrsg.):Aufbau more detailedstudiesinclude: 1988, p.26-45;morerecentand DDR 1955-1971,Leipzig:Seemann STEDT, Thomas:Städtebauinder of theGDRNewTownsseeTOPF-

The urbanregionHalle/Leipzig For anoverviewofthebuilding much Saxonia-Anhalt 19.9%. gentur fürArbeit):Saxonia18.6%, Federal AgencyforWork(Bundesa- Halle-Neustadt fromNovember 18, former railwaystationbuilding of – InternationalResearch”inthe the exhibitionof“ShrinkingCities Neustadt thattookplaceduring on thecurrentsituationofHalle- almost allpublicpaneldiscussions 8 Bildung, 2003. Berlin: Wirtschaft imUmbruch1970-2000, 7 6 des Bundes2003. schaftlichen Wandel,Kulturstiftung land. KulturellePraxisimgesell- Dietzsch (Hrsg.):LaborOstdeutsch- in: Bauer-Volke,Kristina,undIna einer existentiellbedrohtenStadt, Schauplatz Hoyerswerda.Porträt Verlag, 2006;HAIN,Simone: Schwedt. Berlin:ChristophLinks der sozialistischenIndustriestadt wicklung undLebensrealitätin R As couldbewitnessedduring January 2007Databythe OESLER, Jörg:Ostdeutsche Bundeszentrale fürpolitische 2005, toJanuary29,2006. Frankfurt amMain:Campus1998. ostdeutschen Industrieregion, des Eigensinns.Ethnografieeiner account BITTNER, 1, p.384-392,orforadetailed in: Oswalt,ShrinkingCitiesVol. 13 12 11 10 9 de/projekte/IBA.html www.wochenspiegel-web.de. discussion postedon de/article.php?sid=5290; orthe Neustadt?”, http://www.halleforum. see “DenkmalschutzfürHalle- reactions (asofNovember2006) ber 6-8,2006.Forsomemedia Stadtumbau 2010fromSeptem- International BuildingExhibition context ofaconferencebythe Ostfildern: HatjeCantz,2006. ets (eds.):Atlasofshrinkingcities,

See, e.g.,NIKO.31:“OrbitPalast”, OSWALT,Philipp,andTimRieni- See, e.g.,SLATER,TerryR.(ed.): http://www.halle2010.de/html/ By SonjaBeecketal.inthe Regina: Kolonien Regina: Kolonien 20-9-2007 9:31:30 Towns in decline, AD 100 – 1600, gorodov, Moskva: Izdatelstvo in Oswalt, Shrinking Cities, Vol. 1, 24 As of 2006, the research of the Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000; and the literatury po stroitel’stvu, 1973; p. 368-375. project is concluded, but exhibi- city portraits in: Oswalt/Rieniets: FRENCH, R.A.: Plans, Pragmatism tions have been shown in the Atlas of shrinking cities, p. 32-36. and People. The Legacy of Soviet 21 In addition to Oswalt, Shrinking case studies regions and at some Planning for Todays Cities, London: Cities, Vol. 1; and Oswalt/Rieniets, international venues, namely at 14 PRIGGE, Walter: “On the origins UCL Press, 1995; ENGEL, Barbara: Atlas of shrinking cities, a digital the Architecture Biennial in Venice of shrinkage”, in: Oswalt, Shrinking Öffentliche Räume in den blauen collection of research material and 2006, in Ruse (Bulgaria), New Cities Vol. 1, p. 43-49. Städten Russlands. Entwicklungen, documentation of contributions to York, Detroit and Tokyo. Further Status und Perspektiven. Funktionale the first exhibition including a DVD exhibition venues: Frankfurt/Main, 15 For a discussion of the terminol- und räumliche Anforderungen an with films was published: OSWALT, Dortmund, Liverpool, Manchester ogy see e.g. VERDERY, Katherine: die Erneuerung öffentlicher Räume Philipp (ed.): Shrinking Cities and St. Petersburg. What was socialism and what in den neuen Industriestädten Sibir- Complete Works, vol. 1: Analysis, comes next?, Princeton UP 1996; iens unter veränderten sozioökono- Berlin/Aachen: Arch+, 2006. 25 SMAQ: “Schkreutz City Map 1st ANDRUSZ, G. et al. (eds.): Cities mischen Bedingungen, Tübingen: edition”, in: Oswalt, Shrinking Cit- after Socialism, Oxford: Blackwell, Ernst Wasmuth, 2004 (Dissertation 22 See the special issue: “Shrinking ies, Vol. 2, p. 301-305. 1996. TU Cottbus). Cities – Reinventing Urbanism”, archplus 173, Mai 2005. 26 ZINGANEL, Michael: “Tourism 16 For detailed picture see BRADE, 18 GÖLER, Daniel: “Raumstrukturel- in a Luxury of Void”, and ALBERS, Isolde (ed.): Die Städte Russlands ler Wandel im sibirisch-fernöstli- 23 The results were presented first Hans-H., Hieslmair, M. and Saga- im Wandel. Raumstrukturelle chen Norden”, in: Geographische in November 2005-Januar 2006 in din, M.: “[Inverse] Seasonal City”, Veränderungen am Ende der 20. Rundschau 55, 2003, No. 12. a second exhibition at the Museum in: Oswalt, Shrinking Cities, Vol. Jahrhunderts, Leipzig: IfL, 2002; for Contemporary Art Leipzig. See 2, p. 244-256; see also: ZINGANEL, and more recently BRADE, Isolde et 19 SVERDLOV, Alexander: “Five also OSWALT, Philipp (ed.): Shrink- Michael et al.: Saison Opening. al.: The Transformation of Urban Points about the City of Yuzha”, ing Cities, Vol. 2: Interventions, Kulturtransfer über ostdeutsch- Space in Post-Soviet Russia, Lon- in: Oswalt, Shrinking Cities Vol. 1, Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2006; tirolerische Migrationsrouten, don, New York: Routledge, 2006. p. 622ff; and MITURICH, Sergei: and the second part of the digital Frankfurt: Revolver 2006

“Subsisting in Yuzha”, in: Oswalt, collection: OSWALT, Philipp (ed.): Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns 17 For some perspectives on Soviet Shrinking Cities Vol. 1, p. 521-528. Shrinking Cities Complete Works, 27 AMIN, Ash: Rethinking Local Spe- New Towns, see: KRAVCHUK, Jakov vol. 2: Interventions, Berlin/Aachen: cificity and Community, in: Oswalt, 20 Terentevich: Formirovanie novych SITAR, Sergei: “Consensual City”, Arch+, 2006. Shrinking Cities, Vol. 2, p. 559-567. E. Beyer: 171

