Sports Safety. Accident Prevention and Injury Control in Physical

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 079 293 SP 006 711

AUTHOR Yost, Charles Peter, Ed. TITLE Sports Safety.. Accident Prevention and Injury Control in Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation. INSTITUTION American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Washington, D.C. Div. of Safety Education. SPONE AGENCY Health Services and Mental Health Administration (DHEW), Rockville, Md. Bureau of Community Environmental Management.. NOTE 328p. AVAILABLE FROM American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036 ($6.00)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS *Accident Prevention; Health Activities; Health. Education; Injuries; Physical Activities; *Physical Education; *Safety; *Safety Education; Safety Equipment

ABSTRACT This anthology of articles concerned with injury in sports and safety procedures is divided into three parts. Part One is devoted to general discussions of safety and a guiding philosophy for accident prevention. Part Two develops articles on administration and supervision, including discussions of health examination, legal liability, facilities, equipment, and supplies. Part Three is broken down into nine sections in which individual sports and their safety problems are considered. The nine section headings are safety in team sports (baseball, basketball, soccer, others); safety in individual sports (archery, bowling, others); safety in dual sports (Fencing, judo, wrestling); safety in aquatic activities; safety in open water aquatic sports; safety in winter sports; safety in outing activities (fishing, camping, hunting and shooting); safety in dance and in children's movement (developmental and play activities). Included as appendixes are a suggested outline for a college course in sports safety and copies of questionnaires on sports safety sent out to athletic personnel. (JA) PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL THIS BY MICRO EDUCATION I WELFARE FICHE ONLY HASBEEN GRANTED BY NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO --- -At :gi------DUCE() EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM TO ,P.; C AN() wRGANIZATIONS THE PEPSDN OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN ING UNDER AGREEMENTS OPERAT WITH THE NA ATING IT POINTS Of VIEW OR OPINIONS TIONAL INSTITUTE STATED OD NOT NECESSARILY REPRE FHR THEP( REPRODUCTIONOF EDUCATION OUTSIDE SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF THE ERIC SYSTEM EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY SION Of THE COPYRIGHTREQUIRES PERMIS OWNER "

ACCIDENT PREVENTION AND INJURY CONTROL IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, ATHLETICS, AND RECREATION

CHARLES ATER YOST EDITOR

...... FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPY Prepared Under Contract PH 86-67-260 Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Service Bureau of Community Environmental Management (Injury Control)

Division of Safety Education of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation A National Affiliate of the National Education Association 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 Preface

Sports have a major role in life's struggle and ists entering the sports field should be knowl- are real and valued experiences. Sports injuries, edgeable about the extent and causes of injuries however, reflect an inefficient way of life, signi- in various sports and general prevention con- fying human or environmental stress. Today the trols. They also should know about injuries public is showing increased interest in sports unique to various sports and control techniques. injuries and accidents and isasking "why?" As an essential beginning, this text examines Significantly, taking needless risks in sports is the basis for leadership preparation in injury questioned seriously by today's youth. prevention. Traditionally, accidents in sports were ac- The injury prevention and hazards control cepted as part of the game. Newer and more knowledge of sports leaders can have a great sophisticated sports thinking no longer accepts influence on the safety of participants. AAHPER that accidents are inevitable. They are caused by and the USPHS recognize that .a comprehensive conditions or persons that are not right! It fol- guide on this subject is necessary for college, lows that correction and control of conditions school, anu community sports departments for and persons can reduce significantly sports ac- their use in preprofessional and in-service train- cidents and injuries. ing programs. Chapters dealing with specific Desirable policies to be followed by school sports and activities are valuable as a reference and college administrators of physical educa- for volunteer leaders associated with youth and tion, athletics, and sports programs were speci- adult sports programs as well as for partici- fied in School Safety Policies with Emphasis pants. This publication includes principles and on Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation, practicesinsports injury prevention which published bythe American Association for school administrators, physical education teach- Health,PhysicalEducation, andRecreation ers, athletic coaches, and those responsible for (AAHPER) in1968.Translating these policies community sports programs may use in improv- for a sound injury prevention and accident ing sports programs. control program is the primary purpose of this Part I of this publication (chapters 1 and 2) publication, Sports Safety. deals with the accident problem and the phi- AAHPER and the United States Public Health losophy of accident prevention and injury con- Service (USPHS) strongly urge that all special- trol in sports. Part II (chapters 3-11) deals with

iii iv general administrative policies and procedures to conserve space. Collaborators and reviewers in terms of external controls and internal con- who contributed valuable assistance are ac- trols: external controls refers to rules and regu- knowledged at the end of various chapters. lations imposed by a group other than the Particular thanks is expressed to Bernard I. sports participants' sponsoring institution or or- Loft for his leadership as textbook project di- ganization; internal controls refers to those ad- rector and to Kenneth S. Clarke, J. Duke Elkow, ministrative and supervisory practices which A. E. Florio, and Daniel P. Webster for their are within the sponsoring institution or organi- teamwork in assembling information and their zation. PartIII(chapters 12-55) deals with contributions as members of the editorial com- safety in specific sports or activities. College mittee; to Edward Mileff who served as liaison and university personnel desiring to incorporate between AAHPER and USPHS; to John H. a sports safety course in their curricula will find Cooper who succeeded Edward Mileff; and to helpful a "Suggested Course Outline for A Col- John L. Morgan, the project officer for USPHS lege Course in Sports Safety" in Appendix A. for his wise counsel. Contributions of time and Many people have assisted in the preparation energy devoted to secretarial excellence were of this text. Experts in the field of sports have made by Mrs. Lilley Gee len Cale, Miss Joyce explored significant factors and principles of Arthur, and Mrs. Helen Waters. Special ac- injury control. A decade ago, the leaders in the knowledgment is given to Mrs. Charles Peter field recognized the need for this type of publi- Yost for her assistance in cataloging materials cation. Many of these leaders were instrumental and in preparing the final manuscript. in establishing the Safety Education Division of To have served as editor of this publication, AAHPER and were joined by related agencies a role assigned to this writer by the editorial including the USPHS, represented by Daniel P. committee, has proved to be a rich and reward- Webster, whose effortsin concert with the ing experience. Sincere appreciation is expressed Safety Education Division and USPHS resulted to the committee for its confidence. On behalf in a contract negotiation for the development of the committee, this writer states that Sports of Sports Safety. Safety will meet a long felt need for a text to Indebtedness is expressed to the authors and be used by the profession to achieve further re- co-authors who are identified in the Table of ductions in accidents and injuries in sports. Contents. Certain editorial adjustments were made in the manuscripts to avoid duplication of Charles Peter Yost material, to assure continuity of content, and Editor Editorial Committee

COORDINATOR PART II PROJECT CHAIRMAN KENNETH S. CLARKE, PH.D. BERNARD I. Lon., H.S.D. Associate Professor Professor of Health and Safety Education Department of Health Education Director, Center for Safety and Traffic Education Mankato State College School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation Indiana University Mankato, Minnesota Bloomington, Indiana EX OFFICIO EX OFFICIO EDWARD MILEFF, £D.D. JOHN H. COOPER, ED.D. Professor of Health Education Consulter t in Health and Safety Education Indiana University of Pennsylvania American Association for Health, Indiana, Pennsylvania Physical Education, and Recreation (Formerly Consultant of AAHPER) Washington, D.C. PROJECT OFFICER JOHN L. MORGAN, B.A. COORDINATOR PART I School and Recreational Consultant J. DUKE ELKOW, PH.D. Bureau of Community Environmental Management Professor of Health and Physical Education (Injury Control) Brooklyn College of the City University of New York United States Public Health Service Adjunct Professor of Safety Cincinnati, Ohio The Center for Safety COORDINATOR PART III New York University DANIEL P. WEBSTER, ED.D. New York, New York Regional Office Representative Regional Medical Programs Services COORDINATOR PART III United States Public Health Service Denver, Colorado A. E. "JOE" FLORIO, ED.D. Professor of Safety Education EDITOR Program Director of Safety and Driver Education CHARLES PETER YOST, PH.D. College of Physical Education Dean, School of Physical Education University of Illinois West Virginia University Champaign, Illinois Morgantown, West Virginia

v Contents

PAGE Preface iii

I'ART I THE PROBLEM, THE PHILOSOPHY

CHAPTER 1 THE INJURY PROBLEM IN SPORTS 3 J. DUKE ELKOW, PH.D. - Professor of Health and Physical Education, Brooklyn College of the City University of New York; Adjunct Professor of Safety, The Center for Safety, New York University, New York City 2 PHILOSOPHY OF SPORTS ACCIDENT PREVENTION 12 AND INJURY CONTROL J. DUKE ELKOW

PART II ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 3 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 25 INTRODUCTION CHARLES PETER YOST, PH.D. Dean, School of Physical Education, West Virginia University, Morgantown 4 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 29 EXTERNAL CONTROLS CLIFFORD B. FAGAN, M.A. Executive Secretary, National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations, Chicago, Illinois

vii viii

CHAPTER PAGE 5 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 32 INTERNAL CONTROLS STANLEY F. PECHAR, ED.D. Associate Professor of Education, New York University, New York City 6 THE HEALTH EXAMINATION 38 KENNETH S. CLARKE, PH.D. Associate Professor, Department of Health Education, Mankato State College, Mankato, Minnesota 7 LEADERSHIP CONTROLS 44 NORMAN J. JOHNSON, ED.D. Chairman and Professor, Department of Health, Physical Edu- cation and Recreation, LincolnUniversity, Jefferson City, Missouri 8 FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES 51 GEORGE F. COUSINS, P.E.D. Chairman, Department of Physical Education for Men, School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Indiana Univer- sity, Bloomington 9 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FIRST AID AND 59 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES ROBERT M. OSWALD, M.S. National Director of Safety Programs, American National Red Cross, Washington, D.C. 10 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND REPORTING 65 GEORGE P. SILVERWOOD, M.S. Director of Safety Education (Ret.), Green Bay Public Schools, Green Bay, Wisconsin 11 LEGAL LIABILITY 72 BERNARD I. LOFT, H.S.D. Professor of Health and Safety Education Director, Center for Safety and Traffic Education, Indiana University, Bloomington

PART III SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

SAFETY IN TEAM SPORTS

12 BASEBALL AND SOFTBALL 80 WARREN J. HUFFMAN, ED.D. Professor of Health Education, Research Director, Department of Safety Education, College of Physical Education, University of Illinois, Champaign 13 BASKETBALL 86 HARRY COMBES, M.S. Assistant Professor of Physical Education, University of Illinois, Champaign A. E. "JOE" FLORIO, ED.D. Professor of Safety Education, Program Director of Safety and Driver Education, College of Physical Education, University of Illinois, Champaign i

CHAPTER PAGE 14 FIELD HOCKEY 90 JANE ANNE MOVER, M.S. Assistant Professor of Physical Education for Women, Depart- ment of Physical Education for Women, Purdue University, La Fayette, Indiana 15 TACKLE FOOTBALL 93 CARL S. BLYTH, PH.D. Chairman and Professor of Physical Education, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 16 TOUCH AND FLAG FOOTBALL 97 JOSEPH G. DZENOWAGIS, ED.D. Professor of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Michi- gan State University, East Lansing 17 ICE HOCKEY 100 JOHN CONLEY, PH.D. Assistant Professor of Health and Safety Education, University of Illinois, Champaign 18 LACROSSE 104 BRUCE A. CORRIE, P.E.D. Lacrosse Coach, Intramural Director, Assistant Professor of Physical Education, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina

19 SOCCER 107 ROBERT GUELKER, M.S. Soccer Coach, Coordinator of Intramural Sports, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, Edwardsville 20 VOLLEYBALL 111 JAMES EUGENE COLEMAN, A.B. U.S.A. Men's Olympic Volleyball Coach, Assistant Professor of Chemistry, George Williams College, Downers Grove, Illinois

SAFETY IN INDIVIDUAL SPORTS

21 ARCHERY 114 BEN BRUCE, M.S. Assistant Professor of Physical Education, School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Indiana University, Blnom- ington 22 BOWLING 116 c.. RICHARD S. YOUNGBERG, M.A. Head Golf Coach, Instructor in Physical Education, Department of Physical Education for Men, University of Illinois, Champaign

23 EQUITATION 118 JACK C. HUGIISTON, M.D. Chairman, Committee on Sports Medicine, American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Columbus, Georgia 24 GOLF 121 RICHARD S. YOUNGBERG, M.A. x

CHAPTER PAGE 25 GYMNASTICS 124 GEORGE SZYPULA, M.S. Gymnastics Coach, Associate Professor of Physical Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing 26 MARKSMANSHIP 131 STANLEY A. MATE, A.B. Director, Competitions, Training and FacilP.Ies Division, Na- tional Rifle Association of America, Washington, D.C.

27 TRACK AND FIELD 134- DON CASH SEATON, ED.D. Professor and Director of Graduate Program, Department of Health,PhysicalEducationandRecreation,Universityof Kentucky, Lexington 28 WEIGHT TRAINING AND WEIGHT LIFTING 139 RICHARD A. BERGER, PH.D. Professor of Physical Education, Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

SAFETY IN DUAL SPORTS 29 FENCING 142 ROBERT KAPLAN, PH.D. Professor of Health Education, Ohio State University, Columbus 30 BADMINTON, HANDBALL, PADDLEBALL, SQUASH 145 RACQUETS, AND TENNIS DAVID 0. MATThEWS, ED.D. Director, Division of Intramural Activities, University of Illinois, Champaign 31 JUDO 149 Elm K. KOIWAI, M.D. Associate Professor of Pathology, Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital, Philadelphia,Pennsylvania; President, United States Judo Federation 32 WRESTLING 153 WALTER KROLL, P.E.D. Professor of Physical Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst PHILIP J. RASCH, PH.D. Chief, PhysiologyDivision,Naval Medical FieldResearch Laboratory, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina

SAFETY IN AQUATIC ACTIVITIES 33 ELEMENTARY SWIMMING AND WATER SAFETY 157 SIDNEY C. HAZELTON, M.A. Professor Emeritus of Physical Education, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 34 RECREATIONAL SWIMMING 166 M. ROGER WARREN, RE.D. Assistant Professor, Department of Recreation Resources Ad- ministration, North Carolina State University, Raleigh xi

CHAPTER PAGE 35 SPRINGBOARD AND PLATFORM DIVING 179 ANNE Ross FAIRBANKS, M.S. Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, Skid- more College, Saratoga Springs, New York 36 WATER POLO 186 ARTHUR D. MINDHEIM, M.S. Assistant Professor of Physical Education, School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Indiana University, Bloom- ington

SAFETY IN OPEN WATER AQUATIC SPORTS 37 SMALL CRAFT SAFETY 190 CHARLES W. RUSSELL National Director of Safety Programs, American National Red Cross, Washington, J.C.

38 WATER SKIING 201 ROLAND JAMES GEORGE (deceased) Former Director, Elms Camp for Girls, Inc., Hammondsport, New York

39 SKIN AND SCUBA DIVING 206 BERNARD E. Em mum M.S. Associate Executive Vice President and Director of Personnel, Young Men's Christian Association of Greater New York, New York City

40 SURFBOARDING 214 HENRY F. POHL, A.B. Science Teacher, Director of Adult Education, Rampo Indian Hills Regional Board of Education, Franklin Lakes, New Jersey; Surfing Consultant, American National Red Cross

SAFETY IN WINTER SPORTS 41 ICE SKATING 221 CARL W. MOEN, B.A. Director of Publicity, Minnesota Conservation Department, St. Paul

42 SNOWSHOEING 226 ROY MORRIS, B.A. Editor, Your Home and Community, Public Service Company of Colorado, Denver

43 SKIING 228 JAMES G. GARRICK, M.D. Assistant Professor, Orthopedics, Head, Division of Sports Medicine, University of Washington, Edmundson Pavilion, Seattle WILLIAM C. SEARS, M.S. Assistant Director, National Ski Safety Research, Fort Collins, Colorado xii

CHAPTER PAGE 44 SLEDDING 240 CARL W. MOEN 45 ICEBOATING 242 CARL W. MOEN 46 ICE FISHING 244 CARL W. MOEN 47 SNOWMOBILING 247 HENRY V. ZIMINSKI, B.S. Assistant Division Chief, Recreation and Lands, Intermountain Region, Forest Service, United States Department of Agricul- ture, Ogden, Utah

SAFETY IN OUTING ACTIVITIES 48 FISHING 252 JULIAN W. SMITH, ED.D. Professor of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing; Director of Outdoor Education Project, American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 49 HUNTING AND SHOOTING 255 Louts F. LUCAS, M.C.S., C.P.A. Executive Director and Treasurer, National Rifle Association of America, Washington, D.C. 50 CAMPING 265 ERNEST F. SCHMIDT, A.B. Executive Director, American Camping Association, Route #8, Box 458, Martinsville, Indiana 51 HIKING AND MOUNTAINEERING 275 JOHN M. MOREHEAD, B.S. Chief Ranger, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Page, Arizona 52 BICYCLING 282 JEAN SANFORD REPLINGER, M.S. Associate Professor of Education, Office of the Dean of Facul- ties, Southwest Minnesota State College, Marshall 53 RECREATIONAL MOTORCYCLING 292 A. E. "JOE" FLORID, ED.D. Professor of Safety Education, Program Director of Safety and Driver Education, College of Physical Education, University of Illinois, Champaign

SAFETY IN DANCE 54 DANCE 296 JACQUELINE A. CLIFFORD, P.E.D. Dance Coordinator, Assistant Professor, Schoolof Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Indiana University, Bloom- ington CHAPTER PAGE SAFETY IN CHILDREN'S MOVEMENT 55 DEVELOPMENTAL AND PLAY ACTIVITIES 301 ANITA ALDRICH, ED.D. Chairman and Professor of Physical Educationfor Wo- School of Health, Physical Educ. tion andRecreatie School; Professor of Education, School ofEduca University, Bloomington

APPENDIX A 309

APPENDIX B 315

PICTURE CREDII:

P. 112 LOS ANGELES Ciri SC/100LS P. 122 Los ANGELS On SCHOOLS

P. 125 AMERICA1, MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, Today's Health

P. 143 STAFF PHO '1:1, SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY, CARBONDALE

P. 148 Los ANGELES CITY BOARD OF EDUCATION

P. 154 Louis C. KINGSCOTT AND ASSOCIATES, INC., ARCHITECTS - ENGINEERS, KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN

P. 196 BOSTON UNIVERSITY PHOTO SERVICE

P. 227 PUBLIC SERVICE COMPANY OF COLORADO

P. 245 WALTER H. WETTSCHRECK

P. 249 U.S. FOREST SERVICE

P. 253 "SCOTT OUTBOARD PHOTO," CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

P. 283 BICYCLE INSTITUTE OF AMERICA, INC. NEW YORK, NEW YORK THE PROBLEM, THE PHILOSOPHY

PART I

1 The Injury Problem in Sports I.J. DUKE ELKOW, Ph.D.

Modern technology and scientific understand- In recent years the enormous growth of reading of human tolerances have enabled man to ily available sports equipment and facilities and walk on the moon. In space vehicles, both the increased number of participants have far equipment and the possibility of human failure outstripped the controls designed to make play are controlled through advanced systems safety safe yet enjoyable and health promoting. The techniques. On earth, however, where work and resultant injuriesoften handicap youth and play are normal activities for most people, there adults. When these injuries are measured in is less control of hazards. Daily activities that days and years of lost time and loss of human supplement work, such as play and recreation, productivity it is evident that sports accidents meet deep-seatedpsychological demands. In are a major safety problem. work and play unexpected accidents occur re- Until recently, most reports on recreeional peatedly unless appropriate controls are exer- sports lacked reliable injury data. Since most cised. If man is to achieve success in work and participation has been on an individual and un- in play and experience great adventures in life organized basis, there generally has been no he must learn to curb accidents and injuries that central reporting of accidents. Even in controlled rob him of his goals. He must learn to identify situations such as organized athletics and physi- risks that are reasonable and unreasonable. cal education activities, completion and analysis Many persons who engage in physical activ- of accident and medical reports have been re- ities do so neither well nor wisely. To enjoy sisted by both participants and sports leaders. physical activities one has to be free from injury The scarcity of information on the extent and and illness. Yet disabilities in sports stem pri- circumstances of injuries in athletics accounts marily from accidental causes. The athlete who for the frequent citing of outdated studies. spends months or years in strenuous condition- Although still in the early stages of developing programs may lose in a matter of seconds ment, an increasing number of youth organiza- the results of that effort through a sports in- tions is routinely reporting accidental injuries. jury. An injury to a key member of a team may Significantly, the practice of analyzing such destroy a chance for victory. Hazards to players reports contributes to the taking of injury pre- must be controlled if man is to achieve greater vention measures. Similarly, the annual report success in sports. of the Committee on Injuries and Fatalities of

3 4 THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY the American Football Coaches Association has Major breakthroughs in the scientific analy- contributeditseffortsto provide protective sis and interpretation of the causes of sports headgear and other equipment. injuries are anticipated as the result of studies Facts on accidents and injuries in the use of by individual physicians and teams composed firearms, snow skiing,"boating, scuba diving, of physicians, trainers, coaches, and athletic and baseball prepared by organizations such as directors. Much of this valuable medical re- the National Rifle Association, National Ski search has been conducted by the American Patrol System, United States Coast Guard, Un- Medical Association Committee on the Medical derwater Society of America, and Little League Aspects of Sports and similar groups involved help to control the hazards of these sports. in accident studies. The Committee published Studies conducted by the American Red Cross Standard Nomenclature of Athletic Injuries' on the circumstances surrounding drownings which, if used effectively, will allow for the and near drownings have provided information maintenance of meaningful records and statistics on factors which contribute to water injuries concerning sports injuries, their causes, and and fatalities. their prevention.

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES DEFINED

ACCIDENT degree of expectedness, of avoidability, and of intention. There is concern over such corollaries The problem of accidental injury control is as degree of warning, misjudgment, negligence, complicated by the many definitions of accident. or duration of the accident. Some researchers Most individuals accept the dictionary definition question whether injuries or damages should be of accident, i.e., an event that takes place with- included in a definition of accident since a re- out one's foresight or expectation especially one sulting injury is the outcome of an unexpected of an afflictive or unfortunate character. In the event and does not in itself constitute the acci- sports safety field an accident is an unplanned dent. Why an individual is injured is a separate event capable of resulting in loss of time. prop- question from why he was involved in an acci- perty damage, injury, disablement, or even dent. death. Other definitions state that accidents are The extent to which society views an event the occurrence of unexpected physical or chem- as serious and unexpected determines whether ical damage to living or nonliving structures or it will call that event an accident. What one that an accident is a chain of events and cir- group calls an accident may not be regarded cumstances leading to unintended injury. To as such by another group. Sports fans may refer complicate matters further, the term accident is to an event as an accident while a player or defined by every agency that accumulates such coach may consider it an injury. Identifying an data for measurement purposes. For example, event as an accident is predicated upon the the United States Coast Guard regards a re- causal factors in that setting, the possibilities portable accident as one in which a person has lost his life or has been incapacitated for at of prevention or control, and the seriousness of least 72 hours by injuries and/or the craft has the harm. (Accident Facts uses deaths and injuries as indices in recording accident information.) sustained property damage in excess of $100. From a behavioral scientist's approach, acci- 1 American Medical Association. Standard Nomen- dents may be regarded as injury producing be- clature of Athletic Injuries (Chicago: The Association, havior with the major characteristics being the 1966). THE INJURY PROBLEM IN SPORTS 5

INJURY accident. The Council reports that nearly 11 million disablinginjuriesoccur annually. A An injury is a damage or hurt done or suf- restricted activity injury is one which causes a fered a detriment to or violation of person, person to limit his usual activities for a whole character, feelings, rights, property, interests, or day.2 value of a thing. Two types of injuries are es- In the near future it seems likely that sports pecially used in the safety field restricted injuries will be more accurately defined as to activity injuries and bed disabling injuries. the quantitative and qualitative limits of dam- The National Health Survey conducted by the age to person and/or property. From time to United States Public Health Service reports that time researchers may want to conduct, over a 50 million people are injured each year. Half of limited span of time, studies of all accidents these injuries require only brief medical atten- and near-accidents within a sports activity to tion and there is no restriction of the person's determine where a system may be breaking usual activity. One injury in five confines a person to bed. According to the National Health down and then attempt to initiate controls which Survey, a bed disabling injury is one which con- would benefit coaches and players. fines a person to bed for more than half of the The public is currently demanding improved daylight hours on the day of the accident or on product reliability to increase safety in the air, a folllwing day. The National Safety Council in automobiles, and at work. Should the public detthes a disabling injury as an injury which make similar demands for great 2r safety in preve.ts a person from performing his usual sports, professionals in the sports safety field activities for a full day beyond the day of the must be prepared.

INHERENT RISKS OF ACTIVITIES

In the simplest acts of daily life a certain Many athletes minimizetheprobability of amount of risk exists, but many of the chances danger. They accept the demands of vigorous people take are absolutely unnecessary. In the contact sports and expect a number of hard developing science of safety, referred to vari- blows in achieving optimal physical perform- ously as "hazards control," "injury control," ance. Some seek the fun of sports even though and "accident prevention," it becomes important they are physically and emotionally unprepared to identify risks that man" faces which are caused for it. To do so increases the likelihood of injury. by the kinds of activities in which he may engage. When risks have been identified, methods ACTIVITES need to be developed and evaluated which enable controls to be established on behavior and Athletic activities are generally categorized as environment in the presence of danger. Not all contact or noncontact sports. Other terms which men assess danger similarly. Even when a hazard are used are team sports, dual or individual exists some will avoid it; some will deliberately sports, and combative or noncombative sports. risk it; and some will avoid it on one occasion Injuries sustained in contact sports are generally and risk it on another occasion. considered to be the result of stress, competition, In sports, participants seek exciting, vigorous, and collisions that are an expected part of the challenging, and emotionally satisfying activi- game and not of accidental origin. In combatives ties. The fun of sport and the joy of the game or dual and individual sports the player who is are factors sought eagerly by players. To them 2 National Safety Council, Accident Facts (Chicago: the question of risk is of secondary importance. The Council, 1969). 6 THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY injured may contend an accident caused his im- annually. This fatality rate affects one out of pairment or he may admit that he exceeded his every 25,000 varsity players, or one per three performance capabilities. million man hours of exposure. What does so- When the hazards of an activity are known, ciety trade off for these injuries and deaths? coped with, reduced in intensity, or eliminated, Of course, hazards exist in activities other the probability of injury is curtailed. Therefore than sports. Itis estimated that 10 times the players must understand the nature of hazard number of persons die of automotive accidents controls. This responsibility rests fully on sports for an equal period of exposure as those who administrators. Whereas the neophyte needs ef- succumb to football injuries. Home accidents to fective instruction to develop an awareness of youth take more lives than sports activities foi potential hazards, experienced players need con- similar exposure periods. Drug abuse registers tinued excellent coaching, strong drivesfor a very high rate of impairments and deaths. maintaining and increasing skilled performance, One of the few studies on risks in sports was and a community that does not make unreason- completed by Kenneth S. Clarke and is entitled able demands of its athletes. "Calculated Risks of Sports Fatalities."5 In it, It is apparent that risks are exceedingly hard comparisons are made of the hazards of football, to quantify. Data to assess risks are extremely power boating, auto and horse racing, and activi- lacking. A basic philosophy of safety in sports ties included in daily living. Football has the has not as yet spread in our society. With a lowest death rate of all the activities investi- wider acceptance of sports safety concepts, in- gated. Clarke contends, "What constitutes undue formation will become increasingly available on risk from participation in sports remains intui- risks in sports. tive" and "... the more a sound research design is incorporated into a sports program, the more RISKS the undue-risk question can be put on an indi- An athlete runs a 50-50 chance of receiving an vidual basis." An assessment of risks must in- injury.3 About 90% of all sports related injuries clude not only fatality and injury rates but also are con:-.::4ons and minor muscle pulls. The reports on pathological studies of individuals majority of these injuries may not be of acci- who have evidence of microtraumatic lesions dental, origin but an inherent part of the sport. from sports participation that become apparent and debilitating in later life. The remaining 10% are more serious. They require appropriatetherapeutic measures and Certain risks taken by players become evident only after careful medical study of the adverse should be assessed as to their accidental or non- accidental nature and measures for prevention or results of sports activity. A boxer who had control must be initiated when feasible. demonstrated superior ability nonetheless died About 20% of the one million youngsters from the first blow to strike his head. A basket- who play football sustain an injury to knee, ball player who bumped his head against the shoulder, or ankle each year.* Fifty thousand chest of an opponent also died because he, too, nonprofessional players require surgery on the had a very thin skull. These are examples of knee. There are also frequent microtraumatic anomalies that are determined after injury and lesions that become apparent in later life and can seldom be detected prior to participation in cause arthritic type impairments. About 25 to a vigorous sport. What is needed is to determine 30 persons die of football related impairments which recurrentconditions can be detected prior to serious injury and to exercise appropri- 3 D. C. Seaton et al., Administration and Supervision ate measures to protect athletes from harm. of Safety Education (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1969), p. 228. 5 Kenneth S. Clarke, Calculated risk of sports fatali- 4 Rehabilitating the injured knee, ankle or shoulder, ties, Journal of the American Medical Association 197 Patient Care 2 (Dec. 1968), no. 2, p. 68. (Sept. 12, 1966), pp. 894-96. THE INJURY PROBLEM IN SPOkTS 7

The dangers of swimming are well known. by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, About 7,000 persons drown each year. Many with boating and fishing ranking next. are saved from drowning through effective com- As data accumulates on how and why persons munity safety p:ograms. The risks of drowning drown, newer controls will be introduced. One are greatest to young males who are overconfi- in 50,000 persons drown annually in the United dent of their swimming ability and stamina. In States. It is noted that over 750,000 swimming a five state study over a 12 month period 1,201 pools are now in use. Of that number 640,000 people drowned; of these, 85% were males. are home swimming pools where limited control Significantly the water was very cold in one- third of the drownings where the water tem- is exercised. An enormous increase is anticipated perature was known. Of the fatalities in which in the construction of indoor and outdoor home the victims' swimming ability was known nearly pools in the near future and an increase in one-half were classed as good or average swim- drownings is expected unless man learns to mers. Of the total, 293 drowned while swim cope with the hazards such pools introduce. To ming, 132 while playing in the water, 105 while curb deaths and injuries in aquatic sports re- power boating, and 79 while fishing.6 Water quires many environmental and human controls sports are the most dangerous to persons insured which reflect a full understanding of the dangers.

NATIONAL DATA AND PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT IN ACCIDENTS

Recreation and sports provide the American with 20 million of them hunting annually. About people with increasing opportunities for adven- 30 million persons camp each year, 35 million ture, excitement, status, and enjoyment. Over bowl, 4 million ski, 15 ninon water ski, and 90% of Americans engage in at least one of 3 million fish through the ice in 10 states. more than 75 outdoor athletic and recreational It is estimated that over 25 billion dollars are sports activities. The current participation ex- spent annually on recreational sports. This sum plosion in recreational sports is unprecedented. exceeds the costs of all accidents in one year The mushrooming population has more time which was 23 billion dollars. Public accidents and money to spend in the rapidly expanding alone cost Americans 1.3 billion dollars annu- world of sports recreation. ally. It is difficult to estimate how costly sports In 1800, the workweek was 84 hours. In 1910, accidents are to our people in terms of injuries it was about 52 hours, in 1960 it was 40 hours, and damage to equipment. and in the 1970s it may well average 32 hours An interesting study by LaCava records the or less, with a four day workweek. In the next frequency of sports injuriesto four million quarter of a century Americans will have a total Italian athletes during an eight year period. The accident frequency of the 17 sports studied are of 660 billion hours of leisure time more than listedin descending order: rugby, wrestling, they had a quarter of a century ago. weightlifting, football (European style), boxing, We are an active nation. Of the 200 million cycling, roller skating, baseball, riding, gymnas- people in the United States over 110 million tics, swimming and water polo, skiing, basket- swim annually. Fifty million tboats, 40 mil- ball, fencing, volleyball, rowing, and tennis."' lion fish, and the same number use fire weapons C. LaCava, The prevention of accidents caused by "Medical news, Health News46 (Aug. 1969),no.8, sports, Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness p. ii. 4 (1964),pp.221-28. 8 THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY

Although millions of people engage in sports School Athletic Associations, and the National annually, only a few athletes are fatally injured. Collegiate Athletic Association. Until recently, In New York City, 104 persons died of sports Accident Facts, an annual publication of the injuries during 32 years, that is, an average of National Safety Council, reported school sports slightly more than three deaths annually.8 Few accidents within their listing of all school and sports page readers realize that a sports death nonschool jurisdictional accidents. Now annual may be -aused by factors totally unrelated to issues abstract information on significant sports athletes. Nearly 20% of all deaths of athletes injury experiences within cities, states, or other are caused by heatstroke.9 local community areas. According to the National Ski Patrol, 100,000 In recent years, the Safety Education Division injuries occur to four million skiers each season. of the American Association for Health, Physi- A sprain or fracture of the ankle is the greatest cal Education, and Recreation has repeatedly hazard in skiing, especially for beginners. About recommended that a- national clearinghouse on 25% of all ski injuries occur to the knee. sports injury information, sports accidents, and The following national agencies arenow sports research be created to gather vital infor- active in collecting sports injury data: American mation not effectively assembled by other agen- Camping Association, Little League Baseball, cies. In time, and with adequate support, such a Inc., Boy Scouts of America, National Ski Patrol clearinghouse may be established. This would System, National FederationofState High do much to reduce sports injuries.

SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

Information on the number of participants in factors (i.e., physical and mental-emotional fac- secondary school sports is available from the tors) and administrative factors.° Pechar states Sports Participation Survey of the National that 62% of the accidents were caused by per- Federation of State High School Athletic Associ- sonal factors and 38% by administrative factors. ations (see Table 1). Some ratios of injuries and Physical factors included fatigue and muscular accidents to the total number of participants weakness. Mental-emotional factors causing ac- have been developing in various sports. Current cidents were ranked in this order: disregarding studies listed sports as having a high, middle, or instructions, taking unnecessary chances, and low hazard rate. With improved research de- acting before thinking. signs, future researchers will be able to identify In the 96 schools elected for this study, 1,408 more clearly tEan now which sports have a high accidents occurred to students in a one year incidence of danger and which do not. Even period. The ranking order of sports accidents within a sport it will be possible to determine in the study are given in Table 2. Most of the which activity is more hazardous than others, accidents occurred in October and September; such as an offensive or defensive position in the fewest happened in June. Most occurred on foo&ball, and how the hazard may relate to the athletic field with the gymnasium ranking equipment used or not used. second. Sprains were the most frequent injury Sports relatedaccidents inthe secondary with the leg and foot most often impaired. schools of New York State which were studied by Pechar fellinto two categories: personal I" Stanley F. Pechar, A study of the nature, frequency and related personal and administrative factors of physi- 8 Oliver E. Byrd, Health (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders cal education accidents among boys in the junior and Co., 1966), p. 69. senior high schools of New York State, Ed.D. disserta- ° Ibid. tion (New York University, 1961). THE INJURY PROBLEM IN SPORTS 9

TABLE 1 and tumbling. Accidents in the physical education classroom had a lower severity index than 1969 SPORTS PARTICIPATION thoseininterscholasticpractice,interschool SURVEY games, and intramurals. The most severe in-

NUMBER OF NUMBER OF juries occurred in wrestling, football, and track. SCHOOLS PARTICIPANTS Immediate causes of injury were falling and Badminton 965 11,609 striking or being struck by play equipment or Baseball 13,002 360,157 Basketball 20,227 676,559 another player. Bowling 591 8,974 Junior high school football produced one in- Cross-Country 7,818 144,488 jury for every 10 participants in or e sea.:on ata Curling 711 5,314 school in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. Among the Decathlon 48 102 1,194 players, the following injur Fs we -e re- Fencing 42 666 Field Hockey 103 1,850 corded: bruises, 38%; sprains, 33ci-t ; fradures, Football -11 Man 13,959 853,537 13%; abrasions and lacerations ez h 7%; and 8 Man 657 14,593 dislocations, 2%. Two-thirds of the injuries were 6 Man 110 1,950 sustained at practice, the rest during games.12 9 Man 113 2,749 12 Man 768 29,601 Golf 8,650 93,841 COLLEGE ACCIDENTS Gymnastics 1,842 34,172 Ice Hockey 681 17,650 A study conducted by the American College Lacrosse 123 2,736 Health Association on 22 college and university Pentathlon 43 250 Riflery 305 4,279 campuses showed that207,000full-tiine stu- Rowing 24 403 dents reported 14,487 injuries of which 1,247 Rugby 22 465 were disabling. Victims of nearly three-fourths Rugger 16 263 of the injuries were males, although they com- Skiing 461 8,430 prised less than two-thirds of the enrollment. Soccer 2,217 49,593 Softball 164 3,300 One out of eight males and one out of 12 Swimming 3,229 83,286 females were injured. Eight per cent of the in- Tennis 6,221 83,717 juries were disabling beyond the day of the Track and Field (Indoor) 1,918 42,998 accident. Distribution of on-campus accidents Track and Field (Outdoor) 16,836 623,139 was 52% in athletics and recreation, 20% in Volleyball 3,519 63,144 Waterpolo 152 5,854 schol buildings, 11% on school grounds, and Wrestling 6,870 226,681 2% caused by motor vehicle misuse. Off-campus SOURCE: National Federation of State High School accidents occurred in recreation 31% of the Athletic Association, 1969. time, in residence 31%, with motor vehicles 25%, at work 4%, and in other areas 11% ." In a study on college physical education acci- A study of accidents in 207 public junior high dents Florio found that nearly 60% of the in- schools by Dissinger reveals that three-fifths of juries occurred in the gymnasium and not on the 1,626 accidents occurred in physical educa- outdoor facilities. He recorded that the most tion or closely related activities." Boys were in- hazardous sports were touch football, ice skat- volved in accidents in basketball, football, soft- ing, and personal defense, The highest accident ball, and baseball.Girls met with accidents rate occurred in team and contact sports." primarily in basketball, volleyball, and stunts 12 National Safety Council, Accident Facts (Chicago: '1 J. K. Dissinger, Accidentsin junior high school The Council, 1968). physical education programs, Research Quarterly 37 13Ibid. (Dec. 1966), p. 495. " Byrd, op. cit., p. 67. THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY

TABLE 2 In Thorndike's 20 year study of sport injuries RANK ORDER OF SPORTS at Harvard University injuries were ranged as shown in Table 3: ACCIDENTS

Number IncidenceDays Severity: of per 1,000lost: days lost TABLE 3 Activity accidents exposuregrossper 1,090 Rank Injury Totals Football 1 2 1 2 1. Sprain 1,612 Basketball 2 7.5 2 7 2. Muscle contusion 1,016 Wrestling 3 5 5 6 3. Strain 885 Soccer 4 6 4 5 4. Fracture, dislocation 738 Track and field 5 10 7 11 5. Simple contusion 570 Heavy apparatus 6 14 3 9 6. Inflammation and infection 546 Baseball 7 7.5 8 10 7. Miscellaneous 512 Touch-flag football 8 9 6 8 8. Joint contusion 430 Lacrosse 9 4 10 4 9. Laceration and abrasion 415 Softball 10 12.5 12 14 10. Internal injury 366 Volleyball 11 11 11 13 7,090 Games and relays 12 18 9 17 TOTAL Tumbling 13 16 13 15 SOURCE: A.E. Florio and George Stafford, Safety Swimming and diving 14.5 15 16 16 Education, 3d ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Ice hockey 14.5 3 15 3 Book Co., 1969). Six-man football 18 1 14 1 Badminton 22 12.5 18 12 Tennis 22 17 19 18 Calisthenics 22 19 17 19 Each injury must be adequately treated by a SOURCE: Pechar study cited in H. J. Stack and J. Duke physician and effective controls developed to Elkow, Education for Safe Living, 4th ed. prevent recurrence. Most injuries in sports are (Englewood Cliffs,N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966), p. 111. not serious and heal rapidly with proper care.

NEED FOR LOCAL REPORTING AND ANALYSIS

National data on sports accidents are now be- international soccer contests is legendary and ing collected by various agencies whose reports regrettable. Other communities that may not provide information on trends associated with care to support sports programs adequately are sports hazards. Contributing also to the national acting detrimentally to the players. Some com- data on sports accidents are the many local or- munities seek to jettison sports contests and ganizations with their recurrent accident experi- recreationalprograms because of illogically ence. Local agencies within schools and colleges assesf.edinjuries, rivalries, responsibilities, or usually contribute information to the state and other problems that arise in lieu of finding a national agencies mentioned on page 8. How- satisfactory solution that retains the values of ever, national sports accident information may sports. not meet the needs of local agencies seeking to Two national conferences on accident pre- control hazards that are unique to their com- vention in physical education, athletics, and rec- munities. In our 50 states, there are environ- reation have been held in recent years. The mental conditions which differ widely and many recommendations of the safety specialists who other physical factors that alter human perform- participated in the conferences are contained in ance and may contribute to accidents. School Safety Policies with Emphasis on Physi- The emotional or psychological climate may cal Education, Athletics, and Recreation.i5 In- also alter the accidents occurring to sports par- 15 American Association for Health, Physical Educa- ticipants. Some communities are very sports tion, and Recreation, School Safety Policies with Em- minded and make unusual demands on players phasis on Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation and coaches. The violence that erupts at some (Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1968), pp. 27-28. THE INJURY PROBLEM IN SPORTS U cluded in one section are recommendations on must be established by school boards and non- the reporting and investigating of hazards and school agencies functioning in the sports and accidents in sports. While the recommendations sports recreation field. are primarily for school personnel, they are also In any school system, sports facility, or com- useful to other agencies. The theme of the pub- munity sports agency, aperson should be lication might be summarized as follows: To designated as safety coordinator or supervisor. reduce sports accidents and prevent their re- His primary responsibility should be to provide currence, they must be investigated, causes de- adequate sports accident reports, analyze them, termined, and correctiveactiontaken. This and provide a followup account which includes course necessitates effective reporting and in- accident preventive measures. Not designating vestigation of all accidents to provide informa- someone responsible for safety reporting should tion for administrative guidance, program de- reflect unfavorably on any agency. Safety is too velopment and evaluation, legal analysis, and important to dismiss lightly. Greater safety can equipment improvement. To assure adequate be achieved if people want it and are ready to reporting and investigating of accidents, policies provide the means to secure it.

References

American Association for Health, Physical Education, National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Chicago: The and Recreation. Annual Safety Education Review. Council. Annual. Washington, D.C.: The Association. Annual. Seaton, Don Cash; Stack, Herbert J., and Loft, Bernard I. Desirable Athletic Competition for Children of Administration and Supervision of Safety Education. Elementary School Age. Washington, D.C.: The Asso- New York: The Macmillan Co., 1969. 368 pp. ciation, 1968. Stack, H. J. and Elkow, J. Duke. Education for Safe Living. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, American Medical Association. Standard Nomenclature Inc., 1966. 374 pp. . of Athletic Injuries. Chicago: The Association, 1966. Strasser, Marland K.; Aaron, James E.; Bohn, Ralph C.: Florio, A. E. and Stafford, G. T., Safety Education. 3d ed. and Eales, John R. Fundamentals of Safety Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969. 459 pp. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964. Philosophy of Sports Accident Prevention and Injury Control I,J. DUKE ELKOW, Ph.D.

--- 41

Duing the last 25 years, safety professionals or teacher; the condition of the playing field; have been questioning sports leaders about con- the equipment used; or the instruction provided trols being used to reduce hazards in sports. to participants. Fortunately, the concept of legal Some of the safety leaders were formerly active liability is changing significantly and rapidly. in sports athletics, physical education, and rec- Recent decisions tend to hold the supervisor, reational sports; others were trained research- coach, or teacher liable for negligent performers. They had noted that reliable information ance even in the sports field where, in the past, on sports injury and accident control was very risk of injury was accepted and redress seldom limited. Hazardous conditions in sports often supported. It has now become a moral as well were not clearly understood by players and as a legal obligation for sports teachers to de- coaches. Human and environmental factors con- velop competencies in new areas of responsi- tributing to the disablement of athletes which bility so that youth will attain the benefits of appeared infrequently or were of a subtle nature snorts and be kept free from harm. were neither observed nor analyzed. Generally, the cause and effect of hazardous conditions INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY were reported and examined only when serious accidental injuries occurred. Such examinations The development of a philosophy of safety often lacked effective measurement and were in sports is essential if reductions in sports in- characterized by subjective judgment and spe- jury and frequency are to come about. The indi- cious reasoning. Less frequent injury producing viduals who should be primarily concerned are conditions were unrecorded and unanalyzed and the participants in sports and recreational sports were discussed lightly in terms of luck, chance, activities, their coaches and teachers, the ad- or the breaks of the game. ministrators of the varied sports programs, those The pervading philosophy of mid-twentieth who design and sell equipment and facilities, century was that sports contained significant spectators (comprising family and friends), and risks and players took their chances with such others who enjoy sporting events. Physicians risks. The laws of many states denied justifiable who pronounce individuals fit for vigorous ac- redress when injuries occurred in sports, regard- tivities and those who assist in injury treatment less of the capabilities of an administrator, coach, should also be included.

12 PHILOSOPHY OF SPORTS ACCIDENT PREVENTION 13

Sportsman. The sports participant may ask: participation in a sport. They often do not con- What are the joys this activity holds for me? sider how the sport can be made safe or how What are the chances of injury? Does the sport injury can be controlled by effective instruction, have a degree of danger that is a challenge for good administrative controls, and appropriate me? Can I overcome the risks? At what point participant behavior. What choice exists for the do I decide to find an alternate activity? Seldom youth who might drive a sports car instead of does he ask if disablement might result. Joy, playing football, experiment with drugs in lieu fun, organic growth, adventure, and self-testing of finding his potential in sports or academic are the results the player seeks. Rarely does he contests, or seek escapism in place of reality? believe that a capable performer will become Administrators. The administrator may ask: the victim of a disabling mishap. Ifinjury How does this activity contribute to the growth occurs he may state that it was preordained. and development of the participants for whom Seldom will he admit that ineptness or some I have a major professional responsibility? Has other personal factor was the cause of the injury. this community provided adequate support for Coach and mentor. The coach may ask: What the activities in our program? If funds are lack- are my responsibilities to my players, my insti- ing what priorities do I set for the community? tution, and the community? Am I in this job Do we have an effective staff to provide good for love, money, recognition? Must I always leadership? Will Iprovide the leadership to win? What are the trade-offs? What are the place sports in their proper perspective in my anomalies that subject some participants to un- community? Do I accept the thesis that sports safe risks? Do I know them well? Do I protect injuries can be minimized by good administrative players from their own inherent weaknesses? controls? Have I been fully prepared for this professional The general thesis expressed in this chapter role? If someone is hurt will it be my fault? is that it is possible to reduce the frequency and Where can fault be placed? Must the fault be severity of accidents and injuries to players in placed? sports, athletics, physical education, and recre- Parents. The parents may well ask: Is this ational sports, in or out of school, for young the sport for my youngster? What will it do or old, male or female. To achieve this goal, for him? Is it safe or unsafe? Is there another sports activists must develop a philosophy which way of achieving the same goal? Parents in our includes an understanding of the factors of ac- society realize that sports and vigorous recre- cident causation, principles of accident preven- ational sports activities contribute to a young- tionandinjurycontrol,responsibilitiesof ster's growth and development. However, at individuals who participate in sports and recre- times they read news items that highlight danger ation, and the relationships that evolve from or inordinate risks. In haste they wish to ban community action.

FACTORS AND CAUSATION

The search for the cause of sporting accident:- are complex and the search for causes may be is no different from the search for the cause of very frustrating. any accident. Researchers have looked a long Accidents and their injuries are so varied in time for factors of accident causation in industry, the surrounding circumstances that no one fac- traffic and transportation, and in the home. tor can be expected to stand out prominently. Only recently have they become concerned with One underlying truth is evident at the base the recurrence of sports injury. Man seeks sim- of any accident are human factors (physiologi- ple explanations for complex events; accidents cal, psychological, biomechanical, or biochemi- 14 THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY cal), singly or in combination, with social or contributes to many kinds of accidents.4 Son:: culturalvariations. Thesefactors would be of the individual characteristics high on the meaningless without reference to the nature of physiological level related to accidents include: man's work or play, the manner in which they sex, age, emotivity,fatigability and fatigue, are carried out, and the complex aspects of the visual function, perception, attention, alcohol- em ironment. Accidents appear to be, as Brody ism and drug use, and changes in health. In has stated: "a matter of functional disharmony some studies, women exposed to hazards have or imbalance between man and environment."' more accidents at certain times of the menstrual Various authors in accident research avoid cycle. Women have a greater susceptibility to the words cause and causation or use cause as toxic substances and such factors may trigger an a synonym for the mechanism of injury, with- accidental event. Age, associated with physio- out indic ':ng how the injury came about. An- logical body changes, has often been related to other approach is noted in epidemiological stud- accidents, although the evidence points primarily ies where causation is considered more than an to psychosocial origins. Yet advancing years, agent directly involved rather itis a com- and the concomitant chemical changes, do lessen bination of the host, the agent, and the environ- neuromuscular efficiency. ment.' It is desirable to ask if there are any Fatigue (physiological as differentiated from common factors without which accidents cannot the more prevalent psychological variety) is an occur. Damage to living and nonliving structures accident variable long noted. The tired gymnast, fall causally into a few groupings. These group- runner, or football player may misjudge and ings reflect abnormal energy exchanges which become involved in an accident. Another factor may be thermal, mechanical, electrical, or ioniz- in accident causation, visual dysfunctioning, may ing and require mitigation of these abnormal stem from nutrient imbalance and its effect is exchanges for the prevention of damage.3 to lessen perceptual awareness. Lastly, alcohol- To begin to understand how various factors ism and drug abuse alter human performance in contribute to man's accident experience the athletic neuromuscular skill demands and may physiological, psychological, and social human contribute to injury. factors will be discussed more fully. The en- Psychological. Accident experiences in sports vironmental factors to be considered are the touch all phases of psychology. Simple human physical, thermal, radiological, and electrical. responses to sensory stimuli such as depth per- It is also necessary to indicate what part chance ception, spacial discrimination, reaction time, plays in accidents. and kinesthetics are also of concern to sports participants and coaches. Neophytes in sports who react slowly to opponents moving force- HUMAN FACTORS fully toward them may collapse under the impact. The application of learning theory and decision Physiological. When physiological equilibrium making responses affect players' responses. The is attained by a person his accident potential study of human growth and development pro- should be at a minimal level. Hundreds of stud- vides insight intoskillacquisition. Learning ies, although relatively few in the sports field, skills, in degrees of difficulty, through progres- show that man's physiological dysfunctioning sive motor learning stages is essential to accident avoidance. Behavioral deviations may affect the safety 1 Leon Brody, Human Factors Research in Occupa- tional Accident Prevention(EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.: of sports performers. These may be emotional Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 3. 2 W. Haddon, Jr. et al., Accident Research (New York: 4 International Occupational Safety and Health In- Harper and Row, Publishers, 1964), pp. 27-28. formation Centre(CIS), Human Factors and Safety 3 Ibid., p. 28. (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labor Office, 1967). PHILOSOPHY OF SPORTS ACCIDENT PREVENTION 15 disturbances of chemical or organic origin and Astronauts are selected and trained to meet ex- may be chronic or acute. Excitement in or at ceptional demands for physical performance. sporting events may produceadrenalization Superior athletes can perform feats of physical which may or may not be effectively controlled. strength or dexterity impossible to many. Indi- Aggression, a trait necessary for success in com- vidual differences are well-known. Man can go petitive sports, is also found frequently in per- only so far below the sea or so high above the sons whose accidents are not in the arena of land before the pressure of water or the absence sports activity. of atmosphere will destroy him. In competitive Accident repeaters are superior in gymnastics games two bodies cannot occupy the same space and in crude strength. Individuals in team sports without the risk of injury. Noise from a crowd differ from persons in individual sports in psy- can drown out signals and well laid plans may chological variables. Individual sports partici- fall apart. Pollutants in the atmosphere may pants have a need to stand out and also have impair performance in poorly ventilated sports a higher accident record. Most coaches assess areas. Excessive air pressure in inflatable sports the drives and motives of players with consider- equipment may harm the user because it is too able skill and attempt to control aggression and hard for the hand to manipulate. There is no stress that may become hazardous. Stress is limit to the number of ; hysical factors that may present in most accident situatio and is usually cause accidents or injuries to persons who are of psychosocial origin. unaware or uninformed about hazards. Social. The social climate in sp its and recre- Thermal. Man can tolerate relatively small ation can not be separated easilyom the psy- variations in heat before he experiences discom- chological factors which consider human be- fort. Excessive external heat such as sunbarn, havior. Man is a gregarious treate who seeks fire and fireburns, acid and alkaline burns, and companionship and recognition. He plays in hot water contribute to his impairment. When sports not only to test himselfut to be with man's limits for external heat are known it is others and to gain self-respec amily pressures hazardous to exceed them. may influence a youth's ection or rejection Excessive internal heat can cause death. If of a sport. His very Irest in sports may be the body does not sweat when subjected to high secondary to achiev g other goals. The parent temperatures, high humidity heat stroke may who urges his son to be a chi -off- the -old -block cause injury or death. Sports conducted in tem- and play football as dad did it college may set peratures above 80 degrees, with the humidity the stage for demands that a youngster may not more than 70%, require careful observation for be able to meet. An accident can then become early signs of heat exhaustion and heat stroke. the escape vehicle for getting the youth out of Electrical and radiological. In the sports field, the sport he did not want. electrical and radiological insults to participants are comparatively rare. Lightning deaths on golf ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS courses or athletic fields strike about 50 persons The complexities of a highly technological annually in the United States; appropriate pre- society introduce many environmental factors cautions are necessary to avoid this situation. that are helpful as well as harmful to man. The Electrical equipment used at sports contests must old adage, "if you cannot stand the heat stay be ins} -'.led and handled by electricians to avoid away from the fire," has some applicability to danger to sports participants and spectators. participation in sports. Discussed here are several of the environmental factors associated with CHANCE accidents in sports and recreation. Physical. Man's physical tolerance of pain, Human factors and environmental conditions stress, and other forces varies considerably. may not be in the right combination for an 16 THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY accident to occur. Chance enters into an accident misses to responsible administrators. This will prone situation. By chance, existing conditions foster accident prevention measures and will may produce a severe accident or a near-miss prevent innumerable mishaps. event. For example, a face bar on a football Risk. Risk is defined as the possibility of helmet passed inspection, although defective. It suffering harm, loss, or danger. Risk stresses was used for many hours of play. The wearer chance or uncertainty, but often from the view- was never struck on the face in play and no point of one who weighs them against possible stress was placed on his face bar. On inspecting gain or loss. The term may also imply involun- equipment, the coach noted the absence of a tary exposure to harm or loss. Risks abound in proper anchorage on the helmet, and with a sports, athletics, and physical education and are slight blow, broke it. Had it been struck during controllable to a significant degree. Some sports play a serious injury might have resulted. Yet, carry higher risks than others. What is needed through chance, no injury occurred. A high plat- is an effective method of assessing the risks form diver struck a shark and sustained a severe involved in many of life's activities, including injury. The chance of a shark being in that area sports. was remote and the likelihood of a diver hitting Risk acceptance. Risk acceptance implies a one was even more remote and yet that event willingness to chance harm, loss, or injury. What happened. constitutes an acceptable riskis a matter of There may be no statistical correlation be- personal and/or public analysis of danger. When tween certain events and accident involvement, risk factors are known one may calculate wheth- but a potential correlation is always present. er the potential benefits exceed the potential Therefore, it is desirable to study sports activities hazards. In sports, many risks are evident and and sports work conditions to detect those fre- a personal decision must be made by a player quent near-misses which show that a sport is after careful calculations have been made. The not right, or has a chance of producing an acci- decision also may be the function of a coach or dent and harm. Breakdowns in systems can be an administrator. While a player may risk play- detected by analytical epidemiological proce- ing with an injury, his coach or team physician dures and curbed long before statistical data should be unwilling to have him take that risk. begins to identify wrong conditions. Then efforts Environmental conditions may be hazardous, and at correcting human and environmental condi- while a team might be willing to take the risk tions can be coordinated. and play, conference regulations might prohibit Near-miss., Near-miss referstoconditions play when the temperature, humidity, or other surrounding an event that might have produced factors exceed safe levels of human tolerance. an accident, but did not. An example of a near- What is needed in sports is a more effective way miss is a diver who enters the water from a of assessing the risks that are reasonable to ac- three-meter board and brushes past another cept and more precise ways of defining those diver who has left a one-meter board improperly. risksthatreflectunwiseorevenstupid A collision of two divers might produce an decisions.6 Until such methods are refined, risk injury. Certainly, proper use ofthe boards should be exercised with caution. Remember, should prevent collisions. A bus carrying a foot- itisthe sportsparticipant's welfare which ball team to a game experienced brake failure should be of utmost importance; torisk a causing the bus to coast down a hill and roll to player's safety isto compromise one of the a stop on an upward slope with no one hurt. major goals of sports to build healthy bodies. Similar events would indicate a breakdown in some part of a system. Analysis and study should keep possible system breakdowns to a 5 Kenneth S. Clarke, Accident prevention research in sports, Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation minimum. In sports it is wise to report all near- 40(Feb.1969),no.2,pp.45-48, 65-70. PHILOSOPHY OF SPORTS ACCIDENT PREVENTION 17

PRINCIPLES OF PREVENTION

In the developing art and science of accident ership provided, fitness requirements of the prevention and injury control the concept that participants, nature of the skills necessary for accidents are caused and do not just happen has success, and the demands placed on personnel done much to destroy the illusion that accidents involved in the activity by themselves and their are uncontrollable and must be accepted sto- community.7.8 ically. Accident research has helped to identify The possibility of drowning is recognized by significant factors in accident causation and to water sport enthusiasts. These enthusiasts gen- make accident reduction feasible. Much is known erally try to develop the skills associated with about factors that set the stage for a hazardous the particular water sport. But some of them do condition; less is known about motivating indi- not. For example, scuba divers who have not viduals to use available controls. learned well the physics and physiologicalre- An engineer designs structures to make it quirements for the use of air at varying depths, difficult for accidents to happen. An enforce- and the need for carefully timed ascent and ment specialist requires compliance with behav- decent, will experience difficulties. Also,any ioral standards to control hazards. An educator physical anomalies, like intestinal distress or a attempts to develop the ability in students to head cold, may impair the scuba diver'sper- make wise choices and effective decisions in the formance. In one incident, 24 sky divers jumped presence of danger. These professional disci- into clouds without knowing that a lake was plines aidinthesafety achievement effort under those clouds; most of them lost their through exchanging information. Significantly lives by drowning. in sports (where injuries are fewer than in traf- Football isa contact sport. Collisions and fic, at work, or in the home, and the acceptance innumerable stresses and strains are placed upon of sports injury is often tolerated), professionals players. Not knowing how to meet the impact in the field have done little to improve condi- of a hard tackle and fall properly could result tions in terms of recurrence of injuries. in an injury. Fundamental skil's must be prac- Safety is achieved to a significant degree by ticed and physical conditions must be good to providing youth and adults with attitudes, skills, enjoy playing football. Equipment is designed and knowledge about hazards and their control. to protect players and must be used for the pur- Hazards are everywhere in our environment. pose intended. Worn, improperly fitted equip- Their control can be achieved through the effec- ment increases the risk of injury and must be tive application of four fundamental principles: avoided. 1.Recognize the hazards When a football field is not adequately main- 2. Remove hazards where feasible tainedsmall holes, stones, or broken glass 3. Control hazards that cannot be removed may cause injury. Knowledge of proper field 4Create no additional hazards.6 maintenance is essential for controlling hazards. Where leadershipinasportsactivityis RECOGNITION OF HAZARDS effective,accidents and injuriesarecurbed. Coaches who are well trained and well informed An understanding of the hazards of any have a capability for transmitting much of their sporting activity requires a thorough knowledge of that sport: equipment and facilities, the lead- H. J. Stack and J. Duke Elkow, Education for Safe Living, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, ° American Association for Health, Physical Education, Inc., 1966), pp. 166-68. and Recreation, School Safety Policies with Emphasis 8 C. P. Yost, Total fitness and prevention of accidents, on Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation (Wash- Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation 38 ington, D.C.: The Association, 1968), p. 8. (March 1967). 18 THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY knowledge to their players. Also, the officials that worn or outdated equipment be used, a who control sports contests have an essential coach and the community should refuse to play role in preventing injuries through their quick until safe equipment is assured. detection of dangerous infractions of rules or Hazardous human factors that may be con- an emotional climate that may be explosive. The trolled include the following: unequal competi- dangerous practices of unnecessary roughness tion, too many contests in a short time interval, and piling on can be controlled by effective insufficient conditioning prior to participation, officiating. inadequate medical detection of anomalies which Sand lot football is dangerous because of bar sports participation, inept skills, too little poor officiating, inept coaching, no medical staff, knowledge of the sport and attitudes of extreme and poor equipment and facilities. Such factors risk taking. Sports authorities need to plan often lead to recurrent accidents and injuries. carefully to equalize competition; to control the Intramural sports activities, with their high rate frequency of contests and length of the playing of injuries and accidents, reflect untrained partic- season and pre - season training; to set the re- ipants, inept coaching, untrained officials, and quirements for efficient medical examinations frequent overcrowding of facilities.Itis defi- of all participants; to provide for the progressive nitely possible to control accidents and injuries development of sports skills, training, and edu- in intramural sports and sand lot football, as cation in the fundamentals of a sport; and to well as in all other sports. A knowledge of give leadership to the development of desirable incipient hazardous conditionsishelpfulin attitudes for safe sports participation. applying effective controls. COMPENSATION FOR HAZARDS REMOVAL OF HAZARDS THAT CANNOT BE REMOVED Often inrecreational sports and physical When it is impossible to remove a hazard, education, when administrators believe an activ- compensate by developing intervention tech- ityisdangerous,thatactivityisdropped. niques or using other controls. While no safety Accidents that recur in many sports can be device is perfect, research will provide informa- greatly reduced when known hazards are re- tion on the most valuable procedures to employ. moved. It is far better for authorities to continue The mouth protector in football, the hard hat a sport for the values it has than to jettison it in baseball, the wet suit for cold water sports, for failure to apply effective controls, including and the aluminum cup in boxing are examples analyzing accident data fully and finding better of devices which compensate for an inability of measures for controlling injury. the organism to withstand impact or discomfort When environmental conditions are hazard- without assistance. The water skier who wears a ous, theresponsibility for removing danger carefully selected life belt will be held afloat falls on the persons in charge of an activity. until his towboat crew rescues him in the event When the danger of lightning is evident,a he has lost his breath in a fall. Legislation re- lacrosse game, a golf match, a surfing contest, quiring two men in a motor boat that is pulling or a sailbo2L race should be stopped by the a water skier is a form of compensation since officials. Where a playing surface is not level, the boat driver cannot watch the water ahead where floors are needlessly slippery, where light- and at the same time be fully aware of what ing is inadequate, where air pollution of an the skier is doing behind him. arena isrecognized, the administrators need Effective leadership should provide students, to arrange for better maintenance of the field, players, and sports recreation enthusiasts with provide slip proof compounds on floors, and some of the procedures for progressive skill improve lighting and ventilation before sched- training, information about improved safety uling the facilities for use. When it is suggested devices, and advice on other controls.Itis PHILOSOPHY OF SPORTS ACCIDENT PREVENTION 19 essential to compensate for or adjust to those Unequal competition sets the stage for injury hazards that cannot be removed. To do less and accidents. Performers who are outclassed might cause injury. in skill or weight or other variables may not achieve success. The middleweight boxer who AVOIDANCE OF ADDITIONAL HAZARDS enters the ring with a heavyweight opponent is giving up a marked advantage to the heavier Any factor which reduces a player's per- man. The overfatigued golfer may be forced to formance capabilities will endanger his partici- retire from a match if exhausted from too many pation. Factors may be physical, physiological, contests scheduled with too short rest intervals. or psychological. Alcohol is a depressant. The In a physical education class mismatched op- danger of drowning increases when the alcohol ponents in a line soccer game resulted in a level in an individual mounts. The skills of sports broken leg when a 95 pound youth kicked the car racing or piloting a plane are hampered by ball at the same time his 190 pound opponent the use of alcohol. Using alcohol or other depres- did. A charge of negligence against the teacher sants increases the hazards of any activity re- was sustainedinthecourts and damages quiring clear thinking. There is a popular notion awarded the smaller youth. that some drugs enhance the physical powers of Poor equipment and inadequate facilities often man. Medical science knows no substances: result in injuries to players. It would be better to //. .. awell-trained athlete's performance cannot alter the sport until effective equipment, facili- be improved pharmacologically."9 ties, and leadership are provided.

