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Sex Tourism in the Dominican Republic and Other Developing SEX TOURISM IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC AND OTHER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A STUDY OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DETERMINANTS by MELISSA RIVERA A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Global Affairs written under the direction of Dr. Gregg G. Van Ryzin and approved by ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ Newark, New Jersey May 2015 © 2015 Melissa Rivera ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Sex Tourism in the Dominican Republic and Other Developing Countries: A Study of Political, Economic, and Social Determinants By MELISSA RIVERA Dissertation Director: Dr. Gregg G. Van Ryzin Over the past half-century, the process globalization has contributed to an increase in tourist travel from developed countries to less developed countries, with an increased dependency on this revenue. An understudied and unintended consequence of increased tourism is the phenomenon of sex tourism, travel whose purpose is seeking sexual activity. Sex tourism may cause a number of unintended consequences such as an increase in venereal diseases, child prostitution, crime, drug use and an increase of “underground” revenue. Sex tourism can also contribute to overall economic development through the subsidization of tourist-related industries and can be a source of income for unemployed women. Not surprisingly, a country’s reputation as a destination for sex tourist can aid its competitive advantage against other countries. Sex tourism has often been linked to sex trafficking; the coercion and exploitation of women and children. While literature exists on trafficking, very little is known about sex tourism per se. This research aims to understand the political, economic and social factors associated with sex tourism in the Dominican Republic and other developing countries. To address these questions, this study will include a series of qualitative interviews with citizens and experts involved in addressing the problem of sex tourism in the Dominican Republic. This study also includes a broader statistical analysis of secondary data on sex tourism in developing countries around the world, which aimed at identifying the main political, economic and social determinants. Findings from both the qualitative and quantitative arms of this research will shed light on this important social problem and can help governments, nongovernmental organizations and law enforcement agencies formulate policies and legislation to address the issue. Findings from this study can also be used to create better economic opportunities and options for women in the Dominican Republic and other developing countries. ii To my children, Nicholas Justin & Alexis Melanie, you are the reason I strive to be a better person…..mom te quiere mucho. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i ACKNOWLEGMENT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS v CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 Location, Geography and Population Socio-Cultural Situation Ethnicity Migration Socio-Economic Perspective Religion and Language Dissertation Overview CHAPTER II: RELEVANT LITERATUREAND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 12 Sex Tourism Sex Tourist Sex Work and the Sexual Commerce Industry CHAPTER III: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS 31 A Mixed Methodological Approach to Sex Tourism Qualitative Data Collection and Methods Data Sources Field Work Protection of the Participants in the Study Sample Method and Participant Selection Interview and Data Collection Process Quantitative Data Analysis and Results Dependent Variables Independent Variables Social Variables Political Variables Economic Variables Data CHAPTER IV: QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS ABOUT THE DOMINICAN 53 The Perception of Tourism on the Economy of the Dominican Views of Sex Work and Sex Worker’s within the Dominican Social Conditions that Contribute to Sex Differing views on Education and Socio-Economic Status of Sex Is the government promoting sexual tourism in the Conclusion CHAPTER V: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF COUNTRY -LEVEL 92 Dependent Variables Country Data and Descriptive Statistics iv Logistic Regression Model Social Determinants Combined Model: Economic, Social and Political Determinants CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 120 Research Purpose Limitations of Research Research Results-Qualitative and Quantitative Environmental Determinants v FIGURES Figure 1.1: Map of the Dominican Republic Figure 2.1: Sex Tourism Framework Figure 3.1: Convergent Design Figure 3.2: Qualitative Research Process Figure 3.3: Conceptual Model of Independent Variables Figure 4.1: Distorted picture of sex workers Figure 