INTI-seminar.indb 171 20-9-2007 9:31:30 INTI-seminar.indb 172 172 E. Beyer: Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist New Towns 30 29 28 Cities, Vol.2,p.661-668. Zone Forst”,in:Oswalt,Shrinking Uwe Rada:“SpecialSocialWelfare 174-178 Oswalt, ShrinkingCities,Vol.2,p. 34 ThaliaTheaterHalle/ 33 Fiedler.Tornquist. 32 Anschlaege.de,Berlin. 31 ComplizenPlanungsbüro,Halle. 30 SMAQBerlinandRotterdam. 26, 27,28ElkeBeyer. 25 ArkhitekturaSSSR1969. 22 AlexanderSverdlov. 9, 10ArchitekturderDDR,June PlanungundBauder 8 2-4, 7,11,12,13,14,15,16,17, 1, 5,6NikolausBrade. List ofillustrations/credits: Vol. 2,p.630-637. ries”, in:Oswalt,ShrinkingCities,

FEZER, Jesko,StephanLanz,and ANSCHLAEGE.DE: “Grow!”,in: FIEDLER.TORNQUIST: “Exterrito- Raumlabor. 1974. Chemiearbeiterstadt, 1972. Philipp Oswalt,Berlin. Schrumpfende Städte,Büro 18, 19,20,21,23,24,29,35 . 20-9-2007 9:31:31 Shrinking Cities. New Perspectives on Urban Development and Post-socialist Towns E. Beyer: 173

INTI-seminar.indb 173 20-9-2007 9:31:31 INTI-seminar.indb 174 20-9-2007 9:31:31 Round table discussion on the research agenda of the new institute

Arnold Reijndorp: This is the final session of our seminar. We have tion for new cities is determined by the availability of fresh water heard a lot, seen a lot and, I am sure, also learned a lot. We have and fertile land. planned this meeting at the end of the seminar to share our experi- Of course, today’s program with its focus on modelling and cities ences so that all of us could participate in summing up what we have outside Europe is also a means to come to grips with what might be heard and contribute to drawing some conclusions. I hope that all of a good focus for our research program. A preliminary outline of this you will let your voice be heard. program is in the seminar papers so I will not repeat them here. Tak- ing that as a starting point the main question is: what did we learn Dirk Frieling: For us, the people who want to start this new institute, during this seminar? this seminar has an important function to test our preliminary ideas An issue which came forward is that new towns are associated very about our research program. The round table discussion is meant to much with planned communities. Whereas in modelling and espe- create focus in the research program. cially in the contribution of professor Portugali, the issue is: in what The second thing I want to say is that urban development in general way are cities examples of self organization? In what way can new is an extensive field of research and there are already many insti- towns be seen as examples of, or at least possibilities for, self or- tutes all over the world involved in it. With regard to demand and ganization? So I think that is a first lesson. I will not summarize supply of knowledge and know-how we have to find out what may be before we start, but I give this example to invite you to do likewise. a specific niche in this already well developed market. What did you learn from the seminar, keeping in mind that more Our first reduction has been to concentrate on new towns, because focus is needed. The better we can focus our research on issues we think that there may be demand from people confronted with which are missing in the supply of knowledge and insight already migration processes either for environmental or for economical rea- available, the better we may find a useful niche for this new insti- sons for whom new towns may offer one type of solution to accom- tute. modate these migration processes. Supply might then be provided by good insight in new towns in history and the reasons for the suc- Juval Portugali: I shall expand on what you have just said in two cesses and failures and for their growth and decline. directions. On the one hand, if we want to find a justification for Concentrating on this, new towns have been the topic of this pro- suddenly turning back to new towns and old fashioned planning, gram these two days. When talking about urban development in it is because they are examples of very strongly planned cities or general it is unusual to have lectures on water management or on parts of cities, they are interesting. In big or old cities planning is

rural development. But we have known for centuries that site selec- less dominant. In many cases the planning process of new towns Round table discussion 175