INDIVIDUAL RESIT NSIBILITIES

Man's safety is a public responsibility; it is In the safety field it is sometimes said that also a personal responsibility. When the public what iseveryone's responsibility is no one's rejects hazardous activities and dangerous equip- concern. To tell all persons to be safe will prob- ment, a public or national philosophy of safety ably influence no one. To alert each individual is expressed. Public acceptance of automotive to his personal prerequisites for safe behavior deaths has been strained. Demands forless in a complex environment has long been the product failures, improved roads, and better concern of safety educators. drivers reflect public annoyance with traffic Each individual must learn to apply the fun- experiences. The personal acceptance of the role damental principles of safe behavior in the each driver must play in contributing to safer presence of hazards. The principles of coping driving is being stressed with motorists. Simi- with and not creating additional hazards must larly our concern with sports injuries and deaths be applied by individuals as they approach any is reflected in news reports and in professional activity. In the sports, physical education, and journals and publications. The public displea- athletic fields, considerable effortis expended sure with needless injuries creates demands for by groups to provide for the safety of partici- controls. The awareness of individualsthat pants.Beyondthatefforteachparticipant safety is also an individual responsibility evolves assesses his capacity, motivation, risk accept- from a realization that personal safety is not ance, and attitudes relative to each activity in completely provided by others. which he will participate. Listed below are important principles in such a personal assessment: o Ernst Jokl, Athletics and drugs, Annual Safety Edu- 1.Study the sport and the hazards within cation Review (Washington, D.C.: American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1968), it as you advance in skills and partici- p. 58. pation in that activity. 20 THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY

2. Determine your physical and emotional roster and home addresses, names of fitness to meet the demands of an activ- parents and physicians of players in the ity. (Use medical and other counseling event consent for medical treatment or opportunities for objective assessment of other problems arise when on a trip.) your readiness and avoid the use of only 11.Develop through practice a neuromotor subjective judgment.) conditioned response system that will 3. Learn what the limitations are in the be ready and able to cope with hazards equipment and facilities. immediately. 4. Use equipment, facilities, and supplies 12.Provide for prompt and effective medical only for the purpose intended. treatment of injuries and insist upon an 5. Refuseto participate in a hazardous adequate follow-up treatment to make activity unless protective equipment is possible a quick return to participation. properly fitted and provided. 13.Accept yourresponsibilityforyour 6.Secure instruction from qualified per- fellow man; assist him to achieve safety sonnel. (It is better to learn from the in the presence of danger.° experiences of others than to experience These principles may be more fully analyzed misadventure initially by oneself.) by each individual who assesses his personal 7. Keep others informed of what, where, responsibility for safe participation in sports and when you plan to go before entering and athletics. Anyone engaging in sports must an area known to be hazardous. set desirable goals for himself and those who 8.Act your age. share activities with him. Most of the accidents 9.Use progression in skill development; in sports are caused by human behavorial faults, become proficient in simple skills before including an omission or commission of an act moving on to more advanced ones. in the presence of danger. Perhaps 60% to 70% 10.Be ready in advance to send for assis- of accidents in sports and sports recreation can tance if it is needed. (Example: the first be eliminated. Self-discipline and a sense of aider who always carries a dime for a personal responsibility are important if one is phone call, or, the coach who carries the to live safely in the presence of hazards.

COMMUNITY RELATIONS

The individual alone cannot solve the prob- problems. Generally, they have started with an lems of hazard and injury control in sports, attack on traffic deaths and injuries, moved on athletics, and physical education; group wider- to work, industrial and home injuries, and then standing and community action are essential. to the schools' responsibility for safety educa- Additional research on sports injury is needed, tion. Safety committees may establish substruc- and since individuals alone cannot take on so tures which will concern themselves with more large a task it must be supported by professional confined areas, such as sports safety. In turn organizations. Efficient methods of sports injury such committees, while considering local -om- control need to be applied by comnrann:es for munity problems, also become involved with the safety of all individuals. other agencies expressing concern on the same Each community may determine the Lind of area. Local medical groups have formed sports safety it wants aid is willing to bny. Action injury control committees with other profes- programs for safety have been established in sional persons and some participate not only many communities. Local safety councils -and committees have been formed to attack specific 10 Stack and Elkow, op. cit., pp. 91-93. PHILOSOPHY OF SPORTS ACCIDENT PREVENTION 21 locally but nationally with the American Medical struction: facilities, equipment, and supplies; Association Committee on the Medical Aspects first aid and emergency care procedures; and of Sports or the American Association for reporting and investigating of hazards and acci- Health, Physical Education, and Recreation's dents. Such policies are discussed more fully in Safety Education Division.Publicationslike the next section of thistext. Out of these School Safety Policies, Annual Safety Education broad policies a large number of principles and Review, and Desirable Athletic Competition for procedures and practices may be developed to Children of Elementary Age are examples of serve the needs of any school or recreational printed materials designedtoinfluence local organization. action for the welfare of sports participants." From the foci of community schools safety Efforts of this kind will continue until a larger policies may be dispersed providing for com- nucleus of sports injury control personnel community sports recreational activities including municates effectively with community leaders to playground, athletic, and individual sports pro- achieve greater sports safety for our increasing grams like golfing or boating, or any of the 50 number of sports participants. or more activities covered in the sports section Schools in every community are expected to of this book. Other organized groups like little provide instruction in safety, a safe school en- leagues in football or baseball may participate in vironment, and proper safety services. If youth various safety programs and apply some of the are taught safety well, much of what they learn school safety policies to fit their narticular needs. should last them a lifetime. Obviously schools A community safety council may keep alert to cannot guarantee an accident free life. Therefore, any increase in accidents or injuries in particular other agencies are formed to influence the public. sports and initiate a public educationeffort These include adult education, the news media, through various media to inform, motivate, and the courts, and many others. A foundation for influence behavior in a direction that is designed effective living is initiated in the schools. Each to reduce mishaps. When specific problems arise, school establishes basic policies that give a di- communities may support research activities to rection to be taken in its school safety program. determine if education, engineering, or enforce- Such policies are described fully in School Safety ment procedures offer the best means for con- Policies. They cover efficient planning where trolling failings in the safety of a particular students, teachers, administrators, school board sport. members, parents, community agencies or gov- The broad nature of sports activities takes ernmental groups, and interested citizens work outstandingathletes into competitioninthe together to determine the size, scope, methods, world community where international controls and evaluative procedures that need to be used are established and then changed as conditions for safety achievement in a community. Plans require. Analysis of sports injuries and accidents for all probable hazard control problems must be to international performers provides information developed by such responsible individuals and which may enable local controls to be established groups through adequate organization and pro- for sportsmen. gramming, efficient use of personnel, and proper Significantly, accident rates continue to be evaluation. highest in those categories that involve personal Other approaches covered in School Safety responsibility. Fine work and even industrial Policies are concerned with curriculum and in- safety records are marred by personal carelessness, irresponsii,ly, or lack of cooperation. " American Association for Health, Physical Educa- tion, and Recreation, Desirable Athletic Competition for The idea that a .,4:its happen to the other Children of Elementary Age (Washington, D.C.: The fellow has mitigates: against the development Association, 1968); School Safety Policies with Emphasis on Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation (1968); of personal safety habits and responsibility. In Annual Safety Education Review (1962 to 1970). time, an enlightened society may develop more 1 22 THE PROBLEM THE PHILOSOPHY fully the concept that accident and injury control presence of risks. Yet if man will assessthese is every individual's responsibility and concerns risks, abandon those that are inordinate, con- the world community. trol those that can be controlled, and create no Life without risks might provide few adven- unnecessary hazards, he will gain much from tures, if any there would be few challenges sports participation and receive the benefits that in sports. We must continually move on in the sports hold in store for him.

References

American Association for Health, Physical Education, Research. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, and Recreation. Annual Safety Education Review. 1964. Washington, D.C.: The Association. 1962 to 1969. National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Chicago: The Annual. Council. Annual. School Safety Policies with Emphasis on Physi- Seaton, Don Cash; Stack, Herbert J.; and Loft, Bernard I. cal Education, Athletics, and Recreation. Washington, Administration and Supervision of Safety Education. D.C.: The Association, 1968. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1969. 368 pp. American Public Health Association. The role of physi- Stack, H. J. and Elkow, J. Duke. Education for Safe cians and public health workers. In Accident Preven- Living. 4th ed. Englewoou Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, tion. Edited by Maxwell N. Halsey. New York: Inc., 1966. 374 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1961. Strasser, Marland K. et al. Fundamentals of Safety Edu- Florio, A. E. and Stafford, G. T. Safety Education. 3d ed. cation. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969 459 pp. Thorndike, A. Athletic Injuries. Philadelphia: Lea and Haddon, W., Jr.; Suchman, E. A.; and Klein, E. Accident Febiger, 1961. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION Administration and Supervision Introduction ICHARLES PETER YOST, Ph.D. e Administration deals with the activities of 1.Help the entire school staff see safety those charged with facilitating the efforts of education as an integral part of the people in accomplishing a definite purpose. It is curriculum. the school administrator who has the responsi- 2.Develop instructional guides for use by bility for an overall safety program. His attitude all teachers. and knowledge will determine the effectiveness 3.Identify the safety needs of the pupils of the program. His chief task is to manage both and plan cooperatively. human and material resources. In managing 4.Appraise existing curricular content for these resources he provides adequate supervi- safety education adequacy. sion to handle both curricular and noncurricular 5.Know the sources of current safety activities. materials for both student and teacher The functions of administration and super- use. vision overlap depending upon the size of the 6.Work with teacher-sponsors of school organization. A school principal, for example, safety organizations(safetycouncils, might be a supervisor in a small organization. safety patrols, safety committees, and The supervisor's role at times entails adminis- safety clubs). trative responsibility. 7.Use accident reports as a preventive, While supervision generally is concerned with defensive, protective, and/or construc- the improvement of instruction, it has a broader tive device. scope in relation to a safety program. In addition 8.Inform the school staff of legal aspects to curricular matters, the safety supervisor usu- involved in safety. ally is responsible for providing a safe environ- 9.Secure the cooperation of out-of-school ment and safety services. The specific activities agencies for service and assistance. of a safety supervisor are to:I 10.Guide teachers in selecting safety education materials. 2 Charles Peter Yost, Who should teach safety, in 11.Publicize and interpret the school safety Current Administrative Problems Athletics,Health program to the public. Education, Physical Education, Recreation (Washington, D.C.: American Association for Health, Physical Educa- 12.Exert leadership in organizing and con- tion, and Recreation, 1960), pp. 177-78. ducting emergency drills.

25 26 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

13.Cooperate with the school administrator ing custodians, bus drivers, and luncheon in removing building hazards and in personnel. planning the construction of new build- 18. Assist and encourage teachers to do ings. research. 14.Appraisethesuggestions andcriti- 19.Take an active part in community safety cisms of community groups regarding activities which, in turn, have an influ- the school safety program. ence on the total school safety program. 15.Cooperate with community agencies in 20.Evaluate the school safety program. serving as a speaker, in supplying the It matters not so much whether a safety names ofspeakers, and insecuring supervisor is responsible for the preceding activ- instructional aids. ities. The important point is that within every 16.Keep informed on the latest develop- organization there should be someone respon- ments in the safety field. sible for these activities. His title may be supervi- 17.Cooperate with the school administrator sor, coordinator, director, consultant, specialist, inconductingin-serviceeducational or anything else which concurs with local admin- programs for all staff members includ- istrative policies.

SAFETY POLICIES

A policy is a statement which gives direction neering, and safety, to help plan and for achieving a desired objective. Thearea of evaluate accident prevention procedures. administration and supervision usually operates 4.All schools should have a comprehensive through policies. The following policy state- school safety program, including safety ments can provide a sound safety program? services and education and a safe environment. GENERAL SCHOOL SAFETY POLICIES 5.Schools should have an accident report- Planning ing and investigation system. 6. 1.Inestablishingpolicies,participation Administration has the responsibility for should be invited of all persons and adherence to provisions of school law, groups concerned: students,teachers, state and local laws, codes and ordi- administrativestaffmembers,aides, nances, and contractual agreements. school employees, board of education 7.School officials should develop, coopera- members,parents,representativesof tive relationships with official agencies community or governmental groups, and such as fire, health, and police depart- other interested citizens. ments. 2. A faculty-student committee should be 8.Adequate insurance programs should be organized to advise on accident preven- maintained by all schools, with details tion and ways of achieving safety. of the coverage and limitations under- 3.Provision should be made for the use stood by all school personnel. of advisory services from professions, 9.Parental approval should be obtained for such as medicine, law, insurance, engi- student participation in activities that removestudents fromtheirnormal 2 American Association for Health, Physical Education, school routine. and Recreation, School Safety Policies with Emphasis on Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation (Washing- 10.The school should make detailed plans ton, D.C.: The Association, 1968), pp. 11-13. for handling all anticipated emergencies. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION INTRODUCTION 27

11.There should be a detailed plan for the report immediately any hazardous con- safe handling of spectators and crowds dition, dangerous activity, property dam- at all school activities and events open age, or injury, in accordance with estab- to the public. lished procedures. 12.Recommendations for building require- 2.All school personnel should comply with ments and review of plans should in- rules and regulations governing safe volve teachers and other school per- practices and procedures. sonnel. Thus architects and engineers, 3.Close supervision should be provided in developing safe facilities, can be made wherever students participate in poten- aware of potential hazards recognized tially hazardous activities. by an experienced staff. 4.All safety rules governing the use of 13.Every school should have a well defined facilities, equipment, and supplies should plan for handling emergency care prob- be conspicuously posted. lems, including parental approval for 5.Regulations regarding the use of school transportation and emergency medical facilities by nonschool groups should in- care. Arrangements for emergency care clude specific provisions for safety and and transportation should be made in accident prevention. Copies ofthese writing at the beginning of the school regulations should be provided to all year. concerned. 14.The content, objectives, structure, and 6.Information about the health status of teacher qualifications for driver and traf- students and school personnel should fic safety education should conform to be made available to appropriate staff. nationally recommended standards. 7.Approval from a physician, with notifi- Organization and Program cation of any activity limitations, should 1.Each school should designate a school be obtained before any student is re- safety coordinator to direct the total admitted to school after a serious injury accident prevention program. or illness. 2.Provision should be made for the de- 8.Only equipment and supplies that meet velopment of a comprehensive safety highest standards of safety should be education curriculum. purchased and used by schools. 3.Major consideration should be given to 9.Students should be required to make factors such as scheduling, class size, proper use of protective equipment in and grouping, which have a bearing hazardous activities. upon the prevention and control of ac- 10.Equipment, devices, materials, or ani- cidents. mals which may be potentially danger- 4.Specific accident prevention procedures ous should not be allowed on school should be developed for the movement property without prior approval of ap- of students within school and to and propriate school officials. from school, as well as in school spon- Personnel sored activities. 5.All safety rules and regulations should 1.All personnel involved in the operation be included in the school's administra- of the school program should have an tive handbook. understanding of their speCific roles in accident prevention. Controls 2.All instructional personnel should be 1.All students and staff members should properly certified for their area of in- be familiar with their responsibility to struction. 28 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

3.Noninstructional personnel of the school, formation for evaluation. such as bus drivers, recreation aides, and 3.There should be a continual updating of custodians, should be qualified to carry accident prevention policies, procedures, out specific safety assignments. and practices. 4.Teacher training institutions should pro- 4.Analysis of accidents, injuries, and dam- vide for preservice education in safety age should be made and periodic sum- for prospective teachers and administra- maries of such data should be distributed tors. to appropriate individuals. 5.School personnel should be informed of The preceding policies are broad statements new findings and best practices in acci- and deal with a comprehensive safety program dent prevention and injury control. of which a sports safety program is a part. The next seven chapters deal with administrative Evaluation policies and procedures in terms of "controls." 1. A system should exist for appropriate Chapter 4 specifically relates to external controls inspections and evaluation of facilities, while Chapters 5 through 11 deal with internal equipment, and buildings as a basis for controls, particularly as related to safety in phy- improvement. sical education, athletics, and recreation. The 2.There should be a system of accident in- remaining chapters in the text deal specifically vestigation and reporting to provide in- with safety in selected sports or activities.

References

American Association for Health, Physical Education, Seaton, Don Cash; Stack, Herbert J.; and Loft, Bernard I. and Recreation. Current Administrative Problems Administration and Supervision of Safety Education. Athletics, Health Education, Physical Education, Rec- New York: The Macmillan Co., 1969. 368 pp. reation. Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1960. 197 pp. Stack, Herbert J. and Elkow, J. Duke. Education For Dzenowagis, Joseph D. School safety policies. In Annual Safe Living. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Safety Education Review,pp.65-72. Washington, Hall, Inc., 1966. 374 pp. D.C.: Americai) Association for Health, Physical Edu- Strasser, Marland K. et al. Organization and administra- cation, and Recreation, 1969. tion of the school safety program. In Fundamentals Florio, A. E. and Stafford, G. T. Safety Education. New of Safety Education, pp. 117-35. New York: The Mac- York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969. 459 pp. millan Co., 1964. Administration and Supervision

External Controls ICLIFFORD B. FAGAN, M.A.

Athletic programs with educational objectives 6.Demands of competition in certain sports must have as one of their primary concerns the place the athlete in an environment that health and safety of each participant. This is a leaves little room between risk and hazard. task that to an appreciable degree must be exer- 7.The expectation to win is so profoundly cised through external controls, which are the imposed by the community on the coach- rules and regulations imposed by a national or- ing staff that the temptation to take a ganization responsible for the supervision of a chance or to take advantage is quite real. given sport. In contrast, internal controls are Consequently, external controls in sports are exerted by an athletic team staff or sponsoring meant not only to describe the essence of a sport institution. but also to protect an athlete from his emotional There are a number of health and safety rea- self. The best rules describe the safe conduct sons for external controls imposed by a national of a sport and rely on the integrity and respect organization. of the athlete's supervisors. Unfortunately, in 1. A national organization can give con- each sport rules must be added to curb known tinuous attention to the sum of the ex- patterns of undesirable behavior. periences witnessed at the local level. Rules are formulated in different fashions by 2.A national organization can convene the various organizations. Customarily, a national expertise required to anticipate, interpret, group structures its rules to apply to programs and act upon patterns of injurious be- involving itsparticular type of athlete(little havior. league, high school, professional). The rule 3. A national organization can be objective makers are members of committees that have a to problems that are subject to emotional systematic method of collecting results of data, and provincial bias. surveying coaches' opinions, following experi- 4.Sports involve the athlete so deeply that mental innovations, and offering experienced normal inhibitions may give in to over- judgment to problems. The end product is an strenuous or reckless behavior. updated rules book. 5.The athlete who disregards risks often is Within the rules book often are found "points accorded hero worship and this kind of of emphasis." These are considerations that do recognition can interfere with his accept- not lend themselves as well (or yet) to specific ance of safeguards. rules, but are sufficiently important to highlight

29 30 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION for supervisors. It is not unusual that a new rule ment of conditioning and practices prior to is a product of previous points of emphasis that competition; and, in some instances, the presence have either required more study and refinement of a physician on the bench. These conditions for application or additional time for the change are usually stipulated when individual programs to be made on a mandatory basis. are either lax or need authority for such policies. Beyond the nation-I rules book are regula- Sometimesarbitraryregulationsmust be tions. These are special procedures peculiar to a made. The maximum number of games an ath- group of teams (league or conference) that go lete can play in a season is an external control beyond the rules yet still qualify as external because of the abuses that have occurred. There controls. They may be an experimental change, is no magic figure such as 15, 20, or 25 contests an abuse control inserted specifically to combat after which an athlete encounters undesirable a more localized pattern of urdesirable behavior, competitor experiences. But a reasonable figure or simply a more stringent extension of an exist- must be s' ,ed that at least deter, the chances ing rule. Most national rules groups not only of such an excess and that all athletes must share permit experimental innovation but actively en- as a limit. Similarly, in wrestling there is no courage it. These changes, however, are scruti- magic associated with a wrestler's talent when nized as being purposeful and having potential hr weighs a few pounds more or less than a benefit. Adaptations are a significant part of the competitor. Yet tradition and fear of loss of task oi rules and regulations groups and valid advantage maintain that a wrestler should lose ad,.crations result only from a controlled pro- weight (sometimes drastically) to avoid meeting gram of experimentation and research. a rightful opponent. Consequently, rules impose controls on the weigh-in and the weight classes EXAMPLES for which a wrestler can be eligible. Consideration must attimes be givento eliminating types of activity that are unduly OFFICIATING hazardous. The "clip" in football, the "slam" Without officiating, the values of external in wrestling and in basketball, the move of a controls are negated. The quality of officiating player under an airborne opponent, all evolved is directly related to the prevention of injury, the from zealous coaching and participation. Yet all preservation of sportsmanship, and the fair and ar,. injurious situations which required specific consistent application of the rules. Officials mutt outlawing ries. be qualified emotionally and technically for their racaase ,:. the findings of current research, responsibilities. To insure this, they must be protective equipment specifications have been thoroughly schooled in both the letter and spirit added to most rule books. Initially, these speci- of the rules. Sponsoring organizations conduct fications were met with resistance by athletes national and area clinics to help officials to and coaches, but eventually, when "everyone qualify on the technicalities, procedures, condi- had to do it" and thus no one stood out as a tioning, and judgments that constitute effective "sissy," the resistance subsided. officiating. Only individuals whose experience The matching of opponents by physical size and training have been certified should officiate. and/or maturity, the playing time of the game, In fact, more schools and agencies should con- the equipment, and the field size all constitute sider using certified officials not only in compe- another category of adaptations. Deli..itions of tition but in scrimmage as well. boundaries for athletes as well as for pectators are also products of more than tradition. Policy requirements include the securing of a STATUTES AND INSURANCE PLANS medical certificate confirming the physical fitness To insure that athletic competition contributes of each participant; a minimum time require- to desirable educational outcomes, coaches at ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION EXTERNAL CONTROLS 31 the interscholastic level are almost universally legislation. The great majority of interscholastic required to be certified teachers. This establishes athletes are protected today by insurance or their responsibility to the school and gives them benefit plans. Some conferences collectively pro- faculty status. vide catastrophe insurance for expensive, pro- The establishment of negligence in a few longed care injuries. Not only do these cover- cases and the legal recognition of a coach's lia- ages insure that the athlete will receive proper bility have motivated coaches to take greater medical care in case of injury but the informa- care in providing proper protection and adequate tion contained in the insurance records is invalu- health safeguards. Several states now have legis- able for the study of accident frequency and lation which permits tax funds to subsidize inter- causes. Also, protection i5a health measure scholastic athletics. Increased safety has been which assurthe athlete of medical examina- the major consideration for the adoption of such tion even though injury is not ascertained.

Sources of Official Playing Rules

ARCHERY National Field Archery Associa- ICE HOCKEY (See Gymnastics) tion, Route 2, Box 514, Redlands, ICE SKATING AmateurSkatingUnion,8941 Calif. 92373 (Write for Constitu- Crest Oak Ln.,Crestwood, Mo. tion and By-Laws) 63126 BADMINTON Lester E. Hilton, ABA Rule Book, ROLLER UnitedStatesAmateurRoller 15 Tanglewood Dr., Cumberland, SKATING Skating Association, 120 W. 42nd R.I. 02864 St., New York, N.Y. 10036 B XSEBALL National Federation of State High SHUFFLEBOARD American ShuffleboardLeagues, School Athletic Associations, 7 S. Inc., 533 Third St., Union City, Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. 60603 N.J. 07087 BASKETBALL (See Baseball) SKIING (See Gymnastics) BOWLING American Bowling Congress, Pub- SKIING E. Packard Anderson, Executive lic Relations Dept., 1572 E. Capitol (Downhill, Vice President, U.S. Ski Associ- Dr., Milwaukee, Wisc. 53206 Slalom & Giant ation,1726 Champa, Suite 300, FENCING Amateur Fencer's League of Amer- Slalom) Denver, Colo. 80202 ica, 33 62nd St., W. New York, SOCCER John K. Archer,SeniorHigh N.J. 07093 (High School) School, Malverne, N.Y. 11565 FIELD HOCKEY General Sportcraft Company, Ltd. SOFTBALL Amateur Softball Association, 140WoodbineSt.,Bergenfield, (12") Skirvin Tower, Park Ave. & Broad- N.1,. 07621 way, Oklahoma City, Okla. 73102 FOOTBALL (See Baseball) SWIMMING (See Gymnastics) GIRLS' SPORTS NEA Publications-Sales, 1201 16th TABLE TENNIS United States I able Tennis Asso- St, NM., Washington, D.C. 20036 ciation,210 SaturnDr.,North GOLF U.S. Golf Association, 40 E. 38th Star, Newark, Del. 19711 United States Golf Association, 40 TENNIS United States Lawn Tennis Asso- E. 38th St., New York, N.Y. 10016 ciation, 51East 42nd St., New GYMNASTICS College Athletics Publishing Serv- York, N.Y. 10017 ice, 347 E. Thomas Rd., Phoenix, TRACK & FIELD (See Baseball) Ariz. 85012 VOLLEYBALL United States Volleyball Associ- HANDBALL National YMCA Handball Rules, ation, USVBA Printer, P.O. Box Champion Glove Manufacturing 109, Berne, Ind. 46711 Company, 2200 E. Ovid St., Des Moines, Iowa 50313 WATER POLO Amateur Athletic Union of the United StatesHandball Associ- United States, 233 Broadway, New ation, 4101 Dempster St., Skokie, York, N.Y. 10007 III. 60076 WEIGHT LIFTING (See Water Polo) HORSESHOES (See Field Hockey) WRESTLING (See Baseball and Gymnastics) Administration and Supervision Infernal Controls I.STANLEY F. PECHAR, Ed.D.

The task of providing for the health and 2.Development of safety curriculums safety of each participant in sports programs 3.Improvement of safety instruction includes internal controls, which refer to ad- 4. Developmentofimproved community ministrative and supervisory procedures within coordination in safety the school or college. Administrative personnel, 5.Evaluation oftheeffectiveness of the supervisors,teachers,coaches, and students safety program.' must understand their roles in providing for the The principal coordinates his safety efforts welfare of the participant in sports. with those of the superintendent and/or his Part of the American tradition of education delegatedrepresentative.Frequent and good isthat the public schools be responsive to communication between the principal and the the will of the people and that the curriculums central office keeps the superintendent aware reflect the needs of the community. States dele- of the progress of the programs within the gate to boards of education the authority to schools. Frequently because of school size and control and maintain schools. The board of the resulting complexities of his position the education, in most cases an elected body of principal will delegate the responsibility for the 5 to 14 members, makes policy and legislates school safety program to the assistant or vice for the schools within its system. One of the principal. board's most important tasks is the selection of With regard to the reduction of accidents in the superintendent. the school physical education, athletic, and re- The superintendent is the educational leader creational program there are specific measures and chief educational officer of the community, that the principal can carry out. responsible for implementing the board's poli- 1.In program planning and scheduling, the cies. He may work as an individual or delegate principal should avoid overcrowding of powers and institute a large central office de- classes and attempt to group pupils in pending upon the size of the school system. classes according to their age and grade Many school districts have a safety supervisor, classification. who serves in a staff relationship to the superin- 1 For further discussion on these functions, see Herbert tendent. His functions include: J. Stack and J. Duke Elkow, Education for Safe Living, 1. Determination and coordination of ad- 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966), ministrative policy in safety pp. 301-303.

32 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION INTERNAL CONTROLS 33

2. The principal should expedite the repair 6.Provision of safe transportation of ath- of equipment, supplies, and facilities and letic teams and other sports participants carry out plans for structural changes 7.Formulation of special emergency pro- which benefit the program and promote cedures for fire and other disasters. safety. 8.Approval of the ccurse of study in physi- 3. To familiarize himself with the various caleducationas well asthe contests safety aspects of the program, the princi- scheduled for the athletic teams and other pal frequently should visit physical edu- sports participants. cation classes, athletic contests and prac- Physical education teachers and coaches are tices, and the recreational sports program. in the best possible position to influence their 4. The principal should exercise his super- students regarding safeathletic participation visory duty with regard to teachers and because of the daily personal contact they have coaches in the physical education and with their students. Through their own practice athletic programs. and teachings, they can most readily instill in The department chairman or director of physi- their pupils desirable attitudes, knowledge, and cal education and athletics is responsible for skills concerning safety, such as: insuring safety within the various facets of his 1.Recognition of hazardous situations and program. He works in close cooperation with their prevention and/or control the school district safety supervisor and the 2. Avoidance of unnecessary risks school safety officer. His prime safety responsi- 3.Carrying out of rules and regulations in bilities include: sports and athletic participation 1.Adoption of a uniform procedure for re- 4.Importance of appropriate amount and porting, recording, and investigating all types of warm-ups and conditioning as accidents within the program well as proper skill development 2.Provision and maintenance of safe equip- 5.Necessity for being alert during activity ment and facilities including safe storage participation 3.Provision of first aid and emergency treat- 6. Understanding of the importance of wear- ment for all injuries as well as any indi- ing protective equipment and personal cated follow-up treatment equipmentprescribedforthevarious 4.Securing of certified and qualified teachers, activities coaches, and officials 7. Learning of activity techniques by pro- 5.Formationofanaccidentprevention gressing from the simple to the more com- committee plex in appropriate stages.

HOMOGENEOUS GROUPING FOR SAFE COMPETITION

A necessary administrative control for achiev- as in the intramural and interschool program ing safety in physical education classes is placing additional classification must take place to insure pupils according to age-grade level. safe participation. One of the vitally essential One of the findings in a study by Lloyd, ingredients in the prevention of accidents and Deaver, and Eastwood indicated that groupings resulting injuryis the development of skill. on an age-grade basis correlated with a lower The skilled person uses his body more efficiently accident involvement? Within classes as well than the unskilled. According to Hein, "It is 2 Frank S. Lloyd, George C. Deaver, and R. Eastwood, the awkward unskilled player who, other things Safety in Athletics (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1936). being equal, most often injures himself or others 34 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION in physical recreation activities."3 Inequalities in in incidence of accidents and injuries. Persons ability levels pose a serious safety problem if conducting football programs might consider the skilled and unskilled compete against each weight equality between teams. other, particularly in contact sports. The impli- An important factor in achieving safety in cation for coaches and physical education teach- sports is the physical condition of the individual. ers is that they classify their pupils according Physical conditioning hardens the body, in- to their abilities and conduct competition within creases resistance to fatigue, and builds strength, these homogeneous ability groupings. agility, and endurance. A pupil should be able The size and weight of individuals have been to cope with the physical demands of the ac- used as a factor in classifying pupils for com- tivity in which he wishes to participate. There- petition in such sports as wrestling, and football. fore, physical condition should be used as a For years the Ivy League colleges had a program basis for classifying pupils before permitting in 150 pound football which appeared to be low participation in a given activity.

PROPER CONDUCT OF ACTIVITIES

If activities are to be conducted with a mini- mural (play days, sports days), are not jeopard- mum risk of accidental injury, persons responsi- ized. They have also indicated the desire to ble for the conduct of these activities must pro- avoid the undesirable practices (over-emphasis vide proper and continuing supervision; educate on winning, undue publicity, public pressure, the participants; and control the environment. and interference with classes) that have char- These criteria would apply whether or not the acterized the interscholastic and intercollegiate activities were conducted on the class, intra- programs for boys. mural, interschool, or recreational level. How- The Division of Girls and Women's Sports, a ever, because of the advanced level of play, part of the American Association for Health, frequent intensity of competition, and presence Physical Education, and Recreation, has estab- of over-emphasis, these approaches should be lished a series of guidelines to regulate competi- particularly followed in interschool competition. tion for girls and women on the junior high school, senior high school and college levels. The INTERSCHOOL ATHLETICS FOR GIRLS high school guidelines have specific participant, leadership, and administration standards, many Past arguments that interschool athletics for of which are concerned with the safety and girls has an adverse effect on the reproductive welfare of the girls participating. The college function, adds difficulty during menstruation, guidelines include administration, covering such and produces a masculine, unladylike woman have gradually dissipated. Women leaders in subjects as budget, scheduling, health and safety, tournaments, and leadership; and participation, physical education recognize the importance of covering suchfactorsaseligibility,medical competitive sports as a valuable training for exams, length of season, and number of games. their role in modern life. They have indicated These DGWS guidelines should be used to in- that interschool athletics for girls should be con- sure safe interschool activities for girls. sidered only if the other aspects of the program, namely service, intramural, and informal extra- INTERSCHOOL ACTIVITIES FOR 3 Fred V. Hein. Paper delivered at National Conference GRADE SCHOOL BOYS on Accident Prevention in Physical Education, Athletics, In grades one through six the program for and Recreation. (Washington, D.C.: American Associ- ation for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, boys should emphasize required class program 1963.) with outlets for competition in an intramural ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION INTERNAL CONTROLS 35 program, particularly for grades five and six. ing or training program aidsin preventing Extramural play might also be enjoyed at these injuries by hardening the body and increasing grades provided it is directed by qualified leader- resistance to fatigue. Warm-up, which is the ship and adheres to the approved objectives and conditioning of the body prior to participation, standards recommended for children of ele- has been shown to be a protection from injury. mentary school age. Highly competitive and A fourth accident preventive is the develop- highly organized programs should be avoided. ment of the skills essential to the particular State, regional, and national tournaments as activity in which one engages. This applies to well as local, charity, or exhibition games are young and older participants alike. All sports generally not recommended for this group. If require varying degrees of skill in performing interscholastic competition is offered for grade the movements involved. The better these move- school boys all special controls must be pro- ments are executed, the greater the chance for vided such as medical care before and during avoiding injury. such programs, proper equipment and facilities, Associated with skill development is sound qualified officials, classification of players, and instruction, which includes not only knowledge game adaptations;ifprovided, such logisti- of important play techniques but also the health cal support should not be at the expense of basic and safety aspects of activity. The caliber of physical education and recreation programs that instruction should be the best, particularly in are designed to meet needs of all boys and girls the more hazardous sports such as skiing. in the community at that growth and develop- The fifth consideration for avoiding injury in mental level. sports deals with equipment and facilities. Older citizens should be aware of the proper kinds of ACTIVITIES FOR OLDER CITIZENS equipment and facilities which aid in protecting To reduce the risk of accidental injury to against injury. The equipment should be of the older citizens in sports participation, certain pro- best quality, fit correctly, be checked periodically cedures must be followed. Most important is a for defects, and be maintained according to the health examination to determine their physical manufacturer's standards. Fit is particularly im- and possibly emotional fitness. Included in the portant as a protection against injury. For exam- examination should be a careful review of the ple, if a shoe is too tight, a golf club too long, person's health history. or a bowling ball too heavy, an accident could Second, the activities should not require a occur. With regard to facilities it is important to high degree of cardiovascular endurance, muscle consider factors that could reduce accidents. The endurance, or muscle strength. In addition, ac- most important of these are: (1) a smooth, even, tivities of a contact nature should be avoided. nonslippery playing surface clear of all extran- Many physical activities such as golf, bowling, eous objects (broken glass, stones, pieces of tennis, table tennis, badminton, archery, and wood); (2) a sufficient size play area for the hiking are suitable for older citizens. However, activity; and (3) a system of periodic inspection even in these activities moderation should be and correction of defects. exercised. Although people in their seventies play golf, they exercise certain restraints such SPORT MODIFICATIONS AND SAFETY as not playing too many holes, utilizing aids such as golf carts and caddies, and playing at Standard sports rules are frequently modified a slow pace. to offer more meaningful activity programs, e.g., Third, older citizens should attain the degree to accommodate involvement of atypical persons of physical conditioning needed for the sports or groups; to overcome limited equipment or in which they engage even though such activi- inadequate facilitiesavailable for a program; ties are of the less strenuous type. A condition- and to create a new twist for the sake of fun. MII=MME'

36 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

Evaluation of the influence of change requires modification of a sport for a particular purpose more than casual attention. Preplanning for suit- and who have arrived at what they feel is a good able modification is fundamental. Will it provide balance between sports benefits and sports risks. the motivation and challenge of that sport with- Resource material on sports programs for out introducing a new significant hazard or handicapped persons is available from the fol- negating a previously effective injury control? lowing agencies: Continuous evaluation along these lines should AAHPER Programs for the Handicapped follow to detect unexpected patterns of acci- 1201 16th St., N.W. dental injury. Washington, D.C. 20036 Such modifications are often made to bring National Wheelchair Basketball Association the benefits of suitable sports experiences to all Oak at Stadium Dr. who could not benefit without them. Wheelchair Champaign, III. 61820 sports as therapy for the physically handicapped and a portable swimming pool program for the National Wheelchair Athletic Association inner city neighborhoods are examples. Under (track and field, swimming, archery, table tennis, weight lifting) these circumstances, risks must be accepted in order that the benefits can be realized. 40-24 62nd St. However, these risks should always be calcu- Woodside, Long Island, N.Y. 11377 lated risks consistent with the philosophy of University of Illinois Rehabilitation Center sports programs. Some control must be assured (wheelchair football, baseball, fencing, withoutdilutingunnecessarilythepotential square dancing) value of the sports experiences. Dept. of Recreation and Athletics To determine the amount and type of control Div. of Rehabilitation-Education Services often requires consultation with authorities ex- Champaign, III. 61820 perienced with the problem that produced the American Diabetes Association need for modification. By authorities we refer (camping for diabetics) to (1) the physician of the atypical person if a 18 E. 48th Street medical prescription for the modified activity 'is New York, N.Y. 10017 required; (2) physician consultation on the medi- The Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation cal r ..nsiderations involved when the needs of (physical education for the mentally a particular atypical group are to be met through retarded) physical recreation; and/or (3) the consultation 1701 K St., N.W. of educators who have studied and experienced Washington, D.C. 20006

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Because of the high toll of accidents on streets driver may be reckless, the vehicle defective,. and highways, careful thought must be given to and driving conditions hazardous. the manner in which, athletic teams are trans- The more desirable method of transporting ported. This includes any type of travel even athletic teams is by school bus or public carrier if it is only to and from a practice field. Student because of the presence of important safety athletes often ride with other students or with factors such as a more qualified and experienced the coach with minimum consideration to driver driver, a safer and better maintained vehicle, qualification, vehicle condition and load, driving and more adequate insurance coverage. conditions, and adequate insurance. This prac- If a private auto is used, care should be taken tice is loaded with potential danger because the toselect an accident free, responsible adult ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION INTERNAL CONTROLS 37 driver; to select a vehicle that has been inspected 2. Know the location and operation of fire and approved; to obtain adequate insurance cov- extinguishers. erage; to secure approval of school authorities; 3.Post fire drill regulations in conspicuous to have parent consent; and to cancel trips when places. driving conditions are hazardous. 4.Use metal storage cabinets for hazardous Because of the unusual circumstances associ- items such as paint, turpentine, and acids. ated with sports participation such as showering, 5. Make sure all passages and aisles used to dressing, and being in the pool, the necessity vacate the premises are always kept clear. for carefully planned, organized, and frequently 6.See that exit lights in the gymnasium are practiced emergency drills, including fire drills, on at all times. is very great. A clothing procedure for the gym, 7. Do not permit accumulation of rubbish, pool, locker and shower room, and special ac- junk, and other waste materials. tivity rooms should be worked out.If the The use of the indoor physical education weather is favorable, students in the gym and plant for activities where spectators are present special activity rooms can carry out the drills requires certain precautions. One of the most in their gym outfits. If the weather is inclement important considerations at any time is the and time permits, they should be permitted to danger of fire. Fire prevention rules must be secure outer clothing. If it is an actual fire and strictly enforced during the use of indoor spec- danger is imminent, safety precedes comfort. tator areas. Smoking, overloaded premises, in- For students in the pool, shower, or locker sufficient or lockedexit doors, and poorly room who are scantily clad, a procedure for marked exits increase the potential for disaster quickly securing clothing should be worked out if a fire occurs. and practiced during the drills. Again, if an The use of trained guards is desirable for actual fire is in progress and danger is imminent, maintaining order in case of trouble and to safety precedes modesty, restrain spectators from the play area. Ushers Each physical education teacher should carry might also be an added safety factor by facili- a roll book so that when the class reaches its tating the movement of persons to and from assigned area, roll can be taken to assure that their seats. all students are accounted for. This can be done Schools frequently enlist the assistance of the quickly with a prearranged buddy. local police department to facilitate the move- In addition to developing an efficient drill ment of traffic to and from the games. Events procedure, the physical education department also run smoother and safer when parking space should consider other fire prevention practices: is provided and teachers and/or students are 1. Make sure all exit doors from the gym- used to help. nasium,lockerroom,specialactivity If there are beverage vendors at these events, rooms, and the pool are unlocked and in all drinks should be dispensed in paper cups working order. instead of bottles or cans.

References

American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Supervision of Safety Education. New York: The and Recreation. Annual Safety Education Review. Macmillan Co., 1969. 368 pp. Washington, D.C.: The Association. Annual. Stack, H. J. and Elkow, J. Duke. Education for Safe Living. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Florio, A. E. and Stafford, G. T. Safety Education. 3d ed. Inc., 1966. 374 pp. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969. 459 pp. Strasser, Marland K. et al. Fundamentals of Safety Edu- Seaton, D. C.; Stack, H. J.; and Loft, B. I. Administration cation. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964. The Health Examination IKENNETH S. CLARKE, Ph.D.

The term health examination has replaced The health examination is considered the pri- physical examination in signifying the physi- ority item for the welfare of candidates for cian's appraisal of a student's medical eligibility sports. Is the boy capable of strenuous, all-out for sports and other school activities. Physical effort? Is he especially vulnerable to the risks exam has had a limited meaning. To many, it inherent in a given sport? Can he defend him- was considered a threat to participation. To self adequately during play? Participation in others it connoted a required ritual of recording sports involves a calculated risk, and itis the physical test findings that would satisfy any purpose of the health examination to help mini- legal inquiry into the school's efforts to prevent mize undue risk. students with atypical physical conditions from engaging in school sponsored programs. TYPES OF HEALTH EXAMINATION Conversely, health examination has a positive connotation and suggests a student's qualifica- The health examination is of two types: the tion for safe participation in a suitable activity. periodic health examination which is predictable The aims of the health examination are listed (one can predict when it will occur), and the referral health examination which is unpredict- in the AMA's Guide for Medical Evaluation of able (it occurs when a need Candidates for School Sports: is recognized). A total health appraisal should be organized; 1. Determine the health status of candidates this combines the information derived from prior to participation and competition; periodic health examinations and teacher obser- 2. Provide appropiate medical advice to pro- vation and, where indicated, with the conse- mote optimum health and fitness; quences of referral examinations. 3. Arrange for further evaluation and prompt Discussion of periodic health examinations treatment of remediable conditions; for sports must encompass the school's total health and safety program since the sports pro- 4. Counsel the atypical candidate as to the gram is an extension of the entire school educa- sports or modification of sports which for tional curriculum. him would provide suitable activity; The periodic health examination of school age 5. Restrict from participation those whose boys and girls generally occurs a minimum of physical limitations present undue risk. four times in a student's precollege career:

38 THE HEALTH EXAMINATION 39

1. As he enters school at kindergarten or such as having one testicle or being an epileptic primary level; under medical control pose little problem for the 2. At the fourth grade or intermediate level; student seated in a classroom. However, place 3. At the seventh grade or junior high level; this same student amid colliding bodies in a sports activity and these conditions become sig- 4. At the tenth grade or senior high level.' nificant. Beyond this index of the students' health are the skilled observations by teachers of the child- SCOPE ren they see day to day over months at a time. Any deviation from a child's norm would be Knowledge of past illnesses, injuries, opera- evaluated by a referral exam to see if: tions, and immunizations is necessary to ensure 1. The student has an underlying illness; proper medical evaluation of a student's health. The AMA Guide suggests that the candidate's 2. The student has not been practicing sound personal physician carry ot< the health examina- health habits; tion since he already is familiar with the stu- 3. The student has not budgeted his time dent's health history. If there is no personal wisely; physicianto consult,a health history form 4. A teacher, parent, and/or employer have should be completed by the candidate and par- been making undue demands on him. ents and made available to the examining physi- However, the regulations of the school sys- cian. A suggested form, developed by the tem, state laws, and the demands or hazards of American Medical Association Committee on certain sports are of sufficient significance be- the Medical Aspects of Sports, appearsin yond the scope of the customary health appraisal Table 1.3 to justify selective use of the periodic health In some communities, athletes are examined examination for sports. individually by their family physician, school The following list shows what one county physician, or team physician. In other com- medical society found while cooperating with munities, a group procedure is utilized. The par- the local school systems for preseason school ticular method of handling the examinations athletic exams. Of 1,107 exams in doctors' of- depends upon the customary procedures, lead- fices,the society discovered: one congenital ership, and resources of that community. Gen- heart leading to surgery, two rheumatic hearts erally, problems can be worked out satisfactorily which restricted activity, six boys with only through the school health committee of the one functioning eye, one chronic genitourinary medical society meeting with appropriate school infection, three with one testicle, one kidney personnel. The followingconsiderationsare anomaly with hypertension, one diabetic, two basic to any arrangement: hernias, one spondylolysis, two weak knee liga- 1. Ample space in a private, quiet room with numerous lesser ments, oneepileptic,and no demands for undue haste; problems? Totals of one and two do not seem impressive 2.Examinations scheduled sufficiently in ad- statistically until one considers a national sum- vance of the practice or conditioning pro- marization of all county experiences. Conditions gram to allow adequate time for consultation,diagnosis,andtreatment,when 1 Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education necessary; of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association, Suggested School Health Policies (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1966), p. 15. 3 AMA Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports, 2 School exam blues ... roses to you, Bulletin ofthe Guide for Medical Evaluation of Candidates for School Pierce County (Washington) Medical Society 35 (Nov. Sports (Chicago: American Meeical Association, 1966), 1964), p. 26. p. 2. 40 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

3.Health evaluation extending from the DISQUALIFICATION sport in question to all sports available in the community.' Some conditions observed in the routine examinations are not defined clearly or may have TABLE 1 questionable significance. A heart condition on the record of a sports candidate is meaningless SUGGESTED SPORTS if not further evaluated. One cardiologist has CANDIDATES' QUESTIONNAIRE listed eight types of heart conditions that could (To be completed by parents or family physician) be diagnosed among youth, each with some sub- categories of pathology. Yet such conditions are Name Birth date Home address not necessarily contraindications for sports, de- Parents' Name t Tel. No pending on the severity of the condition, the 1. Has had injuries requiring medical attention Yes No sport, and the boy's response to activity.6 Physi- 2. Has had illness lasting more than a week Yes No 3. Is under a physician's care now Yes No cians now have at their disposal a simple office 4. Takes medication now Yes No method for assessing a candidate's response to 5. Wears glasses Yes No endurance activity.6 contact lenses Yes No 6. Has had a surgical operation Yes No The AMA Committee on the Medical Aspects 7. Has been in hospital (except for tonsillectomy) Yes No of Sports explains that for a student with a 8. Do you know of any reason why this health disorder, the degree of danger in sports individual should not participate in all sports? Yes No participation varies with the abnormality as it Please explain any "Yes" answers to above questions: relates to risks, the otherwise athletic fitness of the candidate, and the nature of the supervisory control. There are three general aspects of sports to be considered when evaluating a student for 9. Has had complete poliomyelitis immunization by inoculations (Salk) safeparticipation:endurance,collision,and or oral vaccine (Sabin) Yes No other (the noncollision, nonendurance sports). 10. Most recent tetanus toxoid immunization date Approval for sports in one category is possible Was this a booster? Yes No even though disqualification would be warranted 11. Has seen a dentist within the past 6 months Yes No in a different category. Disqualification does not Parent or Physician strictly imply restriction from all sports or from the sports in question in the future. [Note: a Under these conditions, one thorough annual boy who is medically disqualified from a varsity health examination for sports would be sufficient sport must not be permitted to participate in for the student. However, there are exceptions the intramural version of that sport unless ex- to this rule for the candidate who after the an- plicit approval is received from the disqualifying nual examination and before the onset of a new physician.] sport within the year (1) experiences a signifi- A physician should be appointed to serve as cant injury or illness; (2) undergoes surgery team physician for the school's sports program and/or therapy; or (3) is not under direct ob- varsity and intramural. This arrangement servation by the physical education faculty of that school for a significant period of time. does not negate the role of the family physician. Preference for an August health exam over an April-June exam for football candidates, for 5 Albert Salisbury Hyman, The athletewith a cardiac problem, in Proceedings of the Seventh National Confer- example, is based on the fact that these boys ence on the Medical Aspects of Sports (Chicago: Ameri- are not under the school's day-to-day observa- can Medical Association,1966), pp. 36-40. tion during the summer. 6 AMA Committee onExercise and Physical Fitness, Is your patientfit?Journal of the American Medical 4 Ibid. Association201 (July 10, 1967), pp. 131-32. THE HEALTH EXAMINATION 41

"The title team physician denotes a physician ditions that merit referral for medical evaluation who is vested by the school with authority to and diagnosis. make medical judgments relating to the partici- The AMA Committee on Exercise and Physi- pation and supervision of students in school cal Fitness list reactions which may not be in- sports. Without such a categorical designation dicative of a health problem, but do demand of responsibility, there cannot exist the continu- medical review: excessive breathlessness, bluing ing medical assistance the athlete deserves. To of the lips, pale or clammy skin, unusual fatigue, put the responsibility of on-site medical decisions persistent shakiness, and muscle twitching or on the shoulders of nonmedical personnel or tetany. physicians who are removed from the scene The AMA Guide for Medical Evaluation of serves no one effectively."' Candidates for School Sports contains a "Sug- One distinct advantage of having a team gested Health Examination Form" which was physician is uniform interpretation of health developed inconjunction with the National examination findings. Through close and con- Federation of State High School Athletic Associ- stant contact with the athletes, the physician ations. An example of these forms appears in can acquire diagnostic insights that might com- Table 2. plement the general health exam. Candidates for Further, a number of other complaints associ- football, for example, could undergo special tests ated with the demands of sports may be cause that would reveal knee stability or thigh mus- for a referral exam. According to the AMA Com- cular strength. Also, a team physician learns the mittee, recurring or persisting patterns of any capabilities of the supervisory controls, the re- of the following, particularly when related to sources available for his coordination, and the activity, require medical review: headache, dizzi- degree of risk associated with a sport. ness, fainting, interrupted night's sleep, diges- tiveupset, pain unrelatedto injury, undue CONTINUOUS APPRAISAL pounding or uneven heartbeat, and disorienta- tion or personality changes. Periodic health examinations in a sports program identify candidates with health problems LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS who should receive special consideration. Even on an annual basis, however, health examina- Schools and agencies sponsoring activity pro- tions cannot uncover every condition that may grams should require, for the protection of the develop as a result of the stresses of participa- athlete as well as the program, written certifi- tion. The American Medical Association Com- cations from physician and parent permitting mittee on Exercise and Physical Fitness has the student to participate. Three major con- stated that the coach-physical educator, with his siderations affect the legal status of these certi- background in the basic health sciences and fications for participation. because of frequent and repeated contact with First, no guarantee of safe participation should his group of athletes, is in a strategic position be implied because, simply, no guarantee can to observe any unusual responses of the partici- be made. Protective measures in sports are to pants to the demands of the sport and training make participation safer, but these measures program. Thus, the coach should not become cannot be expected to guarantee safety at all so absorbed with the skills he is teaching and times. the progress certain athletes are making that Second, no parent can waive the legal rights he neglects his responsibility to recognize con- of the minor child. When that child reaches age 21, the previous releases of liability are voidable. Third, the determination of negligence of a 7 AMA Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports, The team physician, The Journal of School Health 37 professional person is based primarily on an (Dec. 1967), pp. 498-501. interpretation as to whether he has conformed 42 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

TABLE 2 SUGGESTED HEALTH EXAMINATION FORM

(Cooperatively prepared by the National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations and the Committee on Medical Aspects of Sports of the American Medical Association.) Health examination for athletes should be rendered after August 1 preceding school year concerned.