4.2: Sample solicitation from newspaper Figure 4.3: Picture of a batey in the Dominican Republic Figure 5.1: Map of all countries identified as sex tourism destination TABLES Table 5.1: Sex Tourism Destinations, Long List Table 5.2: Sex Tourism Destinations, Short List Table 5.3: Descriptive Statistics for ALL Country Variables Table 5.4: Descriptive Statistics for NonOECD Country Variables. Table 5.5. Logit Regression Analysis on the Impact of Social Factors on Sex Tourism. Table 5.6. Logit Regression Analysis on the Impact of Political Factors on Sex Tourism. Table 5.7. Logit Regression Analysis on the Impact of Economic Factors on Sex Tourism. Table 5.9. Stepwise Logit Regression Analysis on the impact of Economic, Social and Political Factors on Sex Tourism for NonOECD Countries on the Long List. Table 5.10. Logit regression analysis on the impact of Economic, Social and Political Factors on Sex Tourism for NonOECD Countries on the Short List Table 5.11. Logit regression analysis on the impact of Economic, Social and Political Factors on Sex Tourism on ALL Countries Long List. Table 5.12. Logit regression analysis on the impact of Economic, Social and Political Factors on Sex Tourism for ALL Countries on the Short List. vi 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Globalization has contributed to an increase in travel from developed to less developed countries (Wonders and Michalowski, 2001, Clancy, 2002; Cabezas, 2004; 2008). In the last couple of decades, through encouragement from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, tourism has been used by developing countries as an alternative economic strategy (Kempadoo, 2003; Babb, 2010; Cabezas, 2008; 2011). Governments believe neoliberal globalization1 is the best means of encouraging more economic productivity while also bringing prosperity to a country (Benn and Hall, 2000). Tourism is used as a mechanism to attract direct foreign investment and currency into a country (Harrison, 1992; Clancy, 2002). Tourism evokes different emotions within a country “whereby some locals express their disenchantment and others their appreciation” (Hume, 2011, p. 155). In particular, Latin American and Caribbean countries benefit from tourism as a result of the “opening up of new markets […] the creation of employment” (Wilson and Ypeij, 2012, p. 6), and an increase in foreign development and income (Babb, 2010; Wilson and Ypeij, 2012). Tourism does not only impact a country economically but according to Wilson & Ypeji (2012) it also creates “profound economic, cultural, political, and social changes” within a country (p. 9). The tourism industry has grown to become the principal industry that sustains many Caribbean and developing countries, 1 Clancy (2002) states “the globalization hypothesis, [is] borders between nations have become permeable, with the results being a world that has become smaller, more closely knit, and more economically independent” (p. 65). 2 such as the Dominican Republic which results in a dependency on this industry (Harrison, 1992; Clancy, 2002; Kempadoo, 2003). Thus, to remain economically viable, governments must try to protect their share of the global market and ensure there is a continued influx of tourists. In Bananas, Beaches, and Bases, Cynthia Enloe (1989), the author argues that governments have become dependent on the tourism industry in five ways: First, tourism is viewed as a means of diversifying reliance on just one economy. Second, it creates an influx of foreign currency constantly circulating within a country (Enloe, 1989). Third, it increases the “social development” of a country through interaction with foreign travelers (Enloe, 1989, p. 40). Fourth, political entities use tourism to “secure the political loyalty of local elites” (Enloe, 1989, p. 40). Fifth, tourism adds to the economic and social positioning of the country (Enloe, 1989). Unfortunately, the opportunities and financial gains brought about by corporate and government investment in tourism is not equally shared by all constituents in developing countries. Women in many less developed countries rely on the sexual commerce industry as a means of economic survival and social mobility. As a result, women migrate to tourist areas to participate in the sex tourism industry to balance the economic disparity created by neoliberal globalization. The selling of sex continues to be used by women in countries with limited opportunities for them, to attain economic independence and advancement. Few studies exist on sex tourism. Interestingly enough, these studies give the views of participants-the sex worker and sex tourist-and are qualitative and focus on the commercial exchanges that occur between the two (Brennan, 2001; Cabezas, 2004). In an 3 effort to fill a void in current literature, the purpose of this research is two-fold. The first part describes
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