INTI-seminar.indb 175 20-9-2007 9:31:31 INTI-seminar.indb 176 176 Round table discussion helped metounderstandhistorical citiesmuchbetter.Historicalcit- restricted, verymono-functional intermsofphysicalconditions,has of studentsisthatmaking adetourtonewtownwhichwasvery My personalexperiencein5 yearsofresearchinAlmerewithagroup tions ofcertainrulesengagement bywayofspatialanalysis. might reinventorrediscoverthesocialimportanceand socialfunc- social doctrine,aswellaphysicaldoctrine.Bystudying them,we from thepast,mostofthemhadastrongconstruction basedona is akindofeagernesstoobtainknow-how.Ifwelook atnewcities ties andtherelationbetweenpublicprivateinvestment. Sothere public space.Becauseofthatthereisuncertaintyabout responsibili- physical doctrine,whichgivesusrulesandregulations toorganize globalization, andbecauseofthatthelackacommon socialand strong demandforcontextknowledge.Oneofthereasons forthatis Peter deBois: renewed domainofstudies. very relevanttoday,mightberelatedtotheissueofnewtownsasa New Orleansshrinksinaveryshorttime.Suchissues,whichare Katrina, thehurricaneinNewOrleans,anditshowedhowacitylike Graceland. Thebackgroundwasformedbyeventssuchas9/11or cities. AfewweeksagoIwasataconferenceonextremeeventsin And thethirdonecametomymindaftertalkaboutshrinking is relatedtothefirstone. life, mightentailnegativeimplications.Thisisasecondissue,which argues thatplanningtoodeeply,goingintoallthedetailsofurban example, inhisarticle‘Acityisnotatree’ChristopherAlexander tent veryintensiveplanningisapositiveornegativeaction.For The otherissue,whichisrelatedbutabitdifferent,towhatex- planning andselforganization. questions. Oneis,asImentionedinmytalk,therelationbetween went frombeginningtoend.Andthisentailsallkindsofinteresting My perceptiontodayandyesterdaywasthatthereisa How doesthatrelatetoeach other?Butmaybemoreinteresting,what stitute. have differentinterestsand wantsomethingdifferentfromthein- talents. Theuniversitycan doseveralthingsinAlmere,whilethey this institute,andtheyallhave differentknowledge,experienceand And anotherquestioncouldbe,thereareafewparties involvedin niche marketforthisinstitute. research. Sowhatisthegoal,whoclient?That will definethe determine howitoperates,andfinallyalsotheboundaries ofthe related tothat.Whatisthegoalofinstitute?Ofcourse thatwill rily beasortofuniversityfocusingonthisonetopic? And questions advise othercitiestobebuiltinforeigncountries?Or willitprima- world wide?Willitbelikeahands-oncrewthattravels theworldto stitute? Orwillitbesomethinglikeanadvisoryboard fornewcities sort ofinstituteisitgoingtobe?Isbelike aresearchin- therapeutic questionsbeforetheinstitute,likeforinstance: what At thisstageIwouldsaythatperhapsitisbestjusttoputafew things, thatitreallynecessitatesustonarrowourfocus. tion duringthesetwodays,itissowideandconsistsofmany when Ilookatthescopeofeverythingthatwasbroughttoouratten- The fieldoftheNewTownInstituteasitappearstobenow-and what wewillleaveout,andthisiswheretheboundarylies. extremely difficulttosay:thisiswhatwearegoingstudy, us, inourverytinyprojectofthemodernistnewtowns,ithasbeen whole fieldofstudy,buttolookforboundaries.Becauseeven direction ofnotthinkinganythemesorputtingaccentsinthis Michelle Provoost: the basicfunctionalconditionsforurbandevelopment. private investment.ThestudyofAlmerereallygaveusinsightinto investing andreconstruction,inamoreorlessconstantprocessof ies seemmuchbetteratselfregulation,thatismoreflexibleinre- Well, myintuitionwouldgoverymuchinthe 20-9-2007 9:31:32 are these differences? It is usually very revealing, not to disregard for that kind of city is very different from designing a Chandigarh or these differences but to fully point them out and exploit them. an Islamabad. They need a certain degree of flexibility, a degree of And as a last point, the definition. Going through the memo, it struck self organization. Those cities will evolve over a period of time. The us that the whole definition of new towns is very different from the plan you make today may become obsolete in ten years time. definition that is commonly used in new town literature. It is very Whereas in a capital city the captive population will never go away. wide, and it is not yet really focused. When looking at this memo Whatever happens, one generation will be replaced by another gen- it could also mean new urbanization, or it could be something like eration but of the same type. So there the requirements would re- new cities. In literature new towns are usually connected to planned main more or less the same. It becomes different as Chandigarh is communities of the new towns movement. And that is absolutely not expanding beyond being only a capital. Then it will begin to become what this institute is about. It is necessary to be extremely precise a heterogeneous city. And that multifunctional city replaces the old about that. original city and evolves. I think that that is the first thing to discuss and determine: is this How do you do that? I don’t think there has been much attention about planned cities and self structuring organisms that affect it, or to that these days, apart from Reijndorp. But I think these are the is it about any kind of urbanization which starts from scratch? In my things one ought to look at. I mentioned Durgapur in my lecture. opinion those are two completely different things. It was originally planned for a very small population. But a huge number of industries have come. It has spread across miles and Asesh Maitra: There are two types of new towns. One is an instant miles. That was not planned. Nobody foresaw that this could hap- city, with a very captive population, like capital cities, company cit- pen. One would have to learn, given experiences like this, how do ies, the railway towns and the like. They have a captive population. you organize the whole spatial structure? How do you organize the The planners know these are the people who have to work there. space? What kind of monitoring mechanism do you need to conserve And they calculate their number first. Then the other population resources, make it sustainable, make it into a proper system? That follows to serve them. So there is only this captive population and kind of research is absolutely absent. I think that should be one of you have a very definite program of development, housing, structur- the areas of focus of the institute, because this is something which ing, everything related to that particular group of people. All are is going to happen more and more, if not in Europe, but certainly in employed there and in that sense it is a more or less homogeneous the third world countries. group. The other type is like urban extensions, new towns to support an- Karen Buurmans: I have a question that connects to what Michelle other metropolis. There the population is not known. It is likely to Provoost said. You talked about setting boundaries, but I think more be heterogeneous. And to reflect their needs is much more difficult, about: what this institute can do to break through boundaries. because they would be coming from several social strata, several We are here together with a number of institutes and disciplines, economic groups, the planners have no knowledge about them at and we have heard lectures from environmental studies to compu-

all. And you never know who will come and when. So the planning ter programming to psychological aspects of planning, about how Round table discussion 177