(Please Print) Name of Student City and School Grade Age Height Weight Blood Pressure Significant Past Illness or Injury

Eyes R 20/ ; L 20/ ; Ears Hearing R /15; L /15 Respiratory Cardiovascular Liver Spleen Henna Musculoskeletai Skin Neurological Genitalia Laboratory: Urinalysis Other: Comments Completed Immunizations: Polio Tetanus Date Date Instructions for use of cardOther "I certify that I have on this date examined this student and that, on the basis of the examination requested by the school authorities and the student's medical history as furnished to me, I have found no reason which would make it medically inadvisable for this student to compete In supervised athletic activities, EXCEPT THOSE CROSSED OUT BELOW." BASEBALL FOOTBALL ROWING SOFTBALL TRACK BASKETBALL HOCKEY SKATING SPEEDBALL VOLLEYBALL CROSS COUNTRY GOLF SKIING SWIMMING *WRESTLING FIELD HOCKEY GYMNASTICS SOCCER TENNIS OTHERS * Estimated desirableweight level: pounds. Date of Examination: Signed. Examining Physician Physician's Address Telephone

STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND PARENTAL APPROVAL FORM Name of student Name of School: First Last Middle Initial Date: Date of Birth: Place of Birth: This application to compete in interscholastic athletics for the above high school is entirely voluntary on my part and is made with the understanding thatI have not violated any of the eligibility rules and regulations of the State Association. instructions for use of cardSignature of Student:

PARENT'S OR GUARDIAN'S PERMISSION "I hereby give my consent for the above named student (1) to represent his school In athletic activities, except those crossed out on this form by the examining physician, provided that such athletic activities are approved by the State Association; (2) to accompany any school team of which he is a member on any of its local or out-of-town trips. I authorize the school to obtain, through a physician of its own choice, any emergency medical care that may become reasonably necessary for the student in the course of such athletic activities or such travel.I also agree not to hold the school or anyone acting in its behalf responsible for any Injury occurring to the above named student In the course of such athletic activities or such travel." Signature of Parent or Guardian.

Date: Address: (Street) (city or Town) NOTE: This form Is to be filled out completely and filed In the office of the high school principal or superintendent of schools before atudent is allowed to practice and/or compete. THE HEALTH EXAMINATION 43

tothe standards of prudent professional be- to engage in school or community sponsored havior in that community under the given cir- sports programs. The risk of legal liability for a cumstances. For an institution, negligence would physician who undertakes tilt medical examina- have broader implications. In this regard, Leibee tion, supervision, and care of members of a lists four elements of negligence used by the school athletic team parallels that of a physician courts as criteria: "(1) Duty to conform to a in any other type of practice. In fact, few suits standard of behavior which will not subject have arisen out of the medical supervision of others to an unreasonable risk of injury; (2) school athletic teams or the treatment of injured Breach of that duty failure to exercise due student athletes at the scene of the injury.9 care; (3) A sufficiently causal connection be- Parental consent for a child's participation tween the conduct or behavior and the resulting and for emergency medical care makes it clear injury; (4) Damage or injury resulting to the that the sponsoring institution's designated phy- rights or interests of another."8 Obviously, mere sician is executing an appropriate function in carelessness is not the extent of the law's con- handling on-site athleticinjuries.While the sideration of negligence. minor's right cannot legally be waived, such a A physician's examination and consequent releasereflectsthe honorable intent of the certification is now considered a fundamental school and physician in protecting the athlete procedure in the protection of students wishing and deters unwarranted future suits. o AMA Joint Statement of the Law Department and s Howard C. Leibee, Tort Liability For Injuriesto the Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports, Legal Pupils (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Campus Publishers, 1965), liabilityof team physicians, Unpublished Statement pp. 8 -9. (Chicago: The Association, 1966).

References

AMA Committee on Exercise and Physical Fitness. Is The Association, 1966. your patient fit? Journal of the American Medical Association201:117-18, July 10, 1967. Hyman, Albert Salisbury. The at 'ete with a cardiac problem. In Proceedings of the Seventh National Con- AMA' Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports. ference on the Medical Aspects of Sports, pp.36,40. Guide for Medical Evaluation of Candidates for School Chicago: American Medical Association, 1966. Sports. Chicago: The Association, 1966. Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of The team physician. The Journal of School the National Education Association and the American Health37:497, 501,Dec. 1967. Medical Association. Suggested School Health Policies. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1966. AMA Joint Statement of the Law Department and the Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports. Legal Leibee, Howard C. Tort Liability for Injuries to Pupils. liability of team physicians. Unpublished statement, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Campus Publishers, 1965. Leadership Controls !NORMAN J. JOHNSON, Ed.D.

_.Where is a growing need for good leadership leadership control direct the implementation of in sports programs. While such programs offer ideas, the application of principles to the current worthwhile benefits, they often pose significant situation, and the exercise of vigilance during risks to the well-being of the participant. Sound on-site supervision. leadership must be exercised to plan and ad- Leadership control includes recognition of the minister safety measures to preserve both the need for improvement in techniques of safety integrity of the activity and the health of the instruction. It also recognizes the role that other participant. professionals and agencies play in the field of Advanced planning of a sports program in safety education. Thus, ere should be mutual terms of leadership control should include an- assistance in providing laboratory experiences, ticipation of certain hazards related to the sports establishing the best plans for teaching, stimu- activity, facilities, environment, prayers, super- lating proper motivation for learning, and assur- visory personnel, and the attitudes of the coming safety Ir.-sures which will reflect the best munity. Consideration should also be devoted educational p lctices. to the development of guidelines, establishment Leadership control involves the kind of teach- of a philosophy and objectives, determination of ing that imbues the participant with a respect content, analysis of student experiences, and the for the principles of safety. The safety educated means whereby exacting standards for evalua- participant of today will be the most effective tion cap. be established and utilized. In addition, safety program leader of tomorrow.

SELECTION AND TRAINING OF TEACHER-LEADERS

Improvement in course offerings in our col- service program that will i.ssure competency leges and universities is urgently needed in the in teaching safety. area of safety. Today, in many teacher training State departments of education and their dele- institutions, courses in first aid and safety, if gated agencies can help significantly by up- offered at all, are offered primarily on an elective dating certification requirements to include re- basis. Our colleges have an important role tc quirements in safety instructionStrict policies play in this regard that is, to develop a pre- should be instituted relative to he hiring prac-

44 LEADERSHIP CONTROLS 45

tices of boards of education. A common example ADMINISTRATION of improper hiring can be noted in the selection In a school setting the teacher must have the of some coaches. At times, coaches are employed full cooperation of his fellow teachers as well who have little or no training in safety educa- as the administration. The administration can tion, prevention and care of athletic injuries, assist by: anatomy and kinesiology, or other related subjects; but they are selected primarily on the 1.providing staff whose training and ex- basis of their athletic prowess and availability. perience is of the highest caliber. This practice also exists in the hiring of person- 2.providing leadership and support in the nel for playground and neighborhood recreation development of instructional guidelines. programs in many of our smaller towns and 3.being available atalltimes to make communities. Perhaps shortage of both funds necessary interpretations of the safety and qualified leaders has created this situation. program as it relates to the total instruc- Yet, near most communities there are agencies tional program. such as the American Red Cross, state, county, and local health centers, industrial concerns, 4.providingavenuesforguidance and first aid volunteers, doctors, nurses, and many counseling when needed by the profes- other specialists and service organizations which sional staff. might be called upon to assist in the training of 5.providing the means for determining workers in safety procedures. cc rnmunity needs. 6.providing scheduled time for workers in IN-SERVICE TRAINING the safety programs to do research, to The selection of an individual to supervise and discuss research data presented by others, direct the instructional program should be made or to attend professional meetings, con- with special care. His academic training and ferences, and lectures. background should be comparable to that of making full use of other agencies whose other members of the instructional staff. His 7. purposes include safety and maintaining capabilities should be demonstrated not only by a close relationship with them. his academic and scholastic achievements, but also by his adaptability to meet varying situa- 8.making available adequate financing to tions. Personality and high moral caliber are carry on a safety program. likewise important factors to consider in select- 9.maintaining a concern for the safety pro- ing a leader. How well a program succeeds gram as well as problems involving safety depends upon student response and- thisre- as they develop. sponse is largely determined by the actions of providing the means for determining the the leader. The way in which the teacher pre- 10. best utilization of the school personnel sents himseli, his understanding and interest in in meeting the needs of a sound safety students, and his knowledge of the subject matter may be the dominant feature of the program. safety education program. INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF Safetyisa continuous process. Wellor- The instructional staff can assist the leader ganized, in-service safety programs are essential of the safety program by: inproviding competenceinsafetymatters implementing safety policies and serving among school personnel. In-service training pro- 1. grams may range from simple activities of read- on committees. ing and discussion groups, to more elaborate 2.incorporating safety information into its involvement of self-study. own areas of specialization. 46 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

3.teaching safety whenever the opportunity 1.providing the necessary care and main- is presented. tenance of a safe environment. 4. participating actively in organizations, 2.providing specific and authorized con- such as PTA's, scouting, and civic groups. trols when faculty personnel are not on the scene. CLERICAL, MAINTENANCE, AND CUSTODIAL PERSONNEL 3.exercising good reporting practices whenever equipment and facilities appear po- The clerical, maintenance, and custodial per- tentially dangerous. sonnel can play a vital role in the area of sup- plementary safety instruction by: 4.fully supporting the safety program.

TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Materials presented in courses of instruction ORGANIZATION OF RESOURCES FOR TEACHING should be selected on the basis of timeliness and Committees are valuable for organizing safety of appropriateness to objectives. Before the full programs and curriculum. Representation from value of materials can be appreciated, however, the teacher should know about the psychological each area of the school should be included on factors t' at affect learning and ask himself a the committee. If a committee approach is not number of questions. Are my students emo- warranted an individual approach should be tionally and psychologically ready for the ma- employed. Representatives from various com- terial to be presented? Have I properly prepared munity agencies whose functions include safety them so that they can master the work and can might hold full and active membership on the find value in it? Am I fully aware of the indi- committee or act in an advisory capacity. vidual differences that are present in the group? Are the knowledges hoped for geared to the PHILOSOPHY AND OBJECTIVES students' age levels? Do my students have the A philosophy, or statement of principles, rela- necessary background to understand fully the tive to the purpose of the safety program should information? Have I arranged the material so be established. This statement must reflect care- that the students can readily relate it to their ful thought and provide guidelines for the safety own experiences? Can relationships to existing education structure. environmental situations be made? Is the vo- Objectives are to be clear and to the point, cabulary geared to the level of the student? based on need and obtainable goals. Whether Have I assured myself that instruction in the the objectives are general or specific, immediate area is really worth teaching? Has my selection or long range, supporting evidence must be of material been made on the basis of priority? factual and practical. Does this phase of instruction relate to other o past or future phase of instruction? DETERMINING NEEDS All units of instruction should be specifically Suggestions for determininginterestsand described, and the student should have a clear safety needs of individuals include: discussions, idea of what is to be expected. While the teacher observatio.ts, inventories, sociodrama or play isimportant,nevertheless,learningpositive acting, conferences with students and parents, safety habits and attitudes is a responsibility of checklists, questions, environmental conditions, all levels in the education process as well as study of accident data relative to injury and those who function outside of the school. death, and contributions from various authori- LEADERSHIP CONTROLS 47 ties and agencies. This list is by no means com- of the students. Poor planning and controls may plete. It must be understood that many factors lead to poor insight on the part of the students. will affect methods used in determining an indi- Also, faulty habits and attitudes might be de- vidual's needs, such as age of individual, previ- veloped which would destroy all of the good ous experiences, geographical location, and socio- intentions of the teacher-leader. The teacher - economic background. leader is reminded that the laboratory experiences are not to be used as "playtime" because MOTIVATION these experiences may prove the most forceful and important part of the safety instruction The teaching and learning climate involves a program. partnership between the teacher as the producer and the learner as the consumer. The teacher On-site supervision, careful hazard analysis as a leader must recognize that students are of activities involved in athletics, physical edu- individuals their interests, attitudes, purposes, cation, and recreation, hazards associated with facilities and equipment, opportunities for inci- responses,andexperienceswillvary.The teacher-leader must be able to identify these dental teaching, and individual responsibility for safety to self and others are some of the many differences and act accordingly. The teacher-leader must take into account facets of laboratory experiences. Implementation several factors, namely, the needs of the stu- must involve all groups and individuals con -. dents, age levels, interest patterns, and the cerned to insure coordination and understanding students' abilities to comprehend the informa- of the objectives which are to be accomplished. tion and experiences directed toward them. In Knowledge gained should generate involvement other words, teaching must be geared to the so that it will carry over into other interests. achievement level of the student. TEACHING AIDS LABORATORY EXPERIENCES Teaching aids should be selected on the basis Safety instruction and accident control must of their uniqueness and utility to the teaching be geared to practical and realistic situations. situations. Too often instruction ends in the classroom Aids that can be used to supplement the in- rather than carrying over into the activity en- structional program are: vironment. 1.audio-visual aids movies, slide films, Safety must be learned and students must loop films have the opportunity to apply what they learn. 2.bulletin, chalk, and magnetic boards Training programs should be devised to give students needed safety experiences under com- 3.demonstrations petent adult supervision. The design of such 4.experiments laboratory training programs should not place 5.field trips the students in any danger, but should provide 6. phonograph and tape recorders a meaningful way of bringing into focus the various aspects of safety knowledge learned. 7.reading materials textbooks, articles, The activitiesprovided in these experiences booklets or pamphlets, and catalogues should allow opportunities for the students to 8.records make decisions, solve problems, rate themselves 9.special aids charts, diagrams, photo- and others, and to express freely their own graphic materials feelings about the experiences. It is important that thorough planning and 10.television careful controls precede the actual movement 11.speakers 48 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

EVALUATION

Efficient methods of evaluation are essential Records. Cumulativerecordsprovidethe to a successful program of safety education. teacher with valuable accounts of pupil behavior. Froehlich says, "because a knowledge of the Self-testing activities. These activities are use- worth of present practices is requisite to their ful in helping pupilsto appraise their own improvement, the ... program must assaythe physical performance. worth of its activities. Evaluation is the corner- Written and oral tests.Tests are the most stone upon which ... programs arebuilt."1 common means of appraising the extent of pupil Evaluation can provide valuable insights con- knowledge. Oral tests are excellent for deter- cerning the strengths and weaknesses of a pro- mining how much a pupil knows about a topic, gram. Too often data revealed from evaluation but they are time consuming. Written tests, instruments are stored away and the information when properly constructed, can be used to ap- never used. It is vitally important that persons praise physical education skills, game knowledge concerned with the program, especially the stu- and strategy, game rules, and misconceptions dents, be the recipients of all of the information that contribute to danger. available regarding the program. Performance tests. These are individual tests and measure motor ability and sport skill. There EVALUATION DEVICES are also tests that involve a performance which isessentially unrelated toskill;these tests The devices which follow are from Carl E. measure such things as strength, endurance, Willgoose? flexibility, balance, and reaction time. Observation. To the teacher with an astute Pupil opinion surveys. This offers a means eye, observation can be a most fruitful evalu- of identifying pupil attitudes for the purpose of ation technique. Observation can yield objective improving the instructional program. information, especially if the observer is self- The case study. This device involves the use disciplined, critical, and precise. of comprehensive data about an individual as a Checklist and rating scales. A simple list of basis for diagnosing and interpreting his conduct items to look for when appraising pupils can or behavior.3 make the difference between a thorough, objec- Evaluative techniques present certain limita- tive evaluation and one of limited value. The tions. Teacher-leaders are encouraged to devise checklist or rating scale brings order to the their own techniques and procedures or to use observation. those that are readily available in the original Questionnaire. A series of specific questions form, in combinations, or with modifications. can be listed for use in a particular health or A test or evaluative technique is judged for its physical education project. adequacy, efficiency, and consistency as a meas- Interviews. As an effective measuring device uring device on the basis of certain qualities the interview falls somewhere between question- such as validity, reliability, objectivity, norms, naires and observations. It can be effective in and practicability. Validity indicates the relation- ascertaining how students feel about a program ship of a measure or diagnosis with meaningful or how they themselves feel and why. criteria of learning or behavior. Reliability indicates the consistency, equivalence, or stability of 1 Clifford P. Froehlich, Guidance Services in Smaller a measure that is obtained. Objectivity indicates Schools (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1950), p. 338 the identity or similarity of the scores or diag- 2 Carl E. Willgoose, Education in Health Education and Physical Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 3 J. Wayne Wrightstone et al., Evaluation in Modern 1961), pp. 9-11. Education (New lark: American Book Co., 1956), p. 37. LEADERSHIP CONTROLS 49 nosis obtained from the same data by equally group may be compared with the typical values competent scorers. A norm provides an average of the normative population. Practicability indi- or typical value for a measure or diagnosis ob- cates the feasibility of a test or evaluative tech-. tained by the administration of a measuring nique on such bases as cost, time required for instrument to a specific population so that sub- administration,andeaseofadministration, sequent scores or measures for an individual or scoring, and interpretation of the results.

EVALUATION CHECKLIST

Yes No Partially

1.Have I given to the members of the board of education, administration,physicians, teaching staff, and students the objectives of the safety program written in concise and understandable language? 2. Have I taken care of all cases and situations involving safety in a way which promotes wholesome relationships with school personnel and others concerned with safety? 3. Have I taken advantage of opportunities to include administrators, students, teachers, maintenance workers, and parents in the safety education program? 4.Are my teaching and allied programs directed toward fostering safe habits shared by school authorities, government agencies and officials, parents, and participants in the various phases of physical education, athletics, and recreation? 5. Have I created avenues and channels where information concerning safety can be made readily available? 6.Have I given attention to safety program planning for areas other than physical education, athletics, and recreation, such as band, ROTC, dramatics, laboratories, and field trips? 7.Have I fully utilized all available resources that would enhance my safety education program? 8.Have Isought help in solving difficult problem situations, making changes in programs, and planning in general? 50 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

Yes No Partially

9. Have I accepted the responsibility of assisting other individuals and agencies with their programs? 10. Do I attend meetings and participate with other departments of the school and local community groups? 11. Are the instructions for handling emergencies clear, flexible, and adaptive to varying situations? 12. Are the instructions for emergencies practical and do they adequately serve the purpose for which they were designed? 13. Have I emphasized safety in a meaningful way? Do those concerned fully understand the purposes and objectives of the safety program? 14. Have I made full use of the ways to help students become more responsible to themselves and others in respect to safety? 15. Have I devised the means for ascertaining knowledge of safety? 16.Is my system of accident reporting adequate? 17. Are my follow-up safety procedures adequate and consistent with good practice? 18. Do I make available information resulting from evaluation and follow-up to all concerned? 19.Is full use made of the data stemming from evaluation as a means of making correc- tions, improvements, or as a basis of determining success?

References

Willgoose, Carl E. Education in Health Education and Wrightstone, J. Wayne; Justman, Joseph; and Robbins, Physical Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Irving. Evaluation in Modern Education. New York: Co.,1961. American Book Co.,1956. Facilities, Equipment and Supplies IGEORGE F. COUSINS, P.E.D.

COOPERATIVE PLANNING

A long range program of extensive study and recreational facility should be represented in the planning is basic to the orderly development of task of selecting a site. Once a specific site has a community's sports and recreational facilities. been selected, a building or facility committee New facilities are planned in terms of future should be formed to include representatives needs and expanded programs to help insure from all groups planning to use the facility. The maximum utility. first responsibility of this committee is to formu- A master planfor community expansion late a statement of purpose, need, and program should include, in addition to building sites, to serve as a guide to those involved in planning. recommended sites for out-of-doors sports and Program and philosophy must be interpreted to recreation.Communitygovernment,school the community as well as to the architect and boards, park boards, recreation boards, and others involved in facility construction. other public service organizations working to- One individual should be appointed as planner gether with a community planner are essential or coordinator of the proposed facility. This to the development of a master plan for com- person would act as a liaison among the ad- munity growth. ministration, architect, and contractors and those With an acceptable master plan, construc- involved in facility use. Whileit would be tion of sports and recreational facilities will desirable if the coordinator had some experience follow an orderly and systematic program of in facility construction, it is essential that he be development. Such a master plan generally will thoroughly familiar with the functional aspects locate building and outdoor sites for sports and of program offerings. It is recommended that recreation. members of the planning committee visit similar Specific site selection is most important to facilities, but construction of a duplicate facility participantsafety. Considerations should in- should not be considered. clude traffic hazards, elevation, sanitation, ori- Responsibility for the development of specific entaticn, state codes, accessibility, expansibility, plans for the proposed facilityfallsinto the and topographical features. Those responsible hands of the planning committee. Recommenda- for the administration and operation of the tions on type of facility, primary use, suggested

51 52 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION size, and other special considerations are de- drawings which include changes as agreed on veloped by the planning committee for pre- by the planning committee. Acceptance of preliminary discussions with the architect. Func- liminary drawings allows the architect to pro- tional relationships must be interpreted for the ceed with the development of detailed drawings architect before the development of preliminary and blueprints necessary for facility construction. drawings. General design of a building or a During this phase of planning, the coordinator sports facility is the responsibility of the archi- works most carefully with the architect to help tect. Since the planning committee represents eliminate poor functional relationships of the those who pay for, administer, and use a struc- proposed facility. Some consider this aspect of ture, it must have the final decision in acceptance planning to be the most important in the elimi- of the completed design. nation of unfortunate and costly errors. Lighting, heating, ventilation, structural ma- Architectural drawings should be studied and terials, and acoustics are highly technical aspects approved by those primarily concerned with the of facility construction. Employment of qualified utilization of special areas, and administrative engineers and technical consultants, while ini- personnel should approve those areas that are tially costly, will actually be more economical in general in nature. the long run. After the acceptance of bids and selection of Development of preliminary plans should in- a general contractor, monthly progress meetings volve primarily the architect and the individual should be held. This procedure provides an op- representing the coordinating committee. Once portunity for those responsible to resolve any the preliminary plans have been completed, all problems that develop during the construction members of the planning committee and other phase. interested individuals should study carefully the When planning for construction of sports and plans from a functional standpoint. Suggestions recreational facilities, follow the suggested pro- for change or questions concerning preliminary cedure above. Design of a facility, from a func- plans should be written and discussed with the tional view, should be well conceived and imple- coordinator and architect. This procedure should mented in order to meet the needs of the be repeated with a second set of preliminary community.

INDOOR SPORTS AND RECREATIONAL FACILITIES

GENERAL BUILDING FEATURES TRAFFIC CIRCULATION In addition to instructional and recreational The purposes of planning for traffic circulation areas of sports facilities, ancillary or service and control include (1) reducing congestion in areas and bare space are necessary and im- corridors, stairwells, locker rooms, and spec- portant parts of the total unit. All three types tator areas, (2) minimizing disturbances in quiet of building space must be considered in terms/areas of a building, (3) providing for ease of of functional relationships for the comfort and building supervision, (4) enhancing safe and safety of spectators and participants. efficient movement of individuals using a facil- Site selection and building orientation dictate ity,and(5)providingforfuture building primary and secondary entrances and exits, side- expansion.' walks, service areas, and roads. A careful study of anticipated movements of individuals who will use the facility is recommended. Such a flow ' College and University Facilities Guide (Washington, D.C.: The Athletic Institute and American Association chart will help to plan any sports facility. for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1968). FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES 53

Consideration must be given to the required should be from corridors or directly from out- movement of sports participants from areas of-doors. A sufficient number of toiletrooms within service units (locker rooms to shower located near spectator entrances should bepro- rooms), between service units and activity units vided for spectators and participants. (shower rooms to swimming pools), between A traffic flow chart within a building will aid service units and general units, and between in the planning of area units in relation to one general units and spectator areas. another. The anticipated movement of partici- The interrelationships with instruction, serv- pants from out-of-doors to service areas, from ice,activity, and spectator units necessitate service areas to instructional units, and other careful planning in building supervision and required movements should be studied to avoid efficient traffic circulation. circulation problems. Buildings designed and constructed to mini- In general, activity areas should be separated mize accident hazards should include certain from instructional and administrative units by features. Corridors should be well lit, of suffi- the service units of locker and showerrooms. cient width to allow for peak traffic load, and It is recommended that special areas of a build- free from all obstructions. Fire extinguishers, ing be designed to enable any single unit to be water fountains, telephones, and other equip- locked but with possible access to other units. ment should be recessed.'-The minimum recom- Particular consideration should be given touse mended width of any corridor is five feet. Con- of facilities by community groups. tinuous corridors that terminate at an exit or a The functional relationships of parts ofan stairwell are important in case of fire. Insome area should be carefully studied to eliminate buildings it may be necessary to install gatesor cross traffic, provide for supervision, minimize doors to provide for security of certain parts distractions,andmeet maximum program of a building. requirements. For slight elevation differences in floor levels, nonslip surface ramps are preferable to stairs. BUILDING SERVICES The rise of any ramp should not exceed one Heating, ventilation, sound control, lighting, foot for every 12 feet in length. and electrical service systems are, to Stairways improperly designed and placed some extent, controlled by state and local building codes. create problems of congestion and safety that Minimum requirements or standards have been should not occur. A common mistake is making adopted for the primary purpose of stairwells too narrow. A minimum stairway public width is four feet. Two lane main stairways safety. While standards vary from one state to with a center handrail are recommended. A another, they do offer a starting point and tend to minimize faulty planning and false economy. maximum of 16 steps is recommended with While these services are included generally in provision for a stair landing if necessary. Cir- cular stairways are not suggested for the planning, others such as disposal, communi- sports cation, storage, maintenance, and custodial are facilities. apt to be overlooked by the planning group. SPECIAL AREA RELATIONSHIPS Suggestions in planning for building services are included so that these important features For safety, hygienic, and supervisoryreasons, are considered in the planning stages of a build- the relationships of special areas of a buildingto ing program. other areas should be carefully studied. The Heating and ventilating systems. Safe and following general relationships are suggested. economically efficient heating and ventilating Spectator space should be separated from the systems are highly technical and require the decks of swimming pools and floors of activity professional service of a heating and .ventilating areas. Entrances and exits to spectator areas engineer. Quietness, ease of maintenance and 54 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION operation, flexibility of control, and capacity are for supervisors and improve building security importantconsiderations ofclimatecontrol. considerably. Special areas may require moisture and humidity Lighting. Engineers are essential to the de- control; swimming pools, gymnasiums, and field- velopment of a satisfactory system of lighting a houses require specially designed equipment. A sports and recreational facility. Quality of light color code for all heating and ventilating sys- is at least as important as the amount or quantity tems aids in maintenance and repair of the of light. Also, repair, replacement, cleaning, and system. initial and overall costs are important factors in Electrical service? Standards of the national planning an efficient system. electric code of the National Board of Fire Un- Night lights which burn continuously are derwriters and local and state building codes recommended for gymnasiums, swimming pools, should dictate the amount and kind of installa- and other areas of comparable size. Corridors, tion of electricalservice.Electrical planning s'.airwells, locker rooms, and some classrooms should include provisions for possible future should include provision for night lights. While expansion of buildings or programs. operation costs increase with night lighting, the If possible, the power entrance should be in safety and security factors of this system out- a specially designed room located in a part of weigh the cost of operation. Night lights should the building accessible only to authorized per- be on a separate circuit and have single controls. sonnel. All main service panels, switches, light The prescribed code of the local community and power panels, and meters should be lo- and the state fire code must be met in providing cated in area. exit lights. All exit lights must be on a separate All panels and circuits should be protected by circuit and should clearly indicate the direction automatic circuit breakers. Additional spare cir- to the exterior of the building. An emergency cuits should be included in the initial program. lighting system is essential for those areas where Electrical service panels located in corridors or arelatively large number of participants or rooms accessible to all should be capable of spectators will assemble, in order to avoid a being locked with a flush type front. panic in case of lighting failure. Secondary electrical service control panels are Protective covers or shielded lights are neces- placed in various locations of the structure con- sary for all activity areas. Vapor proof lights venient tothose individuald responsiblefor must be used in shower and locker rooms and opening and closing the building. rooms with high humidity. All lights should Independent circuits should be provided for have some type of protective shield. each of the distinct areas of the building. Light- Shielded or break proof outside night lighting ing and power circuits to any area are best in- at entrances and other strategic locations will stalled as separate circuits. Program systems, help guard against vandalism, rowdiness, and communications, and fire alarm systems should accidents. If natural lighting is used, it must be all be on single independent circuits, and not in balancedwithartificiallighting.Protective regular service conduits. shields are necessary for natural lighting in ac- Corridor, stairway, andallnight lighting tivity areas. One of the most troublesome prob- should be on independent circuits, with provi- lems of natural lighting is sun glare, which can sion for three-way switches located at the end be eliminated. of each corridor, at the foot and head of stairs, Fire alarm. The fire alarm system must meet and near the entrance of large classrooms, gym- state and local fire law regulations, and should nasiums, or swimming pools. Locating switches be approved by the underwriters laboratories. for night lighting on the open side of interior The system must be understood clearly by ad- entrances to all facilities provides convenience ministrators and staff who will assist in emer- 2 Ibid. gency evacuation of buildings. FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES 55

Telephone system. Pay telephone units should Nonslip, impervious floors are essential in be installed in sports facilities for the public's most service areas. A textured ceramic type tile convenience. Independent telephone service is will help prevent accidents resulting from slip- recommended for specific areas of a building ping and falling. Floors should be sloped toward which might be used when other areas are not. drains to facilitate cleaning. Lockers should be Local telephone companies maintain consultant placed on covered bases, and all junctions of services to help in planning such arrangements. walls and floors covered with impervious ma- Communication systems. Public address and terialsimilar to that used on floors. Smooth a system of intercommunication among parts of walls of moisture resistant materials which per- a building should be provided. These sound mit cleaning are recommended. Ceiling must systems must be flexible in design with micro- be moisture resistant. phone outlets located in areas of anticipated Benches built into locker bases are initially use. An outdoor system might be needed as well. more costly but have the advantage of making Sound control. The importance of sound con- cleaning more efficient and reducing the hazards trol in sports and recreational facilities is readily of aisle benches. apparent to those involved in the administration Sight barriers should be considered for en- of a sports program. Sound control requires the trances and exits to locker rooms. If entrance recommendations of an acoustical engineer. and exit doors are used, they must be equipped with approved panic bars. SERVICE AREAS If windows are to be included they should be installed above locker height and considered Locker and shower rooms, storageareas, a part of the ventilating system. Proper ventila- equipment issue rooms, toilets, and custodial tion of locker and shower rooms is costly but rooms are designed for the convenience and essential. comfort of the participant. Since these areas are Recessed hose bibs and key controlled electri- often potentially hazardous, they must be de- cal outlets are necessary for maintaining a sani- signed to eliminate or minimize features which tary condition in this area. may contribute to accidental injury. Provision Shower rooms. Suggestions for walls, ceil- should be made for clean, light, and attractive ings, and floors of locker rooms are also appli- servicefacilities capable of being effectively cable for shower rooms. Materials used in the maintained. construction of shower rooms must be easy to Locker rooms. No attempt is made here to clean and free of sharp corners. Noncorrosive consider the many types of locker rooms; gen- metal is a basic requirement for shower and eral suggestions concerning desirable features of plumbing hardware. An adequate drainage sys- locker rooms are presented. tem is important to allow for surplus water and Ideally the locker room should be located to soap to be carried away quickly. Handholds enable participants to pass to activity rooms placed near shower heads help control falls. without crossing public corridors. If possible, The use of liquid soap is desirable. Whatever this service facility should serve both indoor and type of soap supply system is provided, clearly outdoorsportsfacilities.Preferablylocated posted policies regarding the proper use of the above ground level, locker rooms should have a shower room will help prevent accidents arising functional relationship with shower rooms, lav- from horseplay. The individual bar type of sys- atories, and equipment issue rooms. tem may increase the danger of falls if soap is Light colors for floors, walls, ceilings, and allowed to remain on the shower room floors. lockers are recommended. Well lighted, colorful The temperature of water in showers and locker rooms will help offer a sense of cleanli- sinks should be automatically controlled to pre- ness and health. vent scalding. 56 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

Toweling room. A toweling or drying room other activity. This guideline seems obvious but is usually included as a part of the shower room is often overlooked. facility. All suggested policies on material and A safety zone between court areas and be- design for shower and locker rooms are neces- tween courts and walls or bleachers should be sary here, too. Towel bars or towel hooks, wide enough to prevent injury of participants. properly positioned, should be provided for con- A minimum ceiling height of 24 feet is sug- venience and safety. gested for all multiple use gymnasiums. This minimum will accommodate allactivities in- SECURITY cludedina physicaleducation orathletic program. Because of their uniqueness, sports facilities Because of glare many contemporary struc- include a wide variety of apparatus and equip- tures do not have windows or natural lighting. ment which require maximum security when If windows are to be a part of the gymnasium not used in an organized program. Gymnastic they should be shatterproof and translucent to apparatus such as trampolines, high bars, flying eliminate direct sunlight. Skylights have not rings, and parallel bars could be considered an been satisfactory. attractive nuisance if improperly supervised or Wall areas should be free of protruding ob- secured. Swimming pools, weight training rooms, structions, and when special equipment is neces- sauna baths, and gymnasiums must be planned sary, it should be recessed. Structural facing with security features in mind. . tile to a height of seven feet on lower walls has Most important, security starts with a well proved most satisfactory in many instances; it is planned lock and key system designed to control smooth and easily cleaned. a building or any specific area within a building. According to state fire codes, the maximum Consultation with hardware and security experts number of spectators anticipated dictates the will help eliminate many of the problems result- number of exits required. ing from an inadequate system. Seating of spectators may be accomplished by Again, night lighting, both inside and outside permanent seating, roll-away bleachers, portable a building, is strongly recommended to help knockdown bleachers, or a combination of these. control illegal entry, vandalism, and accidents. Whatever type of spectator seating is selected, a Provision for security guards or night watch- maximum of 20 rows of continuous seating is men should be considered. Fire alarm, intercom- recommended. munication, and telephone systems play an im- A storage facility large enough to store all portant role in maintaining building security. gymnasium equipment should be located ad- State and local codes related to the building jacent to that area. Side horses, parallel bars, and its use must be considered in final plans. trampolines, and other equipment should not be left in an unsupervised gymnasium. A storage ACTIVITY AREAS room with a secure lock arrangement will help Gymnasiums. There is no attempt here to to eliminate accidents caused by unauthorized recommend gynt....asium standards because of the use of gymnasium apparatus. multiple uses for which a gymnasium may be In general, activity areas require a wooden or constructed. Suggestions for minimizing the po- approved synthetic type floor. Special consid- tential safety hazards of a gymnasium are pre- eration must be given to floor plates or other sented rather than detailed specifications, which anchoring devices for gymnasium equipment. are readily available in other publications. Swimming pools. One of the most potentially When gymnasiums are planned for multiple hazardous activity areas included in facilities for use, a careful study should be made to insure sports and recreation is the swimming pool. The that any one activity will not interfere with any very nature of swimming and its environment FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES 57

demands that special consideration should be 1.There should be a minimum of eight feet given to the design, features, and security of of deck space constructed of nonskid ma- this area. A swimming pool is expensive and terial around the entire pool area. requires continuous maintenance and super- 2. A minimum of 10 feet from a platform vision. If operated improperly the pool can be and 15 feet from a diving board is re- a safety and health hazard. quiredin determiningceilingheight. Swimming pool design is a highly specialized High boards should have a minimum dis- and technical phase of architectural engineering. tance of 10 feet between boards and Planning for the construction of a swimming between the board and the deck. A clear- pool requires the consultant services of experts. ance of at least 15 feet for low boards Problems of size, humidity, depth, filtration, and and 20 feet for high boards is required spectator space figure in the construction of such in front of the boards. a facility. Conflicting uses for the pool must be resolved by the planning committee prior to the 3. Depth markings are necessary on sides development of detailed plans. and ends of all pools. Rectangular Fools are the most functional 4.Adequate hardware to insure security of type. If competitive swimming is included in this area is an important consideration. proposed use, the pool must be designed ac- Prov'sion for an alarm system which in- cording to AAU or NCAA specifications. dicates the presence of individuals in the Safety featties of the swimming pool area pool when not supervised has been in- must include the following for minimum pro- stalledin many recentlyconstructed tection of participants: pools.

Figure 1.Special consideration should be given to the design, features, and security of the swimming and diving areas. 58 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

5.Underwater lighting and night lighting sary because of the variety of activities of the pool are esse It:al. included ii, pool use. 6.Stable portable lifeguard chairs are rec- 14.If scuba is to be included in the aquatic ommended over stationary chairs. Hy- program, provision must be made for gienic standards must be met relative to compressor and cascade systems for fill- water filtration, showers, and pool main- ing tanks. tenance. 7.If underwater windows areinstalled, SPECIAL ACTIVITY AREAS provision for escape should be included Dance studios, weight exercise rooms, gym- in case water pressure breaks windows. nasticrooms,handballandsquashcourts, 8.Diving boards more than one meter wrestling rooms, rifle ranges, and adaptive rooms should include ladders with guard rails. are only a few of the many types of activity If a tower is used, an enclosed ladder areas found in a modern sports structure. Each should prevent unskilled divers from of these areas presents unique problems in size, using the platform. shape, special equipment, and ceiling height. 9.There should be handrails and guard rails Enlisting the aid of program specialists in each in spectator areas. area will minimize safety hazards. 10.All electrical service must include provi- The most important factor to consider in a sion for grounding and consideration for dance stud;o is the floor and its finish. A hard the hazards of water and electricity. maple floor finished in a manner that allows 11. Entrance and exits should be planned participants to slide and move freely without causing blisters on bare feet is recommended. relativeto shower,toilet, and locker A minimum of 60 square feet per student at services. Spectators should not have access to the pool deck peak load is desirable for those rooms planned to accommodate classes in judo, wrestling, karate, 12. Heating, lighting, and ventilationare and personal defense. Resilient floors and walls special problems related to the comfort are 2ssential for protection of the participant and safety of participants and spectators. in these activities. The services of qualified engineers in The floor of the weight training room is best these areas of construction are necessary. constructed with a resilient material, durable 13.Storage areas are not usually considered and easily cleaned, Provision should be made for for swimming pools but they are neces- placing all weight equipment on racks or walls.

References

Fngelhart, N. L.; Engelhart, N. L.,Jr.; and Leggett, cation, and Recreation. Washington, D.C.: The Ath- Stanton. Planning Secondary School Buildings. New letic Institute and American Association for Health, York: Reinhold Publishing Corp.,1952. Physical Education, and Recreation,1965. Perkins, Lawrence B. and Cod ing, Walter D. Schools. Scott,H. A. and Westkaemper, R. B. From Program to New York: Reinhold Publishing Cow.,1953. Facilities in Physical Education. New York Harper & Planning Areas and Facilities for Health, Physical Erb Row, Publishers,1958. The Significance of First Aid and

Emergency Procedures IROBERT M. OSWALD, M.S.

First aid is a fundamental aspect of injury aid training, this is untrue. First aid training control; firs* aid training is compatible with a develops in individuals a high degree of sensi- need to plan for accident prevention. While an tivity to the serious effects of injuries and in- analysis oC statistics on sports injury might im- stills a desire to prevent the causes of such ply that there is no significant impact from first injuries.

FIRST AID FACTORS Because of their knowledge of the effects of a coordinated lay and medical effort to develop injury with regard to pain, disability, financial guidelines and perimeters of action will alleviate costs, and loss of life, persons trained in first misunderstandings and improve care procedures. aid want to use preventive measures. Since first A continuing analysis of injury accident causes, aid training instills this attitude, the training effectiveness of first aid care, and follow-up should be required for everyone involved in an medical treatment should be made to obtain educational leadership role. information for improving safe sports participation and emergency care procedures. A scientific MEDICAL ADVICE data bank of such information would be of significant value in establishing improved sports The content of well developed first aid courses participation guidelines. is established by the medical profession, since such materia'. is an extension of medical knowledge and skill. The actions of the layman in PARTICIPANT RESPONSIBILITY providing emergency carmust have the en- The great variety of sports activities, environ- dorsement of the medical profession. A medical mental elements, and differing locations ci..tes adviser is needed to plan and implement a system special problems for first aid or emergency care of injury control for organized sports programs. action. The circumstances of a skiing accident, Formulating an emergency plan provides an op- involving a very cold environment and difficult pJrtunity to establish rapport between the lay- transportation of the injured person in a location man and the medical profession. The result of far from medical care, involve a different set of

4. 60 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION problems from an accident on a football field EMERGENCY PLANNING where the physician and ambulance are on All organized sports programs should have a site. The problems involved with an injured well defined plan for responding to emergencies. hunter many miles from help, or the person on The plan should be developed through consulta- a boat suffering from acompound fracture far tion with persons having particular interest, from shore, are rhore profound than those for competence, and experience, such as, physicians, the person with a similar injury in his home.-- school administrators, safetyofficials,police, Some serious injuries call for immediate first fire departments, hospital authorities, teachers, aid, such as when breathing ceases, when there and student leaders. The individuals responsi- is a large blood loss, or when there are other ble for implementing the plan must practice life-threateningsituations. In emergency first proceduresatfrequentintervalstoinsure aid cases, a few minutes can mean the loss of operational competence. Mock accident injury life or permanent disability. When there is no situations, with a response to the emergency time to seek help, first aid must be provided by evaluated by a combined medical and sports the person on site if life is to be saved. The cir- leadership group, will help make a plan more cumstances of sports participation define a need effective. to recognize the frequency of serious injuries The written plan should contain simple pro- requiring first aid and to respond intelligently cedural steps to be taken by persons who assume and quickly. various levels of responsibility. The system of response to an emergency should set in motion LEADERSHIP RESPONSIBILITY operations that will bring immediate assistance and also inform higher authorities of the exist- Leaders in organized sports programs must ing conditions. be responsible for the protection of participants. All accidents, illnesses, or injuries should be Because of the frequency and severity of sports handled in accordance with the master plan injuries, those with the responsibility must make adopted by the school administration. Telephone first aid care a routine matter and not something numbers of designated physicians, hospitals, and used on an occasional basis. Analysis of injury ambulances should be posted in places accessible severity often indicates that poor judgment has to the person in charge of the activity at or away been made. The so-called minor accident with an from the school or sports facility. estimated "slight ankle sprain" has often turned The plan should provide that any individuai out to be a serious fracture, resulting in pos- recognizing an emergency has a responsibility sible aggravation of the problem, longer dis- to report it immediately to the person in charge ability, and even permanent damage. There is of the activity or area. The person in charge neck cause for concern in a situation where a should carry out emergency care procedures, re- fracture occurred but the participant was pulled taining responsibility until relieved by school or off the playing field with no attention given to medical authority. Specific procedures should be the critical nature of the injury. A physician will developed for emergency evacuation, panic pre- use an X-ray to determine if afracture has oc- vention, and the handling of emergencies at curred, yet sports leaders often pay little atten- public events. Evacuation drills should be prac- tion to evidence of injury and take a chance by ticed in all school areas, including athletic fields, ignoring the possible serious implications of the gymnasiums, swimming pools, showers, and injury or even encouraging continued active par- locker rooms. ticipation. The serious effects of high humidity One person in each school or sports area and high temperatures resulting in heat stroke should be responsible for obtaining medical and heat exhaustion have been well defined, yet assistance. This procedure should be clearly de- many sports leaders show a lack of concern. fined in the written operational plan, and the I

FIRST AID AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 61

medical facility authority should be provided emergencies must be given to school administra- with the essential details of the type of emer- tors or sports authority by the person in charge. gency and the scope and type of assistance re- As necessary, the administration should notify quired. Preplanning with physicians, ambulance the parent or guardian. The release of informa- personnel, rescue squad, hospital, police, and fire tion regarding an emergency is the responsibility departments should define location of facilities, of the school or sports administration only. entrance and exit routes, identification of re- Records should be kept on all emergency care sponsible sports authorities, and the communi- provided and retainedas recommended by cation plan used by the school or sports author- legal counsel. ity. Transportation of injured orillpersons Permission for a participant to return to a should be provided as recommended by a physi- sports activity should be authorized by a physician, or if a physician cannot be contacted, upon cian and have final written approval of the the basis of sound emergency care procedures. school or sports administrator. A record of If, after contacting the parent or guardian, it "permission to return" should be retained in a is decided that the injured or ill person should permanent file. be sent home in a properly authorized vehicle, he should be accompanied by a representative FIRST AID FACILITIES, SUPPLIES, PRACTICES of the school or sports authority who should Suggested first aid items are shown in Table 1. remain with the individual until he is delivered Materials illustrating first aid practices should to the care of a parent or guardian. be posted and used as frequent references along Immediate notification concerning significant with reviews of text materials. (See Table 2.)

TABLE 1' SUGGESTED FIRST AID SUPPLIES

First Aid Item Use 1. Sterile first aid dressing in sealed envelope 2" x 2" for small wounds 2. Sterile first aid dressing in sealed envelope 4" x 4" For open wounds or dry dressings for burns; these are for larger wounds and for compress to stop bleeding packaged sterile so do not try to make your own 3. Small sterile compress with adhesive attached in sealed envelopes 4. Roller bandage 1" x 5 yds. Finger bandage 5. Roller bandage 2" x 5 yds. To hold dressings in place 6. Adhesive tape, roll containing assorted widths To hold dressings In place 7. Triangular bandages For sling; as a covering over a larger dressing 8. Mild soap For cleaning wounds, scratches, and cuts 9. Absorbent cotton, sterilized Swabs or pledgets for cleaning wounds 10. Applicator sticks For making swabs 11. Tongue blades For splinting broken fingers and stirring solutions 12. Scissors with blunt tips For cutting bandages or clothing 13. Tweezers To remove stingers from Insect bites or to remove small splinters 14. Splints 1/4" thick, 31/2" wide, 12-15" long For splinting brokers arms and legs 15. Table salt For shock dissolve 1 teaspoon salt and 1/2 teaspoon 16. Baking soda of baking soda in 1 quart of water 17. Hot water bottle with cover Local relief of pain 18. Ice bag Local relief of pain and to prevent or reduce swelling Burns 19. Tourniquet. Wide strip of cloth 20"long, and a For use in severe injuries when no other method will short stick control bleeding 20. Eye dropper For rinsing eyes

'SOURCE: Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Associationand the Ameri- can Medical Association, School Health Services (Chicago: National Education Association and American Medical Association, 1964), p. 228. 62 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

TABLE 2

FIRST AID CHART FOR ATHLETIC INJURIES

FIRST AID, the immediate and temporary care offered to the stricken athlete until the services of a physician can be obtained, minimizes the aggravation of injury and enhances the earliest possible return of the athlete to peak performance. To this end, it is strongly 'recommended that:

ALL ATHLETIC PROGRAMS include prearranged procedures for obtaining emergency first aid, transportation, and medical care. ALL COACHES AND TRAINERS be competent in first aid techniques and procedures. ALL ATHLETES be properly immunized as medically recommended, especially against tetanus and polio. Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION

To protect the athlete at time of injury, FOLLOW THESE FIRST STEPS FOR FIRST AID: STOP play immediately at first indication of possible injury or illness. LOOK for obvious deformity or other deviation from the athlete's normal structure or motion. LISTEN to the athlete's description of his complaint and how the injury occurred. ACT, but move the athlete only after serious injury is ruled out.

EMERGENCY PHONE NUMBERS Physician Phone Physician Phone Hospital Ambulance Police Fire Other

This chart in poster size is available from the AMA Department of Health Education FIRST AID AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 63

ness, headache, incoordina- Avoid weight bearing and ob- BONES AND JOINTS tion, or unconsciousness oc- tain medical care. curs, disallow any further ac- Fracture Never move ath- tivity and obtain medical care lete if fracture of back, neck, at once. Keep athlete lying OPEN WOUNDS or skull is suspected. If athlete down;ifunconscious,give can be moved, carefully splint nothing by mouth. Heavy BleedingApply ster- any possible fracture. Obtain ilepressure bandage using medical care at once. TeethSave teethifcom- hand pressureifnecessary. Dislocation Supportjoint. pletely removed from socket. Refer to physician at once. Apply ice bag or cold cloths Ifloosened, do not disturb; to reduce swelling, and refer cover with sterile gauze and Cut and AbrasionHold to physician at once. refer to dentist at once. briefly under cold water. Then cleanse with mild soap and Bone Bruise Apply ice bag Celiac Plexus Rest athlete water. Apply sterile pad firmly or cold cloths and protect from on back and moisten face with until bleeding stops, then pro- further injury. If severe, refer cool water. Loosen clothing tect with more loosely applied to physician. around waist and chest. Do sterile bandage. If extensive, nothing Broken Nose elseexceptobtain refer to physician. Apply cold medical care if needed. cloths and refer to physician. Puncture Wound Handle Testicle Restathleteon same as cuts, and refer to HEAT ILLNESSES back and apply ice bag or physician. coldcloths. Obtainmedical care if pain persists. NosebleedKeep athlete sit- Heat StrokeCollapse WITH ting or standing; cover nose DRY WARM SKIN indicates with cold cloths.If bleeding sweating mechanism failure Eye Ifvisionisimpaired, refertophysicianat once. isheavy,pinchnoseand and rising body temperature. With soft tissue injury, apply place small cotton pack in THIS IS AN EMERGENCY; ice bag or cold cloths to re- nostrils. If bleeding continues, DELAY COULD BE FATAL. duce swelling. refer to physician. Immediately cool athlete by the most expedient means (immersion in cool water is best MUSCLES AND OTHER CONCERNS method). Obtain medical care LIGAMENTS at once. Blisters Keep cleanwith Heat Exhaustion Weakness Bruise Apply ice bag or mild soap and water and pro- WITH PROFUSE SWEATING cold cloths, and rest injured tect from aggravation.Ifal- indicates state of shock due muscle. Protect from further readybroken,trimragged to depletion of salt and water. aggravation. If severe, refer to edges withsterilizedequip- Place in shade with head level physician. ment. If extensive or infected, or lower than body. Give sips refer to physician. of dilutesalt water,if con- CrampHave opposite mus- scious. Obtain medical care cles contracted forcefully, Foreign Body in Eye Do not at once. using firm hand pressure on rub. Gently touch particle with cramped muscle. If during hot point of clean, moist cloth and Sunburn Ifsevere, apply day, give sips of dilute salt wash with cold water.If un- sterile gauze dressing; refer water.Ifrecurring,refer to successful or if pain persists, to physician. physician. refer to physician.

Strain and Sprain Elevate Lime BurnsWash thorough- IMPACT BLOWS injured part and apply ice bag ly with water. Apply sterile or cold cloths. Apply pressure gauze dressing and refer to Head If any period of dizzi- bandage to reduce swelling. physician.

Source: Prepared by the AMA Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports in cooperation with the National Athletic Trainers Association and the National Federation of :late High School Athletic Associations. 64 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

Equipment for emergency care should be should be maintained in a central office. Emer- placed in areas where it is readily available for gency care kits including coins for phone calls use by authorized personnel, particularlyin should be available for supervisedactivities high hazard areas such as gymnasiums, play- away from school or home sports area. A tele- fields, swimming pools, and locker rooms. phone should be nearallactivity areas. An An inventory of carefully selected emergency emergency care facility should be provided con- care supplies and equipment with their locations venient to activity areas.

LEADERSHIP

The basic ingredient for improving the injury should be offered to maintain a high degree of control system for sports is trained leadership. skill in providing emergency assistance. The training plan must be developed with a Persons teaching and supervising physical ed- recognition that our best efforts to safeguard ucation, athletic, and recreation activities should participants cannot be totally successful. Acci- have first aid competence, secured through an dents, injuries, and illness will be encountered, American National Red Cross advanced first lid and sports leaders have a direct responsibility to course or its equivalent. respond with intelligence and skill. All persons de..ignated as athletic trainers, The best defined policies and procedures will whether students or faculty members, should be effective only if they are carried out by per- have advanced first aid training as a minimum requirement and, in addition, should have further sons with proper training. Sports leaders should training by a physician. have the ability to recognize the symptoms of In-service training, including practice of first injuries and illnesses, exercise judgment in pro- aid procedures, should be held at scheduled in- viding emergency measures, and understand the tervals.First aid frequently requires a team limitations they have as laymen for treatment. approach, and this type of skill practice should Referral of participants to a physician should also be conducted. The medical adviser should not be delayed if there is any doubt concern- be involved in original training and follow-up ing the severity of the problem. practice sessions. First aid should be recognized as an immediate The frequency and severity of injuries and and temporary care given to a victim of injury illness from sports participation and the peculiar or illness until the services of a physician can problems created by the variety of environmental be obtained. conditions place a great need for a high degree All faculty and staff should receive competent of first aid competence for sports leadership and instruction in first aid. Periodic refresher courses participants.

References

American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons. Emergency Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1968. Care and Transportation of the Sick and Injured. Menasha, Wisc.: Banta Press, 1970. First Aid Textbook. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: American National Red Cross, 1968. American Association for Health, Phys c. I Education, Joint Committee on Health Problemsin Education. and Recreation. School Safety Policies Wt h Emphasis School Health Services. Chicago: National Education on Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation. Association and American Medical Association, 1964. Accident Investigation and Reporting IGEORGE P. SILVERWOOD, M.S.

The significance of accident reporting and knowing that their statements may be used in analysis as applied to physical education and a legal suit. Under an ideal reporting policy recreation can hardly be overestimated. There directed toward prevention, determination of is 'a relationship between acquiring knowledge responsibility becomes important only insofar on the causes of accidents and providing an as it contributes to preventive action. intelligent program of prevention. An important facet of accident reporting is A major purpose of accident reporting is to the use that can be made of this data by re- minimizeinjuriousaccidentstoparticipants searchers. Findings from epidemiological injury "through effective and realistic planning and inventories as well as well controlled, sophisti- through knowledgeable and well guided im- cated studies of cause-effectdetailsprovide provement in environment."' Our ability to general direction to many efforts in accident capitalize fully upon information we collect on prevention. participant injury is certain to be reflected in improved participants' attitudes, skills, and un- INITIATION OF ACCIDENT REPORTING derstandings, as well as in safer physical sur- It is fallacious to assume that statistics col- roundings. Use of this information to protect the lected from a national sampling can be used with school or agency and its employees against legal any degree of validity to define the accident prob- liability should be considered of secondary im- lem in an individual program. Regardless of how portance and, at the most, only incidental to the similar communities may be in some respects, basic reason for the collection of accident infor- it does not necessarily follow that they have like mation. This contention is supported by the fact patterns in accident experience. Because of this, that "value of an accident report for accident and because of the time that has elapsed before prevention diminishes in proportion to the use one can review current national data, com- of the report for liability purposet%"2 A maxi- munities Must collect and analyze their own mum of usable information is obtained when information. people completing the reports do not do so The initiator of a reporting system isthe school board or other administrative body re- 1 National Safety Council, Student Accident Reporting Guidebook (Chicago: The Council, 1966), p. Hi. sponsible for the policies of the program. One 2 Ibid. of the policy directives given to the program

65 66 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

director should be the development of the re- tally approved complete participation in that porting system. Procedures and particular re- activity on the day following injury. sponsibilities for recording, distribution of infor- Rate, frequency. This is the ratio of the num- mation, follow-up, and utilization after analysis ber of recorded accidents to exposure, and is should be periodically reviewed to ensure the expressed in terms of participant-hour units. most workable and effective system for that Twenty participants practicing for two hours, program. consequently, would constitute 40 participant hours. INJURY REPORTING TERMINOLOGY Days, severity. These are the classic total lost day charges for injuries resulting in disability Reporting processes are not identical for all (impaired performance in that activity). Care purposes and there are differences in reporting must be given to include days in which the par- practices among high school, college, and agency ticipant is still disabled following the end of programs because of the variations in organiza- that sports season. tional responsibilities to the participant. Despite Rate, severity. This is the ratio of the number a number of minor variations, however, basic of severity days to exposure, and expresses the methods follow the same pattern and a single result in terms of days of participation, or par- glossary may serve to clarify the terminology. ticipant-hour units. These are adapted from the classic definitions relating to accidents because of the uniqueness of INJURY REPORTING FORMS the injury when related to sports participation.3 Participant. An individualpermitted by a Safety educators realize that no one report school or agency to take part in one of its spon- form will completely satisfy the needs of every sored activities. system. There is, however, an essential body of Accident. An unintended event which results information, termed basic data, which is pre- in injury to a participant. requisite to the analysis of accident information. Accident, sponsor jurisdiction. An accident If a particular research group requires more de- that occurs on the property established by the tails, another form could be used to provide sponsor to serve the practice or competition of supplemental data. participants and during the period that partici- The basic requirement for the forms is that pation is sponsor sanctioned. they be simple enough to be completed easily and in a minimum amount of time. Accident Accident, nonschool jurisdiction. An accident reporting instruments should be designed to thatoccurs outsidethejurisdictionof the minimize additional paper work. sponsor. School systems can devise and print their own Accident, reportable. A sponsor-jurisdiction reporting forms and some do with satisfactory accident which results in an injury to a partici- results. This procedure has the advantage of par.i. Customarily, a reportable accident occurs satisfying certain local needs which are not suf- when the injury requires first aid or medical ficiently common to warrant space on a standard treatment. Under this reporting plan, often no form. In general, however, school systems and differentiationis made between "reportable" colleges should refer to the standard forms for and "recordable" accidents. basic data used by the National Safety Council.* Accident, recordable. A sponsor-jurisdiction These forms were devised by committees of accident which results in injury to a participant 'National Safety Council, Recommended Standard and deprives (or would deprive) him of medi- Student Accident Report: Form School No. 1 (1967) and Standard Accident Injury Report: Form College No. 1 (1961) and Form College No. 2 (1962) (Chicago: The 3/bid., p. 7. Council). ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND REPORTING 67 school personnel and, over the years, have been the report generalizes his description in a word frequently revised to update and upgrade their or short phrase such as "basketball" or "colli- usefulness and simplicity. sion on playground." In the first illustration, we For specific sport basic or supplemental audits, need to know precisely how the accident hap- a special but standard form used by the entire pened. Was the victim "clipped" while jumping league or conference is advantageous.6 Listed for a ball under the basket, did he fall because below are the essential components of any sys- of a slippery floor surface, or did he run into tem. The method of putting these factors in a the bleachers? In the' second instance, the re- simple form is a profound task and should be porter should tell how and why the collision done by a qualified investigator in cooperation occurred. Did the game areas overlap? Was this with representatives of those who are expected in "free play" activity? Was it the result of poor to fill out and utilize the information. shoe traction caused by a faulty surface? The essential descriptive components of a In addition to the external, physical, and en- sports injury report system are: vironmental causes of accidents, the reporter Time-place-activity identification needs to bring into perspective the behavioral Participant identification reason that mightliebeneath the external Participant characteristics causes. This calls for careful preparation and The participant's complaint analysis of individual reports. Description of the accident To illustrate, let us assume that an injury on Mechai:ism of injury an elementary school playground is described Initial care given the injured as "rough-housing" on the accident report. This Medical diap.,-osis and disposition is an acceptable term for this category of acci- Nature and day of medical clearance for re- dents. Does it, however, furnish information turn to a conditioning program that may be used in a positive' way to correct Day of medical clearance for return to com- the objectionable behavior? What were the per- plete participation. sonal or organizational factors that were behind the rough-housing? REPORTING PROCEDURES A pole vaulter sustains a severe back injury by failing to notice that the sponge rubber pads Effective reporting requires that coaches, ad- have not been placed in the landing pit. The ministrators, and clerical personnel be familiar accident is charged to "inattention" on the part with the mechanics and standards of reporting. of the athlete and, up to now, this would be A fragmentary report is of minimal value. Com- routinely accepted as an adequate explanation. plete details are essential for intelligent conclu- A careful reporter would need to determine the sions to be drawn and applied in a program of reason for the victim's preoccupation. prevention. The age and weight of the injured, In a third example, a basketball player fails the activity, the time of the mishap, the juris- to wear a protective shield over his eyeglasses dictional classification, and the related circum- and a collision with an opponent causes severe stances may seem trivial when each is considered damage to his vision. The accident report states separately, but they all contribute to a needed that the player "forgot to wear eyeglass shields" composite picture of the accident. Although the and, up to the present time, this immediate cause actual description of an accident is the most has served to satisfy professional curiosity. If vital information in an accident report,this we are to prevent similar injuries in the future, aspect is the one most frequently given scanty we must know why the student failed to remem- consideration. Too often, the person filling out ber the basic precaution. Vital explanations of 5 An example of a report form used in football appears this nature should become a part of the descrip- in Appendix B, p. 313. tion on the accident reporting form. 68 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

These three examples reflect use of a given processing is an indispensable tool in situations report for prevention purposes. Pooling of re- which involve large quantities of statistics.8 port forms in consistent and uniform fashion However, hand tabulation of report data does can offer a pattern of insights. To avoid am- have one distinct advantage over mechanical biguity in the interpretation of the nature of computation. A persontabulatingstatistics injuries, agree on a standard form and terminol- manually from individual report forms almost ogy, thereby avoiding the use of professional involuntarily becomes acquainted with the cir- jargon or slang.6 The American Medical Associ- cumstances surrounding each student accident. ation has published what might be termed a This individual necessarily absorbs a wealth of dictionary of injuriesresulting from various information on causation that otherwise might types of physical activity.? General use of this be overlooked. information would contribute substantially to the accuracy, uniformity, and effectiveness of ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENT INFORMATION athletic injury reporting. Following the summarization, the coordinator should compare the frequency and severity rates MECHANICS OF SUMMARIZATION with those of previous years to discern general Two procedures may be used when the trends or radical departures from the normal volume of accident reports does not preclude pattern.If an unusual number of accidents hand tabulation of summaries. One isthe appears in a particular category on the summary, monthly summary by individualschoolsor the individual reports should be scrutinized to agencies and the submission of this, with the see if there is common factor in causation. A individual reports attached, to a, specified co- high incidence of falls in gymnasiums, for ex- ordinator. The other possibility is for each school ample, might be ,traced to the use of a new type or agency to forward only the individual report of floor dressing. One college found, after not- forms to a central office or coordinator whose ing a high incidence of contusions in football, staff draws off the information onto an overall that the new football pants were at fault; the summary. When the first method is employed, protective pads were not positioned properly. it substantially reduces the amount of work in When summaries indicate an unusual number the coordinator's office, but the time and effort of apparatus accidents, study of the individual is transferred to the work load of clerical per- reports might show equipment failureto be sonnel in the schools or agencies. Hence, the largely responsible and point up the need for choice of methods should depend upon the avail- major repair or replacement. ability of clericalassistance. In either event, Athletic directors, coaches, and physical edu- there should be a monthly deadline for reports cationinstructorsshouldhaveprofessional and, when compliance is overlooked, program interest in analyses of the circumstances sur- directors should be reminded at once. rounding injuries in sports and physical educa- In large school systems and institutions of tion. They should conduct their own research higher learning, data processing is usually em- programs. usingthe summariestodiscover ployed in the tabulation and summarization of areas of need and to define types of individual information from the individual reports. Data reports which should be included inspecial studies. Physical educators whose background ° Kenneth S. Clarke, The use of vernacular for sports includes safety research methods are well quali- injuries, in Proceedings of the Eighth National Confer- fied to draw valid conclusions relating to mishaps ence on the Medical Aspects of Sports (Chicago: Ameri- can Medical Association, 1967), pp. 67-71. in sports and conditioning activities. 7 American Medical Association, Standard Nomencla- ture of Athletic Injuries(Chicago: The Association, 8 National Safety Council, Student Accident Reporting 1966). Guidebook. ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND REPORTING 69

Comparison of frequency and severity rates where disability is more significant in terms of of various types of activities can be highly performance levels, definitions must be scruti- misleading unless man-hour exposure ispro- nized to make severity rate a meaningful reflec- jected into these statistics. The equation for tion of the injury situation. determining injury frequency is the following: Since the unit of exposure should be equally applicable to the overall situation and to siecfic Number of Recorded Injuries x 1,000,000 activities, consideration might be given to sub- Exposure (Number of persons x number of hours) stitutinghoursof participation for "school days" =Injury Frequency in the preceding formula. In that event, it may be Rate advisable to change the 100,000 index to some other mi ,Ii:ples to arrive at a workable formula This formula, or at least the injury per man- for examining the frequency rate. hour component, can be applied tospecific Even with an eye to exposure, comparison of sports as well as overall accident situations. data from natural research of this nature with Use of exposure as a rate determinant presents local rates and frequencies is hazardous. Because a realistic portrayal of accident experience. nationwide statistics, of necessity, are based In suggesting a meaningful method of com- upon accident summaries which are derived puting severity, theGuidebookrelates "severity often from incomplete collection systems, na- days" to exposure in this manner: tional rates tend to be appreciably lower than those of aschool system which effectively Number of Severity Days x 100,000 securesreports onallrecordableaccidents. Exposure (Average number of persons Nonetheless comparison of localratioswith x number of school days) those of a nationwide scale is frequently valu- =Severity Rate able. The periodic summary, then, is a device for Under this plan, arbitrary amounts of school determiningtrendsandchannelingfurther absence are chargeable to accidents that result research. The individual report is the basic tool in death or permanent disability. In sports, in pinpointing specific needs.

COMMUNICATION OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Effective interpretation and dissemination of can be accomplished by releases to the news the results of accident studies to staff personnel media and by informational bulletins which go present a realistic problem to those concerned into the homes. with analysis of this information. This is one Coordinators and others preparing explana- of the most essential aspects of the safety tory materials on accident experience should education program; however, the presentation remember that what interests them as safety should be so handled that administrators, pro- specialists will not necessarily strike a spark of gram supervisors, and maintenance people are equal intensity in the teacher, administrator, or made thoroughly aware of current needs and school custodian. Bulletins of this nature should clearly understand their responsibilities in injury contain a minimum of statistical data. Although control. Parents, too, should be made aware of the report should be documented to achieve the ways in which they can contribute to safe- credibility and emphasis, overuse of statistics guarding their children against accidents. This will reduce reader appeal. Safety bulletin con- 70 ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION tent should be light and readable yet clearly physical educator that little difficulty should be portray the needs in the areas of behavior experienced in gaining his professional interest. modification and elimination of environmental hazards. It is well to consider existing interests when COOPERATION WITH OTHER developing a publication of thistype. Most FACTFINDING ORGANIZATIONS coaches are naturally concerned about the kinds The submission of elementary and high school of accidents that are most likely to occur to their annual accident summaries to the National Safe- participants. They want information on how a ty Council contributes a more realistic picture of particular practice contributes to the accident the nation's student accident experience. This picture of the sport for which they are respon- organization carries on continuing studies of sible. Coaches want to know how they can nationwide trends and uses the data as a basis incorporatesafetypractices, develop proper for determining fundamental needs inchild attitudes, knowledges, and skills to help their accident prevention. Its findings are made avail- students avoid accidents while not reducing the abletoschools throughout the country in students' enthusiasm for the sport. Keeping bulletins published by its school and college participant enthusiasm means including such department and in Accidents Facts ,9 an annual itemsassuggestionsforintegratingsafety publication of statistical facts about accidents of instruction with strategy and technique. In the all types. classroom, the popular evaluation of the athlete The value that can stem from cooperative can be utilizedfor special class projects in reporting efforts was demonstrated by a pilot accident prevention, discussions designed to en- project of the American College Health Associa- courage the development of proper attitudes, Von andtheNational Safety Council. The and suggestion. relative tothe teaching of program was a study of studentaccidents safety skills. at nine institutions of higher learning as report- Understandably, coaches are eager to know if ed to health services." The findings, though their efforts in accident prevention are reflected limited because of the relatively small scope of in an improvement in accident frequency. Prog- the study, revealed that this type of accident ress reports which compare past accident experi- reporting and analysis could be of significant ence with present statistics should be included value on a continuing basis. Since the pilot periodically. program, increasing numbers of colleges and The accident bulletin should exploit the nat- universities have begun to collect and study ural concern that physical educators and coaches information on student and employee accidents. have by including information designed to reveal Outside of school related activities, programs significant accident prevention needs in their falling under the aegis of a state-national organi- areas. Severity rates attached to injuries in vari- zation should faithfully adhere to their respec- ous sports and games are helpful. A breakdown tive reporting systems. The advantageisa of injuries according to type and part of the controllable uniform program for data that is body involved is of particular interest, as is meaningful to both contributor and receiver with a portrayal of the comparative frequency of more precision in identifying local and national accidents in organized games and "free play" trends. The following organizations are repre- activities on elementary school playgrounds. °National Safety Council, Accident Facts (Chicago: Many physical education specialists might find The Council), an annual publication. real value in a comparison of the accident '° American College Health Association and the Na- frequencies of winter sports at supervised" and tional Safety Council, Safety Monograph No. 3: Survey unsupervised locations. So many aspects of ac- of Accidents toCollege Students (1955) and Safety Monograph No. 5: Accidents to College Students (1956) cident information are of direct concern to the (Chicago: The Council). -IDENT INVESTIGATION AND REPORTING 71 sentative of those currently assisting the sports The National Collegiate Athlet:s. Association injury data collection process. 1221 Baltimore Ave. Kansas City, Mo. 64105 American Camping Association Bradford Woods National Federation of Martinsville, Ind. 46151 State High School Athletic Association 7 S. Dearborn St. Boy Scouts of America Chicago, Ill. 60603 New Brunswick, N.J. 08903 National Ski Patrol Systems Little League Baseball, Inc. 828 17th St. Williamsport, Penn. 17701 Denver, Colo. 80202

References

It's more than a report. In Safety Education, pp. 25-28. Silverwood, George P. Report all, repeat none. In Safety Chicago: National Safety Council, March 1965. Education, pp. 7-8. Chicago: National Safety Council, Feb r. 1960. NationalSafetyCouncil.NationalSafety Congress Transactions School and College Safety. Chicago: Strasser, Marland K. et al. Organization and administra- The Council, 1965. 120 pp. tion oi the school safety program. In Safety Education, pp. 117-35. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964. L''adent Accident Reporting Guidebook. Chicago: Subcommittee on Classification of Sports Injuries, Com- The Council, 1966. 34 pp. mittee on the Medical Aspects of Sports, American Proetsch, Jean L. Accident reporting Fact or fantasy. Medical Association. Standard Nomenclature of Ath- Safety 8:9-11, no. 5, Dec. 1967. letic Injuries. Chicago: The Association, 1966. 157 pp. Legal Liability IBERNARD I. LOFT, H.S.D.

Accident and injury prevention in sports must PAYMENT FOR SCHOOL ACCIDENTS include due consideration for legal liability. The Let us now consider the problem of legal possibility of being sued by injured pupils for an liability from the standpoint of a pupil sustain- act of contributory negligence should be a con- ing injuries in the school program. By law the cern : all school employees. School administra- child is required to attend school, to be in a tors have a major role in preventing accidents in designated building, whether or not all of the all rreas of the buile.ngs and grounds. safety requirements have been met, and to par- If contributory negligence in the performance ticipateinprogramsofphysicaleducation of duties with school pupils can be assessed, whether or not the facilities are desirable. Let the school employee is legally responsible fcr us as' : ~e that a childisseriously injured the injuries. Compensation from personal funds througl. no fault of his own and not because of will be required unless the school employee is negligence by the teacher, the school s stem, or in a state where the school district as a ..m- another student. Two pertinent questions need ployer is legally obiigated to reimburse him for to be answered in such a case: why couldn't the financial loss or the district is liable for alleged accident have been prevented and who will pay employee negligence. A pupil can always make for all of the expense? an effort to claim redress from the individual Schools are placed in a precarious public po- charged with contributing negligence. This em- sition when accidents and resulting damage ployee may be a Aeacher, an administrator, court suits must be resolved. In numerous other school bus driver, another pupil, or any em- aspects of the school's function, admirffitrative ployee of the school district. If the case is settled -'ersonnel and teachers are regarded as compe- in favor of the student he may get a money t. at professionals whose expertise equips them judgment, but actual payment ,,..y not be pos- a cope with problems arising in the school. In sible is the individual sued lacks the nececary an accident occurrence, hnever, a jury of lay- financial resources. A pupil sustaining injuries men will be responsible for a decision as to has a better possibility of satisfying his judg- where legal liability will be assessed. Determina- ment if his state permits or requires school dis- tion of where there was fault will not be de- tricts to protect school employees against having cided by professional educators nor on the to make payments out of personal funds. established standards of teacher-training insti-

72 LEGAL LIABILITY 73 tutions, but by a citizens' jury adhering to cus- educators and the school arc performing their toms, mores, and beliefs. In determining negli- duties in an efficient manner or are incompetent gence the jury will decide whether professional in the conduct of the school program.'

NEGLIGENCE

The key to teacher liability will be located in to another under the particular circum- that aspect of the law related to negligence. stances? If the answer is yes, the teacher What is negligence? is negligent if he failed to act so as to avoid such foreseeable danger or harm. In other DEFINITION words, if in the reasonable exercise of care one could or should anticipate trouble un-' The school and its staff owe their pupils the der the circumstances before him, his fail- legal duty of exercising care to prevent injuries ure to take precautionary measures is im- to them. Negligence results from the breach of prudent and therefore negligent. this duty. Negligence is the failure to acr as a 3. "under theparticular circumstances" reasonably prudent person would act under the The specific facts in a case are all-impor- particular circumstances. Suppose we consider tant in the determination of negligence. each component part of this principle of law: What would be prucl2rit with high school 1. "failure to act" Negligence can consist students may be highly imprudent with of inaction as well as of action. If one fails kindergartners. What may be prudent for to do something expected of him by the a teacher assigned to a playground may be law, he can be negligent. Likewise, actively no test of the prudence of a principal who doing something contrary to what the law fails to assign enough teachers to supervise expects can also be negligence. that playground. Even partially different 2. "a reasonably prudent person" This is facts may change the situation, as for ex- a mythical person established by the law; ample whether the players sent by the "foresight" is his major characteristic. If football coach into scrimmage are trained a reasonable man of ordinary prudence or untrained.In other words, inlegal could have, or should have, foreseen the language, negligence is a question of fact harmful consequences of his behavior, it for the jury to decide. is negligent to fail to take the necessary precautionary steps to obviate or prevent such harmful consequences. Thus, negli- SPECIFIC CASES gence is the failure to avoid trouble that reasonably could orshould have been With an understanding.jind analysis of negli- Toreseen. Need one have been able to an- gence, iet us now consider several cases on rec- ticipate the particular accident that actu- ord to determine how the law applies in actual practice. The following are cited by Attorney ,--ally occurred? No, it is enough if reasonable prudence could- or should' have fore- .Rosenfield that are examples of problems that seen that some such accident might happen confront educators inthefieldof physical in the absence of precautionary safeguards. education and recreation... A liability law suit presents thiscritical 'Harry N. Rosenfield, Legal Liability for School Ac- question: Could or should the teacher, in dents. Paper addressed at National Conference on Ac- cident Prevention in Physical Education, Athletics, and the exercise of reasonable prudence and Recreation at Washington, D.C., Dec. 7, 1963. foresight, have anticipated danger or hurt 2 Ibid. 74 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Case 1. A school building contained a gym- Case 6.In a scheduled high school gymna- nasium 80 ft.x 43 ft. with eight adjoining sium period a student was assaulted by three basketball courts squeezed into, thislimited other students on the school playground. There space. A schedule was arranged providing for all were approximately 250 students present, sev- eight courts to be in use simultaneously. An eral of whom had reputations as being trouble- injury occurred to a participant. The court held some. The jury assessed negligence in this case this to be negligence because the school should because it should have been anticipated that such !lave anticipated injury in an overcrowded gym- behavior was reasonably foreseeable and proper nasium facility where a strenuous game was supervision might have prevented the situation.8 taking place involving considerable movement This case firmly establishes that merely pro- by the participants.3 viding for supervision is insufficient. The quality Case 2. Several games of handball were of supervision is essentially important in com- scheduled concurrently on a gymnasium floor pliance with the "ree:onable man" test. and a participant receivod an eye injury from Case 7. Related to Case 6 is an earlier case being struck by a hall. No negligence was es- in the same state iavolving a student assault by tablished by the eau,because the activity was a classmate while the teacher was positioned classified as being noc an inherently dangerous outside the door directing the class into the game.4 room. In this case the court found no negligence Case 3. A candidate for a teaching position because there was no apparent need for closer was required to comply with a physical exam- supervisioa.9 The case facts revealed a difference ination. During the examination she was directed in what the reasonably prudent person should to bat a softball and run to first base in the have done under the existing circumstances that gymnasium. Because the sack that was used ac were involved in the cases. a base was improperly anchored to the floor, it gave way from under the runner. The court's TRANSPORTATION OF PARTICIPANTS decision was negligence.5 TO ATHLETIC EVENTS Case 4. In New York a seven-year-old youngster was hit in the face by a baseball bat swung In transporting students to school sponsored by an older participant during a softball game athletic contests it is highly recommended that on the school's playground. The court held that school district-owned motor vehicles or public there had been negligent failure to assign proper service commission licensed carriers be em- supervision.6 ployed. Private transportation is undesirable and should be discouraged. If private transportation Case 5. Failure to make available supervision must be used the following recommendations where children are waiting after school for the should be given priority.10 s,:hool bus and to establish regulations for the 1. Drivers should be carefully selected with use of bicycles on the school grounds was classi- a record of outstanding driving ability. fied as regligence on the part of a school board.? 2. There should be complete and adequate s Bauer v. Board of Education, 285 App. Div. 1148, insurance coverage on the vehicle. 140 N.Y. Supp. 2d 167 (1955). 3. It should be known whether the passengers 4 Wright v. San Bernardino High School District, 121 in each vehicle are "guests" or not. Cal. App. Bd. 342, 263 2d 25 (1953). 5 Bard V.r. oard of Education, 140 N.Y. Supr. 2d 850 8 Silverman v. Board of Education, 15 App. Div. 2d (1955). 810, 225 N.Y. Supp. 2d 77 (1962). s Germond v. Board of Education, 10 App. Div. 2d ° Bertola v. Board of Education, 1 App. Div. 2d 973, 139, 197 N.Y. Supp. 2d 548 (1960). 150 N.Y. Supp. 2d 831 (1956). 7 Salleck v. Board of Education, 276 App. Div. 263, 10 Howard C. Leibee, Tort Liability For Injuries To 94 N.Y. Supp. 2d 318 (1949). Papils (Ann Arbor: Campus Publishers, 1965). LEGAL LIABILITY 75

4. If a student is assigned to drive, a respon- two types of insurance that should be made sible adult should be in the vehicle. available in accident and liability coverage." 5. Complete instructions should be provided Accident insurance. Regardless of the assess- for the trip such as driving speed, time ment of fault, payment will be made by the in- schedules, routes, and meeting places. surance company. The terms contained in the 6. The vehicle should be checked for mechan- accident insurance policy may establish pupil ical efficiency and compliance with safety protection while being transported to and from measures. the school build:Iliwhile in school attendance, or during participation in activities sponsored by the school in either a curricular or extracurricu- COMPENSATION FOR PUPIL INJURY lar function. The value of accident insurance AND INSURANCE is that compensation is made available to the injured because an accident has occurred and Adequate insurance coverage is necessary to not because of the charged negligence on the help injured pupils obtain compensation for part of the insured. medical expenditures and pecuniary damages Liability insurance. Payments received by the for bodily injuries resulting from school acci- injured will be deterinined by the negligent acts dents. This coverage will protect school person- of the person insured. This would take into nel from financial payments when liability re- consideration negligence by the school district lated to their personal negligence is set forth in or employed personnel. In this form of insurance cases involving pupil injury. Stipulations estab- no payments are made for injuries other than in lished by statutory provisions in the states de- cases of negligence or various types of wrongful termine the types of insurance that school dis- acts. tricts may or must carry, kinds of hazards to be insured against, and the financial limits of ii National Commissionon Safety Education, Who Is Liable For Pupil Injuries? (Washington, D.C.: National the coverage. There is a differentiation between Education Association, 1963). 11

References

Bard v. Board of Education, 140 N.Y. Supp. 2d 850 National Commission on Safety Education. Who Is (1955). Liable For PupilInjuries? Washington, D.C.: Na- Bauer v. Board of Education, 285 App. Div. 1148, 140 tional Education Association, 1963. N.Y. Supp. 2d 167 (1955). National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Chicago: The Council. Annual. Bertola v. Board of Education, 1 App. Div. 2d 973, 150 N.Y. Supp. 2d 831 (1956). Salleck v. Board of Education, 276 App. Div. 263, 94 N.Y. Supr 2d 318 (1949). Germond v. Board of Education, 10 App. Div. 2d 139, Silverman v. Board of Education, 15 App. Div. 2d 197 N.Y. Supp. 2d 548 (1960). 810, 225 N.Y. Supp. 2d 77 (1962). Leibee, Howard C. Tort Liability For Inju; les To Pupils. Wright v. San Bernardino High School District, 121 Cal. Ann Arbor: Campus Publishem, 1965. App. Bd. 342, 263 2d 25 (1953). SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

PART III

Baseball and Softball IWARREN J. HUFFMAN, Ed.D.

Very few deaths to either players or spec- Polk found that: tators have resulted di.ectly from baseball or Sliding and running between bases were the softball. However, serious and minor injuries primary causes of sprains. The strain was occur each year to thousands of players, espe- predominately caused by throwing, followed by running between bases. A contusion injury cially among younger and beginning players.' was caused by the batter being hit by a Injuries each year curtail either temporarily or pitched ball, followed closely by collisions be- permanently the sports careers of baseball play- tween players. The pulled muscle injury was ers from the little leagues to the major leagues. caused primarily by players running be:ween bases,followed by throwing thebaseball. Ryan stated that "the hazards in the games Finally, the fracture was caused equally by of baseball and softball can be divided into five sliding, and the batter being hit by a pitched groups: running, body contact, risk from both ball.4 the bat and the ball, the barriers which enclose Many of the injuries in softball and baseball the spectators, and hard throwing and swinging can be reduced to a minimum by properly con- motions."2 ditioning the players, teaching the correct exe- Polk surveyed professional and college base- cution of skills, providing suitable equipment ball teams throughout the country concerning and facilities, and adequately supervising both the frequency and causes of ba-.aball injuries. the players and spectators. He noted that five types of injuries account for 82.5% of all injuries. They are, in order and CONDITIONING percentage of occurrence, sprains 27.3%; strains Baseball and softball are unique in that only 18.7%;contusions16.9%;pulledmuscles 11.3%; and fractures 8.3%.3 three individuals are actively involved in every pitch the pitcher, catcher, and batter. While - I Mickey Owen, Play it safe, SchoolSafety 2(March- it is true that all the other players should be Apr. 1967),p.4. alert on each pitch and a few may be involved, 2 Allan J. Ryan, Medicul Care of the Athlete (New the majority of players will not participate in York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,1962),p.254. 3 Ronald G. Polk, The frequency and causes of base- most play:, This is particularly true of out- ball injuries, The Athletic Journal49(Nov.1968),pp. 19-20. 4Ibil.,p. 53.

80 BASEBALL AND SOFTBALL 81 fielders, who may only be called upon once in Because both the baseball and the softball a game to catch and/or throw the ball. pitcher throws the ball in an unnatural way,' it Eberhardt states: "As a conditioner, the game is extremely important that they be well con- of baseball does not provide the activity neces- ditioned and properly warmed up before pitch- sary to develop a player physically in order to ing. "A pitcher should take special care of his meet the special emergencies which arise during arm when he is not using it. He should always game. This is why the baseball player should keep it warm and well protected from cool or supplement his actual game experience with cold air, especially after he has finished pitch- special conditioning exercises." 5 Dr. Bauman of ing." 8 the St. Louis Cardinals corroborates Eberhardt's Coaches and managers must resist the temp- statement: "We often find that the batting, tation to overwork their star pitchers. However, fielding, and throwing work are not sufficient each year this happens at every level of base- to gain proper conditioning. Where greater demands are made, a player needs additional ball. The player's welfare must be the prime consideration of the coach or manager. Another strength, power, and endurance for peakper- formance." 6 precaution to the coach or manager is that before embarking on a weight training program Since speed, agility, and coordination are key experts should be consulted. According to Dr. ingredients for success in baseball or softball Bauman: it is important that the body and particularly the arms and legs be kept in shape. During off We discourage our pitchers from squeezing season, jogging and running, stretching exer- the rubber ball because then they develop muscles of the flexor group. When the forearm cises, twisting, bending, and sports suchas is extended to throw, something has to give. handball are recommended. Before and during Now, these muscles have been made too strong, the season it is important that players continue and usually, they tear around the upper epi- running, particularly wind sprints, and stretch- condyle where they have their origin. The ing exercises. pitcher finishes with a bad elbow, or sometimes Each player should warm up properly for even tears a piece of bone. Therefore, exercises run- should be done under supervision.9 ning or throwing befo.e trying quick startsor throwLg hard. During the gameevery player must use each opportunity to keep his muscles SKILLS warm and supple for the moment when extra effort is required. According to Mickey McConnell: The batter should run outevery play, even the It is possible to perfect baseball skills and at so-called "sure-out." Players should hustleto the same time to avoid injury. In fact thepos- their positions every inning. Itis customary session of skills helps to prevent accidents. for infielders to practice fielding and throwing Very seldom 4o we hear of a player who exe- each inning when they take the field andtor cutes a play properly being injured. The man the pitcher and catner to take theirwarm-up who knows how tothrow, and uses this tosses. It is equally important that the outfielders knowledge in throwing, doesn't pull a muscle take a few practice throws, particularlyon cool in his arm, and the fellow who knows how to or cold days. Batters should take a few practice slide and uses this knowledge doesn't sprain an ankle or strain an elbow. It is important swings before stepping into the batter's box.

7 Ryan, op. cit., p. 254. 5 Don Weiskopf, St.Louis Cardinals' conditioning 8 Buddy Taylor, Taking care of the pitcher's arm, The program, The Athletic Journal 49 (Dec. 1968), p. 10. Athletic Journal 49 (Nov. 1968), p. 10. 6 Ibid., p. 11. 9 Weiskopf, op. cit., pp. 66-67. 82 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC. ACTIVITIES

that every player concentrate on the basic FIRST BASEMAN fundamentals.1° When the first baseman prepares to receive CATCHING throws from other infielders, he should place his foot on the inside corner of the bag, giving The catcher is ene of the most likely players most of the bag to the runner. This will help to be injured, particularly on his bare hand. If avoid getting stepped on by the runner and keep a player learns early how to hold his hands he him clear of the baseline, thereby reducing the will seldom be hurt. Listed below are safety possibility of a collision and a broken arm. If techniques for the catcher by Elston Howard: ii he is pulled off the bag and has to tag the run- 1. Place the forefinger of the glove hand out- ner coming int) the bag, the tagging arm should side the mitt or use sponge rubber inside be relaxed to avoid injury. to ease the impact of the ball. 2. Hold the rim of the glove with the bare hand or keep the bare hand folded and not INFIELDERS clinched until the ball iF in the mitt. Infielders should straddle or stand slightly 3. Keep in frohi of the ball. Shift body with behind the bag in receiving a throw from an- a quick shuffle or hop rather than move other player for tagging out the runner. If the the glove; never use a crossover step. runner is sliding, the infielder can avoid a col- 4. Catch close enough to batter without let- lision by placing the ball in the glove, putting ting glove interfere with bat and also it in the runner's path, and letting the runner tag a,,oid being hit in back of head. himself out. 5. Get mask off in a hurry to spot the ball On double play tries by either the shortstop on pop flies. The catcher should not throw or second baseman more intricate footwork is the mask until ball is spotted, then he necessary. The important thing is to make sure should throw it away from the ball. that the first runner is out and then to move off 6. Teammates should give instructions con- the bag to avoid the runner coming into the base cerning the proximity of barriers, obstruc- before making the throw to first base. tions, dugouts, and other hazards while In fielding ground balls the infielder should catcher is chasing a fly ball. stay close to the ground, keep his eyes on the ball until he fieldsit, and remember to play PITCHING the 1,111 and not let the ball play him. "Turning the head only gives the ball a better chance to Pitching styles vary considerably but the hit the fielder in the face if the ball takes a bad young pitcher should try to perfect a smooth hop." 12 delivery that will not put undue strain on his arm. Regardless of the level of the sport, the pitcher is in the most vulnerable position to line OUTFIELDERS drives. He should finish his pitching motion and Onc of the major dangers of playing the out- immediately be in position to receive a line drive. field is that of collision with the fence, with Particular attention should be paid to the batti,ig other outfielders, or with infielders. There are practice pitcher sine many balls are hii back several factors that determine where an out- through the box, particularly by players of high fielder should play. Generally, the distance he school age or younger. plays from the fence will depend upon his ability "Mickey McConnell, :low To Play Little League to go back to the fence for balls hit over his Baseball (New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1960), p. 10. head. "To avoid crashirg into the fer.:c, fielder "Elston Howard, Catching (New York: The Viking Press, 1966), pp. 4-9. "McConnell, op. cit., 155. BASEBALL AND SOFTBALL -83

first hurries to get to the fence. Then he qui :kly Itis important that the hitter take a com- turns around to relocate the fly ball and catch fortable on-balance stance and keep his eye on it."13 the bull This should enable him to avoid being The outfield must work together as a unit. hit by a Och thrown at him. Since helmets are The centerfielder is the key man in the unit and now required they should be worn at all times should handle any ball he can get unless another while batting, whether in practice or in a game. outfielder is in a better position. The player who The helniet should be of good quality and in is going to take the ball should call loud and exceth'nt condition. clear for all fly balls. The other fielders should Bur.:ing the ball is a specialized form of bat- immediately reply loudly for him to take it. Ex- ting and has different purposes, such as sacri- treme care should be taken on line drives hit ficing a ru:-ner to the next base or bunting for between the fielders since it is difficult to tell a base hit. The inexperienced player finds it best who should attempt the catch. Experience in to square around facing the pitcher, sliding his playing together should minimize the danger of top hand almost up to the trademark of the bat. such collisions. Fly balls that are hit between As the player becomes more experienced he can the infielders and outfielders should be taken by delay his squaring around, particularly when the outfielders whenever possible. The practice bunting for a base hit. Two things must be kept of hitting fungo flies during practice and allow- in mind: (1) when he is squared around he is ing more than one player to attempt to catch more vulnerable to being hit by the pitched ball the fly ball at the same time is a common prac- and (2) the fingers of his top hand must be tice by inexperienced coaches and should be displaced in such a manner as not to be hit by the couraged because of its danger as well as the ball when it makes contact with the bat. bad habits it engenders. Some players are notorious "bat throwers." BothLitwhiler and Weiskopfdiscourage While this is sometimes accidental, the practice shoestring catches except when it means the should be discouraged early in the player's ca- winning run may score if the catch is not made. reer. One method might be to declare the batter After such a catch the fielder should relax and out for throwing the bat regardless of the out- roll with the fal1.1436 come of the play. Since this penalizes the play- On sunny days all fielders should wear sun- er's team, pressure from teammates can be an glasses. The glove can also be used to shield effective deterrent. the eyes from the sun.

BASE RUNNING BATTERS While there is no particular batting style Quick starting, speed in running the bases, recommended "each batter should be in his arability to slide properly are fundamental. As prope.. stance and ready to hit at the time the .licated earlier, the player must be properly pitche.., delivery is to be made. Great batters conditioned in order not to pull muscles wiTh ... are never lax at this point. Prior to the de- quick starts. He must be taught to look where livery, however, they are completely relaxed he is running and depend upon the coaches for from head to toe."16 instructions except when the ball is in his line of vision. 13 Owen,op. cit., p. 6. " Jack Coombs, Baseball, revised by D. Litwhiler, 4th In running out batted balls to first base where ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1967), a turn is not going to be made, the runner should F. 92. run straigha ahead touching the front edge of 15 Don Weiskopf, Baseball. The Major League Way (New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1962). p. 204. the bag with the toe. Most authorities recom- 10Coombs, op. cit, p.107. mend sliding into first base only when attempt- r

84 SAFETY IN SPECIFICACTIVITIES

ing to avoid a tag by the first baseman who has PROVISION OF PROPER EQUIPMENT been pulled off the bag by a wide throw. AND FACILITIES Since the bases are laid out in the form of a square, it is recommended that they be run that The furnish of proper equipment and fa- way and not in big loops whenever a base is to cilities for baseball or softball is the moral if not be rounded." Regardless of which foot touches the legal duty of those responsible for the ac- the base (preferably the left), the runner should tivities. The players must not only be furnished concentrate on touching the inside of the base with proper equipment but also taught how to and pivoting toward the next base. use and care for it properly. Excellent general Players should be taught the proper tech - policies have been developed by the American niqu's of sliding as early as little league age. Association for Health, Physical Education, and Most authorities advocate feet first sliding ex- Recreation." Timm has written the most com- cept under special circumstances because the plete treatise on the construction and mainte- risk of danger to the head, arms, or hands is nance of baseball facilities?' great in sliding head first. The most important thing to remember is that once the player de- SUPERVISION OF PLAYERS AND SPECTATORS cides to slide he should complete hisslide. Nothing is more conducive to accidents than "More sprained ankles, broken legs, and other equipment strewn on the ground, players "hors- injuries are inflicted on base runners by this ing around" on the bench, or spectator crowd- mental lapse than by any other playing ac- ing the playing area. To minimize accidents, the tion."18 Another rule is that the lead man on coach and/or other persons in charge must have attempted double plays should slide to avoid definite procedures to follow for every player being hit by the throw. and spectator during the practice and the game, The first and third base coaches as well as and insist that they be followed. This is partic- the on-deck batter are essential to the success ularly true during practice because of the varied and safety of the base runner. The base runner activities conducted simultaneously. LaPlace and is dependent upon them for signals regarding Litle have excellent suggestions for the con- whether to slide, to stay up, to continue running, ductofpracticeand gameprocedures.22.23 and the direction in which to slide. In addition, Young gives excellent pointers for indoor bat- 24 the on-deck batter has the responsibility of re- ting pract. moving a bat or catcher's mask lying along the 20 American Association for Hea.th, Physical Educa- tion, and Recreation, School Safety Policies With Em- third base line." phasis on Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation (Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1968), pp. 18-21. 17 John 0. Herbold II, Illustrated Guide to Champion- 21 Coombs, op. cit., pp. 267-321. ship Baseball (West Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Co., 22 John LaPlace, Let's keep baseball safe, The Athletic Inc., 1968), p. 236. Journal 39 (Jan. 3959), pp. 10, 53-55. 18 Coombs, op. rit., p. 122. 23 Billy jean Litle, Softball safety, Journal of Health, 18 Harvey Kuenn and James Smilgoff, Big League Physical Educution, Recreation 36 (May 1965), pp. 46-47. Batting Secrets (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 24 Dick Young, Safety in your indoor batting cage, Inc., 1958), pp. 187-88. The Athletic Journal 44 (Febr. 1964), p. 36. BASEBALL AND SOFTBALL 85

References

American Association for Health, Physical Education, McConnell, Mickey. How To Play Little League Base- and Recreation. School Safety Policies With Empha- ball. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1960. 148pp. sis on Physical Education, Athletics, and Recreation. Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1968. 32 pp. Owen, Mickey. Play it safe. School Safety 2:4-6, March- April 1967. Coombs, Jack. Baseball. Revised by D. Litwhiler. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. Polk, Ronald G. The frequency andcauses of baseball 333 pp. injuries. The Athletic Journal 49:19-20, 53, Nov. 1968. Dzenowagis, Joseph G. Baseball, Safety Education Data Sheet No. 71. Chicago: National Safety Council, 1966. Rawlinson, Ken. General treatment rules: Contusions, 4 pp. strains, sprains. Scholastic Coach 38:88, Sept. 1968. Hein, Fred V. Health aspects of accident prevention. In Ryan, Allan J. Medical Care of the Athlete. New York: 1963 Annual Safety Education Review. Washington, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962. 343 pp. D.C.: American Association for Health, Physical Ed- ucation, and Recreation, 1964. 119 pp. Spackman, Robert R. Conditioning for Baseball. Spring- Herbold, John 0. II. Illustrated Guide to Championship field, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1967. 89pp. Baseball. West Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Co., Taylor, Buddy. Taking care of the pitcher's arm. The Inc., 1968. 268 pp. Athletic Journal 49:60, Nov. 1968. Howard, Elston. Catching. New York: The Viking Press, 1966. 88 pp. Weiskopf, Don. Baseball the Major League Way. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1962. 225 pp. Kuenn, Harvey and Smilgoff, James. Big League Batting . Secrets. Englewood Cliffs,N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., St. Louis Cardinals' conditioning program. The 1958. 237 pp. Athletic Journal 49:10-12, 21-25, 64-67, Dec. 1968. HARRY COMBES, M.S. Basketball IA. E. "JOE" FLORIO, Ed.D.

Basketball was introdu5ed in 1891 by James dirt, or debris), twisting an ankle or knee, un- A. Naismith, M.D. as a game to be played in- necessary roughness, poor physical condition, doors during the cold months. Changes and improper physical and personal equipment, and modifications have refined the game to the point tripping over play equipment. where the participant must be in good physical Significantly, the incidence of serious acci- condition if he is to play effectively. As basket- dents among basketball players often has been ball developed it lost its characteristics as a the result of infection from relatively minor in- noncontact sport. Today there is a great deal of juries that did not receive immediate postgame body contact and very little protective equip- or postpractice attentionBefore the season ment to help avoid injuries. starts and prior to the opening practice, each While agility, quickness, coordination, and player must have a complete physical examina- desire are important qualities of a good basket- tion and written approval of the physician. ball player, he must also be adequately cont:i- The following are suggestions to help mini- tioned to carry on his assignments without un- mize injuries during participation in basketball. due fatigue, a contributor to accidents. For this reason it may be wise to employ a strength de- PERSONAL GEAR velopment program in conjunction with preseason or prepractice drills. Many coaches have 1. Each player must have well fitting shoes found that such programs result in improved specifically designed for basketball. The jumping ability, endurance and stamina, and shoe should have a nonslip tread and shock confidence. The exercise program should be absorber properties under the heel and concentrated on the legs, back, arms, and shoul- transverse arch of the foot. The shoe must ders, since these are the important body areas also afford adequate ventilation. The prop- in basketball. erly fitted shoe is the most important per- Because today's players tigger, faster, sonal item of the basketball player. stronger, and in better v the action is 2. A thin pair of socks under the regular much rougher. The main of injury are sweat socks will help prevent blisters. colliding with other playca, oeing struck by 3. To lessen the risk of crippling blisters, playing equipment, collision with extraneous especially in early season workouts, every objects, slipping on the floor (from perspiration, player should paint his feet with tincture

86 BASKETBALL 87

of benzoine or some similar product, then physical education classes,the rollaway liberally powder the feet to reduce friction. bleacher is preferable to the permanent Running barefoot in sand prior to report- bleacher arrangement at floor level. The ing for practice will aid in toughening the cross courts thus made available with large skin on the bottom of the feet. It is also playing areas will reduce accidents. a good practice to use foot powder before 4. All wall attachments should be recessed or and after practice. padded. 4. Safety lenses should be used only by play- 5. Benches, including timers and scorers, and ers needing glasses, and they should be other obstructions should be kept as far firmly secured. Contact lenses are desirable away as possible from the playing area. since they reduce the risk of serious eye 6. Basket supports should be properly padded injury from broken glasses. Players not to avoid injury when body contact is made using either of the above should wear a with them. Supports attached directly to protective guard over the glasses. All jew- the wall behind the basket or supportssus- elry should be removed when playing. pended from overhead are preferred to free 5, Trunks should be equipped with light hip standing apparatus. pads. 7. A rack of some type should be used to hold 6. Padded knee guards are a valuable piece basketballs that are not being used, and of equipment since they help eliminate action should be stopped whenever a loose floor burns and bruised bones. ball mils into the playing area. 7. A properly fitted brace should. be provided 8. Players should not be permitted to leave for players with weak knees. any piece of playing equipment near the 8. Warm-up clothing should be provided and playing area, especially under the basket. worn for pregame drills and practice. 9. Shower, locker, and training rooms should 9. Individual towels or ample clean towels for be kept spotlessly clean. A walking surface playersprevent passing disease germs that provides good traction even when wet among squad players. should be used. Recessed handles,soap 10. Advise players to do daily running prior dispensers, and an adequate number of to the beginning of organized practice. showers to prevent crowding will helpre- This will help improve endurance, condi- duce accidents. tion legs, and reduce the possibility of 10. Playing floors must provide aresilient, strained muscles. nonslip surface and they should be thoroughly mopped beforeevery practice and at half time of each game. THE PHYSICAL PLANT AND FIELD EQUIPMENT 11. Cool drinking water from sanitary paper 1. There should be a minimum of 12 to 16 cups should be provided if there is no feet of free space at the end lines and six fountain immediately available to the floor. feet along the sidelines. 2. Gymnasiums with endlines that are close PRAC1ICE AND GAME ROUTINE tothe wall with permanent bleachers, 1. Correct execution of fundamentals is a re- stairwells, .end permanent apparatus equip- liable safety measure. ment should be checked for dangerous 2. A properly conducted warm-up drill before corners and protruding equipment. Such the game or practice session decreases the places should be adequately covered with possibility of injuries. About 20 to 30 min- plastic or canvas check-mats. utes should be adequate. 3. With large numbers of players in varsity 3. The early season workou,s should be de- and reserve squads, intramural teams, and signed so players will develop their physi- N2.5

MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART NATIONAL BUREAU OF STA-4OAROS-196B-A 88 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

cal condition and thus be able to go the ankles, should have their ankles either full length of the game at peak efficiency. taped or wrapped before every practice and 4. During hard practice sessions, especially every game. If it is not possible tohave z in early season workouts, frequent rest team trainer, a student manager can learn periods should be provided. This maintains how to wrap and tape ankles by contacting a high level of alertness andlessens the a varsity trainer at,a college or university. fatigue factor as an accident possibility. 6. All practice sessions should have constant 5. Players,particularlythosewith weak supervision by the teacher or coach. If for

Figure 1. Balance and body control are essential. BASKETBALL 89

any reasor they must leave the area, the 5. A first aid kit should be available for the team captain or some other responsible coach or trainer. A thorough knowledge person should be left in charge. of first aid is essential to safety. 7. Salt tablets should be taken, if excessive 6. Clean towels, socks, and supporters should perspiration occurs, to maintain saline bal- be issued to lessen chances of infection and ance of the body. injury. 8. Because bad weather prevails during a ma- 7. All practice scrimmages should be well jor portion of the basketball season, pre- officiated. If not, play is likely to get rough, cautions should be taken to ward off any thus increasing the chances of injury. illness that could develop. Warm clothing, 8. When bus transportation is used for travel, scarves, and head covering should be worn all members of the team should ride on particularly after a hard game when play- the bus with no exceptions. The coach is ers are fatigued. responsible for the safety of the participants whenever travel is involved. Only GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE PRECAUTIONS qualified drivers should be used. 9. Competent and registered officials should 1. A doctor should be on call during practice be engaged for all interschool competition. sessions and present during contests. They should be conscientious about the '2. A complete physical and dental checkup safety of the players in handling the play should be made before the season opens, situations.Studentofficialsshouldbe preferably by the family physician, again trained to handle practice, intramural, and at midpoint, and after the season is over. recreational play. 3. A complete weight chart should be used 10. Provision for some kind, of accident insur- and players should weigh in and out for ance should be made to cover participants. all practice sessions. These safety regulations can be easily adapted 4. After an illness or an accident, permission to girls' basketball. The instructor should dis- should be secured from the doctor before courage girls from playing by boys' rules, how- allowing the participant to resume playing ever, as few girls are physically suited to so and practicing. strenuous a sport.

References

Annheim, Daniel D. and Klosfs, Carl. Modern Princi- Lews, F. Dwain and Sanderson, Douglas. How To Avoid ples of Athletic Training. St. Louis, Mo.: C. V. Mosby Injuries. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Co., 1963. 1969. Florio, A. E. and Stafford, G. T. Safety Education. 3d ed. NationalCollegiateAthletic Association.Basketball Rule Book. Kansas City, Lio : The Association. Cur- New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1969. 459 pp. ren' edition. Hanson, William. Staff utilization and strength develop- Ryan, Allan J. Medical Care of the Athlete. New York: ment. The Coaclang Clinic. 7:7-9, no. 7, June 1969. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1962. 343 pp. I Field Hockey IJANE ANNE HAVER, M.S.

Many physical educators have considered mum playing time is 70 minutes or two 35- field hockey too dangerous to be included in a minute halves (unless otherwise agreed).1 school program. Since field hockey involves The usual warm-up period prior to play is de- striking a ball with an implement, there are sirable. It generally includes the practice of skills ample opportunities for accidents to occur. This and plays that will be employed in the game. does not mean, however, that accidents and injuries are an inevitable outcome of participation FACILITIES in the sport. Perhaps the most common accidents involve One of the more important considerations bruises to the legs. These usually result from concerning facilities is that practice and play improper fielding of the ball, but this situation should be conducted on a smooth, level field. can be corrected by wearing the proper equip- Sprains are more likely tooccur if there are ment, practicing the basic fundamentals, and depressions in the ground or the footing isun- playing on a smooth, level field. Accidents also even. On a bumpy or hard field with loose dirt are more probable when a ball is lofted or under- or stones, a ball is more likely to rebound or be cut, striking a participant on the body or head. lofted, and this may be the precipitating cause This is most likely to occur when field condi- of an accident. If the field becomes slippery be- tions are slippery or when players become fa- cause of poor weather conditions, it is wise to tigued. Both conditions result in players being discontinue play, particularly with less skillful unable to move into position properly to takea players, as undercutting of the.ball may become hit, and thus the ball is played from a position more prevalent. well away from the body. Rule 4 states the specifications for the goals,2 but there is one requirement which is not always CONDITIONING adhered to that of using nets to enclose the Field hockey can place great demands on the 1 American Association for Health, Physical Educa- participants' cardiovascular respiratory endur- tion, and Recreation, The code of rules for the game of ance; during the season itis important that hockey for women, in DWGS Field Hockey-Lacrosse preparation for competition include activities Guide August 1970-72 (Washington, D.C.: The Asso- ciation, 1970), p. 81. which promote fitness in this regard. The maxi- 2 Ibid., p. 83.

90 FIELD HOCKEY 91 goal area. Many times the goal cage. is con- glasses guard. Some players also want to use a structed of wire mesh, usually in the interests mouth protector to minimize damage to the of easier maintenance. The use of wire is not as teeth as a result of collisions or being strtnk safe as netting since hard hit drives for goal are by a ....all. more likely to rebound back into oncoming The goalkeeper should wear the proper pro- players or the goalkeeper. Also, a forward whose tective equipment including goalie pads which momentum carries her into the cage is more are heavily padded and cover the leg to mid- liable to injury if she runs into mesh rather thigh, kickers or goalie boots for the feet, and than netting. The use of wire to secure the mesh a glove for the left hand. Some goalkeepers also to the goalposts may also be hazardous. Pro- elect to include a full face mask as a part of truding, strands with sharp points may be a their equipment. No player should practice goal- cause of cuts and scratches for participants play- keeping skills or, participate in competition with- ing in or near the goals. out being properly equipped.

EQUIPMENT OFFICIATING Strict adherence to the requirements concern- Rules which prohibit dangerous hitting or ing hockey sticks, as stated in the rules, will off- undercutting, hitting or kicking the ball into a set a potential cause of accidents.3 Particular care player, raising the stick above shoulder level, should be taken to check periodically for splin- and any roughness such as pushing or tripping ters and sharp edges on the sticks. should be strictly enforced. These rules have To lessen the risk of a player being bruised been designed for the safety of the participants, on the shins and ankles, participants should and the officials are responsible for controlling wear protective shin guards. This is particularly the conduct of play through the enforcement of true for the less experienced player who may these rules.6 have more difficulty with fielding skills. Shin guards which buckle around the legs should be COACHING checked to see that straps are not hanging, as .In field hockey, as in most sports, accidents this could cause the player totrip.It is also can be reduced when players are well coached advisablethatthistype of shinguard be and demonstrate good performance in the fun- buckled to the outside of the legs to reduce the dathental skills ,.1: the game. chance of the legs being rubbed or cut by the Coaches need to stress constantly that players buckle. Players who use shin pads which fit should try to be aware of other players around down into kneesocks should be certain that the them. This is difficult for players as they bend guard is firmly secured in place to prevent it over and their focus of attention is on the from slipping. ground or ball while executing the dribble, a It is recommended that players wear a hockey pass, or a dodge. Emphasizing positioning, look- sneaker that has cleats which will provide better ing up, and awareness of others on the field is traction. There are different types of hockey not only consistent with good performance but shoes and selection is usually a matter of per- will lead to a climate of safety in the game. sonal preference. "No player shall have any metal spikes, metal studs or protruding nails in SPECTATORS boots or shoes."4 Players who wear glasses which do not have Spectators should be seated away from the shatterproof lenses should wear a protective sidelines of the field. Practice balls, extra equipment, clothing, or other objects should also be 3Ibid.,p. 83. 4Ibid., p. 84. 5Ibid.,pp. 85-86. 92 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES cleared away from the sideline and endline the goal cages since a hard drive which misses boundaries. When the spectators sit on the the goal could be injurious if it were to strike ground, which is often the case for field hockey, someone. they need to have more time to react and move out of the way of hits which go over the side- MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS line. This is not only in the interest of safety, It is highly recommended that all players have but it also allows the wing to have sufficient an examination by a physician at the beginning room outside the sideline in order to play her of the field hockey season. This is mandatory position properly, and it enables the official to in some school situations. It is often the club move freely up and down the field. It is not or association player who fails to take this pre- advisable to allow spectators to be seated near cautionary measure. Tackle Football ICARL S. BLYTH, Ph.D.