INTI-seminar.indb 177 20-9-2007 9:31:32 INTI-seminar.indb 178 178 Round table discussion their specificdiscipline;and thecityofAlmereforinstance,because reasons: theuniversitiesbecause theythinkthatthisisrelevantfor that weneedmoreknowledge aboutnewtowns.Butallfordifferent tion becausetheyallagree onthesocialrelevanceofthisquestion, ferent participants.Ithink they decidedtoparticipateinthisinstitu- of itsrelevancetosociety.Letmefirstsaysomething aboutthedif- We thinkitisextremelyimportanttodevelopthisknowledge because base. lem oflosinginhabitantsbecauseamono-functional economical and problems,runningfromhowtobecomearealtown totheprob- of the20thcentury,allstrugglingwithcertaintypes ofquestions fronted withalotofnewtowns,mainlydevelopedinthe secondhalf it important?Thefirstreasonwhyisimportantthat wearecon- new towns.Thatisthereasonwhyweareparticipating init.Whyis think thatitisnecessaryandrelevanttodevelopknowledge about that thisinstitutionshouldbedevelopedasaknowledge institute.I Han Meyer: making thedrawingsandfindingrules. one oftheaims?Planningcitiesandnewtownsisbroaderthanjust the boundaryofone’sowndisciplinebymeansthisinstitute,isit Is itpossibletodosomemorefundamentalresearchthatcrosses need somethinglikethat. can notprogramcomputers,andifyouwanttoworkonmodels developers andurbandesignersaregoodinwhattheydobut will aimpartlyatdevelopingcomputerizedtoolsforinstance?Urban to thisinstituteandaskforfundingacombinedprojectthat So isitpossible,ifyouwanttodosomeresearchlikeaPhD,go ficult withinthescopeofasingleinstitute. cross-disciplinary, orinter-disciplinary.Somethingthatisoftendif- aims orpossibilitiesofthisinstitutetoinstigateresearchthatis people functionandsoon.AndIwaswonderingifitisoneofthe These areimportantquestions.Myanswerwouldbe Peter deBois: tions ofnewtowns. parisons, asthesemaybefruitful forthepresentandfuturegenera- developed duringthiscentury. Andweshouldincludehistoriccom- but alsoforthemany,manynewtownsandcities thatwillbe We shouldlearnfromit,notonlyforthesenewtowns themselves, So Ithinkthecentralfocusisrecentgeneration of newtowns. not duringthelast30years.Thatcouldbeaneyeopener. cover whatcausedcitiestobecomesuccessful5,000 years agoand these planningpolicieswithmorehistoricexamplesin ordertodis- And becauseofthatitisalsointerestingtocompare theresultsof 200,000 inhabitants.Thesewereexplicitplanninggoals. ministration andwithacertainplantogrow50,000, 100,000or were plannedmoreorlessasindependentcitieswith theirownad- tion thatalotofnewtownsfromthesecondhalf 20thcentury is exactlythesubjectofallthisresearch?Irefertomyfirstobserva- And finallythequestionofdefinitionnewtownsarises:what this institute. ticipants isnotexclusive;otherdisciplinesmayalsoparticipatein attention forinstance.Thecollaborationbetweenthepresentpar- were putforwardinthelectureaboutshrinkingcities,willalsoget I couldimaginethatallkindsofculturalapproaches,likethosewhich in thisinstitute.Andothersmayfollow. University ofAmsterdamaswelltheDelftparticipate disciplinary scientificinstitute.Thatiswhyitimportantthatthe So itisprimarilyascientificinstituteinmyopinion,andalsocross- tions maystarttoaskthisinstituteforadvice,thatmighthappen. And byproducingthat,afterafewyearscitiesandotherorganiza- present dayquestions. city. Theprimarygoalistoproduceknowledgewhichrelevant it thinksthatcanhelpintheprocessoftransformationintoareal It isveryclearwhatyousaid Han,butIstilldonot 20-9-2007 9:31:32 think it is a direct answer to the questions of Michelle Provoost. Is Len de Klerk. He said: new towns are about reform. And that is what it possible that what you said can be done by one of the institutes, I find interesting. Because I think that reform is the opposite of self can we do it in Delft by ourselves? We probably can. So the question organization in cities. When I go back to the history of urban sociol- is: what is the added value of this institute? What could be its special ogy Robert Park, the founder of the Chicago school, hated the so- position? What distinguishes it from other ones, what could be its called social reformers, because they feared the disintegrating fac- special ambition, so that people will be happy to join the club and tors in the city and tried to design models to reintegrate cities. Park give support to the goals? said - very much in line with what you said about self organization in cities – that disintegration was only the first phase in reintegration, Han Meyer: I think that what has been gained from this seminar in the development of new systems, new models, new management is the exchange of results of research that has been done world of self organizing systems. wide and the fact that this new town institute is international. That I think that this contradiction is very interesting when we try to posi- means: collect results from universities around the world, combine tion ourselves in the field of urbanization. And then we should not them in a sort of knowledge database, and from that point on start be too meticulous about a definition of new towns, but we should initiating new research. Because if you compare the results of re- use the definition of new towns being about social reform, to direct search into new towns worldwide blind spots will become appar- our research to the tension between these two. On the one hand ent, you might see new and unexpected developments, you will see social reform – because that discussion always exists, not only in which new towns are successful and where things go wrong and you the new cities of the 1970’s, but also the restructuring of older new may analyze the policies behind them. All of that can lead to new towns is clearly a new phase of reform – and on the other hand a research questions for the institute, research you are going to do policy of ‘let it go’, generally indicated as a ‘market-oriented’ policy. together with different universities, here and abroad. The same is true, for example, in the French new cities around Paris. I think that is the central question. It was also the main issue in the Peter de Bois: But then you could say that we are a think tank. And lecture on shrinking cities. Maybe that is not a definition but it is a we just collect interesting items, we publish them and that is what kind of perspective that brings our research together. we do. Marit Geluk: I have a question for Peter Gotsch. (Peter Gotsch is do- Han Meyer: No, I think the most important thing is to initiate new ing a PhD on private new town initiatives). What do you think of the research. Then you have a stepping stone. You start from the results definition as we put it in our leaflet and on our website? Are you that are presented worldwide and then you start new research. familiar with it? And I have the same question for you as you studied the new towns in Iran, do you have a definition? Arnold Reijndorp: I want to add something to the discussion, not Our definition of a new town, or new city, is that there is an initiative, about the definition of a new town, but about the central item we an act of will, with a development plan for a new settlement that will

should study. I want to go back to the first lecture, the lecture by become a self sustainable society with its own local government. Round table discussion 179