In the United States more than 15,000 public assure that the potential for injury is kept to and private secondary schools field organized the absolute minimum. The following sugges- football teams each fall, with a total of some tions, recommendations, and comments are of- 1.2 million young men participating. Another fered to help coaches, athletes, school adminis- 100,000 young men participate at the college or trators, and parents prevent and reduce injuries university level. In addition, it has been esti- associated with tackle football. mated that some 200,000 boys are suited-up for competition by various community and social MEDICAL EVALUATION agencies suchas Metropolitan Police, Boys Clubs, Lions Clubs, Kiwanis Clubs, church Mandatory medical evaluation and medical groups, and many others. If the many thousand history must be taken at the beginning of each boys who play in football games of the sandlot season before an athlete is allowed to participate or semi-organized variety were included, the in any football activity. The complete medical total number playing the game would probably history and medical examination should be on reach two million. file with the proper school authorities where it Many phys;cians feel that as many. as half will be readily available if needed. It should also of these participants are victims of at least slight be required that a physician give written ap- injuries each season. Any health problem which proval to permit a player to return to practice affects over a million young men annually is a and competition after injury, especially if the significant health problem. Naturally, the prob- athlete has incurred a head injury. lem is recognized by those closest to the game Whenever possible, a physician should be on the coaches, school administrators, team physi- the field- of play during game and practice ses- cians and trainers, physical educators, and, of sions. When this is not possible, arrangements course, the parents. must be made in advance to obtain a physician's Football injuries have been accepted generally immediate service should an emergency arise. as an uncomfortable by-product of participation Each institution should have a team trainer who in the game. And in a sport requiring vigorous is a regular member of the staff and is qualified physical contact within a restricted area for 48 in treating and preventing injuries. to 60 minutes at a time, injuries are certain to Every school and institution fielding a foot- result. However, every effort should be made to ball team must subscribe to an athletic injury

93 94 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES insurance program.1 There are several plans cal contact between players is permitted. Re- available and the type secured will depend upon search has shown that the mandatory physical the policies of the communities and states in- conditioning period reduces the number and volved. An excellent source for information on severity of football injuries during the early fall athletic injury insurance is the American Med- practice period. ical Association's Council on Medical Services. When football activity is carried on in hot weather, the following precautions should be PHYSICAL CONDITIONING taken: (1) schedule practice sessions for early morning or evening during August and early Topphysicalperformancecanonlybe achieved by the athlete who is in top physical September;(2)acclimatizeathletestohot weather activity by carefully graduated practice condition; conversely, the athlete in poor physi- sessions; (3) provide rest periods of 15 to 30 cal condition will give a poor physical performance. But more important, the poorly condi- minutes during workouts of one hour; (4) fur- in recommended tioned athlete is more susceptible to disabling nish extra water and salt amounts (a recognized replacement for fluid loss injuries. is a sterile 0.1% saline solution that is, two Sound physical conditioning programs should teaspoonsful of ordinary tablesalt for each be made available for all youth. But since the gallon of water; it is generally suggested that it football athlete is exposed to body contact ath- be ingested at the rate of at least one quart per letics, he should have a preseason conditioning hour during extreme perspiration); (5) watch program planned for him by the coaching staff. athletes carefully for signs of trouble (fatigue, It is strongly recommended that the first week lethargy, inattention, stupor, awkwardness, etc.), of football practice be a graded type of condi- pa' rticularly the determined athlete who may tioning program with particular emphasis on not report discomfort; (6) remember that tem- learning the system to be employed, the signals, perature and humidity, not the sun, are the im- the plays, and timing. The physical conditioning portant factors and that heat exhaustion can program should include activities which will occur in the shade. strengthen the body and reduce susceptibility to fatigue. There are many types of physical COACHING STAFF conditioning programs, but running, grass drills, and wind sprints should be included in all of The head football coach is the most important individual in establishing a successful sports these programs. Considerable effort during the program. His attitude and leadership in promot- initial conditioning period should be devoted to "dummy-type scrimmage" involving the footing the safety factor in football determines football program will be ball skills to be learned. This type of practice whether or not iris successful. Securing of competent and experi- not only conditions the body but develops psy- enced coaching staff is one of the most difficult chomotor efficiency in the performance of foot- assignments facing the school administration. ball skills. If a school or institution cannot provide a well trained an Icapable coaching staff, considera- PRESEASON PRACTICE tion should be given to the elimination of the The majority of state high school athletic sports activity from the institution's athletic associations, as well as the National Collegiate program. Athletic Association, require a preseason physi- The head coach is responsible for the total cal conditioning period of from three to seven football program and should seek competent and days for all football athletes before any physi- dedicated help. It is the responsibility of the coaching staff to teach the football skill; in an lAn example of a football injury report form appears in Appendix B. environment free from unnecessary hazards. All TACKLE FOOTBALL 95 coaches should take the necessary precautions football are extremely important in the preven- to assure excellence in the physical condition of tion of injury to the participating athlete. But their athletes. Proper conditioning reduces the of prime importance is the official's responsi- frequency and severity of injuries and increases bility to enforce the rules and the coach's re- the morale and the desire of the athlete to com- sponsibility to coach within the rules. pete in wholesome physical activity. The coach who is lax or hurried in the physical condition- EQUIPMENT ing program of his athletes jeopardizes both the There are no standards to assist the pur- athletic prograir. and the health of the student chaser of protective football equipment. The athletes. following comments are a guide to the buyer Participation in football can foster desirable of football equipment for any age group of health habits. The coach should take advantage athletes: (1) the purchaser must deal with repu- of teaching situations and inculcate acceptable table sporting goods manufacturers and repre- health practices in his student athletes. There is sentatives: (2) the buyer must purchase the best no place in a football program for the attitude equipment available; (3)the football athlete of winning at any price if the health of the must be properly fitted with his equipment; (4) student athlete is jeopardized: The encourage- protective equipment must afford adequate pro- ment of hazardous and abusive tactics which tection against the hazards for which it is de- endanger the welfare of the student athlete signed and not create additional hazards; (5) should not be tolerated. protective equipment must be worn when ap- A safe football program depends upon careful propriate and when the football activity de- planning and organization by the head coach. mands it; and (6)old and worn equipment Much of the responsibility for parts of the pro- should be renovated or, preferably, discarded. gram may be delegated to other personnel, but The old and worn equipment should never be the head coach is the final authority in seeing handed down to players of lesser skill or younger that all phases of the program are conscie age group teams. All football players should be tiously carried out. given the best protection available. When describing protective equipment for RULES AND REGULATIONS tackle football, special consideration should be given to the helmet. Although designed as a Another method of promoting safety in foot- protective device, the helmet has been used as ball is to establish and enforce a sound set of a weapon in recent years. A practice referred to rules and regulations. Many unnecessary injur- as "spearing" has developed, that is, driving the ies occur every year because of a poorly defined head with force into the chest, stomach, and rule, the lack of a rule, or the improper en- kidney area of an opponent when blocking and forcement of a rule. It is imperative that each tackling. When the human head, encased in a school employ competent contest officialsto hard plastic helmet, is used as a battering ram, officiate at interscholastic games. Coaches must there is danger of hyperflexion, hyperextension, instruct their athletes within the rules and must or compression of the cervical vertebrae, as not take advantage of the rules by permitting well as concussion. Head- and neck injuries as their players to use abusive and hazardous well as fatalities have increased since the tactic tactics under game or practice conditions. of spearing was adopted by some football teams. Athletic governing bodies of colleges and Enforcement of the rules prohibiting spearing, high schools meet each year to promote research properly fitted helmets, and excellent physical to determine the causes of football injuries and condition are the factors which will help reduce vote on rules which enhance the safety factor fatalities and serious head and neck injuries infootball. Rules and regulations governing resulting from participation in tackle football. 96 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

SUMMARY 4. All personnel associated with football par- Many injuries and fatalities associated with ticipation should be aware of the problems football can be eliminated or appreciably re- and safety measures related to physical ac- duced if the following suggestions are observed: tivity in hot weather. 1. Mandatory medical examinations and medi- 5. There should be strict enforcement of game cal history should be taken at the beginning rules and administrative regulations in order of each season before allowing an athlete to to protect the health of the athlete. Coaches participate in any football activity. and school officials must support the game 2. All personnel concerned with training foot- officials in their conduct of football activities. ball athletes should emphasize gradual and 6. There should be continued emphasis on the complete physical conditioning. employment of well trained athletic person- 3. A physician should be present at all games nel and the provision of excellent facilities and practice sessions. If it is impossible for and the safest equipment possible. a physician to be present at all practice ses- 7. Finally, there should be continued research Oons, emergency measures must be provided. concerning the safety factor in football.

References

American Medical Association. A Guide for Medical Pre-Season Conditioning Manual. rev. ed. New York: Evaluation of Candidates for School Sports. Chicago: American FootballCoaches Association and Tea The Association, 1966. 5 pp. Council of the USA, Inc., 1970. Tips on Athletic Training, XII. Chicago: The . Association, 1970. Ryan, Allan J. Medical Care of the Athlete. New York: Blythe, Carl S. and Arnold, David C. Thirty-seventh McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962. 343 pp. annual survey of footballfatalities1931-1968. In Proceedingsof the Forty-SixthAnnual Meeting. Trickett, Paul C. Prevention and Treatment of Athletic Hanover, N.H.: American Football Coaches Associa- Injuries. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965. tion, Jan. 1969. 117 pp. Touch and Flag Football IJOSEPH G. DZENOWAGIS, Ed.D.

From kids playing on pickup teams after sandlot, for example, of, often the similarity school, to adults enjoying a corecreational game between what passes for a game of touch and on weekend afternoons, to Saturday morning standard touch football is purely coincidental "powder- puff" games, more people are playing or accidental, as the case may be. touch and flag football today than ever before.' Teams are made up of those available to play The popularity of this limited contact game divided as equally as possible. The field of play seems to have surpassed that of baseball as the is generally any accessible area of unspecified number one vacant lot activity among young- size. Rules are informal and subject to frequent sters. Young adults as well have rediscovered the change; the only equipment used is a football sport which was once known as "sissy" football. of any description. Few of the players, if any, The resurgent interest in touch football is bother to warm up with pregame exercises. being felt beyond the vacant lot level of play. Older players may neither recognize their own Schools are increasinglyinclinedtoinclude limitations for physical activity nor question the touch in the sports program, and community wisdom of participating in rugged competition organizations sponsoring sports activities for against younger, morefitplayers. Younger youngsters show an increase in touch football players may not understand the rules of the league play. game and may be unaware of the hazards in- On both organized and informal levels of play volved in playing under poorly controlled con- activity, it can be estimated that touch football ditions. and its many variations are being played today It is little wonder that accidents and injuries by several million young people, among them a occur under these circumstances. Although there generous sprinkling of females. is little specific data available concerning the Unfortunately, the informal nature of the extent of touch football injuries that occur in game together with the wide range of ability, organized play and even less in informal play, experience, and training of the participants cre- it is estimated that at least one person a year ates circumstances that maximize the accident dies as the direct result of a touch football and injury potential of this activity. On the mishap. On the other hand, touch football played un- 1 Flag football is a variation of touch in which each player wears a flag in his belt. The tag is made by der the supervision of experienced personnel snatching the flag of the ball-carrier. is accomranied by regulations that prevent acci-

97 98 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

dents and injuries. The more sophisticated forms elbow. Injuries caused by falls were most com- of the game as played in class, intramural, or monly bruises and sprains. Where injuries oc- interschool competition on upper elementary, curred through blocking action,they were secondary school, and college levels are gen- mainly bruises, sprains, and strains. Injuries erally closely supervised and strictly officiated. from collisions were also bruises, sprains, and, The rules are adapted to the limitations of the in addition, cuts. When a player made severe players who may be uniformed with protective enough contact with another player's elbow, the garb, who are teamed according to size and injuries were most often bruises and cuts or ability, and who have been coached and in- damage to the teeth. structed in proper play and safety techniques to The injury frequency rate of touch football is minimize accidents. consistently higher than that of most other In spite of precautions, however, even under intramural sports. The touch football injuries supervised play injuries continue to occur. It alone at Michigan State University accounted is estimated that about 5,000 of the 350,000 for more than 40% of the total number of in- male college students who participate annually juries in the school's entire men's intramural in intramural touch football are injured seriously program. enough to seek medical attention.2 Figures are not available for other age groups probably be- PREVENTION AND CONTROL cause the informality of the game precludes Examination of available information concern- routine reporting, analysis, and publication of ing accidents and injuries sustained through data. playing touch football indicates some direction toward prevention and control of accidents and HAZARDS injuries. Since the action that most often leads to in- A few investigations, mainly on the college jury in touch is collision with an opponent or a level, have been made into the character of the teammate, players should anticipate the prob- injuries sustained by touch football players.s able action of others around them and be pre- A close look at the nature and extent of these injuries is revealing. pared to move out of the way or know how to cushion unavoidable body contact. Ruler con- Studies conducted at Michigan State Univer- sity involving more than 25,000 participants cerning blocking action should be strictly enforced by officials, and players should be cau- showed that bruises, sprains, and cuts were the tioned with regard to the severity of the blocks injuries occurring most frequently in men's in- they use. tramural touch footba11.4 Most of the injuries To prevent falls and the injuries resulting involved the. head, face, knees, and ankles and were of a minor nature with only a small per- from falls, a player should know the basic prin- centage considered serious. ciples involved infalling without sustaining The majority of the injuries resulted from injury. He should understand the relationship of collisions, action in blocking or being blocked, the center of gravity to body control, how to falling, and being struck by another player's establish a wide base of support, and how to spread the impact of a fall over a large surface 2 Joseph G. Dzenowagis, Touch football, in Safety Edu- area of the body. The player needs also to know cation, 1st ed., edited by A. E. Florio and G. T. Stafford how to use his joints flexibly in order to absorb (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962). 3 Joseph G. Dzenowagis, Injuries in Men's Physical the shock of landing and how to relax and roll Education and Intramural Sports, Monograph, no. 14 as he falls. (Chicago: National Safety Council, 1962). Since a high percentage of injuries occurs to 4 Lawrence Sierra, "Accidents in Intramural Sports." Mimeographed. East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State the head and face, the use of properly fitted University, 1966. headgear, face guards, and mouthpieces should TOUCH AND FLAG FOOTBALL 99 reduce the frequency and severity of injuries to resume play. Medical examinations and proper these areas. follow-ups should be given to all participants However, the use of such protective equip- in school supervised touch football. ment can engender a false sense of security and The playing field should be free of holes, safety among the players, with the result that stones, or other obstacles that might contribute the game can be rougher and injuries may con- to injury. It should be well marked and large tinue but with greater severity. Similarly, the enough to accommodate freely the size of the use of an elbow guard may cut down on cuts group using it. and bruises, save teeth, and help protect a player Rules should be modified to accommodate the when he falls. On the other hand, it may also size and ability of the players, and all of the encourage more reckless play and thereby in- players should understand the rules clearly. The crease injuries. game should be regulated by strict enforcement There is considerable controversy concerning of the agreed upon rules. the value of certain kinds of protective equip- Even afterall safety measures have been ment for use in touch football. Research studies taken, accidents and injuries will occur. Most concerning the design and effectiveness of proof these will be minor, but some will be serious. tective equipment are needed. The responsibility of adult leadership is to mini- In addition, certain basic safety measures can mize the frequency and severity of these in- be instituted in the formally organised sport and juries. recommended for carry-over into pickup games. Physical education teachers should teach the Apparel appropriate for the game should be fundamentals and safety skills of touch football worn, with sneakers and nonrestrictive clothing at the appropriate grade levels. They should recommended. Objects such as pins and pencils instill in youngsters the proper social attitudes in pants pockets should be removed. Spiked or that will encourage them to participate safely sharp cleated shoes should not be allowed. and with enjoyment in pickup gameson the A player who wears glasses should wear the neighborhood playground or in their own back- kind designed for safety with proper lens and yards. Other leaders of youth activities have 'a safety frames. In addition, the hinge and bridge simliar commitment to the safe conduct of the areas should be padded or taped. touch football games that they supervise. Players should be conditioned before playing Touch football can be a relatively safe activ- and should have a sufficient warm-up period ity. Only when it is played with lack of regard before each game. An individual recentlyre- for the rules and lack of respect for the safety covered from an illness or disability should first of the players can it be considered a dangerous see his physician to establish his readiness to sport.

References

Sierra,Lawrence. "Accidentsin Intramural Sports." East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University, 1962.

Consultants

1 Lawrence Sierra, Michigan State University, East Lans- ing, Mich. 1 Ice Hockey IJOHN CONLEY, Ph.D.

The first fatality in the 51 year history of but players will not wear them. Most complain Canada's National Hockey League was attrib- of profuse perspiring, impaired vision, or lack uted to a massive internal brain injury suffered of comfort. Some feel that helmets makes them by a player when his head slammed onto the look like sissies or that they lose their individu- ice during a recent game. The player would ality on the ice. The only way to protect all probably be alive today if he had worn a helmet. hockey players from major head injuries is to Has the tragedy led to other NHL players make the wearing of a helmet compulsory at switching to helmets? No! Only a few would all levels, in practice as well as in games! rather wear them +han risk permanent injury How dangerous is ice hockey? Whether the or death. player is an expert who skates of itwo thin Although this was the first fatality in the blades at speeds in excess of 30 miles per hour, NHL, there have been many deaths outside the or a young child maneuvering unpredictably at League. In 1966, a 30-year-old Ontario school- five miles per hour, the potential for injury is teacher died 10 days after suffering a head in- great. jury in a game between teachers and students. In 1965, a student from McMaster University THE INJURY PICTURE in Ontario died of head injuries after lying in a coma for three weeks. In 1963, a 26-year-old Of all the major sports played in North minor league player died of head injuries in America, ice hockey has the least research into Ottawa.' injuries and the poorest records. Even in Canada, The list runs on and on, with the majority hockey capital of the world, few teams or leagues of hockey fatalities resulting from head inju- keep injury records. The only way to obtain an ries. Needless to say, there have been many near idea of the type and extent of injuries is from misses where the injured player suffered only personal experience and observation or through a minor injury, such as a concussion. Most of discussions with coaches and players. Most ar- these injuries and fatalities could have been ticles and books written about hockey devote prevented with the use of good hockey helmets little or no attention to the accident problem. Most hockey injuries are minor. Cuts about 1Trent Frayne, The NHL's firstfatality and the the face and loss of tenth are the most common. hockey helmet taboo, in The Star Weekly Magazine (Feb. 3, 1968), p. 43. This type of injury is caused primarily by being

100 ICE HOCKEY 101 hit with a stick of ..C :asionally players Short ones should be substituted so that if they are cut by skates wi ai ;all or are knocked are hit forcefully the cage will move. For young to the ice. The latter cause is more prevalent in hockey players the goals do not need to be beginning hockey since novices are awkward on attached at all. skates. Although these injuries can never be Many hockey players are injured because totally prevented, they can be minimized by the spectators throw coins, paperclips, piper, eggs, use of helmets and mouthpieces; good offici- ink, paint, wood shavings, and other objects ating to minimize high sticking, slashing, and onto the ice. On.y proper supervision of crowds cross-checking; and the coaching of players to by the arena management or local police, and protect their head and face with their arms and education of the spectators about the injury gloves when knocked to the ice or into the problem, can prevent this needless hazard. boards. Goalies in hockey have a special problem. A TORONTO STUDY2 Although wearing a mask is more common now, many leagues do pot make it compulsory. This In a 1963-64 Toronto Township Hockey is the only way to protect goalkeepers from fly- League study of 2,469 players ranging in age ing pucks, high sticks, and scrambles in front from 7 to 18 years,allinjuries requiring a of the net. Goalies also have the unique occu- doctor's services were analyzed. Principal dist7i- pational hazard of groin injuries while doing the butionof the 85injuries was asfollows.: splits and hand injuries from catching the puck. mouth 25%; eyes 15%; nose 10%; head and Proper conditioning and warm-ups will mini- forehead 18%; knees 7%; wrists 6%; ribs mize the former. 3%; ankle 3%; fingers 3%. The main causes of John Corbett, coach of the University of these injuries can be summarized as follows: western Ontario hockey team, stressesiso- sticks 25%; puck 19%; skates 9%; striking the ...... irics and weight training for all his players boards 17%; falls and body checks 13% each. and insists on at least 15 to 20 minutes; of pre- Whereas head and facial injuries were caused game warm-up. He states that just as many in- primarily by hits from a stick, puck, or skate, juries occur in practice as in games so that the body injuries generally resulted from a check same precautions should be observed. Corbett or fall. The age of the participants did not cor- warns about the increased injury problems that relate with any particular type of injury, al- occur late in the season, late in a game when though body injuries were more common among the players are tired, and during playoffs. He the 14- to 18-year-olds. recommends quicker line changes to help allevi- The Toronto Township Hockey League re- ate this problem. quires helmets and mouthpieces for all hockey Hockey players are afflicted with other in- players. Consideration was given to using a face juries which are either not too serious or rare bar on helmets but no decision was made. How- in nature. Bone bruises, especially around the ever, two rules were modified in an attempt to ankle from being hit by a pucl-, are common but minimize facial injuries. First, sticks must be not serious. Equipment of goad quality and carried below waist level. Second, the slap shot properfitcan minimize this problem. Few was outlawed since the stick is raised quitehigh players, for instance, wear ankle protectors, on this shot. Since 50% of the body injuries are shoulder and elbow pads, or proper thigh and caused by checking and hitting the boards, more slash guards. There is no excuse for not using vigorousrulesenforcementregarding body protective equipment when it is available. checking and boarding was recommended. Also, Other hazards unique to hockey include referees were to be instructed to be very fast striking goalposts that are too rigidly attached. 2 Jerry Love and Ted Toogood, "Toronto Township Many older goals have long pipe insertions. hockey league injury survey." Mimeographed. 1965. 102 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

on the whistle, especially on the boards and EQUIPMENT around the net. Hockey equipment available today can do a great deal to prevent or minimize injuries if a CONDITIONING player uses it properly. Too often a young player As in any sport, proper conditioning before who is growing rapidly is still using ill fitting and during the season will minimize injury. Bill equipment which does not protect him properly. L'Heureux mentions several special conditioners This is particularly true of pants and skates. for hockey players.3 He advocates back. bending Those which are too large or too small will exercises to meet the strain of holding a bent hamper the player's skating and make him more position on skates. Also, ankle, foot, and knee vulnerable to injury. Many young players do stretching aids in carrying the load of the body not wear an athletic support with a metal cup. on skates. Skating uses muscles unique to the This can seriously injure even the youngest of sport because a player moves on the ice with a players. Often insufficient underclothing is worn semisideways leg push. Side leg raises with a and the player is without proper warmth or ab- weighted boot or manual resistancegreatly sorption protection. Stockings, shin pads, pants, strengthen a player's skating ability. Hopping elbow and shoulder pads, sweater, gloves, hel- on one leg and heel raising strengthen the met, mouth guard, athletic support, skates, and ankles. Edward Jeremiah advocates working on stick should be standard equipment for hockey the adductor muscles to give much needed players of all revels. strength to the groin muscles.4 Hockey players use large amounts of tape to Of course there are many ether exercises that keep equipment in place. If the shin pads, in are beneficial to hockey as well as to other particular, are allowed to slip, injury possibili- sports. Running and skipping helps the legs. ties are greatly increased. Also oils put on the Stops and starts are excellent leg strengtheners. feet help toughen the skin and prevent blisters Pushups and chinups will strengthen the arms, and sores which are so common early in the wrists, and shoulders. Wrist curls with a barbell season. Cotton or rubber pads inserted under improve shooting. Since balance is so important, the skate tongue prevent lace soreness. ballet work in preseason drills, with and without Goalies havespecial equipment needs. In skates, will minimize falls and checks. addition to the equipment worn by other play- In The Hockey Handbook, a must for coaches ers, a goalie must have arm, shoulder, and leg and players, Lloyd Percival describes many more pads, a mask to protect him against facial cuts, team and individual drills.6 He criticizes poor and achest protectorto safeguard against warm-ups as a major cause of injuries. bruises and possible broken bones when hit by Warm-ups should be strenuous enough so that the puck. A goalie also needs extra padding in every player is sweating heavily before the the thigh and hip areas of his hockey pants. game starts.... However, particularly at low level organized hockey, there is sometimes insufficient time for a good ice warm-up.... OFFICIATING Special warm-up exercises should be done in the dressing room before the skates are put As in other contact sports, officiating is ex- on.6 tremely important to prevent injury. At least two officials should be used in a game. If there ° William J. L'Heureux, RCAF Sports Series: Hockey (Ottawa, Ontario: Royal Canadian Air Force, 1956). is only one official, he will probably miss the *Edward J. Jeremiah, Ice Hockey, 2d ed. (New York: multitude of illegal tactics such as holding, in- The Ronald Press Co., 1958). terfering, slashing, and so on which in them- 5 Lloyd Percival, The Hockey Handbook (New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1961). selves may not cause injury but which tend to ° Ibid., pp. 306-307. irritate players into more violent retaliatory ac- ICE HOCKEY 103

tions such as cross checking, high sticking, 3. Develop instinctive maneuvers in the cor- elbowing, charging, boarding, etc. Officials must ners and along the boards to prevent seri- be strict and consistent on all types of fouls, ous board checks. not just those which have the greatest possi- 4. Whin falling or being hit into the boards, bility of causing direct injury. protect your face and head with your arms Many players are unaware of the rules. It is and gloves. a valuable service to players, coaches, and other 5. Try to absorb the impact when hit by an officials if at least one practice session is de- opponent unless the combination of your voted to reviewing the rules, especially those size and speed is much superior to his. which have had recent changes. Most officials 6. Spread out on the rink. Do not overcrowd. find it well worthwhile to spend this time with 7. Do not lean on your stick. If you depend a team before the season begins. on your stick to keep you upright it is too easy to upset your balance. TIPS FOR INJURY PREVENTION 8. Keep your stick below your waist and your elbows in. This will prevent injury to 1. Keep your head up at all times. Learn to others and eventually to yourself. stick handle and pass the puck without 9. Keep moving on the ice. A stationary tar- watching it. get is the easiest to hit. 2. Practice improving your peripheral vision 10. Wear properlyfittingprotective equip- so that you are aware of the total picture ment all the time. The one time you forget and where each player is situated. may be the time you are injured.

References

Frayne, Trent. The NHL'sfirstfatality andthe L'Heureux, William J. RCAF Sports Series: Hockey. hockey helmet taboo. In The Star Weekly Magazine, Ottawa, Ontario: Royal Canadian Air Force, 1956. p. 43, Febr. 3, 1968. Love, Jerry and Toogood, Ted. "Toronto Township Hockey League Injury Survey," 1965. Mimeographed. Jeremiah, Edward J. Ice Hockey. 2d ed. New York: The Percival, Lloyd. The Hockey Handbook. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1958. A. S. Barnes and Co., 1961. Lacrosse IBRUCE A. CORRIE, P.E.D.

...rantland Rice, the legendary dean of Ameri- ness. But the idea that lacrosse is "mayhem on can ,portswriters, in describing lacrosse was the lawn" and "blood on the green" and there- quoted as saying: foreunsuitableforphysicaleducation and varsity activity is erroneous. Once in a while they argue about the fastest game basketball or hockey; then about the roughest game water polo, football, or box- INJURY POTENTIAL ing. But when it comes to the top combination, the answer is lacrosse. Lacrosse is the all-star J. Roswell Gallagher of the Children's Medi- combination of speed and body contact. It re- cal Center in Boston commented on the ex- quires more elements of skill than any game tent of lacrosse injury, based on a survey of all I know.' injuries over a period of seven years at a boys' Although this colorful description of lacrosse preparatory school: accurately portrays the speed and skill of the On the comparative basis of average num- game, it is misleading and often misinterpreted, ber of injuries per participant per year, there particularly regarding roughness. It is common is little difference between soccer, basketball, to find in a magazine or newspaper article on hockey, wrestling, baseball, and lacrosse... lacrosse a reference to this roughness in either that baseball had more injuries than lacrosse may scrprise those who have seen lacrosse the title or theme of the story. Some examples played. It can be explained by the fact that are: lacrosse, as played in preparatory schools (at least in New England), is strictly refereed in "Massacre on a Muddy Plain," "Mayhem an effort to keep injuries down, and because on the Lawn," "Moral Substitute for War," the obvious roughness is not of the kind which and "The Roughest Sport of Them All." frequently produces injuries; to slash at your opponent's stick may seem dangerous to a There is no doubt that lacrosse is a highly spectator, but it only rarely injures a player. competitive sport involving contact and rugged- The number of eleven-man football injuries averaged more than eight times as many as 1 Grantland Rice, cited in Paul Hartman. "Lacrosse for hockey and lacrosse... .2 Handbook." Mimeographed. (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, c. 1967). Later published as Paul Hart- 2J. Roswell Gallagher, Athletic injuries among ado- man, Lacrosse Fundamentals. (Columbus, Ohio: Charles lescents: Their incidence and type in various sports, E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1968). Research Quarterly 19 (Oct. 1948), p. 201.

104 LACROSSE 105

A member of the Lacrosse Hall of Fame, Glen schools.Strong emphasis on wearing warm N. Thiel, had this to say: clothes and warming up properly prior to playing will help alleviate most of these injuries. Contrary to the belief of the uninformed spectator, the injury factor is not great ... sta- Knee and ankle injuries often occur in la- tistics prove that major injuries are rare, con- crosse because cleats get caught in the ground fining injuries seldom occur, few practice hours and the knee or ankle is twisted. Many schools are lost, though minor bruises and abrasions have switched from the football shoes to soccer are common. To the author's knowledge, in shoes because of the shorter cleats which de- all the long history of lacrosse, there never has been reported a fatality attributed to the game.3 crease the risk of locking the shoe in the turf. Because of the nature of the game, great stress should be put on running and conditioning exer- COMMON INJURIES AND THEIR PREVENTION cises both before and during the season. This, Most of the injuries that occur in lacrosse are plus careful maintenance of the playing field, of the minor contusion type. Unlike football, should minimize knee and ankle injuries. there is no tackling or piling on and most of the contact occurs in the open field in a one-on- INTRAMURAL PROGRAMS one situation. Those injuries that are peculiar to Cadets at West Point are required to wear lacrosse are usually caused by the stick on an mouthpieces and have their ankles taped in unprotected part of the body. However, all of addition to wearing the regular equipment prior the vulnerable parts of the body (hands, face, to participating inintramural lacrosse. The shoulders, arms, elbows) are given adequate officials are required to inspect each man prior protection.Officialrulesrequirethat every to the game to ensure that he is wearing service- player in the game have a helmet, face mask, able equipment. In addition, all cadets having properly fastened chin strap, and gloves in or- a history of knee injury, concussions, etc., must der to participate. With the improved full face receive a medical clearance prior to participation, mask eliminating most faci,' cuts, few injuries and cadet trainers are assigned to each game. occur on the protected parts of the body. These measures are responsible for the low in- Occasionally an injury will occur due to a jury rate in 1967 intramural lacrosse: 460 cadets reckless swing of the stick by an overly aggres- scheduled to play, 3,680 total exposures (each sive player. However, there are rules and penal- cadet one hour per day for eight days), 42 in- ties to cover this kind of conduct. The potential juries (33 lower, 9 upper extremities), aver- for injury can be controlled by good officiating aging to .011 injuries per exposure. and ethical coaching. Close supervision by a At the Air Force Academy, the intramural coach on legal stick and body checking, and the office considers lacrosse one of its safest sports. proper attitude instilled in his players, will elimi- Injuries average two fractures a year, and the nate injuries caused by unsportsmanlike actions. rest are sprains, strains, and various bruises. knees, The unprotected parts of the body The intramural program at Johns Hopkins in- legs, and ankles receive most of the injuries cludes lacrosse as one of itsactivities. The in lacrosse. These are usually the common in- school provides helmets and gloves, and pays juries that also occur in football and soccer and student officials to referee the games. Injuries are not due to lack of equipment. There are a have been minimal in this highly competitive certain number of "charley horses" and pulled program. muscles that will occur in the early spring when the weather is cold, particularly in northern PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS Glen N. Thiel, Lacrosse as a high school sport, Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation 22 In the physical education program at Johns (Apr. 1951), p. 27. Hopkins, a modified game is played without pro- 106 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES tective equipment. The rules allow no body relays with just sticks and balls. Later, modified checking or poke or slap checking with the stick. games, under close supervision by the instruc- It is legal to check v ith the head of the stick tor, are played on either the full field or half only on the opponent's head of the stick. Also, field. Rule changes are similar to those at Johns the dimensions of the field are abbreviated. Hopkins, and there has been no injury problem. There have only been a few minor bruises in Although lacrosse may appear to be a wild, the 15 years that lacrosse has been in the pro- free swinging, accident ridden activity, the rules gram. we have today, together with good officiating, Duke University introduced lacrosse, in com- improvedequipment,and ethicalcoaching, bination with soccer, into its physical education make the injury and accident potential almost program recently and it has been enthusiastically negligible. Lacrosse can, and is, being safely received by the students. The basic fundamen- played in the physical education and intramural tals are taught and practiced through drills and programs, as well as on the varsity level.

References

Hartman, Paul. Lacrosse Fundamentals. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1968. 122 pp.

Consultants

James F. Adams, United States Military Academy, West Point, N.Y. Charles J. Garver, United States Military Academy, West Point, N.Y. James H. Keating, Jr., United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colo. Robert H. Scott, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. William G. Stiles, Hobart College, Geneva, N.Y. Soccer IROBERT GUELKER, M.S.

Soccer is played with skills involving the feet, cult to distinguish teammates from opponents thighs, chest, and head. The goalkeeper is the in making split decisions, players are apt to only person on the field who can legallyuse his collide with their own teammates and cause hands on the ball, providing it is done inside the injury. All teams should have two sets of uni- penalty area. Outside the penalty area, the goal- forms to provide contrast, especially with jerseys keeper is like any other player as far as using and stockings. If economy is a factor, one pair his hands. of shorts could be used while the jerseys and Because soccer is a bodily contact game played stockings could be interchanged to avoidcon- with little or no equipment, and because it puts flict. Many players react quickly by noticing great demands on stamina, numerous injuries the stockings of a teammate without lookingup occur. The hazards most likely to cause injury at the player's face or color of his shirt. are related to equipment, playing field, physical For safety of the opposition, the referees conditioning, and skills. should check the players' shoes prior to each game to determine if the shoes comply with EQUIPMENT rule specifications. In order to have better footing on wet or muddy fields, some players will The proper game equipment consists of uni- attempt to wear American football cleats, which form jersey, shirt, and stockings, in addition to are forbidden. shin guards and shoes. Other equipmentcan include protective supporting devices forin- SHIN GUARDS jured areas. The goalkeeper canwear other equipment, and he should do so, especially in Because of the intricate and agile movements prac tice.1 and the speed involved in soccer, many players today do not elect to wear shin guards. They UNIFORM believe this piece of safety equipment for the lower leg is burdensome and affects their play. The rules on uniform specify that eachteam There is no doubt a player has more mobility wear distinctive, colored jerseys. When it is diffi- and quickness of start without the additional 1 The Official NCAA Soccer Guide (Phoenix, Ariz.: weight on his legs. However, the advantages of College Athletics Publishing Service, 1967), p. 56. protection outweigh the disadvantages cf wear-

107 108 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES ing the safeguard. There are a number of small, goalkeeper fails to bring his padded protection. lightweight shin guards on the market that a In teaching a beginning goalkeeper how to player can wear without sacrificing too much dive, it may be necessary to provide him the speed and mobility. Shin guards are recom- safety of practicing in a jumping pit, on mats, mended for players of both teams when begin- or at least on soft ground with good turf. ners are involved. Injury could developbecause of the beginner's lack of skill, experience, and PLAYING FIELD control of bodily movements. His poor timing Safety can be provided by conc., uctingall can result in the kicking of an opponent instead practice sessions and match ganes on nonhaz- of the ball. Also, it is advisable to wear shin ardous fields. There should be nc hook or pro- guards when playing against an opponent who trusions on the front of goalposi, or t-e cross- is reputed to play in a rough or overly aggres- bar. The method of attaching fr e crossbar to sive style. the side posts should be checke, prior to each game to determine whether there are anyloose SUPPORTING DEVICES bolts or connections. Safety can be provided by wearing protective The playing ground should be free from all supporting devices over injured or weak bodily obstacles and hazardous conditions. Holes and areas. Support can be given with expert taping gulleys should be smoothed and filled to mini- or by wearing a suitable brace. A brace that mize injury. Frozen footprints which result from allows lateral as well as frontal and backward playing on a muddy field should be eliminated, movement is recommended for protection and if possible, before the next game. support of weak knee joints. Some knee braces Many games are played on football fields. with metal hinges provide a good safeguard, Holes left from field markers can cause a severe but do not allow lateral movement of the knee. ankle injury to the player who steps on these A coach should act under the advice of an ex- small holes with a cleat. Safety could be pro- pert trainer or physician before permitting an vided by capping the holes and/or covering injured player to return to action, even with a them with a piece of sod or fresh dirt. supporting device. Teams have conducted practice sessions and played matches on icy fields. For the safeguard GOALKEEPER'S EQW,PMENT o': the players, the coach should postpone play o, practice under these conditions. However, Because the goalkeeper's method of training when such play occurs, it is safer to wear some should involve different methods of practice, he type of gym shoe or training shoe than to wear can wear equipment to safeguard himselffrom shoes with cleats. Poor footing causes a lack of injury, especially abrasions and contusici-.5 of control of bodily movements. the legs and arms. Since goalkeeper training involves the art of diving and falling to the ground from various positions and angles, the equip- PHYSICAL CONDITIONING ment should include pads to protect elbows, Injury prevention can be attained through knees, and hips. Shorts with built-in padding physical conditioning which permits optimal de- are available. Baseball sliding pads can also pro- velopment of strength, endurance, and flexibility vide protection for the hips and upper legs. of those body areas most vulnerable to injury. Because the goalkeeper can receive many The types of injuries, and the body areas abrasions and cuts during a training session, he where these injuries are most likely to occur, should be encouraged to wear an old sweat suit are as follows:2 in practice. While this minimizes abrasions, it 'Bob Bauman, Trainer, St. Louis University and St. also provides some safeguard protection if the Louis Baseball Cardinals. Jan. 15, 1969. (Interview) SOCCER 109

1. Abrasions all parts of the body, particularly the legs 2. Contusions all parts of the body, particularly the quadriceps 3. Sprains ankle and knee areas 4. Strains lower extremities, especially the gastrocnemius muscle, the Achilles tendon, and the patillar tendon 5. Fractures toes, metatarsal bones, and the fibula and tibia. There is no magic formula to prevent these injuries from occurring. Once the environmental safety factors have been provided, the most important safety item for a player's well-being is proper physical conditioning. Since soccer is a game of stamina, a player must be in top physical condition in order to set the pace of the game, otherwise, the opponent may set the pace. Once a player has fatigued and is unable to meet the physical demands made of him, he is susceptible to injury caused by poor timing and weakening of muscle strength. Conditioning a player for optimum performance involves constant training. Regarding postseason conditioning, a player should watch his diet to avoid excessive increase in weight. Also, he should have at least a mini- Figure 1. Proper performance will avoid headache. mal amount of exercise to maintain muscle tone. As a consequence, preseason conditioning will and backward without the ball; running with be easier, and there will be less danger of in- theball and performingskillsindividually; jury. Walking, jogging, participation in basket- working on skills in small groups with the ball; ball, volleyball, handball, and tennis matches play in abbreviated games of three to five play- provide beneficial exercise. Because of the fresh ers on each side; and wind sprints. Running air and walking involved, golf is a good summer should be done in stints of short duration for and off season activity. a specified number of times, as opposed to run- Preseason conditioning concentrates not only ning laps. on skills, but also on preparation of a player In-season conditioning involves the work load to withstand any work load that might be im- and type of activity needed to meet-the demands posed upon him by the coach when the regular of playing the game. Generally, a player's work season's training begins. Besides developing his load in practice should exceed the requirements cardiorespiratory faculties, the player should of the game. Thus, all players should be suffi- develop all muscle groups of his body. Empha- ciently fit to play extra time without a negative sis should be directed at developing weak areas, change in performance. especially the ankle and knee joints. Preseason Because the game demands much stopping, training can include calisthenics involving nu- starting, turning, and jumping, it is vital for a merous flexibility exercises; running forward player to train daily, simulating movements used ) 110 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES in match situations.' Drills with and without loosen and stretch the various muscles and liga- the ball can be utilized in providing these nec- ments and other collogenous tissues. This re- essary movements; most game situation drills duces muscle tears and ligament strains. The will accomplish this purpose. An example of a warm-up should include easy running, stretch- dribbling drill which meets this objective is: ing, and general body conditioning exercises. as player A makes feinting and dribble move- Pregame warm-ups should include ball control ments as he would in a game for a stretch of drills with moderate movement. The warm-up 30 yards, B makes no attempt to take the ball should be climaxed by a few wind sprints. away, but retreats while forcing A to move side to side. When they reach the designated mark, SKILL the players can switch off and alternate.* This drill can be varied by player B attempt- The objective of all soccer players is to de- ing to take the ball away and forcing A to pro- velop skill in playing the game in order to im- tect the ball with his body. prove performance. Skill definitely isa goal when a person is conditioning for preseason WARMUP and in-season play. Regarding in-season work, the coach is responsible for the type of activity It should be noted that the warm-up has real used in the development of skills. In addition, preventive values in conditioning and before each player should use those moments available playing a game. Its purpose is to sufficiently to him before and after practice to work on 3 Walter Winterbottom, Soccer Coaching (London: improving his skills. The player with the best Naldress Press, 1952), p. 7. bodily control, who knows how to protect him- 4 Dettmar Cramer; International Soccer Coach of the Federation of International Football Associations. Aug. self in intricate play situations, will be the most 1968. (Interview) successful at minimizing injury.

References

The Official NCAA Soccer Guide. Phoenix, Ariz.: Col- lege Athletics Publishing Service. Annual. Winterbottom, Walter. Soccer Coaching. London: Nal- dress Press, 1952.

Consultants

Bob Bauman, St. Louis University and St. Louis Base- ball Cardinals, St. Louis, Mo. Dettmar Cramer, Federation of International Football Associations, Zurich, Switzerland. Volleyball IJAMES EUGENE COLEMAN, A.B.

Each year 40 to 6C million persons in the because of ankle sprains. These injuries are United States engage in some form of volley- generally caused by a player landing on the foot ball. Participants range from school girls in of a teammate or an opponent or collision with class, to executives at the company picnic, to court equipment. Olympic athletes. The game can be fun for all Knee injuries. Result from collisions but are ages and skill levels. usually only aggravations of old injuries. Un- Volleyball is probably one of the safest team wise training techniques can have adverse ef- activities. Injuries occur at a rate which would fects on knees. be expected for the age, physical condition, and Major bruises. Caused by collision with equip- competitive spirit of the individual. ment or with other players. Greater emphasis With increasing emphasis being placed on on diving and rolling has created a serious international style and power volleyball, greater hazard for the poor!), trained athlete. hazards have been introduced into the game. Leg cramps. IT,--ally caused by poor condi- Diving, rolling, and over-the-net blocking have tioning or exhausting playing conditions. created a stronger need for training and conditioning to offset the potential for injury. Most NONDISABLIN G INJURIES injuries occur when the participant attempts to extend himself beyond the limit of his condi- These injuries often impair the effectiveness of the athlete but seldom incapacitate him. tioning or skills. Finger, thumb, and wrist injuries. Very nu- Volleyball injuries fall into two broad, over- usually caused by poor techniques lapping categories: disabling injuries and non- merous of playing the ball. A good tape job can allevi- disabling injuries. ate many of these injuries. Greater emphasis on the forearm pass has reduced the number of DISABLING INJURIES hand injuries, whereas the over-the-net block- The following injuries usually remove a player ing has increased hand injuries. from competition immediately. Shoulder, elbow, and lower back injuries. Can Ankle injuries. By far the most common and be traced to improper warm-up, poor condition- the most serious. Numerous volleyball players ing, or improper playing techniques. These ail- were lost by all countries in the 1968 Olympics ments also plague baseball and tennis players.

111 112 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Minor abrasions. More common today be- winches, tires and wheels supporting net posts, cause of increased emphasis upon aggressive cables, officials' stands, chairs, and walls threaten diving and rolling on defensive. Many abrasions the skilled aggressive athlete. Hard floors are are minimized by use of long sleeved jerseys bad for good volleyball players. and h;p, coccyx, and knee pads. Beginning vt,lleyball players create hazards Unfortunately, many good physical education by failing to observe rules and by overcrowding; facilities are still cluttered with unsafe volleyball they sometimes play without adequate officiat- equipment. Pipes under nets, crank handles, ing and this constitutes a hazard.

UNIIMINNa..--

Figure I. Finger, thumb, and wrist injuries can be reduced with proper instructional techniques. I

h01 Archery IBEN BRUCE, M.S.

Archery has potential hazards, such as being at which one is shooting, with a minimum of .hit by an arrow or from parts of broken or dam- 50 yards, should be kept clear behind the target. aged equipment, injury' to the forearm and 5. Use only equipment that is in perfect con- stringslap, abrasion of the bow hand by the dition. A constant check should be made of the arrow, and irritation to the fingers of the draw- bow, arrows, and string to prevent the use of ing hand. However, with good instruction, defective or cracked equipment. proper and well cared for equipment, and a well 6. Equipment should be matched. A heavy supervised range, both men and women can bow will cause a low spined arrow to crack. enjoy the sport free of injury, regardless of age 7. A bow without an arrow should not be or physical ability. drawn. This may result in over drawing the bow, causing breakage. 8. Pay particular attention to bracingthe ELIMINATION OF HAZARDS bow. If the loop of the string slips out of the To eliminate the hazards in archery, the fol- nock, the bow snaps back hitting the archer. lowing precautions should be followed: Twisting the bow can also cause damage. 1. Develop a safety attitude with a personal 9. The fistmele (distance from belly of bow sense of responsibility for others as well as one- to string when strung) should be correct. If it self. is too little it will cause wrist slap and if it is 2. Allow students to shoot only if they are too great it may result in bow breakage. equipped with an arm guard to protect the fore- 10. Bows and arrows should be placed on a arm from the slap of the bowstring and afinger bow rack or in the ground quiver rather than on tab or glove to protect the fingers from friction the ground. of the string. 11. Arrows should be checked for possible 3. Clothing should not have pockets, buttons, abrasive effect on the bow hand. Glue deposits, or ruffles on the left (for a right-handed shooter) loosefletching, and cracks or splintersare to prevent snagging the bowstring. No jewelry sources of trouble. or pins should be worn. 12. Only one person at a time should draw 4. The range should be clear of all obstruc- arrows from the target. Others should stand at tions with adequate distance or backstop behind a safe distance to prevent being hit by an arrow targets. A distance twice the number of yards pulled with force from the target.

114 ARCHERY 115

13. Arrows should be drawn from the target fall short or fall off the bow, no effort should properly. Any bending may caase the arrow to be made for a retrieve until the signal to cease crack or splinter. shooting is given. 14. Treat a drawn bow as a rifle it can be These guidelines apply specifically to target just as lethal. shooting and generally to other archery activi- 15. All shooters should be on the line before ties such as clout, field shooting, and hunt- the signal is given to nock arrows. ing. The key to safety in each of these activities 16. No one should step across the line to re- lies in proper supervision of the range by the trieve until the signal is given. Should an arrow instructor.

Figure /. Proper Instruction and well cared for equipment can make archery an accident free activity. Bowling IRICHARD S. YOUNGBERG, M.A. 0 Bowling is one of the safest of all sports when to make sure he is not tracking in grit or water the rules of etiquette are followed and when when he walks to his lane. He should change bowlers know how to select the proper equip- into his bowling shoes before placing his ball ment. on the ball rack. Next, the approach of the lane Aside from checking his bowling shoes for should be inspected with care to see if there are the right size, a participant needs to look care- any wet spots or areas where dust and grit have fully at the bottom of his shoes. If the bowler accumulated. Before throwing his first ball, the is right-handed, the left shoe should have a bowler should test the approach to make cure smooth leather bottom so that the bowler will there are no slippery or sticky spots. A few slide on the last step of the approach. The right practice slides on the approach without the ball shoe for a right-handed bowler should have a will accomplish this. rubber bottom. Special caution needs to be taken Care needs to be exercised when the ball is by the left-handed bowler to make sure he has removed from the ball rack. The ball must be been equipped with the proper shoes. turned, not spun, until the holes are pointed up- The ball should be selected with care, espe- ward. Both hands should be used to lift the ball cially for a beginning bowler. The weight of the from the rack, and a line drawn between the bowling ball should be relatively light for the hands must be at right angles with the length beginner. After learning the basic techniques, of the ball rack. The latter precaution needs to the beginner can switch to a heavier ball. Even be taken so that a bowler's fingers will not be more important than the weight of the ball, injured by other bowling balls returning to the however, is the fit. A ball that is "too loose" or ball rack. A bowler should reach his starting has too wide a span may be dropped before the position on the approach before inserting his ball should be released. The same is true for fingers into the bowling ball. bowling balls with little inward pitch. On the Bowlers on two adjoining lanes should not other hand, a ball that is "too tight" or has a deliver their bowling balls at the same time. In narrow span, or a lot of inward pitch is apt to case two bowlers are on the approach at the to be lofted. The advice of a qualified bowling same time, the one on the right should go first. instructor should be sought to insure proper After delivering the bowling ball, a bowler must ball selection. remain in his own lane. Also, he should be care- A participant should check his street shoes ful to observe the foul line.

116 BOWLING 117

Bowling can be made a lot safer if participants fundamental skills for bowling from a compe- obey the rules of etiquette. These rules are tent instructor can improve one's safety as well posted in most bowling alleys. Learning the as one's score.

References

Casady, Donald and Liba, Marie. Beginning Bowling. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1960. 110 pp. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1962. Sullivan, George. The Complete Book of Family Bowl- Kidwell, Kathro and Smith, Paul. Bowling Analyzed. ing. New York: Coward-McCran, Inc., 1968.

Figure 1, Proper instruction, a well-fitted bowling ball, and proper shoes are important for beginning bowlers. Equitation IJACK C. HUGHSTON, M.D.

Accident prevention and safety in equitation on the part of the rider; this practice produces consist of a fine balance among the rider, horse, an almost persistent irritation to the horse's and equipment. mouth by pulling on the reins at the wrong times. Such improper treatment is the reason RIDER for constant reschooling of those horses used or teaching beginners. The inexperienced rider should begin on an An overfed (particularly with grains) and experienced, calm horse (a "school" horse for under-exercised horse is naturally "hot." The beginners) under qualified supervision. As the horse that is kept "at grass" and with a field of ability of the rider increases, a less experienced sufficient size in which to exercise tends to be and skilled horse can be used with a reasonable less troublesome, even though ridden only oc- degree of safety. Rider ability can be improved casionally. Any horse which has not been ridden to a level where the rider can train "green" for a period of time should be worked on a lunge horses safely. A person with normal intelligence line for a short period immediately prior to and some athletic ability can become an experi- mounting and riding. Grooming of the horse enced rider by hard work. before riding also has a quieting influence. The horse's feet should be checked and cleaned prior HORSE to each ride. A desirable horse has average intelligence, is The approach to the horse for any purpose not awkward, and has a good disposition and should always be from the front or side, never good eyesight. A stupid horse cannot learn to from the rear where there is danger of being keep himself and the rider out of trouble. A kicked. When grooming and when walking to clumsy horse can cause falls because he "gets the rear of the horse, one should stay close to in wrong" at ditches and jumps. An uncoopera- the horse's body. Then, even if he should kick, tive, ornery horse can cause much displeasure, he would merely push the rider out of the way. as well as danger. A horse with an inherently EQUIPMENT cooperative personality, can be made uncoopera- tive and fractious by continually being punished The type of equipment needed is directly re- through improper riding techniques. The most lated to the ability of the rider and the training common punishment for a horse is "bad hands" of the horse.

118 EQUITATION 119

,A youngster riding bareback must encircle the ground. Once the rideris mounted, the his legs around the horse's waist (just behind tightness of the girth needs to be rechecked, as the shoulder) in order to secure his position. The the weight of the rider frequently produces horse accustomed to this manner of riding who looseness. If one has been riding for an hour has a quiet disposition and is kept at grass is a or two, the circumference of the horse has be- perfect companion. The bridle and reins need be come less with the exercise and the girth needs nothing more than a piece of rope, and the bit a to be checked for looseness, and then tightened leather thong such as the Indians use, or a hard if necessary. Inadequate girth tightness during piece of straight rubber. For an agile rider, no and after mounting accounts for a large per- ride could be more enjoyable or safer. However, centage of rider injuries. The billet straps, which the situation is usually more complicated, and attach the girth to the saddle, also should be thus further recommendations follow. inspected. The bridle should be of proper size and fit Personal equipment for the rider depends for the horse. If it is too loose, it may fall off; upon the occasion. A wrangler needs his chaps if too tight, it will irritate the horse. The bit to protect his legs from the undergrowth. A fox should be adjusted so that it causes only a slight hunter needs his boots sothatthestirrup wrinkle at the corner of the mouth, and should leather, resting against the shin bone for se- be no more "severe" than what the rider and curity, will not bruise the leg. A polo player fre- horse have become accustomed to. The reins and quently is aided by knee guards to prevent in- leather of the bridle should be in good condition, juries on bumping. A pony dubber, a fox hunter, for a break in either under the stress of a good and a show jumper need to wear a hard hat to gallop can cause loss of control and disaster. prevent head injuries from falls and for protec- The type of saddle is of minor importance. tion against tree limbs. The polo player needs a Certainly, for long rides, the rigors of polo or hard hat for protection from the ball and mallet. wrangling, or for the duration and stress of a The range rider needs a light, wide brimmed fox hunt, it should be comfortable, of suitable hat for protection from the hot sun in open size to the rider, and built for the type of riding spaces. Heels are needed on boots to prevent for which it is being used. the foot from slipping through thestirrup. More important than the saddle itself are its (Avoid rubber soles, as they are particularly accessories. The stirrup straps should be in good dangerous.) condition and attached to the saddle in such a way that the saddle will readily come loose in case of a fall. A stirrup strap broken on landing INJURIES on the other side of a jump or on making a The majority of serious injuries incurred in sharp turn on a cutting horse, or under most horseback riding fit into three categories. circumstances, can prove disastrous and produce First, it is the inexperienced rider who buys a dangerous fall for an unwary or nonagile a country place and a horse and then puts the rider. horse out to pasture. The owner goes to the The stirrup should be well constructed, free country every few weeks and on one weekend of breaks or cracks, large enough so that the decides to ride the horse. The rider is either foot cannot become hung in the stirrup, and frightened or overconfident. In either case, the suitable for the occasion. The girth and its horse gets going at too great a speed and the buckles need to be inspected for wear and tear rider falls, or the girth isn't fastened and the prior to putting on the saddle. Once the saddle rider falls, or the stirrup straps are not inspected is fixed in place, the girth should be sufficiently and they break. tight to allow mounting without the saddle turn- Second, a youngster is having a birthday ing on the horse and throwing the rider upon party. The mother thinks it would be nice for 120 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

all the children to ride around on a horse as a occur, they are usually minor. The supervi- part of the entertainment. She knows a neigh- sion, teaching, health, care, and quality of the bor who owns a horse, but she does not know horses are excellent. The training of the rider the horse and usually does not know the essen- is graduated and cautious. The equipment is in tials of safety in riding. The most frequent cause good condition. of the resultant broken wrist or broken arm is Despite the infrequency of injury, the high a loose girth, which allows the child to roll off cost of liability insurance is a" primary prohibi- the horse, even at a walk. tive factor in the establishment of quality riding The third example involves teenagers who academies. It is extremely difficult to make ends rent horses from a riding stable which rents meet financially when this cost of liability cov- horses by an hourly rate to anybody who wants erage is added to the expense of running such to ride, without inquiring about the person's an establishment. For more detailed informa- riding ability, and where the rider does not tion, see. the weekly periodical The Chronicle know enough to ask any questions about the of The Horse, Middleburg, Virginia; it covers horse and equipment. The result is usually an almost every phase of horse activity and is in- inexperienced rider on a horse that is accustomed to galloping vigorously for the entire hour, or teresting reading. on a horse accustomed to turning back and Fox hunting, show jumping, pony clubs, one heading for the barn at the first opportune day events of the United States Combined moment. Such horses are often untrained or in- Training Association, and general horse shows correctly handled, and frequently the riding seldom involve injury. Why are injuries in these equipment is in poor condition. areas so infrequer t? The answer lies in the pro- In well organized riding schools, the inci- ficiency of skills attained by the riders and dence of injuries is almost nil. When they do horses participating in these activities.

References

Benoist-Gironiere, Yves. The Conquest of The Horse. The Pony Club Organization Committee. Horsemanship New York: Wilfred Funk, Inc., 1957. 154 pp. for The Pony Club. London: The British Horse So- Chamberlain, Harry D. Training Hunters, Jumpers, and ciety, 1956. 174 pp. Hacks. 2d ed. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., The United States Pony Clubs, Inc. The United States 1969. 329 pp. Pony Clubs, 1965 Tenth Annual. Cambridge, Mass.: Cooper, John E. Steeplechasing In America. 17th ed. Howard A. Doyle Printing Co., 1965. 124 pp. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1964. Wright, Gordon. The Cavalry Manual of Horsemanship 151 pp. and Horsemastership (The Official Manual of The Mackay-Smith, Alexander (ed.). The Chronicle of the United States Cavalry School at Fort Riley). Garden Horse. Berryville, Va.: The Blue Ridge Press. Weekly City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1962. 180 pp. periodical. Golf IRICHARD S. YOUNGBERG, M.A.

Golf, like many other noncontact sports, is bers of the foursome are standing whenever a not considered particularly dangerous. Safety player swings a club, it is helpful if the remain- should not be overlooked, however, since seri- ing members of the foursome stand together. ous and sometimes fatal injuries can result if a If the person shooting is a right-handed golfer, golfer is struck by a golf ball or club. Golfers those watching should stand to his right side can best protect themselves from injury by and behind the ball. A safe distance of 15 feet obeying the ri.Ls of etiquette and using tom- should be maintained between the person swing- s on sense. ing and those watching. If not cautious, a golfer may injure himself, Because distances may be deceiving on an another player, or a caddy before joining his unfamiliar course, the player must make abso- playing companions on the first tee. Practice lutely certain that the group ahead is out of shots should be confined to the designated prac- range before hitting. On dog leg or blind holes, tice area. If a player uses a shagger while prac- extra caution is needed. If possible, a caddy ticing, the shagger should (1) know how to should be sent ahead to check if the way is shag, (2) not be in danger of being struck by clear. The caddy should never stand in the fair-' golf balls hit by other golfers, and (3) not face way to mark the point of aim on such holes, the sun while shagging. Some golf courses have however. This practice is not only unsafe but protective devices for a shagger to wear. If such illegal. a device is available, the golfer should make sure that the shagger uses it. The golfer who is Golfers should play without undue delay. If practicing should also help assure his own safety a group is delayed it should allow those playing and that of other practicing golfers. Allowing behind to play through. Before the group play- sufficient room to other players on the practice ing through hits, the group ahead should step tee and standing on a straight line with those aside to a protected spot off the fairway. The players already practicing are two important group playing through should be out of range precautions. before play is resumed. On the first tee a player should restrict the The person with the honor should play first, number of practice swings he takes and should and only one person should hit at a time. This only take them when it is his turn to play. Since is one of the most basic rules of etiquette, yet it is necessary to know where the other mem- one that is often violated.

121 122 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

A golfer needs to be aware of workers on the and caddies need to protect themselves. When course as well as other golfers and caddies. a right-handed golfer hits from a sand trap, the Workers should be warned before a shot is hit only safe spot on the green is behind and just in their direction and the golfer should wait for to the left of the hitter. A ball could be skulled a worker's acknowledgment before hitting. to the area adjacent to the hole and shanked The other members of a foursome should be to the area at the right side of the green. warned before a golfer plays a shot from an A foursome should leave the green as soon area where there are trees or large stones. In as it putts out, and scores for that hole should such situations a ball can easily ricochet and be recorded on the next tee. To help ensure injure someone. The player making the shot speedy play and safety, golfers should leave their should likewise consider his own safety, espe- golf bags between the green and the next tee. cially if there is a chance of the ball bouncing Players hitting to the green should not proceed back at him. until all members of the foursome are well on Shots from a sand trap near the green can be their way to the next tee. among the most dangerous shots in the game. Par three holes present a unique safety prob- Even the most skilled golfers can shank or skull lem. On some courses it is suggested that play- a shot from a trap, thus playing companions ers on the green allow those on the tee to hit

:ter *6 , . - -/

Figure 1. Avoid getting "clubbed." GOLF 123 so that play may be speeded up. The time saved from which the ball is coming. Similarly, players by this procedure, however, does not seem to be should duck behind a golf cart or golf car when worth the risk. Players on the green may be possible. looking into the sun and not be able to watch Golfers must learn how to deal with the the flight of the ball. The color of the sky or an weather. A hat should be worn to protect a individual's eyesight may make it nearly impos- golfer's head from the direct rays of the sun. sible to spot a ball hit from the tee. Golfers should not play during lightning storms. When a ball is traveling toward a player or If on the course when the storm begins, golfers group of players the word fore should be should not carry an umbrella over their heads shouted loudly so that the people endangered in an open area. Steel shafted clubs may also are warned. Unfortunately, shoutingforesome- attract lightning and must be kept in the golf times has the opposite effect of a warning, since bag for protection. If a building is not available many golfers do not know how to react cor- for shelter, the golfers should seek natural pro- rectly. In an attempt to spot the oncoming ball tection in a depression or a deep valley. A dense many golfers look toward the direction of the group of trees will afford some protection, but yell. This exposes a player's face and eyes to the isolated trees are to be avoided. ball. The correct reaction is to turn away from Automation hasplaced anotherpotential the direction of the sound and lower the head. safety hazard on the golf course the golf cart. A player still may be struck, but he is less apt Players using them should read the directions to incur serious injury. If a golfer is near a tree carefully before starting them. In no case should when he hearsfore,he should position himself these cars be taken over rough terrain or steep so that the tree is between him and the area slopes.

References

American Association for Health, Physical Education, Nance, Virginia L. and Davis, Elwood C. Golf. Dubuque, and Recreation. Ideas for Golf Instruction. rev. ed. Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1966. Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1968. 30 pp. National Golf Foundation. Easy Way to Learn Golf Bruce, Ben and Davies, Evelyn. Beginning Golf. Belmont, Rules. Chicago: The Foundation, 1970. Revised annu- Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1962. ally. 80 pp. Gymnastics IGEORGE SZYPULA, M.S. IM

Gymnastics has a uniquely different problem nast propels and maneuvers his body on and in accident prevention from most sports. Where- from apparatus as well as from mats. His degree as most athletes have a problem of dodging of effectiveness and awareness is directly re- other players and objects in the game, the gym- lated to avoidance of injury.

FACTORS IN ACCIDENT PREVENTION

CLASS CONTROL should be followed. Only instructors or leaders should adjust the equipment. Class control without regimentation is one of Performers should wear gymnastics shoes. the best means of preventing accidents. Basic Girls should wear leotards or gym suits which skills are practiced until performed adequately. are not loose fitting. Boys should wear shorts Then elementary variations of basic skills are and "T" shirts. done until they are passed. Intermediate level skills can be done by advanced performers. Even though the problem of injury avoidance lies OFFICIATING AND TESTING with the gymnast, he should be carefully in- Gymnastic regulations specify that in com- structed and supervised by a teacher or student petition the gymnast should perform only those leader. skills which he has under reasonable control. Pupils with psychological and emotional prob- Poor gymnasts and coaches often overlook these lems should be recognized and their work con- regulations in an effort to win through reckless- trolled. Pupils with physical problemsobesity; ness and daring. Many times students interested lack of flexibility and coordination, weakness in a grade disregard the consequences and take are more readily observed and helped. a chance on doing a skill for which they are poorly prepared. Competent judges who deduct EQUIPMENT severely for performances that are sloppy, haz- All apparatus should be inspected daily. Rec- ardous, and uncontrolled can do these gymnasts ommendations of leading equipment companies a service.

124 GYMNASTICS 125

FATIGUE tor. This is especially true on a dismount. At the end of a routine, a simple jump off the ap- Fatigue is a factor in accidents. A beginner in paratus on which a beginner has been practicing gymnastics first does one skill. As he repeats is preferred until greater endurance and skill it over and over in an attempt to master it, he are developed. becomes fatigued with a resultant loss of coordination. Injury might result if his teacher does not recognize the symptoms and terminate the SPOTTING workout. As the student progresses he learns Spotting (assistance) is a major factor in suc- skills in combination which gradually expand cessful performance. It is done to give a gym- into routines, and fatigue again becomes a fac- nast the feel of a skill or to help him through

Figure 1. Adequate, attentive spotters and proper instruction will make trampolining a safe and enjoyable activity. 126 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES if he is unable to complete a skill. A performer fall to his hands. If he falls forward toward his should be assisted until he has learned a skill chest or face, he should land on his hands with thoroughly, then the assistance gradually re- arms straight to absorb the shock and then bend moved. Sudden removal might make him freeze them in a controlled manner. If he falls head and partially complete a skill. A student should first, either forward or backward, he should not be pressured to perform without spotting. A land in a momentary handstand, absorb the spotter should know exactly what the gymnast shock, and roll out forward or backward. If he is going to do. If he is not alert, the gymnast falls to his seat or back, he should round his might receive injury from a bad performance. back, put his chin on his chest, and place his Spotting is easier when bars and rings are hands down with fingers pointing forward. If low. The gymnast can bend his knees on swing- he falls backward toward his neck, he should ing skills. Bars and rings can be raised if the reach backward with his hands, land on them, spotter can stand securely on a platform or chair and gently lower his body if possible. If there without obstructing the performer. A student is time when falling backward, he should twist should learn spotting skills as diligently as he around to fall forward. learns gymnastic skills. Falling techniques can be practiced on a land- FALLS ing mat of polyurethane about six inches thick, A gymnast must learn how to fall. When or on a trampoline from a low position, or into falling out of control, he should always try to a pole vault landing pit.

EQUIPMENT AND EXERCISES

TUMBLING AND BALANCING handsprings or somersaults off the mat or handstands on the apparatus. To be safe, a beginner In physical education at all levels, participants should start with basic drops: seat, hands and should do warm-up exercises, such as pretzel knees, front and back.' Sweat clothes should be bends, backbends, and certain calisthenic activ- worn to avoid abrasions. Padsshould cover the ities followed by forward and backward rolls frame and mats should be placed on the floor and cartwheels. Later, squat-headstands, squat- near the trampoline, with six or eight spotters stands, and headstands can be done. Each lesson around the ends and sides. shouldconcludewithstrengthexercises Blind children or those partially sighted can pushups, situps, and partial squat jumps. The have an enjoyable experience on the trampoline only apparatus required for free exercise is a or tumbling. Their work, of course, must be floor mat, which should be clear before using. supervised carefully and not extend beyond The exercises are designed to develop balance, basic skills. strength, and flexibility. Later, doubles tumbling and balancing skills can be presented. PARALLEL BARS Bars should be waist high. A mat, cut to fit TRAMPOLINE the uprights, should be placed between the bars. Trampoline seems to be. the most hazardous On both sides and at both ends there should be gymnastic equipment since a beginner is able to mats 5 feet by 10 feet and 3 inches thick, propel himself before he has learned body con- if filled with hair, or 2 inches thick, if filled trol. On other apparatus and in tumbling he ' George Szypula, Beginning Trampolining (Belmont, must first attain body control before performing Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1968). GYMNASTICS 127

with polyurethane. At a point where a gymnast HORIZONTAL BAR might hit one of the bars with his body or legs when dismounting or doing turning skills, a mat The bar should be set at chest height of the or padding tied around the bar can soften the average pupil. A mat 7 feet by 30 feet by 4 impact. Chalk in block or powder form should' inches should be under the bar. be applied to the hands to prevent slipping. A beginner should not use the bar until he The same fundamental hanging positions ap- has done basic skills, such as hang and swing ply here as on the horizontal bar and rings. All in an "L" position, bent inverted hang, knee should be done slowly in the middle or on either hang, "skin the cat," and pullups. He should be end. Spotters should grasp the legs. Next is an assisted even on pullups if necessary. Hand- arm support above the bars with a straight body guards should be used to avoid blistering and or with legs raised to horizontal. In a support tearing skin. at least 10 dips should be done. On the horizontal bar, a gymnast can do hip The hand walk across the bars is next, fol- and single knee circles. A small pad wrapped lowed by a straddled legs travel, then body around the bar can protect his knee when he swings. Skills in a hand support should be does the circles. Next he can swing on a higher bar and be stopped before he dismounts. If he spotted by the upper arm. At the end of the rear swing, a gymnast can do a front vault dismount dismounts while swinging, the dismounting and at the other end a rear vault dismount. should be low and at the back end. A spotter should encircle his body and catch him if he These are spotted by the upper arm on the side releases before the peak of his back swing. to which the gymnast is dismounting. The next skillis a shoulderstand from a UNEVEN PARALLEL BARS straddled sit. It is like a headstand and is spotted the same way. To keep from falling between Under normal supervision, elementary and the bars, the performer should keep his elbows secondary school students can work one of the out. A mat placed across bars will stop him if uneven parallel bdrs, placed chest high. Elemen- he should fall over, A performer should be as- tary school students can work both of the bars sisted into the balance and brought carefully if they are supervised carefully. The teacher back to a straddled sit. The same procedure is should divide the children into squads of seven used for a handstand except the gymnast can and remain 'close to the apparatus. While one stand on the bars and kick into the balance. unit is working the bars, the other units can Four spotters should be used: two to get him engage in gymnastic activities that are easily up and help him balance and two behind to monitored. Pulling over backward from the low keep him from falling over. If the performer is bar over the high bar into a support is probably going below bars from above, the spotter should the ultimate skill for beginning classes. quickly shift his hands below the bars. In this way, the performer will not fall on his arm. BALANCE BEAM An upper arm kip should be done on low A beam should be 16 feet long and 2 feet bars. The performer's legs should be stopped high for beginners. Only limited skills can be when he gets to a support. Forward and back- performed by novices on a beam one foot off ward uprises should be done on higher bars. the floor. At this height, however, advanced The spotter should grasp the gymnast's thighs, gymnasts can do cartwheels, rolls, high leaps, lift him up, and steady him. handstands, and dismounts. As a gymnast walks, A youngster with handicapped legs can work runs, jumps, turns, sits, and rises, two spotters parallel bars because he usually has strong arms can walk alongside with an 'arm raised so that and upper body. He must be helped off the if the gymnast should fall sideward, he can apparatus. grasp a hand. 128 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

SIDE HORSE ROPE CLIMBING Even though a side horse is low, mats three Pupils who lack strength or fear heights inches thick should be placed around the horse should not be forced to climb to the top ofa but should not overlap. Before attempting leg rope. They might have trouble climbing down circles on the horse, a gymnast should be able or even fall. The descent must be controlled or to support himself easily. If he has not yet mas- rope burns will occur to hands and legs. tered this ability, he should limit himself to dips on parallel bars and pullups on horizontal bars. HORSE VAULTING Children with handicapped legs can findsuc- cess on the horse, parallel bars, and in rope Pommels should be removed from the horse, climbing. They must be helped off the apparatus and holes where the pommel shafts were in- after performing. serted should b._,eyed. The horse should be

Figure 2. Good technique will help make her a champion. GYMNASTICS 129 waist high for beginners and chest high for ad- horse; boys in secondary school vault length- vanced gymnasts. At the far side there should wise. Before boys in class vault lengthwise, they be mats 20 feet by 5 feet by 4 inches; at the should tumble and work on the trampoline. near side, there should be a Reu,..-r board or jump board, which should be moved back fur- RINGS ther as vaulters improve. The surface on the horse should not be slippery and chalk should There should be two sets of rings: one at chin be used on hands. height for the average pupil, the other at a The vaulter should learn how to spring off height so that the tallest student can brush his the board and onto the horse. Then he should feet while doing body swings. He must be spring off and land in a relaxed manner with stopped before =-raping off. Work should only two spotters grasping his arms. Basic vaults can be done on stationary rings. A gymnast should then be learned with spotting. When advanced not get on high rings until he can do the same vaults (e.g., head- or handspring) are performed, basic skills as on the horizontal and parallel two spotters should stand near the board and bars. After basics, a gymnast can go to a support lift the vaulter while two other spotters should above the rings with help. Most boys and girls be on the far side to lift him off gently. from first grade on can do all of the basic skills Vaulting is suitable for both boys and girls. below the rings and probably a simple support In competition, girls vault perpendicular to the above.

References

Babbitt, Diana H. and Haas, Werner. Gymnastic Appa- ratus Exercises for Girls. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1964. 130 pp. (W)* Bailey, James A. Gymnastics in the Schools. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965. 297 pp. (M)** Claus, Marshall. A Teacher's Guide toGymnastics. Palo Alto, Calif.: The National Press, 1967. 162 pp. (M) De Carlo, Tom. Handbook of Progressive Gymnastics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963. 240 PP. (M) Division of Girls and Women's Sports. Gymnastics Guide. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1969. (W) Drury, Blanche J. and Schmid, Andrea Bodo. Gymnas- tics for Women. rev. ed. Palo Alto, Calif.: The Na- tional Press, 1965. 204 pp. (W) Frederick, A. Bruce. Women's Gymnastics. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1966. 81 pp. (W) Frey, Harold J. and Keeney, Charles J. Elementary Gym- nastic Apparatus Skills Illustrated. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1964. 144 pp. (M) Griswold, Larry. Trampoline Tumbling. St. Louis: Busi- ness Collaborators, Inc., 1958. 120 p (M-W)

* Women ** Men 130 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Harris, Richard. Safety and Rebound Tumbling. Cedar Rapids, Iowa:. Barnes Publishing Co., 1960. (M-W) Keeney, Charles J. Trampolining Illustrated. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1961. 160 pp. (M-W) La Due, Frank and Norman, James. Two Seconds of Freedom. Cedar Rapids, Iowa: Barnes Publishing Co., 1960. 167 pp. (M-W) Loken, Newton C. Complete Book of Gymnastics. rev. ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1967. (M-W) -0'Quinn, Garland. Gymnastics for Elementary School Children. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1967. 122 pp. (M-W) Ryier, Otto E. A Teacher's Manual for Tumbling and Apparatus Stunts. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1961. 193 pp. (M) Sunby, Glenn, ed. Mademoiselle Gymnast. Santa Monica, Calif.: Sunby Publications. Current periodical. (W) Modern Gymnast. Santa Monica, Calif.: Sunby Publications. Current periodical. (M-W) Szypula,George.Beginning Trampolining.Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1968. (M-W) Tumbling and Balancing for All. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1968. (M-W)

Consultant

William A. Bonsall, West Virginia University, Morgan- town, W. Va. Marksmanship ISTANLEY A. MATE, A.B.

Competitive shooting, shooting training, or of America (1600 Rhode Island Avenue, N.W., shooting practice carried on in an organized Washington, D.C. 20036) has listings of instruc- group are among the safest of the sports. Stud- tors and instructortrainers.Instructorsare ies conducted by Joseph G. Dzenowagis at trained through the Outdoor Education Project Michigan State University show that there were of the American Association of Health, Physical no accidents for people participating in shooting Education, and Recreation. College and high and hunter safety in men's physical education ac- school ROTC units may also be able to provide tivities from 1955 through 1960.1 Other rates run instructorsorinstructortraining.Inrecent from 1.3 per 1,000 participants for badminton years, several universities have included shoot- to 26.0 for wrestling. The rate for leisure sports ing training and training for rifle instructors in and group games was 6.4. Some elements which the phys"al education curriculum. contribute to this condition of safety are trained, Leadership for competitive shooting activities experienced leadership; the standard disciplines needs different skills. Referees and tournament under which these activities take place; and officials need a sound background in shooting, proper range construction. For further informa- including range procedures, and an intimate tion on firearm safety, see Hunting and Shoot- knowledge of the official rules and tournament ing Section, page 255. operation. The National Rifle Association and athletic conferences and associations sanction LEADERSHIP shooting competitions. Information on such tournamentsareavailablefromthe NRA. Trained instructors and coaches are essential Schools and colleges frequently obtain this in- to the teaching of marksmanship. A knowledge formation from their own conference or asso- of the standard procedures which are used in conducting shooting and a knowledge of teach- ciation. ing sequences and techniques are required. In- structor training of this type is available through DISCIPLINES AND PROCEDURES several agencies. The National Rifle Association Shooting ranges should be operated with 1 Joseph G. Dzenowagis, Safety Monographs for Col- strict adherence to range commands and stand- leges and Universities, No. 14 Injuries in Men's Physi- cal Education and Intramural Sports (Chicago: National ard range procedures. The range commands, Safety Council, 1962). which are a part of the official shooting rules,

131 132 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES are the principal means by which the range offi- one of bullet containment. Bullet containment cer or instructor maintains complete control of starts with a bullet stop or backstop. The most shooting activities. They should be used at the common type consists of a steel plate angled at beginning of training and continuously through 40 to 45 degrees. The bottom of the plate is practice and competitive activities. Standardiza- away from the shooters. The plate extends the tion enhances safety since the student or com- full width of the range and covers a vertical dis- petitor deals with a pattern which he under- tance of about six feet. Usually the plate ex- stands and can anticipate. tends to the ceiling but, where that is not prac- There are some regulations which apply to tical, bullet absorbing material can be placed all ranges, although a special range may necessi- above it to the ceiling. The bullets are deflected tate additional local regulations. Gun actions are from the plate into a sandpit, 8 to 12 inches open and the guns unloaded except when the deep, built in front of the deflector. shooter is actually on the firing line. Unloaded Regular maintenance is required. The life of means that there are no cartridges or shells in the plate is long but erosion eventually takes the chamber of the gun and none in its maga- place. Pockmarks should be welded over and zine. If the magazine is removable it must be ground smooth. Unless special armor plate is out of the gun. If the gun is a revolver, the used, firing should be restricted to .22 caliber cylinder must be swung out of the frame. Shoot- ammunition. The sandpit should be raked peri- ers on the firing line are subject to the command odically to remove accumulations of lead. of the person serving as range officer. There is If the bullet stop does not cover an entire wall, no firing except when the command "commence and there are doors, windows, or other openings firing" is given. "Cease fire" must be obeyed in the wall, they must be sealed permanently immediately, even if the trigger is partially de- and covered with steel plate or some other ma- pressed. The action and the gun should be un- terial which the maximum ammunition allowed loaded at once. No one goes forward of the on the range cannot penetrate. Side windows firing line for any purpose without the express and doors must be given the same treatment. permission of the range officer. When this is Electrical fixtures, conduit, plumbing, and heat- allowed, it is only during a "cease fire" with all ing pipes must be protected from penetration by guns on the ground, floor, or bench and with baffling. Ceilings and floors, unless they are the shooters standing well away from the guns. concrete or of some other impenetrable con- No one is allowed to touch or handle a gun, struction, should be reinforced or baffled to even an unloaded one, when another person is prevent bullet penetration. downrange. In many ranges it is never necessary A definite firing line must be established. A for anyone to go forward of the firing line for stand should be provided which will enable the any purpose except, perhaps, when targets must range officer or instructor to see all shooters. be changed manually. Rifle racks should be provided so that there is Violation of range safety regulations and un- a specific and orderly place to put guns not in willingness to obey range commands or the use. direction of the instructor or range officer are ample reasons for dismissal from the range. Outdoor ranges have the same basic requirements. These ranges must either provide for bullet containment through an earth backstop, RANGE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT natural barrier, or suitable overhead baffles or must provide sufficient safety zones to make Indoor rifle ranges involve the same safety the baffles unnecessary. considerations as any other room. Beyond that Plans for all types of shooting ranges are point, the problem of safety is almost entirely available from the National Rifle Association. MARKSMANSHIP 133

References

American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Shooting and Hunting. Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1960. 94 pp. The Air Rifle As An Instructional Tool. Wash- ington, D.C.: The Association, 1960. 22 pp. National Rifle Association. NRA Official Rule Books. (Air gun, High power, Pistol, Shotgun, Smallbore rifle).Washington, D.C.: The Association. Annual publications.

Consultant

Julian W. Smith, Michigan State University, East Lans- ing, Mich.

1 Track and Field IDON CASH SEATON, Ed.D.

Track and field is one of the safest of the In a study of junior high school sports acci- team sports. Despite the fact that over 600,000 dents in 207 schools, Dissinger found track to high school trackmen and approximately 110,- rank sixth among 22 sports with the accident 000 college men and women participate in incidence being 44 compared to basketball's 219 track, there is only an occasional death and rela- and football's142; the severity index was tively few serious injuries each season. Most .60 for basketball, 1.14 for football, and 1.09 surveys of college accidents reveal that the sport for track. More than 80% of the injuries in ranks low among all sports activities. Three track and field occurred to the legs, feet, arms, midwest states have found an average of only and hands.3 4.3% of their claims paid for high school athletic benefit plans for track and field, while for DANGEROUS EVENTS football. the average was 61.8%. On the other hand, Clark found in an eight-year study at a Field events (especially the throwing of the private prep school that track and field ranked discus, hammer, and javelin) are by far the most third to football and soccer, with 580 injuries dangerous sports, accounting for the few deaths treated in his clinic.' Twenty of these were frac- that have occurred in recent years. The danger tures, no dislocations or concussions, 30 lacera- is usually not to the weight contestant but pri- tions, 174 abrasions, 91 sprains, 204 strains, and marily to spectators and other contestants who 61 contusions. Pechar found track and field to enter the throwing area. Jumping events are rank fifth (5.6%, football 38.5%) among 96 always potentially hazardous to the contestants. junior and senior high school sports accidents Pole vaulting, the triple and long jumps, and in New York State.2 As noted, most of the in- high jumping are always dangerous, especially juries were of a minor nature. to the lower extremities of the body. With the advent of fiberglass poles and the I Donald M. Clark, Some medical aspects of precollege sports for boys, in Proceedings of the Sixth Na- unheard of heights attained, pole vaulting has tional Conference on the Medical Aspects of Sports become quite hazardous, especially when the (Chicago: American Medical Association, Nov. 1964). landing pit is not of sufficient height and proper 2 Stanley F. Pechar, Accidents and prevention in secondary schoolphysicaleducation,inTransactions, 3 Jean Katharyn Dissenger, Accidents in junior high School and College Safety (Chicago: National Safety school physical education programs, Research Quarterly Congress, 1962), p. 107. 37 (Dec. 1966), no. 4.

134 TRACK AND FIELD 135 quality. With the introduction of the "Fosbury- Most coaches agree that one of the best meth- Flop," high jumping may have an added dimen- ods for avoiding injury is to land with the body sion of danger.4 Tom Ecker has this to say about and not break the fall with the arms. safety in pole vaulting: The track events hold relatively few dangers other than the much feared pulled muscle (or The laws of physics involved in the bend-7 ing and unbending of fiberglass poles dictate tendon). The pulled muscle is most prevalent that the poles be manufactured with an em- among sprinters, hurdlers, and jumpers. Itis phasis on weakness not strength. A pole often a catastrophic injury because the track that is too strong to be bent is useless. How- man may be incapacitated for at least a month ever, if a pole is weak enough to be bent, it and often, in severe cases, for a season. Shin can never be strong enough to be immune from breaking. splints, although not an accident, are a persistent aggravation. Spiking may occur in relay ex- Every fiberglass pole has a great range of changes and when jockeying for position in P ratings, depending upon the height of the handholds, ranging from very high numbers races not run in lanes. On rare occasions a at the low handholds to relatively low num- hurdler or runner is injured (abrasions) when bers for the highest handholds. It is obvious, falli.g to the track. then, that poles cannot be classified by the body weight of the vaulter with any accuracy without also allowing for his handhold height, FEMALE COMPETITORS take-off speed, etc. The many possible hand- Track and field has experienced a tremendous hold heights, coupled with the difficulty of increase in popularity among female competitors measuring the amount of kinetic energy at the time of pole plant, is why pole selection during the past decade. The stimulus of inter- has become a rather unscientific, "by guess or national competition, especially the Olympic by God" procedure. Games, and the gradual overcoming of the folk- Some of the pole manufacturers classify lore which held that running, jumping, and poles by body weight alone, which is com- throwing would be detrimental to a female's pletely useless. Others provide formulae which health, have been major factors in this growth. definitely aid in pole selection, but even those It is now accepted that such participation is no do not allow for the vaulter's kinetic energy. more harmful to female than to male competi- Certainly, using both the vaulter's body weight and his handhold as a basis will at least estab- tors and each season finds them participating lish a point from which to begin :5 in the more difficult track and field events.

ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS

COMPETITIVE RESTRICTIONS stricted high school competitors to one running event above the 220 yard dash and one com- The problem of restricting, for health reasons, petitor to three events. Most have limited the the number of events and the length of the run- length of distance running to one mile on the ning events for competitors in track below the track and to two miles cross-country. No states college level, and for females of all ages, has hold championship meets for junior high school been a moot question. Many states have re- students and relatively few sponsor meets for * jumping style developed simultaneously and inde- girls. pendently by Dick Fosbury of Oregon State University There appears to be little or no scientific sup- and by 15-year-old Debbie Brill of Langley, British port for any of these restrictions. Most physi- Columbia. 5Tom Ecker, Track and Field Mechanics (Los Altos, ologists, sports medicine experts, and reputable Calif.: Tasnews Press, 1971). coaches believe that no harm can come to the 136 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES hearts of youngsters or females through strenu- are past. The inside and outside runners can ous participation provided there is no disease step off the track to avoid contact. and the training regime is well planned and carried out. In fact there is a general acceptance TRACK-SHOE DANGERS of the theory that only cardiovascular development through endurance exercise is the type of Undoubtedly spiked track shoes are poten- training that will lengthen lifeif adhered to tially dangerous. They are not only dangerous throughout the life span. to the individual wearing them but to the run- The emergence of thousands of youngsters in ner's opponents in races not run in lanes and swimming and track and their dorainance in so during relay baton exchanges. However, most many events would dispel most of our anti- competitors are aware of these dangers and are quated concepts of needed restrictions. usually careful in these situations. The controversial brush shoes (multi-spiked) MEET CONTROLS may be so dangerous that the International Ath- letic Federation is considering barring their use. The greatest hazard in conducting a track They believe that such shoes may cause undue meet is the desire of spectators, contestants, and strain in curve running and cause serious in- coaches to get as close to the action as possible. juries during collisions. Proper fencing and policing are necessary to Spiked shoes should not be worn for class keep them off the field; barriers (fences, hedges, ropes) must guard the landing areas of the instruction unless all members wear them. weight events and the runways of the jumping events to prevent collisions with the competitors PRACTICE CONTROLS and to guard against persons being struck by There are several hazards to safety in track implements. Similarly, the discus and hammer practice that need to be considered. One is the throw circles must be protected in the rear and use of the starting gun. The modern pistols in on the sides by link-chain fences of sufficient which the powder explodes through the top or design to protect the spectators and contestants sides of the barrel are particularly dangerous from uncontrolled or misguided throws. The im- when accidently shot while loading. If a hand plements in all weight events should be carried or, more seriously, the eyes are close enough, back, not thrown back, tothe contestants. the burn can be quite serious. Only coaches or Coaches would be wise to prohibit their weight- trained managers should be permitted to use men from retrieving their own throws. the starting gun. The gun should always be Rescheduling of the weight events and jump- fired overhead. ing events may be necessary if the weather con- The discus, hammer, and javelin should be dition and the field do not lend themselves to used only under supervision; promiscuous use safe participation according to the rules. of these potential killers could lead to serious The track events in meets present relatively consequences, particularly when such imple- few hazards to the contestants and none to the ments are used for class instruction and for in- spectators. Good curve inspectors discourage tramurals. These throwingareas should be fouls by the runners and an efficient clerk of marked and fenced for practice as well as for course can avoid most of the hazards of con- meets. ducting the races. Finish officials should not run Runners should be aware of those actions or onto the track to spot finishers; timers should circumstances most likely to cause pulled mus- remain on their ladders or in the stands as cles such as: cold weather, sudden spurts, hit- planned. ting the curve too fast, passing the baton, prac- Relay runners finishing their "legs" of the ticing starts when not in shape, or lunging for race should remain in their lanes until the others the finish. When finishing against a mat indoors, TRACK AND FIELD 137 the shock should be absorbed by the thigh and imitate his unique style of crossing the bar on not the hands or feet. his back. The "Fosbury Flop," which requires Hurdles should have padded or hinged tops the jumper to land on his back, shoulders, and (or other safety types) to practice on. Some head, is potentially dangerous. A joint comment hurdlers need the interior ankle bone of the by the National Federation of State High School trail leg padded for protection when hitting the Athletic Associations and the Committee on hurdle crossbar. Pa:licipants should always run Medical Aspects of Sports of the American fairly hard at the hurdle since slow clearance Medical Association states: often results in injury. Fancy stepover displays The Fosbury method should not be attempted also are dangerous. by an athlete nor encouraged by any coach until such time as the coaching techniques are HIGH JUMPING RESTRICTIONS fully understood by both the coach and the athlete. The second prerequisite to using this Following the sensational victory of Dick method must be a safe landing area. The Fosbury (Oregon State University) in the high school which cannot afford the inflatable air cushion or comparable landing area should jump at the Olympic Games in Mexico, thou- not allow its athletes to attempt this method sands of youngsters have been encouraged to of jumping.

4-*

Figure 1. Proper instruction in the acceptable technique makes for a happy landing. 138 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1. All jumpers should use molded heel cups 6. Pole vaulters should use a pole of proper on the take -off foot. weight prescribed by the manufacturer. 2. Built-up pits are the safest for high jumping 7. Trackmen should thoroughly test the curves and pole vaulting. on short indoor tracks prior to their races. 3. The scissors high jump is hazardous and 8. Injured throwing arms often result when should never be permitted. the javelin thrower does not lead with the 4. High jumpers must be taught to land and elbow. jump properly to avoid injury. 9. Hammer throwers must check the condition 5. The "celestial" heights from which pole of the handle, wire, and swivel for safety's vaulters must descend call for a thorough sake. study and adjustment of form by the 10. Pole vaulting events should be called off vaulter and his coach if the vaulter is to under extremely cold, windy, and rainy survive injury. weather conditions.

References

Ecker, Tom. Fosbury flop. Athletic Journal 49:67-71, Seaton, Don Cash; Stack, Herbert J.; and Loft, Bernard Apr. 1969. I. Administration and Supervision of Safety Educa- Track and Field Mechanics. Los Altos, Calif.: tion. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1969. 368 pp. Tasnews Press, 1971. Stack, Herbert J. and Elkow, J. Duke. Education for Florio, A. E. and Stafford, G. T. Safety Education. 3d ed. Safe Living. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969. 459 pp. Hall, Inc., 1966. 374 pp. I Weight Training and

Weight Lifting IRICHARD A. BERGER, Ph.D.

The attainment of strength is an important that a warm-up will reduce the probability objective of physical fitness. It is achieved by a of muscular injury. gradual increase of a load to a working muscle 2. Training programs should be based on over a period of time, usually several weeks. provedphysiologicalandkinesiological After the exercised muscle adjusts to the initial principles to avoid over-training and injury. load, more weight can be added. This method of Competent teaching is necessary to gain gradually adding a weight load efficiently and optimal results and to eliminate possible in small dosages is referred to as weight training deleterious effects from training. To avoid and weight lifting. The distinction between the soreness, it is important that the muscles two terms is based upon the desired objective. gradually adjust to the work load. The lifts Weight training is performed to increase strength should be performed correctly to prevent and general physical fitness and to improve undue strain on the skeletal joints. physical appearance. Weight lifting is a competi- 3. Several areas of 10 feet square each should tive sport involving the three Olympic lifts re- be marked off in the gym for training, and ferred to as press, snatch, and clean and jerk. only the lifter and spotters should be per- The objective isto raise overhead as much mitted in the areas. Congestion in the lift- weight as possible on a barbell in a prescribed ing area may result in injury to the lifter manner. In both kinds of lifting the same pre- and other students if a barbell is unbal- cautions must be taken to assure safety. anced or dropped.

PREVENTION OF INJURIES 4. Whenever necessary, spotters should be employed to prevent injury while lifting. Several factors should be considered to assure Lifts such as the overhead press or jerk, the safety while lifting. bench press, and the deep knee bend should 1. Sufficient warm-up should be taken before always be performed with a spotter on each lifting. Physiological changes in the muscles side of the lifter. In fact, spotters should be occur from activity performed with rela- used whenever any relatively heavy weight tively light resistance. These changes pre- is balanced over the body. However, when pare the muscular system for more strenu- training young children it is necessary to ous activity. Consequently, it is expected have one or two spotters for every lift.

139 140 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

5. Clamps on barbells and dumbbells should injure the student and/or spotters. To always be firmly secured. It frequently oc- prevent this, the clamps securing the plates curs in training that a barbell or dumbbell on the bar should be tight. is not perfectly horizontal to the ground. Following these safety rules will allow the Consequently, there is a tendency for the student to benefit from this wholesome activity plates to slide off the bar and possibly without injury.

References

Hoffman, Robert. Weight Training for Athletes. York, Murray, J. and Karpovich, P. V. Weight Training in Ath- Pa.: York Publishing Co., 1960. letics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1956.

Fencing IROBERT KAPLAN, Ph.D.

Fencing has its origins in the frequently fatal days lost, severity of accidents is not indicated. and injurious art of dueling. Though the duel Though mortality statistics are nonexistent, fa- has long been outlawed throughout the world, talities are so rare as to be internationally news- misconceptions of fencing persist. Those un- worthy when they do occur. In the last 40 years, familiar with the sport envision the scenes re- none has been reported in the United States. corded in history and depicted in motion pic- Internationally we hear of a fencing fatality tures. about every 10 or 15 years. The modern sport attempts to retain the ex- TEe National Fencing Coacl.vkssociation of citement and offer the challenge of dueling un- America has appointed a Safety Records Com- der conditions of maximum safetyforthe mittee. Its objectives are to verify the safety of participants. Over the years,therules and fencing with statistical evidence and recommend equipment regulations as well as teaching tech- the promotion of more effective safety niques have evolved to almost guarantee a high precautions. Since ti. , program is new, infor- degree ofsafeparticipation.Recent formal mation is not yet available. The Amateur Fenc- studies of accidents and injuries in fencing do ing League of America (AFLA) constantly re- not exist. views international rules changes and revises its One report of :935 indicated that on the basis rules as often as necessary. The Division of of 1.3 accider.t; per 1,000 exposures, college Girls and Women's Sports of AAHPER follows fencing was a "low hazard" sport.' Or the basis the AFLA rules. The National Collegiate Ath- of "days lost per 1,000 exposures," zero days leticAssociation andthe NationalFencing were reported and fencing was classified as a Coaches Association adhere to the AFLA rules "minimum hazard" sport. However, college with minor modifications. fencing for women was classified as "hazard- 2 ous" with 2.8 accidents per 1,000 exposures but SAFETY RULES still with zero days lost. Within the number of Most fencing rules are concerned with the F. S. Lloyd; G. Deaver; and F. R. Eastwood, Safety prevention of injury: The weapons (foil, epee, in Athletics (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1936), p. 26. See also Floyd R. Eastwood, Hazards to health, 2 For a comprehensive review of the rules seo Jose R. New England Journal of Medicine (Aug. 20, 1964), pp. DeCapriles (ed.), Fencing Rulps and Manual k'w York: 411-13. Amateur Fencers League of America, 1965).

142 FENCING 143

and sabre) must conform to requirements for ball of tape hasn't any value. Even the blunted length, weight, flexibility, and thickness. Be- tip will punch through and be exposed in a short cause the point is driven towards the target with while. considerable force, the flexing of a blade is nec- The point diameters of the electric foil, elec- essary to absorb shock when a hit is made. tric epee, and sabre are all carefully prescribed. Thus, though blades are manufactured straight, They are designed to reduce the possibility of experienced fencers put a slight bend in them. penetrating the mask or uniform without being This not only helps to prevent penetrating in- unwieldy. juries but reduces bruising opponents and shat- The mask is made of wire which must be tering blades. The rules prescribe the limits for rigid enough to prevent foldinginon the the curve of the blade. wearer's face and to avoid penetration by the The points of weapons must be blunted to blade. Old, rusty masks are unsafe. Safe masks appropriate dimensions. The button or blunted must be worn during competition. end on the standard foil must be covered by a Fencers must wear a uniform of material such nonmetallic material. Fencers usually apply a as canvas duck with sufficient weight and weave thin strip of adhesive tape. This is meant only to resist penetration by the blunted blade. Cer- to "show the point" during combat so that if tain body areas, particularly the vulnerable un- the tip breaks off, the missing end will be recog- derarm area, must have reinforced protection. nized immediately and the possibly lethal weap- In epee, the most rigid weapon, an additional on will be replaced. Cushioning the tip with a undergarment must 13,... worn. Women, who may

Yr 33

Figure 1. The body position of these fencers is often found in beginners and places undue strain on the knee joint. The jackets are adequate for class beginner instruction, but would not be suitable for competitive levels. Note lack of gloves on fencing hands. 144 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES fence only with foils, must wear breast protec- and penalizing fencers who cause hazardous tors of metal.or other stiff material. collisions or make brutal and unnecessary hits. All fencers must wear protective padded An official cannot prescribe fencing technique. gloves on the fencing hand to prevent the blade A competent fencing official will know the rules from running up the sleeve and to avoid serious well and will not tolerate unsportsmanlike or cuts and lacerations. unsafe fencing. There are no specific rules regarding the weight and resistance to penetration of fencing PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS uniforms, masks, and gloves, the resistance of weapons to breakage, or the quality of steel in The rules do not provide for the conduct of the blade. Therefore, fencing equipment must practice sessions and unsanctioned tournaments. be purchased from reputable manufacturers. Here appropriate professional leadership and common sense are necessary. When accidents occur they most frequently result from improper OFFICIATING conduct, unsafe equipment, or both. A sweat- The safe conduct of a bout depends upon shirt is inadequate protection even for a blunted the skill and sportsmanship of thefencers. blade. Failure to wear a mask, even for demon- However, in competitions, the official, namely stration,is unforgiveable. The length of the the director, has the responsibility of interpret- blade makes it necessary to exercise precaution ing and enforcing the rules. He may disqualify even while carrying it to and from the fencing a fencer for unsafe lnd improper equipment. room. The instructor must inform the fencers Further, he is responsible for invoking the rules of safety practices and enforce them.

References

Amateur Fencers League of America. Fencing Rules and Manual. New York: The League, 1965. 287 pp. Division for Girls and Women's Sports. BowlingFenc- ingGolf Guide. Washington, D.C.: American Asso- ciation for Health, Physical Education, and Recrea- tion, Published bi-ennially. Selected Fencing Articles. Washington, D.C.: AAHPER, 1971.

Information Sources

Amateur Fencers League of America, 33 62nd St., West New York, N.J. 07093. The Athletic Institute, Merchandise Mart, Rm. 805, Chicago, Ill. 60654 National Fencing Coaches Association of America, do Castello Fencing Equipment Company, 30 E. 10th St., New York, New York 10003 Badminton, Handball, Paddleball, Squash

Racquets, and Tennis IDAVID 0. MATTHEWS, Ed.D.

BADMINTON

When played well, badminton demands a 5. Pulled tendons and inflamed elbow joint great deal of speed, flexibility, endurance, and might result from play. agility. These qualities rarely result in injuries. 6. A player might run into net posts or other objects near the court, such as benches, HAZARDS walls, water fountains, or gym equipment. 1. A player might run into his doubles partner. AVOIDANCE OP HAZARDS 2. A player might be hit by his partner's racquet. 1. Remove all pbstacles near the courts. 3. If both players are close to the net, one 2. Have the players warm up before playing. might receive a slash from his opponent's 3. Instruct the players on how to get out of racquet. the way of their partners. 4. Eye glasses might be broken by a doubles 4. Conduct a good conditioning program with partner. emphasis on stretching muscles and joints.

HANDBALL

Handball is not considered to be a highly hitting a fleshy part of the body usually hazardous game. However, thesmallerthe causes a bruise. A hit to the face, especially courts, the higher the incidence of injuries. tothe temple or eye, can cause serious injury. HAZARDS 2. If, in the act of hitting the ball, the striker 1. A returned ball striking a person can cause catches his arm on the body of an opponent serious as well as slight injury, depending or partner, severe damage can be done to upon the part of the body struck. A ball the musculature of his shoulder joint.

145 146 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

3. Persons attempting to hit a ball close to a 7. instruction in strategy and safety tech- wall often jam their fingers. Bone breaks niques is important. may also occur. 8. A program of conditioning which includes 4. Players often run into a wall when trying distance running, sprints, quick starting to reach a ball, which can result in disloca- andstopping,dodging,twisting,and tions, contusions, or broken bones. stretching is necessary to prepare a person 5. Overexertion, especially by older persons, for play. may lead to heart attacks. 9. Persons should not play to the point of exhaustion, especially if they are uncondi- tioned or over 40 years of age. AVOIDANCE OF HAZARDS 10. Padded gloves will help prevent bruises of 1. Remove all projections, such as door knobs, the hands. The gloves should be worn at from the insides of the courts. all times by persons who are just beginning 2. Keep the floors of the courts dusted and a season or who have not played for a long skid proof. period of time. Sometimes soaking the 3. Have good lighting. hands in hot water for about five minutes 4. Stress conditioning as a safety measure. before play will help reduce hand bruises. 5. Have the players turn their faces away 11. Interchange of gloves may result in the from the back of the court to avoid being passing of fungi from one person to an- hit on the side or front of the head by a other. returned ball. 12. Hinders should be called whenever there is 6. Do not deliberately hit an opponent with a possibility of injuring a player or of self- the ball to get a hinder. injury.

SQUASH RACQUETS

Accidents in squash that result in injury seem 3. If possible, allow the ball to get low before to increase as the size of the courts and caliber you hit it so your racquet will be low. of play decrease. 4. Take a small, low backswing and follow through with a small "checked" low mo- HAZARDS tion. 5. As soon as you have hit the ball, get out 1. Almost all injuries are due to the victim of the way at once. being hit by a racquet swung by his oppo- 6. Technique: if an open faced swing (racquet nent. face tipped back a little) is used, a high 2. More cuts and bruises come from the fol- follow-throughisunnecessary, and you low-through swing than the forward swing. won't hurt people; if you hit someone, it 3. Lacerations and contusions about the face will be on the leg, not on the face. and head are common. 7. Good instruction is necessary.

AVOIDANCE OF HAZARDS1 OTHER SUGGESTIONS ON AVOIDING INJURIES 1. Watch out for yourself and other players. Conditioning. Poor physical conditioning seems 2. If in doubt, don't swing; ask for a let. to increase the potential for hazards. Exercise i Suggestions by John M. Barnaby, squash and tennis for increasing strength, endurance, and flexi- coach, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. bility may be used in a conditioning program. SQUASH RACQUETS, PADDLEBALL, TENNIS 147

Middle distance runs and sprints should be is needed so that the players will receive added to the work needed to condition a plenty of cool air. No projections of any kind squash player thoroughly. should exist within the court. Officiating. Officials are usually provided in Coaching.2 Most hazards can be removed by a championship or intercollegiate matches. The sound program of instruction.In short, a referee should be generous in allowing a let squash coach or teacher must have had a great whenever there is a question of unnecessary deal of experience as a player. The art of interference by a player when his opponent squash playing is too technical to be taught is playing a point and when there is unneces- by anyone not well versed in the game. In- sary crowding. The referee must also call a struction is extremely important for begin- halt to play if a person is injured. ners, who must be made aware of the game's Facilities and equipment. When courts are con- dangers. structed, the advice of experts should be Medical supervision. Medical supervision cannot sought to insure that the wall and floor sur- be provided in all schools where squash is faces are suitable and that enough foot can- played, but a first aid station should be lo- dles of light are provided. Good ventilation cated close to the courts.

PADDLEBALL OR PADDLE RACQUETS'

Paddleball or paddle racquets is a very haz- 2. The stroke follow-through should be short ardous game because of the danger of being hit and toward the front wall. by a paddle or racquet; serious injuries to the 3. A player must not hesitate to call a hinder face and head have happened in game play. when there is danger of hitting another player with a paddle. HAZARDS 4. There should be wrist thongs attached to 1. A player might be hit by a paddle or all paddles or racquets and the thong must racquet. be secured around the wrist. 2. A player might run into the court walls. 5. Players should watch the play off the back 3. Strained or torn muscles or cramps might wall. Failure to do so may result in another person running into or hitting the player result from play. 4. A player might suffer from overexertion. with the paddle. 6. A good conditioning program of running and exercises should minimize the incidence AVOIDANCE OF HAZARDS of pulled or torn muscles and cramps. 1. A player must always be aware of the po- 7. Care should be exercised to prevent oneself sition of his partner or opponent. from running into a wall.

TENNIS

Tennis involves few accidents. The nature of tendons, cramps, and inflammation of the the game classifies it as a noncontact sport. elbow joints are common types of injuries.

HAZARDS 2 Opinions of Ed Serues, coach of squash, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. 1. Most people think tennis requireslittle 3 Andrew J. Kozar et al., Beginning Paddleball (Bel- conditioning and so strained muscles, pulled mont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1967). 148 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

2. Falls resulting in abrasions and contusions 2. Safe court surfaces should be provided. can occur if the playing surface is slippery. 3. Crowding athittingboards should be avoided. AVOIDANCE OF HAZARDS 4. Instruction in hitting techniques and court 1. Conditioning programs are necessary. strategy is necessary.

Figure 1. Good organization and planning are needed for safe instruction.

References

Kozar, Andrew J. et al. Beginning Paddleball. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1967.

Consultants

John M. Barnaby, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Ed Serues, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. J Judo IEICHI K. KOIWAI, M.D.

In the United States over 440,000 people par- techniques and submission holds such as chok- ticipate actively in judo. The growth of judo has ing and elbow locks).2.3 Throwing techniques been phenomenal not only in this country but (nagewaza) can be divided into two types throughout the world. In the Amateur Athletic from the standing position (tachiwaza) and from Union of the United States judo ranks third, the lying position or sacrificing form (sautemi- exceeded only by swimming and track and field. waza).Therearevariousmattechniques An increasing number of secondary schools and (katame-wazaorne-waza,osaekomi-waza) colleges have included judo in their physical where the opponent is held down and controlled education and extracurricularactivities.The for 30 seconds, enabling the holder (tori) to growth of judo has been limited only by the lack win. Choking (shime-waza) and joint locks of qualified, trained instructors. (kansetsu-waza)areallowedassubmission In contrast to jujitsu and other forms of un- holds. armed defense, judo is competitive and regulated Based upon these findings, Tables 1 and 2 by rules. As a contact sport, it presents potential indicate recommendations to decrease the num- for injury. The medical committee of the United ber of injuries. States Judo Federation made a survey of the major accidents and injuries that occurred in QUALIFIED INSTRUCTORS judo from 1956 to 1961.1 Of the 103 cases re- The instructor should be thoroughly familiar ported, the possible causes for 89 wereascer- tained (Tables 1 and 2). In certain cases a com- with the rules, the possible causes of injuries, bination of factors lead to the mishaps. Of the and be prepared to apply first aid, especially in reviving those who have been "choked out." total injuries, two-thirds occurred duringcom- petition while the other third happened during He should emphasize that knowing how to fall teaching and free exercise (randori). (ukemi) is more important than knowing how to throw. In fact, falling is the first line of defense. To analyze these statistics, one must be familiar with the rules of contest and the various T. Ishikawa and D.F.Draeger, Judo Training techniques used it-. winning (throwing and mat Methods (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle Co.,Inc., 1962). 3 5. Nakabayashi, Y. Uchida and G. Uchida, Funda- 1 E. K. Koiwai, Major accidents and injuries in judo, mentals of Judo (New York: The Ronald Press Co., Arizona Medicine22(Dec.1965),pp.957-62. 1964).

149 r

150 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

1 In the beginning, the novice must learn to fall C. The thrower must not fall on the uke. inalldirections forward, backward, and D. A throw should not be forced or com- s sideward. pleted when there is impending danger, In the United States all qualified instructors such as when an opponent's footis are certified and registered with the United caught between the mats. States Judo Federation (USJF). Before a black E. Certain types of throws (e.g., a wrapping belt instructor is hired, his credentials should hip throw) should not be used against be checked to avoid possible liability due to individuals who have small, frail body injuries. The instructor should emphasize the structures. importance of: II. Falling Techniques (Ukemi) I. Throwing Techniques (Nage-waza) A. The uke must break the habit of extend- A. Itisthe responsibility of the thrower ing the hand or arm to brace himself for (tori) to tuck the sleeve of the uke (the the fall. The impact of the fall can cause one who is thrown) just before he lands fractures of the wrist, forearm, and dis- so he will not hit his head and will land location of the elbow. The real danger on his shoulder and side in the proper is the additional force caused by the manner. thrower (tori) falling on top of the uke. B. The thrower must not drive the uke into B. The uke must learntotuck inhis the mat; this will allow the uke to fall shoulder and head so that the impact of properly. the fall is distributed to his back and side

TABLE 1 TABLE 2 TYPES OF JUDO INJURIES THE CAUSES OF JUDO INJURIES Numberof Improper Throwing Techniques 30 Type Injuries Driving the Uke into the mat 14 Fractures 34 Concussion 4 Upper extremities 20 Shoulder separations 7 Lower extremities 10 Miscellaneous 3 Maxilla 1 Following Uke to the mat for osaekomi .... 3 Falling on top of Uke 8 Rib 1 Vertebra 2 Miscellaneous 5 Dislocations and Separations 43 Improper Falling Techniques 23 Upper extremities 41 Reaching out with arm 15 Shoulder 23 Dislocation of the elbow 8 Elbow 13 Torn muscles of the elbow 1 Fracture of wrist 1 Sterno-clavicular 1 Finger 2 Fracture of forearm 3 Lower extremities 2 Fracture of clavicle 2 Falling on the point of shoulder 4 Major Sprains 10 Holding on to tori 1 Upper extremities 5 Miscellaneous 3 Lower extremities 4 Improper Playing Surface 10 Cervical 1 Concussions 6 Aborted Throws 12 Caught in judogi 6 Severe Contusions 4 Miscellaneous 6 Muscles 3 Recurrence of Old & Recent Injuries 7 Scrotum 1 Torn Cartilage 3 Mat Techniques (Katame-viaza) 4 Knee 2 Miscellaneous 3 Rib 1 TOTAL 89 Miscellaneous 3 TOTAL 103 SOURCE: E. K. Koiwal, Major accidents and injuries in SOURCE: E. K. Koiwal, Major accidents and Injuries in ludo, Arizona Medicine 22 (Dec. 1965), no. ludo, Arizona Medicine 22 (Dec. 1965), no. 12, 957-62. 12, 957-62. JUDO 151

rather than directly on the point of the of ensolite are used they should be cov- shoulder. ered with tight canvas. If gym mats are C. The uke should release his hold on the used, they should be fitted as closely as tori when he is being thrown. This pre- possible and covered by a tight canvas. vents the tori from falling on top of B. The competition area must be adequate: the uke. a minimum of 20 feet by 20 feet, but D. The uke. should fall properly whenever preferably at least 30 feet by 30 feet. he is thrown. However, when a match is The mat material outside of the contest at stake, the uke often attempts to abort area should not be less than three feet. the throw by twisting and spinning in If the competition area is elevated, safety the air to avoid losing the match. Such measures must be taken. maneuvers introduce injuries. C. Every referee, official, judge, and player III. Choking Holds (Shime-waza) should be aware of improper playing A. In order for choking holds to be effective, conditions, such as a separation of mats the tori must first control the uke's body under a canvas cover or between the before applying pressure on the vulner- straw mats. These unsafe conditions are able area of the neck. often not easily recognized by observers B. At no time is pressure to be applied outside the competition area. across or on the face. VII. Aborted Throws C. The tori must release a choke hold as A. The judogi (the costume worn by judo- soon as the uke becomes unconscious. ists)simulates the ordinary jacket and D. The hold should not be applied unless a pants worn by most men and is used to higher rank judoist who knows the re- prevent brtiises and, most importantly, suscitation method (katsu) is present. mat burns. However, they themselves IV. Elbow Locks (Kansetus-waza) may contribute toward injury. For ex- A. The elbow joint is the only joint allowed ample, hands or fingers may be entangled to be locked. and caught in the judogi during a throw. B. The tori must release the hold as soon In free exercise (randori), the tori should as the uke signals or calls submission. not complete his throw if he realizes the C. The uke should not be too stubborn to uke is caught in his own judogi. On the signal and concede the match. other hand, if the tori is caught in his D. The referee must stop the tori and signal own judogi, the uke should fall without victory before the force of the lock resisting the throw. causes damage to the elbow joint. B. In aborting the tori's throw, there are V. Mat Techniques (Osaekomi-waza) certain rules that prevent the uke from A. In mat techniques undue force, illegal using such maneuvers as reaping the maneuvers such as wrenching the neck, tori's leg from inside his legs while hold- kicking, biting, hitting, and pressure on ing the tori from behind. Such a maneu- the face can lead to serious injuries and ver can cause serious knee andleg complications. Therefore, all these ma- injuries. - neuvers must be prohibited. VI. Competition Area RECURRENT INJURIES A. The competition area should be kept smooth, firm, clean, cool, and free from The danger of returning to active free exercise cracks or openings. If straw mats (tata- and competition too soon after injury is appar- mis)are used, they should be on a ent. The safest measure is to follow a physician's wooden floor or platform. If plastic mats advice. Regardless of how minor the injury may 152 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES seem to the judoist, sometimes its complications All judoists should have a complete physical may lead to permanent injury. examination annually, especially those who en- As a rule, if a player can perform the follow- gage in active competition. In every tournament ing feats without pain or discomfort, he is in a physician should be present. condition to return to judo after injury: (1) In judo, all participants must know the rules, ukemi (breakf all), (2) uchikomi (form fitting of the throws with an opponent without throwing), the legal and illegal maneuvers, and the holds and (3) free exercise at an easy pace and with and throws; the instructors, referees, and judges the opponent's full knowledge that the player must make sure that the rules are strictly en- has experienced recent injury. The decision to forced. The large number of participants return to active competition also depends on the young and old, male and female indicate that skill, experience, and age of the judoist, and judo is a safe, enjoyable sport when properly advice of his physician, instructor, and coach. supervised.

References

Amateur AthleticUnion.OfficialAAU-JBBF ludo Kodokan. ludo. Osaka, Japan: Nunoi Shobo Co., 1961. Handbook. 3d ed. New York: The Union,1966. Koiwai, E. K. Major accidents and injuries in judo. The Athletic Institute. Sportscope12:4, no. 1, Jan. 31, Arizona Medicine 22: 957-62, no. 12, Dec. 1965. 1967. Nakabayashi, S.; Uchida, Y.; and Uchida, G. Funda- mentals of Judo. New York: The Ronald Press Co., Ishikawa, T. and Draeger, D. F. Judo Training Methods. Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., 1962. 1964. Norton, M. L.;Safrin, M.; and Cutler, P. Medical Ito,Kazuo.This Is Judo. Tokyo, Japan: Tokyo News aspects of judo. New York State Journal of Medicine Service, Ltd., 1965. 67: 1750-52, no. 12, June 15, 1967. WALTER KROLL, P.E.D. Wrestling IPHILIP J. RASCH, Ph.D.