INTI-seminar.indb 179 20-9-2007 9:31:33 INTI-seminar.indb 180 180 Round table discussion the definitionofnewtowns veryfast.Weareresearchinggovern- Middle EastandIran,also abitinEgyptandMorocco,wefound Sebastian Seelig: search goingoninBerlinabout newtowns. Marit Geluk:AndinBerlin?BecauseIunderstandthereissome re- stakeholders arethepeopleofcourse. and alsotoincludetheminthediscussion.And other missing taking over.Itwouldbeinterestingtoanalyzewhatthey aredoing, less andinvolvedinbuildingnewtowns,privatedevelopers are sion aboutstakeholders.Becauseinsomecountries governments new towns.Whatismissingformyagenda,however, isadiscus- complete picture.Anditisgoodtobrainstormabout theideaof the contributionsarereallywellselectedandgiveavery broadand With regardtomypersonalcommentonthesetwo days:Ithink better defined. those aredifferententitiesanditshouldbeclearthatnewtowns informal settlementsorcityextensions–andnewtowns,because clear distinctionbetweeneverythingthatisbuiltfromscratch–like ing researchtofindadefinition.Letmeaddthatyoushouldmake political poweratstrategicpositionsandsoon.ButIrefertoexist- today thatmostofthenewtownsaredominatedbysomekind some kindofpowerbehindit.WehaveseenintheIndianexamples ing date,ithasanendingatargetpopulation,thereis a definitionexist.Partofit,course,isplanned,ithasstart- the newtownsverywell.Iamsurequiteafewotherreferencesfor think hehasalistofcriteriaandalsodescribedthehistory at ColumbiaUniversityandwhowroteabookaboutnewtowns.I Erwin Galantay,aHungarianresearcherandprofessorwhotaught quite OK.Myreference,ifitcomestodefinitions,isadefinitionby Peter Gotsch: I willtrytoanswerthat.thinkyourshortdefinitionis Since wearedoingresearch onnewtownsinthe very fuzzyandextendedboundaries andanyonecantakeadifferent nes isanewtown.There is noquestionaboutthat.Butthereare new town,becausesome townsareveryobvious.MiltonKey- It mightbasicallybeawaste oftimetofindthefinaldefinitiona ture. Andshecalledthecentre prototypicalexamplesorcases. resemblance categorieshaveaverystrongcentreperiphery struc- The mainpersonthereisEleanorRosh,whosuggested thatfamily there isawholeliteratureincognitivescienceaboutcategorization. Those arecalledbyWittgenstein‘familyresemblancecategories’ and from tables,becausetheboundariesarenotdefinite. But thereareallkindsoffunnychairsthatcannotbe distinguished periphery. Youcaneasilysaywhenyouseeachair: this isachair. ably themajority,thathaveaverystrongcentrebut averyfuzzy which havewelldefinedboundariesandcategories,those areprob- has shownthatthereareatleasttwokindsofcategories. Categories The explanationcomesfromtwosources.OneisWittgenstein. He not abigproblem. to defineacity.Andasyoucanseewestillspeakaboutcities,itis attempts todefineacity,youwillseethatnoonehasyetmanaged egories thatweareusing.Forexample,ifyoulookatthehistoryof how todefineanewtown,itisatleasthalfofthecat- Juval Portugali: the topicbecameeasieroncewehadfounddefinition. heated discussionsaboutthistopicinthebeginningandworkingon crucial tofindthedefinition.Inourprojecttherewerealsosome western planningparadigmofnewtowns.Butinmyopinionitis very closetothedefinitionbyEbenezerHowardthatinfluenced new towndefinitionistheoneMichellealsoreferredto.Itcomes influenced bythemodernistplanningapproach.Sobasicallyour were mainlyimplementedfromthefiftiesonandverystrongly mental newtownpolicies,andthesegovernmentalpolicies About thosedefinitions.Theproblemisnotonly 20-9-2007 9:31:33 view. Actually, regardless of terminology, it depends on the context And then there is this fuzzy area between where the new town be- in which the term is used. gins and where the city extension area ends or becomes a new town My suggestion would be not to spend too much energy on the defi- area in itself or perhaps a new community. nition of a new town. You have suggested creating a research centre that will attract PhD Not identified: I should like to suggest that we do not focus primarily students. I think this is the way to go. If this is going to be an inter- on historical knowledge. Of course we need historical knowledge national institute for new towns and if such an institute would attract as a background, as a context that you can reflect on, but like the a few students from all over the world every year, it would really be website shows us, all kinds of new towns exist all over the world. international. The opportunity for communication between different Perhaps we could give some kind of information about where new disciplines on the one hand and people from several parts of the towns or cities with reform ambitions exist, like mapping an infor- world on the other will turn this into a very interesting project. mation platform, and with that give focus and context to what hap- In the discussion it became apparent that new towns have at least pens all over the world and what kinds of problems and solutions two faces. On the one hand there is the issue of new towns - their are present. In this way you have an overview of what is happening. success, their failure, their problems etcetera. On the other hand And then, what Portugali said about the start of PhD studies, com- there are lessons to be learned from new towns, not only for other bining the motives and ambitions of people, you can get feedback new towns but also for planning and development in general. on this platform. Perhaps the platform could also be a platform for So I think this combination can create a very strong and attractive discussion and international interaction between people and insti- centre. And the issues that will be studied in it can be left at least tutes to show what they are busy with. The context could then be partly open. Young people can come and suggest an issue to re- available for everybody. search for a PhD. They can come with new ideas and new initiatives. This should at least partly be left open. Arnold Reijndorp: I very much agree with what professor Portugali said about not using a too strict definition. I am always very much in Karen Buurmans: I am actually very happy with your remark about favour of defining the nucleus: where do you want to put the accent, not being too rigid in your definition. I just want to give one example and not the boundaries, because the boundaries will not solve it. that ties in with what Han said about a common kind of problem that There will always be all types of questions which are doubtful, is it a occurs in these new towns. It links back directly to the definition that new town or not, but that is not the most interesting point. Michelle Provoost and you also used. There are a lot of large city I would like to emphasize and suggest that we should make a dis- extension areas that are just that, that are not new towns, but they tinction, talking about focus, between what is a new town and what have exactly the same problems as many new towns have. So it is a is an urban extension. Of course there are a lot of similarities be- matter of your aim, of what you want to do. If you are talking about tween new towns of the 1960’s and 1970’s and urban extensions wanting to define those problems and find an answer to them, then of the 1960’s and 1970’s, but one of the main interesting issues I

our answers are also applicable to those large city extension areas. would also like to study is the question of autonomy of a city in a Round table discussion 181

INTI-seminar.indb 181 20-9-2007 9:31:33 INTI-seminar.indb 182 182 Round table discussion formally tobecreatedInternationalNewTownInstituteinAlmere. contribution tothisfirstinternationalseminar,organizedbyyet to ourresearchprogram.SoIreallywantthankallofyouforyour that isclarifyingoursubjectofresearchandhelpingustogivefocus sure thatthisseminarhasindeedbroughtwhatwehadhopedfor, this seminarorwhathasbeensaidjustnow.However,Iamquite will neverend.Inottrytosummarizewhatwehaveheardduring Let usfinishourdiscussiononthesemattersfortoday,knowingit hundred yearsago? for thefuture,alreadyproposedbyEbenezerHowardmorethana dependent municipalentity.Whatistheperspectiveofthisconcept when anewtownisplannedlikemoreorlessautonomousin- Klerk, whichIthinkisveryinteresting.Itexactlythequestionof wider context.ThatisoneofthethingsalsoputforwardbyLende 20-9-2007 9:31:34 prof. em. ir. D.H. Frieling