Participationinvigorous and competitive ably challenge football as the sport with the physical activity is not without some measured highest injury rate if present trends continued. risk of injury. As would be expected for a com- Such data certainly support the contention bative sport, wrestling results in a higher inci- that wrestling is not a comparatively safe sport. dence of injury than other milder forms of It must be realized, however, that data on ath- athletics. Some authors have classified wrestling letic injury incidence are rather meager fo: all as "highly hazardo,us" based on data from an sports and especially for wrestling. Incidence early study in 1937 showing the sport ranked ratiosrarelyconsiderexposurestoinjury- fifth in incidence of injuries among high school producing events relative to number of hours of sports and third among college sports.' Several participation, length of season, or the number other studies have shown more recently an of preventable injuries versus injuries occurring injury ratio of approximately 5% to 10% while when all necessary safeguards were taken. Being one high school study showed an incidence a phye:cal contact sport, wrestling will more likely have a higher injury ratio than more sed- of 33.65 per 100 participants.2.3.4.5 A subse- entary activities, even under ideal conditions, quent study on Oregon high school athletic but data presently available on injury rates un- injuries suggested that wrestling could conceiv- doubtedly represent higher than average statistics and can be reduced substantially by even a i Frank S. Lloyd; George G. Deaver; and Floyd R. modicum of safe practice utilization. Eastwood, SafetyinAthletics(Philadelphia: W. B. Wrestling for the past ten years has been Saunders Co.,1949), pp. 99-104. consistently ranked as one of the fastest grow- 2 Ignatius J. Konrad, A study of wrestling injuries in highschoolsthroughoutseven Midwesternstates ing interscholastic sports in the United States. (Master's thesis, Michigan State College,1951). Presently the number of participants in wres- 3 Joseph Patacsil, An analytical study of the incidence tling is exceeded only by those of the four major of injuries sustained in intercollegiate and interscholas- sports, but the number of qualified coaches and tic wrestling (Master's thesis, Purdue University,1955). 4 Claude C. Reeck, A national study of incidence of officials has constantly been far below de- accidents in high school wrestling, Research Quarterly mands. According to one nationwide survey on 10(March1939),pp.72-73. professional preparation of coaches, only abott 5 Richard G. Brown, Nature and frequency of injuries occurring in Oregon high school interscholastic sports one-fourth of the high school wrestling coaches (Master's thesis, University of Oregon,1951). ever earned a varsity wrestling letter while in

153 154 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES high school, and only about one-third lettered of participants in wrestling is extreme or crash in wrestling while in college. In the six sports weight reduction practices. The American Medi- surveyed, only track surpassed wrestling in the calAssociation's Committee on the Medical number of coaches who did not have an under- Aspects of Sport and the National Federation graduate degree in physical education.6 Some of State High School Athletic Associations have coaches have not had even a physical education jointly condemned excessive weight reduction course in the sport.' A further result of its fast as dangerous and unfair. Recent symposiums

._71111111

Figure 1. Proper spacing, supervision, and foam plastic mats aid in reducing accidents. growth has been the generally inadequate pro- Another major problem concerning the health vision of suitable fc.-ilities and safety equip- have considered this topic in some detail and an ment. Faulty supervision, poor facilities, and official policy statement has been formulated." lack of proper equipment have undoubtedly Any agency sponsoring competitive wrestling contributed to an injury ratio in wrestling which can be substantially reduced. a American Medical Association, Interscholastic wrestling and weight control, in Proceedings of the Eighth "Mathew G. Maetozo, Jr., An analysis of the profes- National Conference on the Medical Aspects of Sports sional preparation of interscholastic athletic coaches in (Chicago: The Association,1967),pp.34-44. selected sports (D.P.E. diss., Springfield College,1965). ° Weight control A problem for wrestlers, Journal Edwin R. Elbel, Athletic injuries in Kansas high of the American Medical Association 199 (March27, school, Bulletin of Education 5 (1950), pp. 1-23. 1967),no. 12, p.45. WRESTLING 155 programs must give careful attention to these participant requires a space of approximately deliberations. 50 square feet for practice. Well protected floor space as well as padding of all walls, posts, PREVENTION OF INJURIES heaters, etc., to a height of at least 5 feet is recommended. The following recommendations for preserv- 4. If modern foam plastic wrestling mats are ing the health and safety of wrestling partici- not provided, canvas mats must be covered with pants have been digested from a recent compre- an appropriate material to reduce the incidence hensive survey of research in wrestling. Readers of mat burns and impact contusions. Covers are referred to the AAHPER publications on must be kept sanitary by daily disinfecting and wrestling for more information.'" cleaning. Injuries resulting from catching a limb 1. All participants must be given a thorough in a torn or loose cover or from spaces between physical examination at the start and end of improperly secured mats can be reduced by use the season and again before returning to training of a tightened plastic cover over fastened place after injury or illness. A carefully administered mats. and medically supervised policy on weight re- 5. Participants in wrestling should be supplied duction practices should be formulated and adequate protective equipment. Uniforms and jointly approved by physician, coach, athlete, equipment must be ( lean. Knee and elbow pads parents, and administrative officials. Competent as well as ear protectors should be made avail- medical care must be available continuously and able and used. a policy formulated for management of any in- 6. Proper training prior to vigorous participa- jury. A physician should be in attendance at tion is mandatory. Training includes not only all competitive bouts and practice sessions. physical conditioning but alsoareasonable 2. Qualified supervisory personnel must be knowledge oftechniques,rules, and safety sought coaches, officials, medical counsel. practices. Injuries tend to decrease as partici- 3. Adequate facilities must be provided. Each pants gain experience.'" Since approximately 50% of injuries in high school and college 1° Philip J. Rasch and Walter Kroll, Safe wrestling, Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation 36 wrestling occur during work on the feet, par- (March 1965), pp. 32-33, 44, 51-52. ticular attention should be given to the take- " American Association for Health, Physical Educa- down phase of wrestling. tion, and Recreation, What Researcl: Tells the Coach about Wrestling (Washington, D.C.: The Association, i: Konrad, op. cit. 1964). 13 Patacsil, op. cit.

References

American Medical Association. Interscholastic wrestling Lloyd, Frank S.; Deaver, George G.; and Eastwood, and weight control. In Proceedings of the Eighth Na- Floyd R. Safety inAthletics. Philade!phia: W. B. tional Conference on the Medical Aspects of Sports, Saunders Co., 1949. pp. 34-1 I. Chicago: The Association, 1967. - Arr.

i'.

SAFETY IN AQUATIC ACTIVITIES

a . b' 4,

:11eN r } V : ..try

__411.4"441 .00 111 s, .r. . 911r %v.' WOO"Ac, 41111-. N let .111..11101re .11 411. r wit SLr"P14. ..-414,-,rs. .4'4! 'AZ; fr.0

"Je .tie% ".." IV*g / 4V:et 1" gets, '*". Jrei4 Jr F..=7=Iiig

0 o Elementary Swimming

and Water Safety ISIDNEY C. HAZELTON, M.A.

Man is the only animal who has to learn to person who does not go swimming is not neces- swim. Teaching a person to swim without simul- sarily protected from drowning. Many people taneously instructing him in the basic safety drown simply because of falls into the water. factors related to an aquatic environment is Training in water safety is particularly essential comparable to teaching a person to drive without for the protection of children. teaching him respect for the rules of the road. Knowledge and skill in themselves will not The American National Red Cross since 1914 prevent all drownings, accidents, or illness in has conducted a water safety program with the the water. Many times swimmers do not have primary purpose of reducing drownings by de- sufficient knowledge of safe water conditions veloping skill and knowledge that will contribute or of the skills to be used in an emergency. A to safety in, on, under and ne,zr the water.

WATER SAFETY In addition to the prevention of drownings, abilities of the swimmers, are given as part of water safety is concerned with the total health many swimming lessons. and welfare of people in water settings.It deals with the causes, prevention, and elimina- A water safety program has as its primary tion of conditions, practices, or procedures which objective the creation in every individual of an are detrimental to the swimmer. awareness of accident causes and the ways in Knowledge necessary for safety in aquatics which accidents can be prevcrted. Experience consists in large measure of knowing when, has shown that the most effective way to attain where, and how much to participate. Safety this objective is through certified courses taught skills are made up of abilities to meet common by trained instructors. These include progressive hazardous conditions which the bather faces courses in swimming from beginner through from time to time. This is the substance of advanced swimming and cover lifesaving, sur- personal safety in the water. Today, this knowl- vival swimming, boating, canoeing, sailing, and edge and till, commensurate with the age and other water sports.

157 158 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

SWIMMING Total deaths from drowning accidents in 1965 were 6,799. There were about 906 deaths of Water safety begins with learning to swim children under 5 years of age; 1,391 from and receiving instruction in aquatic skills and ages 5 to 14; 1,598 from ages 15 to 24; 648 knowledge which will enable an individual to from ages 25 to 54, 375 from ages 55 to 74; and take care of himself in the water in emergency 194 of persons 75 years and older. There were situations. 15 deaths of people whose ages were unknown. One must learn to respect the water not be- Home drowning accidents accounted for about cause it is a wonderful friend but a bitter enemy. 7E0 lives in 1966. Special studies reveal the An individual cannot use land habits and prac- locationsasfollows. swimming pools, 250; tices in the water and be safe. He must learn to bathtubs, 200; wells, cisterns, and cesspools, 70; play the game according to the rules which the ocher open bodies of water, 100; other specified water requires ii, order to be safe. places, 60; unspecified places, 70.' Swimming pool owners must keep their facilities safe and healthful by: 1. reducing hazards to a minimum. BATHING FACILITY 2. controlling and regulating the actions and In a reasonably safe bathing place, hazards conduct of the patrons who may cause . . are reduced to a minimum; provisions are made injuries-to themselves or to others. Some for the prevention of drownings, accidents, ill- things may be done safely in the water or nesses, and injuries; proper supervision and on land, while others may not; these should suitable equipment are provided for the detec- be stated as rules and regulations. tion and rescue of those who get into difficulty. 3. protecting the safety, health, and welfare A safe facility is just as necessary for nonswim- of patrons by enforcing the rules and reg- mers as it is for advanced swimmers. ulations which have been established for The swimming areas for the various skill or the good of all. accomplishment classifications should be clearly marked. No swimmer, regardless of his classifi- SUPERVISION cation, should be allowed outside of the area to Adequate supervision of the facility must be which he is assigned until he has passed the maintained at all times. Lack of this supervision required test. is one of the greatest causes of accidents and Some basic requirements in developing a safe fatalities. Supervision is a state of mind. One waterfront include pure, unpolluted, and tested must be alert to anticipate and observe danger- water; a firm bottom with proper slope, free of oussituationsandtoprevent them from slip-offs, holes, broken bottles, and cans; proper starting. depths for teaching nonswimmers and lifesaving and diving skills; special considerations to tide,currents, undertows, and other water DROWNINGS movement; consideration to waves which are Approximately 7,000 persons drowned in the dangerous to nonswimmers as well as to dock United States in 1966, an increase of 200 over structures; and consideration to harmful vari- 1965. Of these, about 2,700 were swimming or eties of marine life located in or adjacent to the playing in the water. The remaining 4,300 swimming facility, such as jellyfish, Portugese drownings were nonswimming fatalities: per- man-of-war, and stingray. sons falling into the water from shores, docks, bridges; transport accidents involving ship repair, fishing, and recreational boating; plus acci- ' National Safety Council, Accident Facts (Chicago: dents in the home and on home premises. The Association, 1967), pp. 14, 75, 84. ELEMENTARY SWIMMING AND WATER SAFETY 159

AQUATIC SUPERVISION

An efficient and effective aquatic instructor water hazards and the inability to determine and supervisor must know definitely what his what constitutes unsafe practices in and about responsibilitiesare. They include inspection; the water. maintenance; elimination' of typical removable Specific unsafe practices include diving before hazards in and around the facility and marking a previous diver has surfaced and moved outof those which cannot be removed to make them the way; running on decks, runways, and ramps; conspicuous; keeping other staff members aware pushing people into the water; swimming too of their duties; and teaching survival techniques soon following a heavy meal or whenfatigued, and knowledge as well as swimming skills. cold, or hot. Other causes include the lack of He must enforce rules and regulations for swimming skill, lack of judgment or knowledge health and safety, and see that these are con- of rules, disregard of warnings, and trespassing spicuously posted and understood by all partici- when the facility is closed and not in use. pants. In supervised and well-regulated facili- Some situations which result in drownings ties, custom and knowledge of local conditions are: nonswimmers who get into deep waterand will dictate those regulations desirable to govern are unable to regain their footing; noviceswho the conduct of bathers? become exhausted and panicky; skilled swim- Basic safety considerations to protect swimmers who overestimate theirability or endur- mers should include slow and gradualadjust- ance; diving into shallow andunknown waters; ment to water; restricted areas for swimming, cramps resulting from fatigue andchilling, such diving, boating, canoeing, and sailing; regularly as the calves of the legs, stomach cramps con- scheduled periods for aquatic activities; contributed to by swimming too soon after a heavy stant,alert,and competentsupervisionof meal, and other muscle cramps; heart attacks, aquatic facility or waterfront; ability tests to epileptic seizures, and general collapse due to be sure that swimmers are placed in the proper chill and exhaustion; attempting rescue without classification; checking systems, both into and adequate lifesaving skill; and getting caught in out of the water; availability of rescue equip- weeds, currents, and undertows.' ment such as lifelines, booms, buoys, lifeboat, Many recreational drowning accidents could surfboard, heavinglines,shepherd'scrook, be prevented if there were safe bathing places, grapplingirons, and signals suchasbells, constant and competent supervision, education whistles, or sirens to indicate local danger. and instruction of swimmers in knowledge and Swimmersthemselvesshouldunderstand skills, regulation of bather activities through health hazards, such as sunburn, sun stroke, use of a check-in and check-out systemand the and heat exhaustion (use dark glasses); immer- "buddy system,"andfirstaid andrescue sion (be aware of deep-water signs); water in equipment. ears (use ear plugs and limitunderwater swimming); sinusitis (use nose clip); and temporary ACCIDENTS OTHER THAN DROWNING discoloration and brittleness of hair (use bathing cap and hair oil). The major causes of minor and occasionally serious and permanently disabling injuries are falls and collisions with persons and objects, and DROWNING contact with unseen or unnoticed hazards such The basic causes of drownings include the as shells, sharp stones, roots, tin cans,broken lack of knowledge of water conditions and glass, protruding nails, and splinters. Prevention 2 American National Red Cross,Life Saving and Water Safety (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., 3 Aquatics Schools (Washington, D.C.: American Na- 1966), pp. 14-15. tional Red Cross, 1949), pp. 60-63. 160 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

should be devped around a constant house- enough for swimming requires the maintenance keeping p gram to eliminate hazards, control of bather and spectator control, the initiation of actions d activities of swimmers at all times filtration and disinfection procedures when nec- on Ianand in the water, and to maintain alert essary, and the removal of the sources of pollu- and ompetent supervision. tion.Illnessescaused by harmful practices among swimmers may be prevented by control ILLNESSES of bather exposure to sunlight and to overim- mersion; by prebathing warmups, slow and Water contaminationorpollutionisthe gradual, both physical and mental; and by the underlying cause of most illnesses such as dis- control of aquatic stunts. eases or infections caused by water borne bac- Bathers should be instructed in health prac- teria,excessivevegetablematter,industrial tices, such as never swim alone; have a pre- wastes, and excessive sunlight. Personal causes liminaryphysicalexamination; know your or contributing factors include excessive im- classification by ability tests; stay out of the mersion; chilling or fatigue; unwise aquatic water before group instruction; do not enter stunts permitting water to enter sinuses of the water when overtired, overheated, or cold; and head and the middle ear; neglect of water in leave the water if shivering or if lips or nails the ears; improper or careless drying of the turn bluish in color, goose pimples form on hair, the body, and the feet; and inadequate skin, or if movement of limbs is difficult because protection by clothing in cold weather after of cold. Instruction also should include care of swimming. hair, skin, and feet, how to get water out of the Preventive actiontoprovide water pure ears, and prevention of sinusitis.4

SWIMMING AND WADING POOLS

Almost 500 poolfatalities were identified PREVENTION from newspaper accounts in a comprehehsive Public Health Service study.' Highlights from The most frequent contributing cause of pool this report follow. fatalities appeared to be lack of or inadequacy of adult supervision of children and the victim's inability to swim. 20 CAUSES OF DEATH Persons under years of age represent 50% of the victims and the major target group for The principal causes of pool fatalities, in prevention programs. In the under20group, order of frequency, were: fallingor slipping particular attention needs to be directed to chil- into the water,228;exhaustion, usually related dren under 5. Among the various kinds of to overestimation of ability and to lack of skill pools, those at residential facilities, particularly in water survival techniques,85;not stated,75; at homes, should be the major target. stepped or swept into deep water,51;attack or No single action will prevent all pool fatalities illness,20;struck an object,15;support being or all injuries. Two measures enforced by used sank, slipped from grasp, or entrapped mandate if necessary could prevent a, many victim with-head under water, 4. as half of the drownings. These are competent adult supervision while the pool is in use, and 5 Daniel P. Webster, Pool drownings and their prevention, Public Health Reports 82 (July 1967), no. 7, 4 American National Red Cross,Life Saving and pp. 587-600. Water Safety, pp. 62-63. ELEMENTARY SWIMMING AND WATER SAFETY 161 adequate enclosure to prevent or discourage ered to be factors. Pool management must share trespass when it is not. with the lifeguards the responsibility for protec- The number of deaths could be further re- tion against drownings in crowded pools. duced if a concerted effort was made to orient Properly designed and constructed barriers pool owners and users to accepted safety prac- to help prevent trespass of the pool area, when tices,toprovide owners withtheessential the facility is not in use, represent the first line knowledge and skills for safe operation, and to of defense against human error, such as break- instruct all persons, particularly youngsters, in down in adult supervision. Such barriers may water survival skills and emergency procedures. be supplemented by protective devices such as Competent adult supervision is essential to alarms and pool covers. prevent accidents. Leaving children temporarily The pool bottom should slope gradually. A unattended contributes to more drownings than floatline should always be provided to serve as any other single cause. It must be emphasized a lifeline and to keep weak swimmers in the that children can never be left alone near water, shallow end. Depths should be marked on pool even for one minute. decks at each foot of depth change to show safe Provision for professional lifeguards should jumping and diving areas. The frequency of be mandatory at all pools other than those at upper cervical neck fractures points up the private residences. However the mere presence necessity for this. of lifeguards will not provide adequate pool Widespread recognition and acceptance of protection; for instance, 58 out of the 86 drown- safe practices in or near the pool would also ings in public pools in 1965 occurred while a materially assist in reducing pool accidents and lifeguard was present. Inattention, overcrowd- fatalities. No person,regardlessof athletic ing, and murky water conditions were consid- prowess, sex, age, or other condition,should

------f-;,---, '

Figure 1. Mouth to mouth resuscitation must be performed with confidence. The victim's head must be tilted back with the chin up and the throat line straight. The rescuer should open her mouth wide, place her mouth over the victim's mouth, pinch the victim's nostrils shut, and blow hard at the rate of 12 breaths per minute. 162 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES bathe, swim, or work in or adjacent to the pool Having the knowledge, experience, and essen- alone. Elderly people especially should bere- tial equipment could prevent many accidents strained from lone visits to the pool. from turning into tragedies.. Emergency instruc- It should be a strict rule to swim before,never tions, protected against the weather, should be after, drinking, eating, and taking drugsor conspicuously mounted both within and outside medication. the pool enclosure. Pool owners andusers should Hyperventilation has been identified asone be trained in artificial resuscitation, and instruc- of the possible causes of drowning. Hazardous tion and practice in making elementary rescues contests involving hyperventilation and swim- and assists should be given to all personnel, ming underwater for distance or endurance have owners, and users. often claimed the lives of capable swimmers Children should be taught water survival who appear to have drowned for no apparent techniques and skills at as early an age as their reason. physical and emotional maturity will permit, but Many other drownings would be avoided if they must simultaneously be made to under- people who are not competent swimmers would stand their own limitations in respect to water. stay in shallow water.It would also help if Children of school age should be enrolled in everybody would avoid horseplay and would organized learn-to-swim programs offered in the determine pool depths before jumpingor diving. community.

SEASHORE

The causes of many drownings and fatalities, 4. Danger of being struck by asailboat, and their prevention at the seashore,are similar motor craft, or a surfboard when such equip- in most respects to those at ponds, lakes, and ment is being used in proximity to either swim- other open water areas. mers or bathers. (Swimming in unenclosed areas also presents the danger of being carried, in a ACCIDENT CAUSATION current parallel to shore, down below the point of entry.) One authority on ocean beach safety lists the 5. Use of spare tire tubes for floats. following factors as contributing to seashore 6. Danger of collision with debris. accidents.6 7. Judging ability to swim as great a distance 1. Poor supervision of children and lack of at the beginning of a season as at the end of indoctrination of family members about the the preceding season. Muscle tonus is soon lost "buddy system." The guard seldomsees the in cold water. When water is very cold, only very person or persons in trouble; usually someone short periods of immersion are possible for be- else reports the trouble. ginners at any time. They do not move enough 2. Ball playing or rough play. Broken limbs, and are up and down so much that the evapora- concussions, fractured shills, sprained ankles, tive process of drying in the wind absorbs much bruises can result from collisions or from fights. body heat. 3. Failure to observe danger signals warning 8. Swimming out to rest on buoy markers bathers and swimmers to keep out of a roped-off which are thought to be of sufficient buoyancy area. to keep a tired swimmer up until recuperated from fatigue. " Alexander Houston, PossibleDangers atOre. n 9. Attempted rescue in surf without equip- Beaches (Boston: American National Red Cross, P)47, ment and previous training. ELEMENTARY SWIMMING AND WATER SAFETY 163

10. Diving from moving bases which leave Swim with the waves and not in heavy surf. little stability, and which can cause disastrous Watch out for undertow and keep on top of neck injuries and other impairments. the water. Schedule swim periods at high tides; 11. Overexposure resulting in sunburn, heat one can swim two or three hours on either side stroke, heat exhaustion, heat cramps. There also of the high tide. is a strong possibility of nausea or cramps from Avoid teaching back float to beginners when a sudden complete immersion following violent waves are present. The most effective strokes perspiring from land activity. when swimming in rough water are the breast- 12. Seriouseyeinjuriesfrom face mask stroke and the side-stroke. One will not find broken by sudden diving or falling face for- ideal conditions every time he takes his unit ward into water; suffocation from having face down to the beach. The instructors have to mask drop down over mouth; and strangling consider the weather, and make adjustments in from snorkel tube water when tube has not their program. Dry land instruction may be been blown clear of water. given if weather is adverse. 13. Scuba casualties from running out of air Depths of water can range widely regardless at deep water depth so that surface cannot be of whether the tide is coming in or going out reached in time to get more air, panicking from (move classes in as the tide comes in, and move loss of mouthpiece, failure to clear mask flooded them out as the tide goes out). Morning tides with water. Also, fatal embolism from holding are colder than afternoontides. Adjust the breath and coming to surface with a rush, length of the "helping period" or instruction failure to make a fast release of weights in accordingtothe temperature of the water. an emergency, and failure of diaphragm in Recognize the fact that persons with more adi- regulator. pose tissue can tolerate cold water longer than 14. Danger from spinal meningitis and other the thin persons. fatal diseases in polluted waters. Accident prevention particularly requires good supervision. If water levels are affected by tides, ACCIDENT PREVENTION it may not be feasible to erect lifelines. Good The better one knows a given seaside beach, area restrictions can be maintained by the su- the better he will he able to keep out of trouble. pervision of the counselor staff members, who Being aware of what might cause accidents, should be qualified swimmers under leadership doing everything possible to avoid them, and of a water safety instructor, each assigned to a removing or avoiding the causes will prevent small group of pupils. Properly placed two-man accidents from happening. lifeboats, as well as surfboards, provide safety The following points are presented in relation surveillanceand immediatesupervisionfor to conducting swimming classes at the seashore. deep water activities.

ACCIDENT PREVENTION IN SWIMMING INSTRUCTION

How can integration of the prevention of pupils in the nonswimmer group is the cue as accidents and the control of injuries be accom- to the method of approach, the order in which plished in the teaching of elementary swim- skills will be presented, and whether or not the ming? Age of the pupils in a class must be con- appeal should be made to a childish mind or a sidered. It seems to be the custom to associate mature mind. nonswimmers with children, whereas there are To teach beginner swimming to a 6-year-old adults who are also nonswimmers. The age of the is quite different from teaching it to a 12-year- 164 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES old, a 16-year-old, or an adult. The skills are the 5. Include safety instruction in the rules and same for all, but the teaching method and the regulations of the facility. (The instructor can order of presenting the skillsaredifferent. present to the class the good and bad features Teaching techniques must be adapted to the of the facility. In this way it is hoped that the physical and mental abilities of the student. pupils will learn to distinguish between the Water survival training should be as much a good and bad features of a waterfront. It will part of the elementary school curriculum as help them to learn safe water conditions.) driver education is for the high school cur- 6. Call to the attention of the class any riculum. To teach a youngster to swim without bathers who behave improperly in the water. an appreciation for some of the basic safety 7. Whenever the occasion arises, point out to factors related to an aquatic environment is the class the safe limits of their area. Remind comparable to teaching a person to drive with- them that this information is posted. out respect for the rules of the road.7 8. Caution theclassabout any inherent dangers that may be involved in presenting a TEACHING GUIDELINES given skill. 9. Permit the use of flotation devices to over- There are several general methods of present- come certaincoordination problems.(Those ing accident prevention information and skills who bring flotation devices to the area, how- to a class in elementary swimming. ever, should remain within the nonswimmer 1. Work in a safe and healthful bathing area. area when using them.) The children become accustomed to the high 10. Give ability tests to newcomers. standards of a safe area and will recognize an 11. Remember that we are trying "to create area that does not employ the commonly ac- in every individual an awareness of the causes cepted criteria of safety. of accidents, how they can be prevented and a 2. Discuss and demonstrate accident preven- desire to be safe."8 tion skills. 12. Everyone needs to know certain things 3. Use visual aids, such as pictures, posters, about being safe in the water. That is what is texts, newspapers, and films. meant when it is stated that one cannot take 4. Let the pupils practice under supervision land habits into the water and be safe; he has and with correction. to learn the "rules of the water." 7 National Safety Council, Operation Waterproof 4th American National Red Cross,Life Saving and Grade (Chicago: The Council, 1967), pp. 3-4. Water Safety, pp. 3-4.

References

American National Red Cross. Life Saving and Water Safety. 19th ed. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., 1966. 248 pp. Swimming and Water Safety. Washington, D.C.: American National Red Cross, 1968. 142 pp. Bearse, Richard H. and Hazelton, Sidney C. A Camp Aquatic Program. 5th ed. Hanover, N.H.: Roger Burt Printing, Inc., 1966. Haze lton, Sidney C. A Method of Teaching Swimming to Young Children. 4th ed. Hanover, N.H.: Roger Burt Printing, Inc., 1965. ELEMENTARY SWIMMING AND WATER SAFETY 165

and Pulis, Clifford A. Diving Manual for In- structors. 5th ed. Hanover, N.H.: Roger Burt Printing, Inc., 1966. National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Chicago: The Council. Annual. Operation Waterproof 4th Grade. Chicago: The Council, 1967. 14 pp. Swimming. In Safety Education Data Sheet No. 27. rev. ed. Chicago: The Council, 1964. Webster, Daniel P. Pool drownings and their prevention. Public Health Report 82:587-600, no. 7, July 1967.

Consultants

Patricia E. Downing, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H. Frank B. Holland, American National Red Cross, Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. Alexander Houston, American National Red Cross, Washington, D.C. John Hurd, Professor Emeritus, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H. Grant Koch, Camp Monomoy, East Brewster, Mass. Herbert F. West, Professor Emeritus, Dartmouth Col- lege, Hanover, N.H. Recreational Swimming IM. ROGER WARREN, Re.D.

Millions of Americans flock to public swim- the past 15 years shows a relatively constant ming pools and public beaches each year. The figure. This is a great tribute to the many agen- Bureau of Outdoor Recreation has predicted cies which have done an outstanding job in that by 1980 swimming will be the most pop- promoting water safety. While this record is ular outdoor recreationactivityin America. commendable, drowning continues to pose a During 1965nearly68millionAmericans, formidable threat to the swimmer. Approxi- representing 48% of the population 12 years mately one half of the deaths which occur each of age and older, went swimming.' Swimming year by drowning could easily be prevented. ranks second in popularity of outdoor recreation Drownings in swimming areas are largely the activities behind walking for pleasure. result of inadequate supervision, lack of swim- The growth of the swimming pool industry ming ability, and other causes which can be is another indication of the increasing popu- remedied. larity of swimming. According to the Swimming Pool Industry 1969 Market Report, there were REDUCING SWIMMING ACCIDENTS 10,800 swimming pools in the United States in 1948. By 1968 the total had grown to 891,900 While it is desirable to reduce swimming acci- permanent swimming pools, an increaseof dents to a minimum, this should not be done at nearly 88,000 over the previous year.? The the risk of reducing participation in swimming. greatest growth has come in the construction Most people swim because it is fun; some swim of residential pools. to improve or maintain physical fitness. When the methods used to reduce and prevent acci- DROWNINGS dents take the enjoyment out of swimming, one of the major purposes of swimming has been Despite the tremendous growth in swimming eliminated. It is the purpose of this section to activity, a survey of drowning accidents during suggest some practices which will make the ' Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Outdoor Recreation organized swimming pool, public beach, sum- Trends (Washington, D.C.: United States Department mer camp waterfront, and undeveloped water of Interior, 1967), p. 22. 2 Swimming Pool Industry 1969 Market Report (Fort areas safer for the swimmer, but at the same Lauderdale, Fla.: Hoffman Publications, Inc., 1969), p. 4. ti.ne preserve the intrinsic value of the activity.

166 RECREATIONAL SWIMMING 167

THE ORGANIZED SWIMMING POOL

The terms public swimming pool and organ- A well equipped first aid room should be ized swimming pool are intended to be synony- provided in the bathhouse. This room should mous in this section. Both refer to swimming be used for first aid purposes only and not as pools operated by organized groups. The intent a combinationfirstaid room and lifeguard of this section is to deal with all types of.swim- dressing room or storage room. ming pools except private residence pools. Depth of water should be clearly marked on Many safety hazards which plague the swim- the edge of the deck and above the water level ming pool administrator can be eliminated by on the vertical walls of the pool. These markers providing awelldesignedand constructed should indicate minimum and maximum depths swimming facility. The cost of correcting an and every foot of depth change and should be error made in the design or construction of a spaced at no more than 25 foot intervals. Water swimming pool is often exorbitant. Therefore depth markers should be on both sides and ends pool plans must be checked and rechecked to of the pool, and it is particularly important to eliminate safety hazards before construction is have them at the break points between deep and begun. The life which is saved or the disabling shallow water. Depth markers should be in accident that is avoided is just as real a saving numerals at least four inches high and of a color at this stage of development as a lifeguard res- contrasting with the background. cuing a drowning victim. The slope of the floor of the shallow area An important initial safety consideration in should be uniform and not greater than 1 foot designing a public swimming pool is to provide vertical in 12 feet horizontal. The slope of the adequate parking and safe pedestrian access to floor between the transition point and the deep- the pool. The potential automotive and pedes- est part of the pool should not be greater than trian traffic to be generated by the pool should 1foot verticalin3 feet horizontol. Floors be carefully considered and adequate allow- in shallow water areas should have slip-resistant ances made for safety of patrons coming to and surfacing. from the pool. The pool should be so designed A safety line should be provided about one that emergency vehicles have convenient access foot before the break in grade between the shal- to the pool enclosure and filter area. low and deep portions of the swimming pool. The entire area of an outdoor pool should be This is usually placed at about the five foot protected by a wall, fence, or planting barrier depth to separate the shallow area from the at least six feet high. diving area. The safety line should consist of a Safety considerations should not be over- one-half inch minimum diameterlinewith looked in the swimming pool bathhouse or colored floats at no greater than five foot spac- locker room. The deck of the pool and floor of ing. The terminals of the line should be securely the bathhouse or locker room should be on the anchored and have no projections which might same elevation. Steps should not be permitted be hazardous to swimmers. between the pool deck and locker room. Floors An improperly designed diving tank can and decks should be relatively smooth, but with create a hopeless hazard in a swimming pool. a nonskid texture to minimize slipping. To en- The total width of the diving area should be 32 sure complete draining (wet spots are slippery), feet for a one-meter board and 35 feet for a the pool deck and bathhouse floor should be three-meter board. The deepest point in a pool sloped not less than one-fourth inch per foot should be approximately 5 feet from the end toward the nearest drain. The swimmers' en- of the diving board and should have a depth trance from the bathhouse to the pool deck of 10 feet for a one-meter board and 12 feet should be at the shallow end of the pool. for a three-meter board. Care must be taken to 168 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES protect the diver who executes a poor dive and safety device for current leak detection and enters the water far from the end of the diving circuit inactivation. board. If the slope of the diving tank rises too There should be no overhead electrical wiring sharply, the diver may be diving into water only within the pool enclosure nor in such places six or seven feet deep. The diver who enters the where a broken wire could fall within the pool water directly under the end of the diving board enclosure. Electric outlets on the pool deck also should be considered. Problems of the poor should be located at least 10 feet from the edge diver can be eliminated by designing the diving of the pool. tank sufficiently deep with a wide base or a Wading pools for small children should be gradual slope upward from the deepest point. Clearance between diving boards and be- separated from but adjacent to the shallow end tween diving boards and sides of the pool is a of the pool. A barrier should be provided to prevent small children from wandering into the vital safety consideration. The distance between main swimming pool. Thisisoften accom- one-meter diving boards should be 10 feet and plished by providing a three-foot or higher 15 foot lateral clearance should b'. provided for a three-meter board. A lateral clearance of 12 fence around the wading pool. Benches, dense low growing plantings, and other methods can to 15 feet should be allowed between the diving also be used to accomplish the purpose of re- board and the side of the pool. stricting egress from the wading pool area. All three-meter diving boards should have rails on both sides of the board. These rails Many authorities feel that a slide has no place should extend from the back of the diving in a swimming pool. When a slide is evaluated board, forward to the edge of the pool. A dou- from a safety standpoint alone, itis hard to ble rail is preferred to protect a diver who slips challenge this position. The author recognizes and who might fall between the diving board the inherent dangers of a pool slide but still and top rail. believes that the enjoyment derived from a Overhead clearance in an indoor swimming slide can outweigh the dangers under proper pool is an important safety consideration. A conditions. The danger of a slide can be mini- minimum of 15 feet of unobstructed head room mized if kept in good repair and closely super- should be provided above diving boards. vised.Itisoften necessarytoassign one Diving boards should be completely covered lifeguard to the slide during periods of heavy with nonskid material. This material will wear pool use. off and boards should be checked periodically A public swimming pool should provide one and resurfaced before they become dangerous. elevated lifeguard chair or platform for every Treads on ladders to diving boards should be at 2,000 square feet of pool surface area. When least three inches wide over the stepping sur- more than one chair is provided, they should face and of nonskid design. be on opposite sides of the pool. The chair Underwater lights add to the safety of a should be located so that the lifeguard's neces- public pool by providing additional illumination sary field of vision does not exceed an angle of for night swimming. Each underwater light 180 degrees. should be individually grounded by means of Sun glare should be considered when locating the screwed or bolted connection to the junction lifeguard chairs and when considering the orien- box from which the branch circuit to the indi- tation of the pool. It is virtually impossible to vidual light takes off. The light should be flush eliminate completely sun glare. Umbrellas over with the pool wall so that a swimmer cannot the lifeguard's chair and sunglasses will help catch a hand or foot i t the fixture. Underwater reduce glare; however, during some periods of lights utilizing more than 12 volts should be the day the lifeguard may need to move to an double grounded or equipped with an approved alternate position to avoid glare. RE ...11EATIONAL SWIMMING 169

SWIMMING POOL SANITATION by a pH between 7.2 and 7.6. A pH testing kit One of the primary objectives of the public accurate to nearest 0.2 pH unit should be pro- pool administrator should be to provide clear, vided at each pool. bacteriologically safe water for his patrons. Al- Water testing should be performed and per- though some of the major considerations con- manently recorded as frequently as necessary cerning safe sanitary practices in swimming to maintain adequate chemical readings. In nor- pools will be mentioned, this area is much too mal swimming pool operation the interval be- complex to allow a complete discussion. The tween tests should not exceed two hours. swimming pool operator should be completely Many poolchemicalsare dangerous and familiar with pool sanitation methods. There manufacturer's recommendations should be care- are many good sources for this information; fully followed. Where gas chlorine is used the several are listed in the bibliography at the end gas cylinders and gas-feeding equipment should of this chapter. One of the best is C. C. Stott's be housed in a corrosion resistant and mechani- manual, Swimming Pool Management. cally well ventilated enclosure with proper il- Minimum swimming pool sanitation require- lumination. There should be an airtight duct ments vary according to local and state public from the bottom of the enclosure to the outside health regulations. Swimming pool operators and a motor driven exhaust fan capable of pro- should be thoroughly familiar with local and ducing at least one air change per minute. state laws governing sanitation for their pool. Electric switches for the control of artificial Clear, clean water is achieved by an adequate lighting and ventilation should be placed out- filtration system. The optimum turnover period side the enclosure. As an added precaution a required to recirculate the volume of water in a gas mask should be stored outside but con- swimming pool through the filtration system venient to the enclosure. and back to the pool should be six hours. The Where granular chlorine is used, personnel filtration system should be operated and main- must be warned not to pour water into a contained so as to keep the pool water clear and tainer of granular chlorine. An explosion can clean at all times. The filter system should be result and a in:mber of severe accidents has operated 24 hours a day whenever the pool is in resulted from this improper use of granular use. Under no circumstances should a pool be chlorine. used when a six inch black disc on a white field Floating materials should not be allowed to is not clearly visible in the deepest part of the accumulate on the surface of a pool. Skimmers pool. This is a minimum standard for water and water level controls should be used to con- clarity in a swimming pool. tinuously remove such material. The bottom Swimming pools should be continuously dis- cides, decks, and other surfaces should be kept infected by a chemical which imparts an easily free from dirt, slime, and algae to prevent slip- measured, freely available residual effect. Al- ping. Super chlorination as an algae control and though bromine and iodine are gaining wider frequent brushing and vacuuming will generally use as disinfectants, chlorine is still the most prevent these problems from occurring. prevalent and in many states the only disinfectant accepted by health ''apartments. When POOL ADMINISTRATION chlorine is used, a free chlorine residual of Good management is an essential ingredient 0.6-1.0 ppm should be maintained throughout in the safe operation of a swimming pool. The the pool whenever it is open or in use. A testing pool operator's concern for safety is evidenced kit for measuring the concentration of disin- by the policies he establishes with regard to his fectant, accurate within 0.1 ppm, should be staff and the people who use his pool facility. provided at each pool. Pool water should be Prior to the opening of a new swimming pool, maintained in an alkaline condition as indicated limits for swimming loads for the pool should 170 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES be established and enforced when the pool is 5. No swimming should be allowed during in operation. An overcrowded pool is both un- electrical storms. safe and uncomfortable for the swimmer. There 6. Alcoholic beverages or persons under the are a number of suggested standards for deter- influence of alcohol should be excluded mining swimming loads, and in some states from the pool area. swimmer loads are controlled by state health 7. Rules and regulations concerning the use department swimming pool regulations. of flotation devices should be considered. The National Swimming Pool Institute sug- 8. Only one person at a time should be al- gests a load limit of one person per 20 square lowed on a diving board and the steps feet of pool and deck area combined. The Los leading to the board. Angeles Department of Recreation and Parks 9. Double bouncing on diving boards should allows 15 square feet per swimmer in shallow be prohibited. water and 30 square feet per swimmer in deep 10. Divers should be instructed to wait until water. Shallow water is usually defined as being the preceeding diver has surfaced and five feet deep or less. The Detroit formula is a cleared the area before diving. good one; it provides for seven persons per 100 11. Diving should not be allowed from the square feet of shallow water, four persons per side of the board. 100 square feet of deep water, and one person 12. Depending on the design of the area, div- per 100 square feet of usable deck area (esti- ing from the side of the pool should be mated that 30% to 40% of swimmers will be prohibited in the diving area. on the deck). 13. Pools with slides should consider regula- An equp:important safety consideration is tions against coining down backwards, the relat:or. between swimmer load and life- feet first on the stomach, on feet or knees, guards. A good safety practice is to require that plaving under the end of the slide, and a minimum of two lifeguards be on duty any attempting to walk or crawl up the slide. time a pool is in use. Here, too, standards vary, 14. Regulations should be considered con- but a generally, accepted practice is to provide cerning the use of breathing devices one lifeguard for each 100 to 125 swimmers. snorkl.:, and scuba equipment. Most pub- A vital administrative consideration is regu- lic pools forbid the use of such equipment lations established to maintain safe conduct in during normal operating hours. the pool area.Although pool administrator' It is a gooe idea to have a general regulation would have difficulty in agreeing on a single list such as, "Conduct which jeopardizes the safety of desirable safety regulations for a swimming and comfort of others will n't be permitted." pool, the following list should provide guide- This gives the pool staff the flexibility of judg- lines. This list deals only with regulations which ment to stop any action by a patron which may directly or indirectly involve the safety of the be dangerous. pool patron. Other regulations would need to It is extremely important for the pool staff be established regarding the smooth operation members who are responsible for enforcing of a swimming pool facility. regl'dons to understand the reason behind 1. Running should be barred in pool area. each rgulation. Rules and regulations should 2. Patrons should be asked not to talk with be conspicuously posted at appropriate locations. lifeguards on duty. Good swimming pool man. ,ement implies 3. Glass containers should be barred from good maintenance practices. Many of the safety the pool area. practices already discussed fall within the realm 4. Peoplr with open wounds, sores, and skin of good daily maintenance of the pool areas. All infections should be fo:bidden to enter parts of the pool should be kept in good repair. the pool. Buildings,filterroom, and pool equipment RECREATIONAL SWIMMING 171 should be routinely checked for safety hazards; equipment is available, it is imperative that the this is best accomplished by maintaining a per- entire pool staff be properly instructed concern- manent safety checklist. This '-loes not imply ingitsuse. The firstaid room should be that the checklist is the safety program at a equipped with a cot, stretcher, and blankets. pool. The pool staff should be constantly alert to hazardous conditions and see that they are SWIMMING POOL STAFF remediedimmediately. Thechecklistserves merely as a reminder for items which may have If there is a single key to swimming pool been forgotten. safety it is the staff which is responsible for the Another important administrative considera- pool's operation. Each agency which operates a tionis providing adequate safety equipment. swimmingpoolshouldestablishpersonnel Most state swimming porl codes require that standards for each staff position and adhere one unit of lifesaving equipment be provided strictly to these standards. Qualified personnel for each lifeguard chair or station. A unit is will not necessarily assure a safe pool operation, defined as being either a ring buoy with rope but it is certainly a step in the right direction. attached, a 12 to 16 foot reaching pole, or a A complete job description should be sent to a throwing line. Many experts believe that the staff member when he is offered a position. This reaching pole is by far the most practical piece procedure can prevent misunderstandings which of rescue equipment for a swimming pool; most may lead to negative attitudes on the part of pool rescues occur within the range of a reach- the staff member. There is a tremendous ad- ing pole. A lightweight aluminum pole with vantage in requiring lifesaving skills for all pool padded endis recommended, and one pole employees, not just lifeguards. If locker room should be attached to each lifeguard chair. attendants and cashiers are qualified and trained When the pool is lighted for night use emer- in lifesaving skills, they can be used in emergency lighting should be provided. Probably the gency situations. simplest solution is to provide a battery pow- Once qualified staff has been secured, a staff ered light at each lifeguard chair during the training program is essential. If pool manuals hours the pool is in operation at night. are sent to staff members before formal training An intercommunication system between life- begins, they can familiarize themselves with guard chairs which is connected to the pool policies, procedures, and regulations for both director's office can be a valuable safety tool. the staff and public. The pool manual and A lifeguard will occasionally observe an unsafe policies should constantly be reviewed, evalu- practice near another lifeguard's position. He ated, and modified when indicated. can quickly and easily call the guard's attention Staff training should begin before the pool to the matter without leaving his position or opens in the spring. It may continue in a fairly resorting to whistle blowing which should be intensified form during the early weeks of the reserved for really dangerous situations. The season, and should be continued throughout the pooldirectorhas immediate communication summer to maintain lifeguards at peak effi- with a lireguard or with all guards at once. The ciency. Special precaution should be taken to guards may also communicate with the pool prevent lifeguards from becoming stale toward director and seek help with a discipline problem the end of the season. which otherwise might require them to leave A lifesaving or water safety instructor cer- their stations. The first aid room should be tificate does not guarantee qualification as a life- equipped with all supplies necessary to help guard. These certificates indicate that the person those needing medical attention. Resuscitation has the basic skills, but a lifeguard must be de- equipment, either manual or mechanical, is valu- veloped through training and experience. The able if properly maintained. When resuscitation pool manager or operator should not assume 172 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

water skills on the part of the staff person. His Lifeguards should not work more than an 8- training program should include testing, review, hour day or more than a 48-hour week. Guards and instruction for improvement of water safety should be off at least one full day each week. skills for all pool employees. He should allow Arranging for a week or at least several days time throughout the season for staff members to vacation during the season is also a good man- maintain and improve their aquatic competence. agement practice. The Councilfor National Cooperation in Under normal circumstances lifeguards should Aquatics Published in 1964 an excellent book, be given arest period of approximately 10 Lifeguard Traitung: Principles and Administra- minute:, every hour. Some small pools find this tion, which describes principles and techniques procedure difficult. An alternate plan would be for developing and administering lifeguard sys- to clear the pool for 10 minutes every 50 min- tems for pools and beaches. Training in first aid utes. One guard in a small pool, znd perhaps is an important aspect of staff training. The more depending on size and shape of a large most highly skilled staff merr.bar should be pool, should remain at poolside during the break designated to give firstaid whey necessary; period. It is also a good practice to have life- however, all staff members ,.,hr -ld be trained in guards rotate from one position to another first aid skills for ei,tergencieb, particularly in every 20 to 30 minutes. The opportunity for areas pertaining to swimmers and swimming movement and change of .viewing area will aid conditions. in keeping the guard more alert. The rotation Each pool has its own danger areas, which should always begin at the least important life- can be located from a study of accident records. gnard station. An experienced pool manager or lifeguard can Volunteers are being used advantageously in anticipate danger areas even in a new pool. Life- many swimming pool programs, but they should guards should be made aware of these areas. not be given the responsibility of operating a A pool diagram showing danger areas and swimming pool. They can perform a very fine posted in the lifeguard locker room will serve serviceininstructionprograms, competitive -as a helpful reminder. programs, water shows, and water safety dem- The lifeguard's work schedule is another im- onstrations. VOlunteers utilized in such pro- portant safety consideration. One of the most grams should be given an extensive training difficult tasks for the lifeguard is to remain program in pool safety. In many irstances reg- alert at all times. Several administrative tech- ular staff members and volunteers can jointly niques can be used to help maintain alertness. participate in such programs.

PUBLIC BEACHES

The quality of the water is one of the most teriological quality for outdoor swimming areas. important factors in the selection of a site for a Health authorities should be consulted to deter- swimming beach.It should be evaluated by mine acceptable local standards. Where small chemical and bacteriological analysis. In addi- bodies of water are involved, chlorination and tion, prevailing winds and water currents should similar disinfectant ..-....thods have been success- provide continuous circulation of fresh water ful in solving pollution problems. in the swimming area. Where good water cir- In addition to the chemical and bacteriological culation does not exist contamination of the quality of the water, attention should be given water by swimmers is possible. There is little '. to the bez ,h area both above and underwater. agreement as to standards of acceptable bac- The area should be free from stumps and rocks, RECREATIONAL SWIMMING 173

excesssiltation, algae growth, aquatic plant equipment for inland beaches and ocean beaches growth, and dropoffs or severe grade changes. will vary considerably. Most beaches should Water clarity should also be considered. Ab- have a boat. l'or inland beaches the square bot- solute standards are difficult to establish; how- tomed, square sterned John boat is the most ever, excessive turbidity presents an extremely practical. Often this boat will be powered with dangerous situation. White sand on the bottom a small outboard motor. Surf boats are usually of the swimming area will greatly improve the double-ended dory type which can take high lifeguard's visibility of the bottom. wave action and can be laune!ied from the beach Water fluctuation may present a serious safety by trained lifeguards with minimum trouble. problem on inland lakes. Lake bottoms which The torpedo buoy is one of the best pieces of are safe at normal water levels may become surf rescue equipment. Heaving lines or ring extremely hazardous when Ole underwater beach buoys, a surf board, and grappling irons are area is extended 100 to 20U feet out into the other pieces of rescue equipment found at public lake where potholes, stumps, and other dangers beaches. may exist. Diving areas, too, must be scrutinized Particularly at large public beaches, some carefully under fluctuating water conditions. It form of communication between lifeguards is is important to know the exact water depth essential. Many beaches use two-way radios; under diving boards and to prohibit diving others use a combination system of wbistle and when water becomes too shallow. The same hand signals. Another valuable device is a port- safety criteriafor swimming pool bathhouse able, battery powered megaphone. With the high facilities should be considered for the beach noise level from crowd, wind, and surf at ocean bathhouse. Bathhouse floors should be of non- beaches, it is virtually impossible for a guard skid material, the floor should have adequate to be heard for more than a very short distance slope to provide proper drainage, and the build- with a regular megaphone. The electrically am- ing should be well lighted and ventilated. A well plified megaphone gives the lifeguard better equipped firstaid room should be provided control over swimmers and he doesn't have to the bathhouse building orin either within leave his station. another structure convenient to the swimming area. All lifeguards should have first aid train- All beach swimming should be restricted in ing. Because most public beaches are located some way so that lifeguards will have a reason- away from population centers, a mechanical or able span of beach area to control. At most manual resuscitator should be part of the first ocean beaches thisis done with markers on aid equipment. the beach, and swimmers must swim within the Elevated lifeguard chairs should be provided marked area. At inland lakes colored buoy lines atall public beaches. The number of chairs can define the swimming area. The restricted should be determined by anticipated swimming swimming area should not be too large for effec- loads rather than by distance. To guard ade- tivesupervision. A :arge;nland swimming quately a heavily used swimming area, lifeguard beach should be divided into sections so that chairs should be closer together than at a more one or two sections can be opened on low at- remote swimming area which might receive rela- tendance days and during slack hours of peak tively light use. A lifeguard should be respon- attendance dats. sible for no more than 200 swimmers. Signs Diving platforms, floating rafts, and piers should be placed on lifeguard chairs indicating should be constructed with quality materials and to patrons that they should not converse with kept in first class condition. Care must be taken lifeguards on duty. in the construction of permanent docks and Rescue equipment needed at a beach area piers so that a swimmer cannot be trapped should be determined by the area itself. Safety underneath them. Diving areas should be desig- 174 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES nated with buoy lines and swimming should tially hazardous, drinks at beach refreshment not be allowed in this area. stands should be served in paper cups. While lifeguard qualifications and staff train- Flotation devices, except for Coast Guard ap- ing procedures are generally similar to those for proved life jackets, should be prohibited from the swimming pool, disparities do exist. Life- public beaches. There is a great danger of a guards employed on ocean and inland beaches, nonswimmer or a weak swimmer being carried in addition to possessing the standard knowl- by currents to water over his head, and in an edge and skills required for their job, must effort to return to safety, the person may lose know about current flows, tides, and surf. They control of the flotation device and drown. must be stronger swimmers and be able to Generally, long distance swimming should be handle specialized ocean and surf rescue equip- prohibited. When distance swimming isper- ment such as surf boats and surfboards. The mitted, the swimmer should be (logely accom- lifeguard must be aware of dangers presented panied by a boat with two peopleone to by aquatic animal life and realize when they are row, the other to watch and rescue the swimmer a hazard to swimmers' safety. Lifeguards should if necessary. An enforced buffer zone should be be able to determine when swimming should be established outside the swimming area which curtailed because of lightning, dangerous cur- prohibits boats from entering the swimming rents and surf, and other hazardous conditions. area. Picnicking should not be allowed in swim- Beaches should be cleaned daily, with special ming areas. Because litter, broken glass, and care taken to remove glass and other materials metal can tops resulting from picnics are poten- which might cause injuries.

SUMMERCAMP WATERFRONT

Factors of site selection, design, and construc- and colored buoy lines. When the dock frame- tion for public beaches should also be consid- work is wood, it should be fastened by bolts ered in planning a camp waterfront. It is a good rather than by nails. This is particularly im- practice to locate a .staff cabin overlooking the portant for diving platforms where constant entire camp waterfront that can house the camp vibration will likely loosen nailed boards. No waterfront or aquatic director. The protection creosote lumber or poles should be exposed which this control affords during periods when where campers can come in contact with them. the camp waterfront is unattended, particularly Even seasoned materials treated with creosote at night, is a positive safety factor. willbleed" in hot weather and may result in Because of the ?rogram orientation of the c.v( re skin burns. camp waterfront as opposed to the unorganized I 'ock and pie* walkways should be at least recreational nature of public beaches, the design foul rem- .tide. Hanks should be spaced one- of the camp waterfront will generally include half incrt apart to allow for drainage and ven- more dock area. The shape of the dock area will tilation,thusminimizing dryrot.Wooden depend primarily on the function which it is to materials chosen for docking should be as perform. From a safety standpoint the more splinter resistant as possible. Steel, lightweight swimming area that is enclosed by a dock, the concrete, and aluminum are excellent materials easier it is to control. Having lifeguards located for docks; although initially expensive, these on a dock is better than guarding by boat be- materials are virtually maintenance free and caun of the stability of the dock. Regardless of worth the additional cost. All platforms, docks, the dock design, the entire swimming area and floats should be constructed with a mini- should be enclosed by a combination of docks mum air space of one foot underneath. There RECREATIONAL SWIMMING 175 should also be as little underwater construction While there are many standards regarding and bracing as possible, consistent with sup- the number of lifeguards needed on the water- port strength needed, to alleviate the danger of front during a general swim, there is general trapping swimmers beneath the structures. agreement that the ratio of campers per life- Where unsatisfactory lake bottom conditions guard should be very low. A standard of be- exist, crib areas with depths varying between tween 15 to 20 campers per lifeguard is most two and one-half to three and one-half feet often quoted. The ratio should be lower for should be considered for nonswimmers. How- nonswimmers and beginners. There are two rea- ever, these crib areas generally are not com- sons for the much lower ratio for camp swim- pletely satisfactory because of high maintenance ming areas as opposed to public swimming factors and should be avoided if possible. areas. First, the general swim period at camp The camp safety program should begin with is relatively short, about 45 minutes in length, a classification test of all swimmers to determine and campers are in he water most of the time what swimming areas can be used safely. The rather than lounging on the beach or at pool- particular requirement of the classification test side. Second, camp administrators reali._ the should be determined by the size and depth of tremendous responsibility they have "i.,loco the swimming area. A satisfactory deep water parentis" and meet this responsibility byxer- testin most instancesisthe demonstrated ability to employ two strong strokes for at least cising great caution. A waterfront fatalityis twice the longest dimension of the swimming almost always inexcusable and willruina area, plus an ability to relax and remain afloat camp's reputation. At the same time camp in deep water. waterfront regulations should not be so restric- To control campers in the swimming area, a tiveastostiflethe camper's enjoyment of combination of the check (or tag) board and aquatic activity. buddy-check systemsisrecommended. Both In many camps some counselors are expected systems are described in the American Red to serve as lifeguards. If these counselors are Cross manual, Life Saving and Water Safety. riot regular members of the waterfront staff A control system for swimmers is not a substi- they should receive the same training in life- tute for, but a supplement to, an alert staff saving duties as other members of the water- of lifeguards. front staff.

UNDEVELOPED SWIMMING AREAS

An undeveloped swimming area may be a There are probably more than two million farm deep pool in a stream or _iver, an abandoned ponds in the United States today. Large inland quarry, a farm pond, a water hazard on a golf lakes are being developed every year for power, course, or long stretches of lake and ocean flood control, potable water, and recreational beaches. These areas are increasing in number. purposes. Real estate developers recognize the Farmers are encouraged to develop farm ponds value of homesites located on natural and arti- for irrigation and conservation purposes. As of ficial lakes. Even if it were desirable, attempts 1967, the Soil Conservation Service has assisted to legislate and regulate against swimming in in developing more than one and one-half mil- these water areas would be unrealistic. There is lion farm ponds through the United States.3 no way to control swimming or to provide ade- 3 Figures supplied by United States Department of quate supervision for these undeveloped swim- Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. ming areas. 17o SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

In urban areas where bodies of water present water safety demonstrations; emphasis through a hazard for neighborhood children, some con- public service announcements in newspapers, trolisnecessary. Many communities have radio, and television; and emphasis on need for passed ordinances requiring that such attractive adequate legislation. nuisances be fenced and posted. Residential Many swimming teachers suggest that in- swimming pool owners are faced with a per- structional programs begin with "drownproof- sonal liability problem. The responsible pool or ing" techniques. "Drownproofing" is learning pond owner will erect a fence around his pool methods of surviving in the water when the or pond. If this is not done voluntarily, it should individual cannot swim. "Drownproofing" uti- be required by legislation. lizes the natural buoyancy of the body and Park and recreation administrators are faced controlled breathing to make it possible for the with a difficult nroblem when developing land individual to stay afloat for hours. The skill is holdings on large bodies of water. In areas of quickly and easily learned with little instruction intensive recreation use, supervised swimming and practice. Rather than replacing theconven- areas should be developed and managed con- tional learn-to-swim program, drownproofing sistent with good water safety practices.In should be a supplement when limited time is more remote areas, recreation facilities do not available for swimming instruction. generate enough public use to warrant the es- Responsibility for water safety should begin tablishmentofsupervised swimmingareas. with parents. They shouldsee that their chil- Here the individual user's knowledge and skill dren learn to swim at an early age. Govern- must be relied upon. mental, private, and public youth serving agen- Steps should be taken to make all unde- cies provide learn-to-swim programs in almost veloped and unsupervised water areas as safe as every community. Parents should learn to swim possible. Where swimming conditions are dan- themselves and obtain at leastan elementary gerous because of drop-offs, steep underwater knowledge oflifesavingand watersafety slopes, submerged stumps, or dangerous cur- techniques to help protect their children. For too rents or surf, signs should be posted stating that long, iearn-to-swim programs have been geared swimming is prohibited because of unsafe con- to the instruction of children. Many adults can ditions. In areas where physical conditions of benefit from such programs. A number of agen- the water and beach areas are safe for swim- cies have successfully sponsored family learn- ming, rules for swimming safety should be to-swim programs. posted. Rescue stations consisting of, perhaps, When private residential or he le pools are a ring buoy with rope and a reaching pole used in conjunction with an organized com- should be located at strategic points around the munity, school, or other learn-to-swim or rec- body of water. In addition, the location of the reationalprogram,the samephysicaland nearest telephone and emergency phone num- supervisory safeguards should be provided as bers should be listed. Such precautions should at public pools. be taken at all normal ..ccess points to a body of Every child should have an opportunity to water which might be used for swimming. learn to swim or to better his swimming ability Normal means of controlling undeveloped while in school. It is alarming thatso few of swimming areas are impractical and the number our schools provide swimming facilities. Large of undeveloped swimming areas is growing at a portable swimming pools can be usedvery rapid rate, thus increasing the danger of acci- effectively to provide programs in elementary dents and drownings. Educational programs schools. Operation Waterproof 4th Grade isa designed to develop skill and impart knowledge good example of suci, a program. More of this about water safety are the key to this situation; type program to reach larger segments of the they should include learn-to-swim programs; population is Indly needed. RECREATIONAL SWIMMING 177

In recent yearslarge portable swimming deed unfortunate that sometimesittakes a pools and semipermanent pools which require drowning accident to shake the complacency of about three days for erection have become pop- a community to initiate a worthwhile water ular in large cities where permanent neighbor- safety program. hood pools are impractical. While the portable swimming pool should not be conceived as a SUMMARY substitute for a permanent pool, it can enable schools and park and recreation agencies to There are no easy solutions to the safety provide swimming instruction and recreational problems created by the tremendous growth swimming opportunities to more people. and interest in recreational swimming in the The community should share in the responsi- United States. Solutions to these problems will bility for aquatic safety. Often an aquatic coun- be solved only through dedicated effort and cil or water safety committee can be organized hard work by all those concerned with water in a community to conduct cooperative water safety. Recreation and park, school and agency safety programs. Coordinated efforts by the administrators must be particularly aware of many adult and youth serving agencies in a the potential dangers involved with recreational community can yield dynamic results. Better swimming and in every way possible develop swimming facilities, swimming programs for the and operate safe swimming facilities. However, handicapped,learn-to-swimprograms,and it must be emphasized that this must be ac- legislation governing safety in swimming are complished without detracting from the natural all logical outgrowths of concerted cooperative enjoyment derived by participants in this de- efforts by citizens of the community. It is in- lightful pastime.