Some Conclusions

One of the reasons the International New Town Institute in Almere able expansion and intensification of the central city. These satellite organized its first international seminar was to assess its prelimi- towns may have quite different social effects on the central city. With nary research program. An outline for a research program was pre- ongoing immigration - always a main source of urban growth - the sented to participants, speakers were invited to shed their light on it new settlers may concentrate in the main city, while the original in- and at the end of the seminar a round table was held on the research habitants move to the new suburbs. The opposite may also happen: agenda, keeping in mind what was said in the various lectures. It is the new settlers will concentrate in the new satellite towns, while the appropriate to close this publication with some conclusions on what original inhabitants stay in the central city. Segregation of new and we have learned. These final remarks will follow the chronological old settlers may not happen at all, or be more related to specific age order of the seminar. First the original outline. Then a summary of groups: young people moving into the city, families moving out and lessons from the lectures by way of ‘one-liners’ and the themes that elderly people moving in again. What do we know about the causes received attention during the round table. Finally, we will draw some and effects of different new town policies in this respect? conclusions on lines of thought in the research program that may help the new institute in its main aim: to acquire, activate and dis- Historically, new towns have also been developed as a means to seminate knowledge, experience and insight in new towns, serving exploit virgin land by colonization and as spontaneous or deliberate those who are engaged in their development and transformation. strategies to reinforce the economy of rural areas by urbanization. The Zuiderzee project in the Netherlands is a case in point. Could Outline of a research program this type of new town policy still be useful in developing countries where rural economies will change into urban ones? To map the field of research on new town development, three roads Some conclusions of access will be explored: development of new towns in the 21st During the course of history new towns have been developed as century, transformation of new towns from the second half of the part of migration processes or general strategies, be they military, 20th century and new towns in history, to analyze the reasons for economical, social or all of these at the same time. Quite a few were their success or failure. abandoned again or experience decline right now, such as many former industrial towns all over the world. But many survive and Today, as in the second half of the 20th century, new towns are gen- several have grown into major cities. What were and are causes of erally conceived as satellite towns of existing main cities to accom- failure and success?

modate ongoing regional growth, while preventing an unsustain- prof. em. ir, D.H. Frieling: 183

INTI-seminar.indb 183 20-9-2007 9:31:34 INTI-seminar.indb 184 184 prof. em. ir, D.H. Frieling: Some conclusions sence oftheirlectures.And certainlytheselessonslacktherichness a speakersaid.Evensowe dohopethatwehaveextractedthees- hour. Nordotheynecessarily correspondinadirectwaywithwhat to summarizeinonesentence well-preparedspeechesofhalfan New TownInstitutemight embark on.Thelessonsdonotpretend and reflectingonwhattheyhadtosaytheresearch thatthe the seminarwasheld.Theyarebasedonre-reading thelectures These lessonsofthelectureshavebeenwrittenmany monthsafter Lessons fromthelectures engaged inthissamefieldofresearch. seminar wehopedtoexchangeideasandexperiences withpeople tackle. Asthismightbeaprovisionalresearchagenda, duringthe It isquestionslikethesethattheNewTownInstitute shallhaveto policy endsthatgavethembirth? new ordotheyencounterspecialthreatsassoonthe artificial communitieshavespecificopportunitiesbecauseofbeing reasons donewtownsbecomenormalones?Dothesemoreorless identity. ‘Cando’isthesloganofAlmere.When,howandforwhat enterprise maypersisttobecomepartofalocalorevennational special circumstancesatthestart.Yetacultureofindependenceand generation ofthepioneersfadesaway,sodomemoriesthose All newtownsthatsurviveinduetimewillbecomenormal.Asthe insight andoverviewofthecourseevents? simulation techniquesareavailabletoparticipantsimprovetheir sion processesmanagedandwhatkindsofmethods,models vidual households,companiesandinstitutions.Howarethesedeci- processes ofvariouspublicandprivatepartiesmanyindi- New townsasplannedcities,arepartofcomplexsocialdecision for survivalifthefloodnevertheless turnsup. ing thenaturalwatersystem (withdikes,pumpsetc.)andpreparing floods bysettlingonhigher ground,preventingfloodsbymanipulat- be madeinsiteselection.The mainchoicehereisbetweenevading Vulnerable deltaareasofferanexampleofthestrategic choicesto assessment ofthenaturalenvironment.(WillemOosterberg) Site selectionforurbandevelopmenthastobebased onacritical velopment. long periodoftime,includingatransitionfromrural tourbande- immigration andcommunitybuildinginnewsettlements overa Zuiderzee isawelldocumentedshowcaseofchanging policiesof The landreclamationinandensuingcolonization of theformer town development.(WilvanderMost) Immigration policyandcommunitybuildingarekey issuesofnew municipal landownership. as economicallybalancedcommunity,conditionedbycommunalor towns atsomedistance,oflimitedsize,withasociallyaswell vent ongoinggrowthofbigcitiesbyintroducingclustersnew century, themainaimofnewtownsisregionaldevelopmenttopre- much asthisbookinfluencednewtowndevelopmentinthe20th ply ‘Tomorrow’.Anditssubtitle:apeacefulpathtorealreform.As The originaltitlein1898ofEbenezerHoward’sclassicwassim- Klerk) New towndevelopmentisintimatelylinkedtosocialreform.(Lende to clarifythem. The lessonsarepresentedhereasone-linerswithafewsentences read thisbook. of informationanddetailtheoriginallectures.Tosavourthem, 20-9-2007 9:31:34 In a historical perspective selection of site and local layout appear Social analysis of actors with different value systems may clarify to be of strategic importance to the future of a new town. (Han their otherwise hidden influence on spatial development. (Klaas van Meyer) Egmond) To enable a new town to become a real town its regional position The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency has developed and its urban structure should create favourable conditions for com- a model that distinguishes people according to their value systems. plex forms of urban life. Main characteristics of these conditions Territorial and social dimensions are used as a frame of reference. A are multiple orientation, multifunctional infrastructure and flexible simplified scheme offers a territorial choice between a global versus parcellation. a regional orientation and a social choice between competition versus cooperation, thus creating four main culturally distinguishable Historical analysis of urban design and urban form may clarify groups. The idea is that these groups will make different political their otherwise hidden political and social implications. (Michelle choices in various policy decisions, such as, for instance, dilemmas Provoost) of land use. By analyzing the role of Doxiades in urban design and development in Asia, Africa and the Middle East since the 1950’s and by analyzing Self-organization is an important concept to explore and under- the urban form of Toulouse le Mirail in France and the fortunes of stand the behaviour of cities. (Juval Portugali) that city since then, this lesson is convincingly demonstrated. Self-organization is a notion about the spontaneous emergence of complex entities from the interaction of simple units. Language is a Present conditions demand reinvention of unifying concepts and co- case in point. There is a growing interest in the connection of self- ordination of local initiatives to replace centralized planning. (Rudy organization to city development. City gaming, in which participants Rabbinge) have dual roles as actors interacting with their direct neighbours and Agriculture, by cultivating the earth, conditions areas for all kinds as agents who have an overall view, is an urban simulation model of subsequent use. It has been a great force in the colonization of that can be used as a planning support system. the world by man. Growth of agricultural production and growth of population go hand in hand. Building your own new town in virtual reality enhances the image of Some conclusions In the Netherlands, traditional planning is not possible anymore. that city. (Jan Kragt) Agriculture has lost its power. A unifying concept for urban devel- In Zoetermeer, as is the experience in many other new towns, posi- opment is no longer available. And planning authorities have been tive opinions of its inhabitants about living there do not seem to abolished. So we should search for an alternative. There are ample diminish negative opinions of outsiders. To promote Zoetermeer in opportunities and possibilities, they should be used. the outside world, a computer game has been developed to simulate building Zoetermeer in virtual reality. This triggered the start of an IT academy in Zoetermeer and the game is now being used in pri-

mary schools all over the country in lessons on ‘city development’. prof. em. ir, D.H. Frieling: 185

INTI-seminar.indb 185 20-9-2007 9:31:35 INTI-seminar.indb 186 186 prof. em. ir, D.H. Frieling: Some conclusions gies thatshrinkingcitiesmay followinreinventingtheircity. proach. Research,designand debateconcentrateonvariousstrate- Cities exploresawiderrange ofoptionsbychoosingaculturalap- the middleoflastcentury. InGermanyaprojectcalledShrinking built andgobacktothetraditional Europeantownasitexisteduntil more orlessautomaticresponseistoteardownallthat wasnewly perspective ofgainingnewinhabitantsinaforeseeable future,the Under conditionsofconsiderabledeclinepopulation, withno town. (ElkeBeyer) Europe willexperiencedecline,wemighthavetoreinvent thenew New townsareassociatedwithgrowthofpopulation, but asmostof city. and theirinteractioncombineintovaryingparadigms oftheideal time, weseehowthesedifferentaspects,theirrelative importance Looking ataselectionofnewtownsfrom2500BCuntil thepresent tion, orientation,layout,landuseandbuildingrules. codified inthe4thcenturyBC.Theycontainguidelinesforsiteselec- India aseriesoftreatisesonthesubjectbyvariousauthorsexists, by anartificialgeometry.Thisisserious,evenholy,businessandin Any newcityisamanifestsuperpositionofnaturalenvironment Maitra) The historyofnewtownsisastorychangingparadigms(Asesh lifestyles maybethepublicexposureoferoticism. of beingalive.Acluetoatransitionbetweensuburbanandurban tion betweendifferentsocialgroupsthatenrichesone’sexperience outside world.Theurbandreamistheidealofapermanentinterac- protecting yourhomelyvaluesagainstinterferenceofadangerous The mythofsuburbanutopiaistheidealahome-centredlife, as atransitionofhomeintotheatre.(ArnoldReijndorp) So thetransitionof‘newtown’intocity’couldbeconceived towns. Butifwearetobe seriousaboutself-organizationthenall during theseminarwasthat publicauthoritiesareinchargeofnew new towndevelopmenthas beenneglected?Animplicitassumption A lastpointofattentionhas been:whatdidwemiss?Whataspectof and ofdifferentbackgrounds anddisciplines. research byinteractionbetweenmembersfromdifferent continents organizing scientificcommunitythatwillgenerateits ownfocusof The answertothisquestionmaybethattheinstitute willbeaself- built orwillbefromscratchaccordingtoapredefined plan. es thenotion‘newtown’toanyurbansettlementinhistory thatwas the thirdquarterof20thcentury.Theinstitutehowever stretch- commonly usedformodernisttownsoflimitedsize,built roughlyin town andthefocusofnewinstitute?Thenotion ‘newtown’is Then, thirdly,thequestionarose:whatisdefinition ofanew clarify differencesindevelopmentstrategiesandsustainability. heterogeneous andeconomicallyundefined.Herealso, researchcan town thatispartofaregionalormetropolitandevelopment,socially more orless‘closed’character,asopposedtothemultifunctional with sociallyamoreorless‘captive’populationandeconomically dustrial townsandminingtowns,sometimesinratherisolatedspots, two differenttypesofnewtown:themono-functionaltown,likein- Secondly, extendingthislineofthought,onemightdistinguishalso ing. with traditional,longexistingtownsthataremainlyself-organiz- as results,bycomparingnewtownstypicalexamplesofplanning ment. Researchcouldbedoneonthedifferencesinapproachaswell to self-organizationandplanningastwodifferentwaysofdevelop- First ofall,alotattentionduringtheseminarhadbeengiven nar. Four themescameupduringtheroundtableatendofsemi- Themes oftheroundtable 20-9-2007 9:31:35 stakeholders must come into the picture: private companies, various trigger a new approach to that phenomenan. But economical as- interest groups and certainly the people living there. pects, for instance, and the importance of landownership more specifically, have been completely neglected. If the institute is really Some conclusions interested in new town development and would also like to be taken seriously by people actually engaged in new town development, it is In the original outline the preliminary research program distinguish- clear that the economy of new towns also has to be on the research es between historical periods in new town development, different agenda. types of new towns, planning methods and decision processes and differences between planned new towns and towns that developed more or less spontaneously. The main lesson that can be drawn from this seminar is how in new town development questions of a technical nature, such as site selection, street pattern and land parcellation, of a social and cultural nature, such as immigration policy and community building, and of an operational nature, such as planning and self-organization, are intricately intertwined. If that interconnectedness of technical, social and operational aspects of new town development is to become the focus of the new institute, the new institute has to compose its scientific profile and research agenda accordingly. An important lesson is also that, confronted with actual problems of development, a critical analysis of history can clarify how and why those kinds of problems arise and if, how and with what effect they might be tackled. The lectures of Maitra, Provoost and Meyer certainly made this point. Again, if this should become part of the Some conclusions scientific profile of the institute, historical analysis of development policies and the main actors in these processes have to become part and parcel of the research agenda right from the start. A third and last lesson of the seminar is that, indeed, some important aspects of new town development have been underexposed. A better focus on operational aspects of development policy would have exposed the various actors in these processes, as well as their

role and influence. In Shrinking Cities, for example, cultural actors prof. em. ir, D.H. Frieling: 187

INTI-seminar.indb 187 20-9-2007 9:31:35 Participants

Albani J. Urban drift productions Ltd. Germany Jager G. Municipality Almere Netherlands Beelen K. Eindhoven University of Technology, Jong R. de Municipality Zoetermeer Netherlands Urban Design and Planning Unit Netherlands Klerk L. de University of Amsterdam Netherlands Berkelmans H.G.J. Metafoor Netherlands Kloosterman R. University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute Berzins M. University of Latvia, for Metropolitan and International Development Department of Human Geography Latvia Studies (AMIDSt) Netherlands Beyer E. Institute for History and Theory of Architecture Switzerland Kolder M. Stichting Breinstorm Zuiderzeeland Netherlands Bilsen A. van Delft University of Technology, Kragt J. Municipality Zoetermeer Netherlands Faculty of Architecture Netherlands Lievense D. Municipality Almere Netherlands Boerefijn W. Leiden University Netherlands Lubberink E. Province Flevoland Netherlands Bois P. de Delft University of Technology, Luchinger J. Luchinger Architects Netherlands Faculty of Architecture Netherlands Maaskant M. Maaskant en van Velzen Architects Netherlands Buurmans K. Delft University of Technology, Maitra A. University of New Delhi India Faculty of Architecture Netherlands Mesken P. Dutch Professional Organisation Of Urban Corbalan A. European New Towns Institute Belgium Designers And Planners (BNSP) Netherlands Dam A. van Municipality Almere Netherlands Meyer H. Delft University of Technology Netherlands Duivesteijn A. Municipality Almere Netherlands Molster A. Molster Town-planning Netherlands Egmond K. van Netherlands Environmental Mossin K. Managing Company MASSHTAB Russia Assessment Agency (MNP) Netherlands Most W. van der New Land Heritage Center Netherlands Fennis E. Utrecht University Netherlands Oosterberg W. Institute for Inland Water Management Flapper J. CASLa Netherlands and Waste Water Treatment (RIZA) Netherlands Frieling D. International New Town Institute Netherlands Ouwerkerk H.G. Stichting Han Lammersleerstoel Netherlands Geluk M. International New Town Institute Netherlands Paulissen G. Hogeschool van Amsterdam, Amsterdamse Gevers A. Bachelor Behaviour and society, Hogeschool voor Techniek, bestuur INTI Netherlands Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Almere Netherlands Portugali J. Tel Aviv University, Department Geography Gotsch P. Karlsruhe University, Town-planning and design Germany and Human Environment Israel Guadalupe Canales Gutierrez O. Pronkhorst A. Crimson Architectural Historians Netherlands Ricardo Palma University Lima Peru Provily S. Municipality Zoetermeer Netherlands Heijne K. CASLa Netherlands Provoost M. Crimson Architectural Historians Netherlands Heilmeyer F. Urban drift productions Ltd. Germany Pruntel H.J. New Land Heritage Centre Netherlands 188

INTI-seminar.indb 188 20-9-2007 9:31:36 Rabbinge R. Wageningen University and Researchcenter Netherlands Reijndorp A. University of Amsterdam Netherlands Riemersma J. Municipality Almere Netherlands Rots S. Crimson Architectural Historians Netherlands Rutte R. Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture Netherlands Scheepstra D. DS Consults Netherlands Schonk M. New Land Heritage Center Netherlands Seelig S. Berlin University of Technology, Young Cities New Towns in Iran Germany Spaandonk Th. van Eindhoven University of Technology, Urban Design and Planning Unit Netherlands Spapens Ph. Province Flevoland Netherlands Stolk E. Delft University of Technology Netherlands Stolk M. Municipality Almere Netherlands Tan E. Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture Netherlands Teerds H. Archined Netherlands Terwindt C. Hogeschool van Amsterdam, Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek Netherlands Theunis K. K.U. Leuven Belgium Thoral I. MIXST urbanisme Netherlands Vanstiphout W. Crimson Architectural Historians Netherlands Velzen V. van Maaskant en van Velzen Architects Netherlands Visser M. Municipality Almere Netherlands Voorn S. University of Amsterdam Netherlands Wiersma C. Almere Public Library Netherlands Wilkins C. Crimson Architectural Historians Netherlands

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INTI-seminar.indb 190 20-9-2007 9:31:36 Colophon

International New Town Institute Publisher: All rights reserved. No part of this book may be Schrijverstraat 1 International New Town Institute, Almere, 2007 reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, 1315 HW Almere ISBN: 978-90-79163-01-4 electronic or mechanical, including in a retrieval system, Netherlands Pages: 192 except brief extracts for the purpose of review, without www.newtowninstitute.org © International New Town Institute, Almere, 2007 the permission of the author and publisher. [email protected] Keywords: Board new towns – social reform – spatial composition – site The publisher has made every effort to obtain • Prof. Dr. Ir. V.J. Meyer, Delft University of Technology selection – Zuiderzee project – delta areas – flood risk permission for use of the illustrations. In case of • Prof. Dr. R.C. Kloosterman, University of Amsterdam management – ecological decision models – urban copyright infringement please contact the publisher. • Drs. G. van Haarlem, Hogeschool van Amsterdam dynamics – city game – cognitive map – cellular • Drs. W. van der Most, automata – modernist experiment – suburban myth Nieuw Land / Heritage Centre Lelystad – planning principles – changing paradigms – shrinking • C. Wiersma, Library of Almere cities – urbanization – spatial hierarchy • Drs. J. W. F. Riemersma, Municipality of Almere Production: Title: - Ir. M.A. Geluk, International New Town Institute Research on New Towns: - Drs. J.H.M.R. Paes, Wetenschappelijke Steunfunctie First International Seminar 2006 Flevoland, Library Almere

Authors: Visual editing: - prof. dr. L. A. de Klerk Ir. M.A. Geluk - drs. W. van der Mos - ir. W. Oosterberg Graphic Design: - prof. dr. ir. V.J. Meyer Doreen Pinkus - dr. M. Provoost - prof. dr. ir. R. Rabbinge Cover photograph: - prof. dr. K. van Egmond Geert van der Wijk - prof. J. Portugali Weerwater skyline Almere - drs. J. Kragt - prof. ir. A. Reijndorp Transcription - prof. A. K. Maitra Drs. E.F. de Roon Hertoge - E. Beyer M.A. English editing: Editor: Doreen Pinkus Prof. ir. D.H. Frieling Printing: PlantijnCasparie, Almere Colophon 191

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