References

American National Red Cross. Life Saving and Water Safety. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday St Co., Inc., 1950. 267 pp. American Public Health Association. Suggested Ordi- nance and Regulations Covering Swimming Pools. New York: The Association, 1964. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. Outdoor Recreation Trends. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior,1967. 24pp. Council for National Cooperation in Aquatics. Life- guard Training: Principles and Administration. New York: Associe- 1 Press,1964. Gabrielsen, M. A.; Spears, Betty; and Gabrielsen, B. W. Safety inaquatics. Aquatics Handbook, pp.8-18. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1960. Pohndorf, Richard H. Camp Waterfront Progams and Management. New York: Association Press,1960. 266 pp. Schneck, Karl R. Program Planning forthe Camp Waterfront. Allentown,Pa.:Jacobs and Bachman Press,1951. 178 SAFETY iN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Stott, Charles C. Evaluating Water Based Recreation Facilities and Areas. Washington, D.C.: National Rec- reation and Park Association,1967. WeSster, Daniel P. Pool drownings and their prevention. Public Health Reports82:587-600, no. 7,July 1967.

Consultants

William Bird, Metropolitan Dade County Park and Recreation Department, Miami, Fla. Gardner Gid ley, Old Salem, Inc., Winston-Salem, N.C. Grover Keeton, Dallas Park Board, Dallas, Texas. Rob-rtStern loff,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity, Raleigh, N.C. C. C. Stott, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N.C. Ray Whitley, Tanglewood Park, Clemmons, N.C. Springboard and Platform Diving IANNE ROSS FAIRBANKS, M.S.

The consensusofdivers,teachers,and psychological failure of the diver; holding back; coaches today seems to be that (1) accidents are hesitation when faced with a new direction in fewer than in years past, and (2) safe equipment, space; "creezing up" of muscular action; and proper progression in teaching, sensible con- diso.ientation in space. Accidents which may ditioning, and alert supervisioncan prevent occur stern from poor teaching or supervision, almost any diving accident. The accidents which improper installation and care of equipment, are difficult to predict and prevent are those of and lack of mental readiness of the diver.

EQUIPMENT AND SURROUNDINGS

In analyzing diving safety we must consider positions of the fulcrum. An upward pitch can the board; movements in 'he air; the contactor cause a diver to take off at too straight an angle impact of the diver at the surface and through and come back down on the board. It can also the water; and finally, the bottom of the body disturb a diver not used to this pitch so that his of water. timing is affected and he mistimes his takeoff. A do ninhill board is also difficult to control. BOARD The divertendency is to be thrown out and Safety of bo-,rds and platforms concerns sur- over, or,if he overcompensates, to take the face, stability,,ch, and position in relation to dive up too straight. surrounding walls and other equipment. Boards All fittings should be checked for tightness. should be anchored firmly at the fixed end with Loose fittings may cause a torque in the board, bolts through the deck. The fulcrum should be throwing the diver to one side and perhaps properly centered,level, and at exact right causing lateral instability. If the board isal- angles to the board. The pitch of the board lowed to slip a little to one side of the fulcrum should be level, or no more than one inch above and is no longer at right angles to the pool end, the horizontal at the tip. If the fulcrum is ad- this will strain the board and the fulcrum. An justable the mechanism should be such that the unwise practice is mounting a new board on old pitch of the board is not affected by different fittings. This is done for economy reasons, but

179 180 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES frequently there is no economy in the subse- he taste of the diver, his weight, and strength. quent problems which come with faulty or Variables in flexibility or board timing are not worn-out underpinnings. dangerous factors in themselves they become The surface of the board should be nonslip-. a hazard only for the inexperienced diver. One pery. The most satisfactory type of surface who is accustomed to a fast bounce can be seems to be a commercial treatmentof sand- thrown completely out of timing when using a paper-like material used on wood or fiberglassed soft flexible board for the first time. A similar boards, and a nonslip paint surface on alumi- problem arises in competitive or exhibition situ- num boards. Platforms must also be nonslippery ations where two divers following one another for runs and takeoffs. Cocoa matting covers, have very different fulcrum preferences, and the formerly common, become slippery and develop second diver fails to readjust the fulcrum. This holes particularly at the board tip. Cocoa mat- kind of situation can cause injury from board ting also can loosen and fray. Any bad wearing or water contact. The antidote here is good coaching. A diver must be educated to try out any alien board by diving with easy takeoffs; to learn what he has to do within his own timing to adjust quickly to a board which cannot be adjusted, and which is very different to him; and to check a movable fulcrum before each dive to see that it isset correctly for him. Next to be considered is the relationship of this board or platform to surrounding walls, equipment, and water. First, the board or platform must extend a safe distance out from the end wall to which it is attached. If it is too close 1 Board Warped . 2. Anchor loose or Rusted. to this wall, divers may hit it underwater since 3 Board Not in Line With Pool. wall Cause 1, 2, or Fulcrum Not many dives tend to curve back toward the Level, Tight or Square. or underwater. This is partial'. -ly true of inward It Is Broken. 4 Board Twisted dives, half twists, and back dives. Safe specifi- Cause 1, 2. 3 or Warped cations for the distance between the end wall and board tip are six feet for all heights up to whatever at the board tip or hurdle press point, ten meter platforms, when six and a half feet the board covering material, should be corrected surface (2 meters) are recommended.' Because skilled at once to prevent falls. A slippery divers need far greater unobstructed headroom, makes a diver apprehensive, and very definitely diving areas, and water depths than do novices, disrupts his takeoff cordination. This kind of purely recreational pools should not be used for on the board worry can cause many accidents competitive diving unless their dimensions con- the surface or platform itself, at the edge, or at form to such reconnended minimum specifi- of the water, after hitting it badly. The flexibility and timing of a springboard cations. varies from the fast, hard bounce of a short wooden board to the deep, soft swing of the ' Specifications mentioned are recommendations com- latest aluminum boards (similar to the bounce piled from AA! Official HandbookSwimming, Div- timing of a trampoline bed). In addition to tl-,2 ing, Water Polo (New York: Amateur Athletic Union, 1968)and Collegiate-Scholastic Swimming Guide (Kan- inherent flexibility of any board, there are ful- sas City, Mo.: 'slational Collegiate Athletic Association, crums which are movable, adjustingtiming to 1968). SPRINGBOARD AND PLATFORM DIVING 181

Ceiling

a2 m a a d3' - 24' Egl..,_.

12, Depth Each Side Of A Vertical At End Of The Board

If there is a ceiling overhead this should be at Other dimensions in board placement im- least 16 feet from the surface of the board. portant to safety in diving are lateral space (10 Ceilings should also be free of beau's, hanging to 15 feet) and space directly in front of the lights, or any other obstruction, at least in the board (25 feet for one meter,30feet for three path of diving (judged to be about 12 feet). It meters, 40 to 50 feet for platforms). is doubtful that there have been accidents involving ceiling contact, but low ceilingsare BOTTOM mental hazards inhibiting to the diver. They can definitely contribute to a poor dive start Next to consider is the depth of the water, and cause an accident on the board or at the and the shape and surface of the bottom. De-sths surface of the water. recommended are 11 to 12 feet for one meter Related to hazards in the air are positioning boards, 12 for three meter boards, 15 for plat- and strength of lighting. A glaring light in the forms. These depths should cover safe dimen- eyes of the diver, either at the point of takeoff sions in the general landing area, as noted on (forward or backward) or at the peak of the the specification chart above. dive, can be blinding. Occasionally there is a Ifthe water is not at these recommended kind of lighting which causes the surface of depths the diver is subjected to certain strains the water to be invisible. This makes the timing (of the lower back, wrist, ankle, or knee) either of the dive finish difficult to plan.2 In looking from hitting the bottom or from avoiding it. very hard at an invisible surface several years With hard hits, bruises on hands, head lacera- ago, one diver suffered a detached retina. tions, and concussions can result; other possibilities are neck injuries and loss of teeth. The problem of shallow depth does not bother 'Mechanicalsurfaceagitationis recommended the beginner as much as the better diver. When under the diving facilities to aid divers in their visual perception of the surface of the pool." American Ath- an entry is well done a diver goes to the bottom letic Union, op. cit., p. 21. in a direct line with much less resistance than 182 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES the splashy entry of the novice. However this catching hazard as well as an abrasion problem "good" dive can happen by chance to the novice, if the edges are uneven. The backyard pool is and he may crash unexpectedly into the bottom. currently the chief offender in the problems of There are several precautions which help avoid bottom shape. this: all divers, beginners and otherwise, should Surface problems are slipperyness caused by be taught to land correctly on the bottom; giv- poor maintenance or by inherently slippery ers should be familiar with their own facilities' wide tile. Pools which have wide tile lane lines size and shape; they should be warned to try out built in can be bad for divers. Occasionally the all new facilities with caution until they become problem is roughness, caused by new curls of acclimated to the difference in depth or shape. cement, uneven seams in metal pools, or uneven Divers develop a sense of time interval between tile.In natural situations the bottom surface the time they touch the water and the time they problems are multiplied: rocks, reeds, soft mud, contact the bottom. This they develop in their shells, sharp stones, and littered areas with the home facility if they dive frequently. A source chance of broken glass, cans, fish hooks, old of accidents is the change of pool from deep to anchors. Camp and outdoor recreational facili- shallow. The youngster used to 12 feet of water ties must be carefully inspected at the beginning beneath him suddenly practices or competes in of each summer season. The fact that lake and a nine foot depth. At nine feet his arms are salt water zreas are sometimes murky and dark relatively relaxed, unconsciously expecting three makes it even more essential to know exactly more feet of fall. It is the coach's responsibility what is on the bottom. to warn divers to get accustomed to the depth Another important aspect of equipment place- by falling in the water a few times and taking ment is obstructions beneath the surface, such several easy dives. After 8 to 10 cautious dives, as uneven rock ledges in quarry sides; poorly he will be relatively safe: he has "re-set" his constructed floats or piers with protrusions; and time interval reaction. anchor chains or guy lines from floats which The problemsinshapeofbottomsare vary in position with wind and tide. "spoon" be toms and their variations. Not only The best diving area is the separated or sepa- do these often cause a shallowness where a rate diving pool, such as available in "L," "T," diver will logically go, but also pools shaped or "Z" shaped pools. This allows for deep water this way place the outlet drain at the deepest space itot involving any swimmers, constructed point under the board. This can be a finger specifically for diving.

Meter Board

30' Meter Board.

I SPRINGBOARD AND PLATFORM DIVING 183

SAFETY PRACTICES

PROPER SUPERVISION fast these things are taught, how much time must be spent for different people at different Frequency of accidents will rise if children levels, and recognition of influencing factors and adults are allowed complete freedom of div- such as unusual fatigue, time of year in aca- ing equipment withoutcontrol.Experienced demic pressure, onset of illness, outside psycho- lifeguards know well that the area of the diving logical stress, parental pressure or indiffer -nce. boards is the spot where they can expect trouble In competitive situations pace is related to the unless safe rules are set up and enforced. These dates of the meets. This can be very dangerous, are the common sense rules: when motivation is keen and performance is not 1. Allow only one on a board at a time. yet safe. Coaches and divers tend to push too 2. Swim away from the board to the nearest hard and too fast. Weather is a pace factor: ladder immediately. wind and cold cause tightness and strain. The 3. Do not swim under boards. discomfort and difficulty in executing hard dives 4. See that the preceding diver is well away under these conditions make divers hurry and before diving. become careless; it becomes hard to feel bal- 5. Dive only from the end of the board, not ance and proper timing. from the side. It is a wise and perceptive teacher who can 6. Never bounce from one board to anothet. evaluate these various factors of pace in teach- 7. Do not swing by the arms from the high ing. He must be constantly flexible and sensitive boards. to everything in the environment of the diver. 8. Do not bounce board excessively. Diving specifics. Focus, or visual orientation, Most of these rules are self-explanatory. In is a specific for every diver from beginners on- specific situations special rules can be made. ward. This means awareness of the end of the There are occasions when boards must be closed board atall times in forward approaches. It because of overcrowding, small swimming areas, means judging angle of takeoff; certain check- or limited supervision. points in controlling dives from heights and dives involving great change of position; certain TEACHING OF SAFETY checkpoints for "breaking" into a straight posi- In the process of teaching and performing tion from twists and spins; and most definitely diving there are very specific concepts of acci- checkpoint and aim for every entry.. A "blind" dent prevention which make diving both safe or not-looking diver is an unsafe diver. All dives and easy. These concepts can be divided into are adjustments in balance, controlling the force two general areas: (1) pace at which a diver i6 imp-rted to the body of the diver at takeoff. taught and coached (i.e., progression), and (2) good part of this adjustment is sensitivity specifics which the diver learns to make him a to balance, a second specific for every diver. safe performer. The degree to which a teacher From the time he begins to walk forward on the can analyze and judge a diver's performance in board or begins his run on the platform or arm order to decide "pace," and the degree to which swing, he is changing his balance, shifting his a diver can respond to his own checks and bal- center of gravity. If he can become aware of ances in movement, will determine the safeness these balance changes, he can change, correct, of his diving performance. and keep his actions safe in terms of hitting the Pace. Pace signifies a little more than progres- board or contacting the water improperly. He sion. While it means building from fundamen- learns that whatever happens, he himself has tals, and being sure that basic dives are learned done it; therefore, he can also change and con- in logical sequence, it also has to do with how trol it. He must be male aware of balance and MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART NATIONAL BUREAU Of ..SIANDARDS11963-A 184 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES his specific control through his body alignment, Another contact consideration is the align- use of feet and ankles, and head and shoulder ment of the arms and shoulders with the head positions. on head-first entries. Armsshould be over the In simple, less theoretical terms, the diver is ears, together, and stretched. This isparticularly taught to keep his eyes open and to have control essential from three meters upwards. A wide of his movement at all times. He doesn't run arm position or out of line position may mean madly off the board; rather, he walks, hurdles a hard hit on an unprotectedhead, or neck incorrectly, and lands in balance, pressing through jury, or shoalder injury if an arm is forced out to his heels. He springs into an arc, actually a of line. From platforms a common complaint is parabola, to land in the water two to five feet bruised hands and foreheads, the impact driving from the board tip. the hand into the head. This is easy to prevent In emphasizing the importance of focus and by a firmer stretch and a clenched fist position balance the teacher looks to the center of grav- of the hands. ity of the diver as he performs. If he is passing very close to the 'board, his problem is inhis CONDITIONING takeoff. Watch his action there and judge what Conditioning and physical fitness as related it is that interrupts the logical arc which should to diving should mean strength,flexibility, and follow a balanced coordinated takeoff. good health to accomplish the gymnastics of Contact with the water is a matter of correct diving, whether from a one meter board or a dive execution which finishes going through the ten meter platform, without injury.The activity water at an angle slightly less than vertical, itself is a good conditioner. As a diver takes whether head or feet first. The diver who tries longer workouts and his dives become more to dive at ninety degrees inevitably rides over difficult, he becomes stronger. as his body motion continues inthe direction of There are those who are taught too quickly, his rotation. In addition, his arms and upper who have perhaps great facility in the mechanics body are slowed in their rotation as he enters of movement but not matching body strength. the denser medium of water, and the lower These may need particular strengthening exer- body, still in air, tends to ride over. Ear injuries cises.Some may have inherent weaknesses occur occasionally among diverslearning multi- which need attention, principally back, abdomi- ple twisting-spinning dives. These happen when nal, leg, foot, and upper arm action. Lack of the twist is incomplete or the diver "lost," and flexibility is a problem with many boys: ankles, he hits the water squarely on the side of his hamstrings, back, and shoulders. head. More advanced divers use conditioning exer- The next problem is underwater. Generally cises for speeding up the ability to accomplish there is the tendency for the beginner to lift the difficult maneuvers and to enable them to with- head and come up too soon, causing strain in stand the rigors of long, concentrated periods the loweK back. The remedy is to carry the line of diving. The use of spotting belts and trampo- of the dive down deeper, preferably to the bot- lines is both a quick learning procedure and a tom ifsuitable[ This means a good strong safe conditioning practice. stretch, and tension in the diver's position, A factor ht accidents is fatigue, and it usually which is excellent entry procedure anyway. In affects the advanced diver. He is the one who is advanced diving techniques there are many al- highly motivated to go beyc,nd the limits of his ternate underwater maneuvers, which, if mas- strength. Diving is a skill of precision and co- tered, make very clean entries. These maneuvers, ordination more than one of extreme physical however, should not be attempted by average strength. Failure in judgment and timing due divers since they require a high degree of co- to fatigue can result in a serious accidentfor ordination and reaction time. the highly skilled performer. Prevention lies in SPRINGBOARD AND PLATFORM DIVING 185 a combination of astute perception on the part indecision, orFrequentbalking; emotional re- of the coach, and recognition of signs in himself actions to criticism. Ly the diver. "Buckling," or collapsing in the Diving need be no more dangerous than any knees on takeoff, is a very definite sign of trou- other sport or daily activity. The risk of accident ble ahead. Other signs might be difficulty in isrelated to poor equipment, hasty and ill- holding tensions in positions or at point of entry; advised teaching, lack of supervision, and lack muscle twitching, usually in the leg muscles; of common sense.

References

Amateur Athletic Union. AAU Official Handbook Swimming, Diving, Water Polo. New York: The Union, 1968. Armbruster, -'. Allen and Billingsley, Hobard. Swim- ming and Diving. 4th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: C. V. Mosby Co., 1968. Fairbanks, Anne Ross. Teaching Springboard Diving. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1963. Hazelton, Sydney C. and Pulis, Clifford A. 4th ed. Diving Manual For Instructors. Hanover, N.H.: Roger Burt Printing, Inc., 1956. Moriarty, Phil. Springboard Diving. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1959. NationalCollegiateAthleticAssociation.Collegiate- Scholastic Swimming Guide. Kansas City, Mo.: The Association, 1968.

Consultants

HazelBarr, Women's Swimming Association, New York, N.Y. Charles Batterman, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Cambridge, Mass. Hobard Billingsley, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Ted Bitondo, University of the South, Sewanne, Tenn. Jerry Darda, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Sam Howard, Sam Howard Productions, Inc., Coral Gables, Fla. Richard Kimball, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Micki King, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Phil Moriarty, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. John Narcy, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich. Betty Perkins, Perkins Swim Club, Rochester, N.Y. Dick Smith, Dick Smith Swim Gym, Phoenix, Ariz. Robert Webster, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J. Water Polo IARTHUR D. MINDHEIM, M.S.

Water polo has evolved from a relatively prime deterrent to water polo accidents. Well- rough, bullish game of 20 to 30 years ago to conditioned, highly skilled players who have the rather highly skilled, fast moving sport it found themselves fatigued and completely in- is today. The old style game which permitted effective after 15 minutes of scrimmage prob- players to take underwater not only the ball ably did not know how to pace themselves in but each other is now past. Years ago, broken a game situation or became frustrated at con- noses, cut and blackened eyes, and facial and stantly losing the ball to a less skillful swimmer. body scratches were common. They were the Problems that are common to players are a lack days of three forwards, three guards, and a of leg power and inability to work in short goalie restricted by the four meter line. In to- spurts with constantly changing direction. To day's sport the team possessing the ball must improve these skills, players can use a variety play as though it has six forwards while the of water polo drills. team on defense must react with six guards. In today's sport it is illegal to take the ball The goalie can come out as far as midcourt. All underwater in an effort to deceive the opposi- players must be able to shoot and score as well tion. When a player approaches the ball, he as guard the opposition. No longer is the "hole must play it and not some part of the oppo- forward" type of game played; itis useless nent's body. The dead ball penalty point, just againstafastbreaking,well-conditioned, recently introduced, not only speeds the game mobile team. but effectively reduces body contact, such as There are hazards in modern water polo but holding. possibly not as many as in the original game. Probably the most important deterrents to Proper conditioning and self-defense skills are accidents are the player's emotional stability significantcontrolsinminimizingaccidents. and self-discipline. The hardest thing for the Hazards are always present no matter how beginner to learn is that he will be fouled often. much time and effort go into their elimination. Each foul gives his opponent an advantage and It is up to the players, coaches, and officials to it is quite evident to the novice that his oppo- make sure that no new, unnecessary dangers nents do take advantage of him. Because of water are introduced into the game. polo's unique lack of multiple referees and um- On the premise that a moving target is hard- pires, many fouls are undetected. Only in high est tohit, proper conditioning must be the school and collegiate water polo are two referees

186 WATER POLO 187 used;innational (AAU) and international 3. In another incident, a player was kicked in (FINA) competition, only one referee is used. the groin, a blow severe enough to make him It is impossible on a basketball court for offi- almost unconscious. The kick was probably due cials to notice all rule infractions; in water polo, the constant harassment between the two with more players and the water medium, even players in an attempt to unnerve each other. two referees can miss underwater action. The player inflicting the blow either lost his self-control or felt that his opponent "had it TYPES OF ACCIDENTS coming" for reasons known only to himself. On The following are accidents that have actually the other hand, the injured player's lack of self- occurred in water polo and suggestions for defense, such as keeping his hips high while minimizing them. guarding, made him vulnerable to the blow. 1. The white of a player's eye was cut by 4. Certain incidents are solely accidental. For an opponent's fingernail while playing the ball. example, when two teammates broke for the This occurrence caused the player to be out of same opening while swimming on different but competition for four months, and it was a year converging courses, one was struck in the eye beforetheinjury healed completely.Short by the other's thumb. Severe conjunctivitis and fingernails could have minimized the danger. It a black eye resulted. is the referee's responsibility to check for rings, 5. In another game, a player who previously jewelry, and long fingernails that mighten- had had plastic surgery on his cheekbone was danger players. In addition, because the game accidently'struck in the face. It was a glancing was played under a minimum of pressure for blow that probably would have been unnoticed the team of the injured player, perhaps he was had it happened to anyone else. Fortunately,no not exerting as much effort and was'not in as permanent damage was done, but the injured ' ready a position as he would have been had the player was unable to participate further in the game been an important one. game. 2. A player's nose was broken from a closed 6. Another incident involving a blow to the fist blow by an opponent during a tournament. face and nose resulted in the injured player The experienced player who was hurt had en- being removed from the game and missing the tered the tournament insufficiently conditioned. remainder of the tournament. Lack of condition- Rather than chase his opponent up and down ing was probably the cause. When interviewed, the pool, he constantly held onto the player. the player remarked that he "never saw it This annoyed and frustrated his opponent, who coming." However, his team had been prac- consequently lost control and punched his op- ticing only twice weekly for a month prior to ponent in the face when the referee (only one playing in the tournament. in this game) was not looking. Neither player 7. A common injury in early practice sessions was right. Had the injured player been in good is a jammed thumb. This seems to be the result physical condition he would have chased the of scrimmaging early in the season before good opponent, as he was the faster swimmer. The ball control and handling had been established. player who caused the injury should not have 8. Another early season injury is a strained lost control of his emotions. One can also fault throwing arm, which isoccasionally accom- poor lighting as well as the tournament officials panied by a sore elbow. This is caused by and the referee, who is responsible for making throwing too often in the early season and sure that the game is under control and played throwing too hard prior to a warm-up. according to the rules. Because of the poor posi- 9. An accident common to the novice is be- tion of the pool, the sun shone on the water, ing kicked in the mouth by the heel of an op- which made itvirtually impossible for the ponent while chasing him down the pool. A referee to follow and control the whole game. player must be taught to pursue to the side and 188 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES keep his' arms beneath him with elbows bent experiences; and practicing too hard in the early to prevent the pursued player's feet from driv- part of the season. ing into his face and abdomen. The majority of injuries occur to the head and 10. An accident that was the direct result of face. Just what can be done to reduce accidents one player, a guard, harassing his opponent, a is debatable. High school and college rules re- forward, happened in the following manner: quire two referees for every game, each with a the guard constantly pressured the forward specific part of the pool as his prime responsi- throughout the game by pushing, holding, and bility. Of the 10 examples cited, only in one leaning on him. Annoyed, the forward was de- instance the last were two referees pres- termined to "get even." He waited until the ent. In the second, fifth, and sixth examples, it action and the referees were at the far end of was difficult for the referees to see easily the the pool. He then swung a backhanded closed entire pool because of poor lighting. fist at the guard. However, at the time of the Thought has been given to permitting the goal swing and resulting blow, the guard had turned judges to act as additional referees, but this his back on the forward in order to communi- would probably be more confusing than helpful. cate with his goalie. The blow landed in the If the referee could have a walkway elevated to back of the guard's head, breaking several five or six feet above the deck, he would probably bones. The forward was disqualified for the have a better overall view of the pool, but this season. would be impractical to construct because of high cost and relatively few hours of pool usage. Most injuries result from one or more of the As the caliber of water polo increases and the following causes: playing at less than full speed facilities become more modernized, it is hoped against less skillful opponents; lack of physical that the accidents will decline. A new coach who conditioning; occasional overaggressiveness on has little background in water polo yet wants the part of some players; aggravating an oppo- his team to play is responsible for learning from nent to the point where he loses self-control; more experienced coaches the fundamentals not improper playing techniques because of lack of only of skill and strategy, but also of safety.

References

Antilla, William K. Water Polo Drills and Playing Hints. Hines, Charles. How to Play and Teach Water Polo. Palo Alto, Calif.: The National Press, 1964. 159 pp. New York: Association Press, 1967. 127 pp. Barr, David. A Guide to Water Polo. New Rochelle, Rajki, Bela. Water Polo. Budapest, Hungary : University N.Y.: Museum Press Ltd., 1964. 123 pp. Press House, 1958. 119 pp. 4,1

. It-J..

sI.

I+

, .16* is Jr

ko%

4 '

L1.14'41,4' '44 4! 41'47, ,

r ,1441..ri " ,44f Pr4444 4 r?.. FF

[In 44 44

44, 1.! 44411

I 7,

r444;

' '',4'.tr ' 4i, iv h '"''' ' ' ' 1

I t, f [' I N If * ' I: ''''' Small Craft Safety ICHARLES W. RUSSELL

Since the turn of the century, the annual because of scenic, fishing, cruising, or other fea- growth rate of pleasure boating andits related tures, the opportunity to participate in recre- activities has far outstripped that of any other ational boating is no longer restricted to those outdoor recreational activity. Individually and who live near the water. Every sizable popula- in groups, millions have turned to the compara- tion grouping in the United States today finds tive freedom of the water in pursuit of relaxa- itself within easy access to recreational boating tion and recreation. Today one out of every areas; in addition, mobility of equipment, pro- four Americans young and old, male and vided by trailer and cartop rigs, has greatly ex- female, from all walks of life go boating tended the operational range of the small boat more than just a few times a year, and this owner. This increased boating activity means statistic does not include the nearly five million that the boat owner must become better in- young people who enjoy some small craft boat- formed about federal and state regulations, ing experience in camp programs each summer. equipment, piloting, and emergency procedures The craft used by boating enthusiasts range than was necessary for the casual boatman a from small pram just large enough for a single few years ago. occupant to operate in calm waters to ocean- Recreational boating is expected to increase_ going vessels that require a multi-membered, in popularity even more sharply in the next highly trained crew. The urge to get afloat has several decades. Stimulating the increased ac- made boating one of the nation's leading family tivity are a highly competitive industrial pro- recreational activities. motion by big corporations and an energetic Although certain geographical centers tend development of outdoor recreational facilities to attract a large concentration of watercraft by all levels of government.

THE SAFETY PROBLEM

The rush to the water by millions who are safety problems. The variety and complexity of not prepared to cope with the hazards of an un- boating accidents are not generally known by familiar aquatic environment has created special the beginning boatman, nor are they fully ap-

190 SMALL CRAFT SAFETY 191 predated by many operators with years of ex- cause of injuries but not of fatalities. Asphyxi- perience. There is no simple solution to the ation by drowning is the leading cause of boat- problem, but a study and analysis of all the ing deaths; capsizing and falling overboard, elements involved in small craft accidents are often referred to as the leading "causes" of tabulated in the annual U.S. Coast Guard pub- boating fatalities, merely trigger the asphyxi- lication, Recreational Boating Statistics (CG- ation. The practice of basic water survival skills 357). This book provides data and information could drastically reduce the number of deaths for the formulation of educational, engineering, from such accidents. and enforcement programs. (Note: The Recre- ational Boacing Act of 1958 requires the Coast FATAL BOATING ACCIDENTS Guard to compile and publish an annual report The makeup of a fatal boating accident can on boating accidents. A reportable accident is be rather complex. An overboard accident may one in which a life has been lost, a person has result from sitting on the gunwale of a boat been incapacitated for at least 72 hours by in- during a high speed turn by a person who is not juries, or the craft has sustained property dam- wearing a lifejacket and who does not know age in excess of $100. The reports are released how to swim. The elimination of any one or all on May 1 for the preceding calendar year and of the contributing factors could have prevented may be obtained from the nearest Coast Guard the fatality. Office.) Analysis of any boating accident will reveal Boating fatalities by drowning constitute ap- that the elements triggering a casualty fall into proximately 20% of the total number of lives four basic categories: (1) lack of rescue and lost each year as a result of water accidents. In self-rescue skills, (2) faulty operation, (3) faulty areas where small craft concentration is high, or improper equipment, and (4) environmental the number of lives lost in watercraft mishaps hazards. If the incidence of small craft accidents may equal or even exceed the number of drown- is to be reduced, each of these elements must ing fatalities due to all other causes. According be of primary concern to the boatman. He to the Coast Guard recreational boating statisti- should know how to care for himself in the cal report approximately 85% of the boating water and be able to help others who may need fatalities result from capsizing, falling over- assistance. He should know how to pilot and board, swamping, or sinking of a craft. In most operate his craft in a manner that does not sports or recreational pursuits, personal safety is jeopardize himself, his passengers, or the occu- directly related to the individual's abilityto pants of other craft. He should know how to make decisions and perform skills; the quality select the proper craft and equipment for the of the equipment also is important. In boating, conditions under which they will be used. He more than good judgment, skill, and good equip- should be aware of the dangers of adverse ment are necessary to insure safety. The boat weather and water conditions and know how to occupants must also be able to handle them- cope with them when they cannot be avoided. selves in water, in the event that they should Since injuries or fatalities may result from one or lose contact with the boat. more of the foregoing elements, the following in- Because of incomplete or inaccurate reporting formation emphasizes basic guidelines that have it is often difficult to pinpoint the specific cause been fairly well established for each category. of a boating accident. Sometimes, as in cases where there are no survivors, the facts are ob- SELF-RESCUE AND RESCUE SKILLS scure or unknown. Whatever the reported cause, The fact that approximately 85% of all boat- itshould be remembered that the so-called ing fatalities are caused by asphyxiation by cause simply triggers the casualty. For example, drowning emphasizes the importance of know- inboating accidents, impactisthe primary ing how to apply swimming skills for survival 192 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES and 'rescue purposes. An unexpected capsize knee length boots the victim should im- may cause panic or irrational behavior even mediately assume a prone position with among good swimmers unless they have been the knees bent in order to trap air in the preconditioned for such an experience by cap- boots for additional support. Air car be size or overboard drills under controlled condi- trapped in hip boots by quickly assuming tions. Generally, survival swimming skills are a back floating position with the knees modifications of elementary strokes performed pulled towards the chest. It is usually best while the individual is in the prone or back to use only the arms for propulsion if the floating position. The application of the basic boots remain air filled.) skills will vary depending upon the amount and 10. Wrist or collar pull to assist or tow a type of clothing the overboard victim is wear- tired or exhausted swimmer. The wrist ing. For example, a duck hunter dressed in cold pull can be used to assist a tired swimmer weather clothing and wearing hip boots will who remains in a prone swimming posi- not be able to perform a leg kick as effectively tion and continues to stroke with his free as a sailor lightly clad in shorts and canvas deck arm. In both instances, the rescuer may shoes, but both would employ various combina- use a modified elementary backstroke kick tions of basicaquatic techniquesto remain of the legs with a shortened arm action, afloat. These techniques, taught in most com- orifbarefoot or wearing lightweight munities by YMCA and Red Cross chapters, shoes, he may employ a scissors kick with include: the shallow arm pull. 1. Breath holding and rhythmic breathing It is generally best to stay with a small boat 2. Jellyfish float should it capsize or swamp. Most craft will 3. Floating in the prone and back positions remain at the surface even though filled with with minimum use of the arms and legs, water and can be held onto or used as a life combined with breath holding and rhyth- raft. When possible, capsized boats should be mic breathing to increase body buoyancy rolled over to an upright or swamped position 4. Bobbing in deep water combined with to provide a water filled floating support for breath holding and rhythmic breathing the crew to get into. 5. Bobbing in shallow water (6 to 8 ft.) To prevent the craft from rolling over while combined with a push from bottom and being boarded, two should enter at the same rhythmic breathing;this procedure can time from opposite sides. Both persons reach be used to work one's way toward water over the gunwale and place their hands into the of standing depth bilges or on the bottom to support their weight 6. Elementary backstroke, with supporting as they slide over the gunwale into the craft. as well as propulsive movements of the Passengers should keep body weight as low as hands possible when entering the craft, and weight 7. Swimming two body lengths under water should be kept evenly distributed while seated. 8. Trapping air in clothing to increase buoy- A swamped or capsized boat is more likely to ancy be spotted by searchers than a swimmer, and 9. Utilizing modified breaststroke with hands the risk of drowning is greatly reduced by the pressing downward aswellasback- person's staying with the boat. Leaving the boat ward to provide additional support. (Note: may be necessary or advisable, however, when In one elementary backstroke and breast- there is danger of fire or explosion, the boat is stroke, a narrow version of the breast- drifting into dangerous areas or sinking, or the stroke kick and inverted breaststroke kick water is extremely cold. Also, it may be best to can be used when wearing light shoes or swim for a point of safety if such a place is as canvas sneakers. However, w'nen wearing near at hand as the craft. In all instances, if SMALL CRAFT SAFETY 193 swimming is necessary, life jackets or other flo- struction a beginning boatman sometimes fol- tation gear should be used if available. lows the often incorrect practices of others. The following are unsafe practices that frequently RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE OPERATOR end in serious small boat mishaps: 1. Outboard and Inboard Power Boats The Coast Guard recreational boating reports overloading and improper disposition of indicate that approximately 55% of all boating weight in the boat accidents can be traced to negligence on the part high speed turns of the operator, and that over 65% of the fa- sitting on gunwales and decks talitiesare caused by faultyjudgment and standing and/or moving about when boat operation. Improper loading, overloading, reck- is under way lessness, disregard for weather and water con- disregard of weather and water conditions ditions, and failure to seat passengers properly improper refueling procedures are operator practices that lead to the majority failure to maintain lookout of boating accidents. The craft most often in- failure to use lifesaving equipment when volved in accidents is the outboard powered indicated boat. Canvas and rowboats constitute the second largest accident category, while sailboats 2. Canoes and Rowboats and sailboat auxiliaries account for the least improper load. 6 and overldading number of fatal accidents. standing up The relatively low fatality rate for sail craft lack of boat and canoe handling skill 3% of the total lost while making up over disregard of weather and water conditions failure to use lifesaving equipment when 7% of the recreational craft in use is because most small boat sailors learn to sail under super- indicated vision and capsizing drills are an integral part 3. Sailboats of the training.In other words, small boat disregard of weather and operating condi- sailors expect an occasional dunking as part of tions the sport and are prepared to cope with the overloading situation. lack of operating experience Basic training in safety and boat handling failure to use lifesaving equipment when isavailable from organizations such as the indicated United States Power Squadrons, Coast Guard An untrained boat operator may accumulate Auxiliary, and American Red Cross chapters. many hours of accident free experience andstill Where courses are not offered, new boat owners lack the know-how to cope with an emergency. should seek advice from experienced operators Responsible boat owners will take every oppor- and/or marine dealers before attempting to tunity to increase their knowledge and skill by navigate their craft by themselves. Without in- study and training.

PROPER CRAFT AND EQUIPMENT

The proper selection of a craft provides the various boating activities. The evolutionary de- base for recreational boating safety. Obviously velopment of small water craft dates back to no single type of small boat can efficiently and primitive man's first hollowed out log, and to- safely function under all water and weather day there are four major types of recreational conditions, nor could one design adequately rowing, paddling, sailing, and power. meet the many specialized requirements of the Thousands of different models of the four types 194 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES have been designed and built for work and can offset this. The length may be as much as recreational purposes. 22 feet From the standpoint of safety, smal/ boat Dory-skiff. Dory-skiffsaremoreshallow selection should be based on the floating char- than the dories and have a wider bottom and acteristics of the boat when capsized or filled transom. They combine some of the best fea- with water. The craft should have sufficient tures of the dory and the skiff and are often buoyancy, or flotation, to remain in a horizontal, used in lifeguarding. Their maximum length is upright position and to support the weight of 18 feet. the motor, if any, and crew. Buoyancy compart- Skiff. Skiff denotes the common square-stern ments should be filled with expanded foam. rowboat: the bottom is flat, and the sides are Craft made of nonbuoyant material that has either straight or slightly flared. This type of most of its flotation material in the bilges under boat should be used only in protected waters. the deck will float in the capsized position, Definitions and classifications of skiffs vary offering little to hold onto. Also, theyare diffi- greatly from region to region. Other names are cult to roll over into a swamped position where "sharpies" and "flatties." The skiff is a utility they can be used as life rafts. The boatman boat, and is often used by fishermen. Its length should seek expert opinion and guidance from varies from 8 to 18 feet. reliable marine dealers and local boatingex- Dinghy. Dinghies are short, heavy, round- perts before making a purchase. bottomed craft and are frequently rigged for The following descriptions of basic types of sail. They often serve as tenders for larger small craft may be of help in the final selection boats. The length is 7 to 12 feet. of a suitable boat. Pram. Prams are flat or slightly V-bottomed boats with square ends. The transom bow is ROWING CRAFT slightly more narrow than the transom stern. Recreational rowing craft are comparatively They are used for sailing and tenders. The light and are designed primarily for protected length is 8 to 10 feet. waters. This type of '.'oat is constructed so that Punt. Punts, scows, or john boats are narrow, the greater part of the bulk is above thewater- shallow flat-bottomed craft with identical square line; consequently, the load should be kept low overhanging ends. The vertical sides give a box- and distributedto keepthe boat properly like appearance to the boat. Punts are used in trimmed. shallow water and are generally maneuvered by Overloading and standingpassengers are the poling, although they may also be rigged for major causes of rowboat accidents. Also,con- rowing. . ventional rowboats equipped with powerful Many fine rowing craft models of the past outboard motors can prove toodifficultto have become extinct, but there has been an handle and so cause accidents. Only low horse- increasing demand for good "pulling" boats power motors should be used. which has stimulatedinterestinproducing The common types of rowing craftare the copies of the best known historical designs for following: recreational purposes. Dory. Although the true fishing dories of New England and Canada are not used forrec- PADDLING CRAFT reational purposes, their basic design is often Canoes and kayaks are used more or less in- used for certain rowing craft. Theyare deep, terchangeably in a variety of activities. Choice narrow, flat-bottomed, keelless boats, with sides is primarily based upon initial cost, price of that flare out to a wide beam amidship. The upkeep, and, of course, individual preference. narrow width at the waterline causes them to Canoe models, like most boat designs, are the be unstable, but sufficient weight in the bottom result of compromises. A craft designed for SMALL CRAFT SAFETY 195 carrying heavy loads will lack speed and manue- A 15 boot canoe is light (50 lb. to 65 lb.) verability. If the canoe has to be carried at fre- and istherefore a popular choice among quentintervals,lightweightconstructionis young paddlers. Also,itisrelatively slow important. Length is often decisive if the canoe because of the beam-length ratio. Adults who is to be used for recreational purposes. are paddling alone often select it, however, The canoe models on the market are generally for demonstration routines where responsive- good, and the many types of construction ma- ness and a high degree of maneuverability are terials allow the buyer to be selective in decid- needed. ing which craft will best suit his purposes. How- A 16 foot canoe is the most popular for ever, the following design characteristics should general recreational use. It may be used for be considered when selecting a paddling craft: either single or two-man paddling and, under

4A.

Figure 1. A Red Cross small craft instructor teaches canoeing to collegestudents in a canoeing class at Oregon State College, Corvallis. 196 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

normal conditions, can safely carry an extra adult passenger or duffel or equivalent weight. A 17 foot and an 18 foot canoe are often used for extended cruising. The shorter craft willcarrythree adults or the equivalent weight inpaddlers and duffel, while the longer craft will accommodate another passenger or additional gear. A wide, flat-bottomed canoe is relatively stableIf the full (broad) lines are carried well into the ends, additional stability and weight carrying capacity can be expected. The longer (17 and 18 foot) motels are well suited for shoal or white water use and for cruising. A canoe with full (stubby looking) ends will "lift", ver waves and ship less water than a canoe with sharp ends. A canoe with a rocker-like curve to its bottom or keel is more maneuverable than one Figure 2. The use of lifesaving equipment keeps this with a straight bottom. group a happy family. A round-bottomed canoe is usually nar- rower than a flat-bottomed craft and has less prams and dinghies, (2) day sailers, (3) racing stability. However, it is generally faster and classes, (4) cruising classes, and (5) a special is easier to paddle from the center (single) group consisting of board boats, canoes, and paddling position. the multihulled catamarans and trimarans. A long canoe is faster than a shorter canoe Although day sailers and cruising craft are of the same basic design. often raced in competition with other boats of A canoe with high ends and freeboard is the same type, or under a time handicap, the affected more by crosswinds than one that day sailer is essentially a family boat designed has a lower profile. for a safe, comfortable day afloat, whereas a A keelless canoe is more maneuverable cruising boat is built for sailing in comfort and than one with a keel and in white water is safety for extended periods of time. The racing less likely to catch on shoal obstructions. craft, on the other hand, is a highly efficient A shoe (flat) keel provides more protection machine that is rigged, tuned, and sailed to to the bottom of a canoe than a narrow, deep cover distance in the shortest possible time. one. The prospective purchaser of a sailboat should A canoe with hardwood gunwales and pad- carefully analyze his needs and the sailing con- dling thwarts instead of seats is preferred by ditions in his area. He should seek advice, unless experienced canoeists. he has had considerable sailing experience, before deciding on a particular model. Because SAILING CRAFT of the conflicting requirements of safety, speed, Recreational sailing falls into three classifi- comfort, and ease of handling, as well as cost cations: racing, cruising, and day sailing. Many and maintenance, hundreds of different models types of boat hulls have been developed to meet have been designed and marketed. Only an the specific requirements of each category. The experienced or well advised sailor could make types can be broadly classified as (1) sailing a suitable selection for his particular needs. SMALL CRAFT SAFETY 197

POWER CRAFT damaging in rough water unless the speed is There are two basic hid designs for power reduced to displacement speed. Outboard plan- craft: (1) the displacement type which plows ing hulls withflat underwater sections and through the water and (2)the planing hull broad transoms are not as seaworthy as dis- which skims on the surface. The choice of the placement boats of similar size, and their use power system for each type can hinge upon should be restricted to relatively smooth waters .individual preference, cost, or the purpose for and protected areas. which the boat will be used. The shape of the forward sections ranges The displacement boat displaces a volume of from the flat, needle pointed outboard hull to water equal to the total or gross weight of the the round-,bottomed and V-bottomed types. boat. The bottom may be flat, V-shaped, or The flat-bottomed craft are fast but danger- sound; however, characteristically,the boats ous and very hard riding in rough water. A fin have a pointed or tapering aftersection or stern or a skeg provides some directional stability and have their widest beam at or near amidship. and resistance to skidding in turning maneuvers. ROM:1g craft, canoes, and most sailboats and Single suspension planing boats, which skim on deep-water boats have displacement hulls. They the water with only a small wetted area of the are seaworthy when handled properly under aftersection in contact with the surface, rapidly conditions for which they were designed. Their lose stability as speed is increased and the sup- speed, however, is limited by their waterline porting surface becomes smaller. The decrease length and by the contour of the hull. The in stability can lead to loss of control and cap- volume of water that is displaced by the sharply sizing,especially in high speedturns.Flat- pointed bow when the boat is under way must, bottomed boats with their sharp chines are by its own weight, flow in and refill the space particularlyvulnerableto trippinginsharp sated by the moving boat. Should the boat turns. move faster than the displaced water returning The V-bottomed boats generally flatten out to fill the void, the stern squats, and a powerful to a broad aftersection. They have better direc- effectis produced on tile aftersection of the tional stability and give a softer ride but are hull. Therefore, boats with a long waterline that slower than flat-bottomed boats of comparable gradually tapers toward the stern are faster than size. The shape of the bow section may range shorter craft of the same design, since the slower from a shall-Ay, flared V to a deep V. The speed return flow of the displaced water produces less potential decreases with the depth of the V suction or drag on the longer boats. Attempting section, but seaworthiness and riding qualities to force the boat to a higher speed by increasing improve. power not only creates more drag but danger- Round-bottomed boats are smoother riding ously affects the handling characteristics of the but slower than V-bottomed or flat-bottomed craft. craft. They require more power to reach and The planing hull also displaces a volume of remain on a plane, but they bank better in water equal to its gross weight when it is mo- turns, presenting less danger of flipping. Models tionless or moving slowly through the water. with a more rounded bottom will lack the initial However, when its movement is accelerated, stability of the V-bottomed and flat-bottomed water pressure builds up on the broad under- types, and require that the weight aboard be sections of the bottom and lifts the boat to the placed toward the center and as low as possible. surface. REQUIRED EQUIPMENT Conventionalplaninghullsarefastand highly maneuverable but are likely to be hard Equipment requirements for motorized craft ridingina "chop" when operated at high are established by federal and state laws. An speeds. Pounding often becomes severe and increasing number of states also requires cer- 198 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

tain gear such as lifesaving devices for the selection of additional equipment should be occupants of rowboats, canoes, and small sail- made on the basis of type of craft, theextent of boats. In addition to Coast Guard approved operation, and the nature of wind and water lifesaving devices for powerboats, other required conditions normally encountered. Recommended items include approved backfire flame arresters items include oars and paddles for craft that for each carburetor, fire extinguishers, whistle, can be manually propelled, anchor and line, bell, and ventilation systems. bailingdevice,fireextinguishers,compass, Equipment requirements vary accordingto radio, charts, distress signals, first aid kit, flash- types and classes of boats. In particular, the light, extra line, tools andspare parts for the regulations governing each category of small motor if one is carried. All craft operating after craft should be checked and rigidly observed. sundown must carry lights as required by law. Moreover, while the regulations establish only Since the lighting requirements are not thesame minimum equipment requirements, othergear for all types of boats, and vary fromarea to should be carried for emergencypurposes. The area, Coast Guard regulations should be checked.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

The activities of boating peopleare regulated THUNDERSTORMS by the forces of nature. The experienced boatman develops a healthy respect for weather Localized thunderstormsare generally the conditions and is constantly alert to changes in most dangerous weather menace to small craft. temperature, wind direction, cloud formation, A constant watch should be maintained for and barometric pressure, whichmay indicate cloud formations with dark bases whenever the approach of bad weather. they are predicted for thearea. They may form quickly and can develop scualls with wind velocities of 50 miles per houror more. For- WEATHER PREDICTIONS tunately, they are slow moving and small in Weather predictions based on observation size about 1 to 10 miles in diameter and areof most valueinforecastinglocalized do not last long. The alert and cautious observer weather phenomena suchas thunderstorms. seeks shelter long before the dangerous "sud- For long-range weather predictions, the official den" storms strike. Weather Bureau forecasts give the most reliable Thunderstorms also develop along the ad- information. Long-range predictionsare pub- vancing front of a cold air mass when it meets lished in the daily papers andare broadcast on warm, humid air. They may extend in a line of radio and TV stations, and should be checked several hundred miles, ,and small craft should remain in port until they have passed. Tran- carefully before starting an outingon the water. sistor radios can be carried aboard the smallest The weather forecast reports predict changes in temperature, humidity, precipitation, boats; to persons afloat, they offer the best visi- means of keeping posted on weather conditions. bility, and wind velocity. Of greatest concern They may also warn of thunderstorms in the to boatmen' from a safety standpoint are wind vicinity by emitting static noises. velocity and, to a lesser degree, visibility. Large Lightning is an added danger to craft during ,weather systems that produce high wind veloci- thunderstorms. If the path of the storm cannot ties are carefully plotted and forecast sufficiently be avoided, every effort should be madeto gct in advance to make necessary preparations. the craft as close to shore as possible where SMALL CRAFT SAFETY 199 objects at a higher elevation, such as trees, are forward progress through the water is difficult, more likely to be hit by the electrical discharge. paddle or row to prevent making sternway and If the craft is caught in open water in advance allow the force of the wind to "slide" the craft of or during a thunderstorm, occupants should toward its objective. Establish a range on shore keep as low in the boat as possible and not use to help stay on course. When a course is directly fishing poles or other gear that may extend to windward and headway is impossible, try upward. tacking back and forth to reach the objective. In extreme conditions, when progress is no SAFETY PROCEDURES longer possible, anchor the craft or improvise Small boats should seek shelter at the first a drogue with a paddle or oar and a long-sleeved sign of threatening weather, since these boats shirt, coat, or jacket. Thread the oar through are difficult to handle under strong wind and the sleeves and attach a short bridle over the waterconditions. An overpowered or mis- cuffs. Secure the bowline to the center of the handled boat in rough weather can be capsized bridle. To improve the effectiveness of the or swamped and, as stresses are increased, there drogue, button the lower buttons and tie the is danger of a rigging or structural failure. When shirttails with a light line to form a bag. When the small craft faces deteriorating weather con- using the drogue, keep the back of the garment ditions, precautionary measures should be taken toward the surface. Sit or lie in the bottom of to reduce the risk of capsizing or swamping. the craft to lower the center of gravity and Canoes and rowboats should avid exposed reduce windage. areas on large bodies of water and follow the In bad weather power craft should operate at protected waters along the windward shorelines reduced speeds to reduce pounding and to in- of lakes and rivers. During bad weather, all sure better control of the boat. Life jackets weight should be kept as low as possible and should be worn and passenger weight kept low concentrated amidship to allow the ends to lift in the boat, and the bilges free of water. If the more readily to oncoming waves. Any water course is to windward, high waves should be taken aboard should be bailed out immediately. approached at a slight angle instead of head on. Even a few gallons sloshing about from side to With a canoe or rowboat, it may be necessary side will seriously affect the trim and stability to tack to windward in heavy going. of the craft. Courses at right angles to wind and waves Keep the craft directly before the waves when can be made without danger, unless the waves the destination is downwind. Use the paddles are cresting and breaking. Because of its maneu- or oars to stay on course, with the wind supply- verability and speed, an outboard can avoid ing most of the propulsion. waves that are about to break if the skipper is Make the approach to a lee shore on large alert and skillful. bodies of water very carefully, since surf con- Regardless of the hull design, there is always ditions are difficult to judge from offshore. If danger of water coming in over the transom the breakers are high, go overboard and hold when a power craft is running before the wind onto the stern to prevent the craft from broach- and waves. All outboard boats should have a ing. Avoid getting between the craft and beach watertight bulkhead across the boat immedi- when in the breaker line. ately in front of the motor. Some outboards When the course is at or near a right angle have a transom height of 20 inches and use a to the wind and waves, the canoe or rowboat long shaft motor, but most outboards have a can be expected to make considerable leeway transom of only 15 inches. This height is fur- unless headed slightly into the wind. The angle ther reduced by the weight of the motor and in will be determined by the force of the wind and following seas it may not be sufficient to pre- the height of the waves. In high winds, when vent taking water aboard. Speed should be ad- 200 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES justed so that the boat stays ahead of peaking compensate for drift and to avoid taking and breaking waves, but it should not be so the larger waves broadside. fast as to create a danger of burying the bow in Drop and secure the mainsail. Most sloops the wave ahead. can reach under the jib alone. Under extreme wind and wave conditions, it Drop allsails and anchor or put out a may be impossiblei to make headway and keep drogue under extreme conditions as when the boat under control. In such cases, the boat ox, the wind. should be anchored with as much scope as pos- 3. When broad reaching or running to a point sible or a drogue put out to hold the bow into of safety the wind. The boat is generally in a safer sailing Sailing craft should heed the following pre- position when reaching or running than cautions if heavy weather conditions develop: when on the wind. Chief dangers are in 1. When close reaching or beating to a point broaching or turning broadside to wind of safety and waves and in surfing down the face of Move crew weight to windward. a wave and burying the bow under the Keep an eye to windward for signs (cats- wave ahead. True wind velocity is decep- paws) of increased wind strength. tive while running, since the apparent wind Luff the boat, or ease the sheets in the is reduced by the speed of the boat. Con- stronger puffs to reduce wind pressure on sequently, high waves may develop before the sails. It is important to keep the boat the true force of the wind isrealized. moving, otherwise rudder control will be Proceed as follows lost. Raise the centerboard to reduce the danger Put on life preservers. of broaching. Keep the bilges dry. Water in the bilge will Flatten the jib. decrease stability. On a broad reach, ease the main sheet until Lower the jib. the boom is almost touching the shrouds. Under extreme conditions, lower the main- On a run, haul in the main to reduce wind sail and anchor, if possible. pressure. The boat must be held directly Keep all weight low in the boat near or aft before the wind to avoid sailing by the lee of amidship so that the bow can lift with and the danger of an accidental jibe. the waves. Lower the main and sail by jib alone. This Put out a drag, or drogue, if it is not pos- action can be taken while running if rudder sible to anchor. control is good. Hold the boat directly be- The sails can be bundled and tied to a line fore the wii.d and sheet the main in until from the bow to reduce leeward drift. the boom is near the center of the transom. Because of pressure on the sail, it may be 2. When reaching to a point of safety, as necessary to haul the sail down by the when on the wind bolt rope as the halyard is eased off. Keep weight to windward, bilges dry, life Flatten the jib and trail a line or drogue preservers on, and the boat moving. over the stern to reduce speed. Ease the main sheet in the stronger puffs. Lower the jib and sail under bare poles. Sheet the jib in tightly to back-wind the Anchor or ride to a drogue attached to the mainsail and reduce its drive. Also, raise bow. the centerboard slightly if there is an ex- When it is necessary to ride out a blow, avoid cessive weather helm that may cause dam- a lee shore and try to work the boat to the lee- age to the rudder assembly. ward side of a headland or island where it may Head the boat upwind of the objective to be possible to anchor in comparative shelter. Water Skiing IROLAND JAMES GEORGE

Water skiing is one of the simplest outdoor ting started is the most difficult step. Water sports. This is evidenced by the many successful skiing is basically safe; the degree of safety beginners who have never before participated in athletics. Water skiing can be as easy and as depends upon the precautions and care taken much fun as it looks. As in bicycle riding; get- by its participants.

ACCIDENTS

Annual surveys of the Outboard Boating Club there has never been a fatality in any of its of America and the American Water Ski Associ- sanctioned events. Many commercial ski schools ation show conclusively that even though an have operated for 10 or 12 years without a estimated 500,000 pairs of water skis are sold serious accident or fatality. This record has annually in the United States, accidents and been maintained in areas where skiing goes on fatalities are infrequent. While water skiing has steadily for as many as 8 to 10 hours daily. become the third major incentive for people to Basically, there are five elements of safety buy boats, serious or fatal accidents on skis rep- consciousness in water skiing: (1) the skier, (2) resent a small percentage of boating accidents. the skiing gear, (3) the boat driver,(4) the The vast majority of accidents in water skiing boat and motor, and (5) the water. involves either the amateur or thereckless fringe of the sport. This includes the untrained HAZARDS CAUSED BY THE SKIER boat driver, the novice skier, and the poor swimmer. Accidents also occur when the activity is Water skiing accidents are invariably caused unsupervised. Most intensive skiing is done by by errors either on the part of the skier or the organized ski clubs, commercial ski schools, ski boat driver. There are the problems of not wear- shows, and competitive tournaments. The inci- ing a life belt or jacket, not having an observer dence of accidents in these organized segments in the towboat, not learning the skier-driver of the sport is extremely low. During the 20 signals, or not releasing the towline after falling. years that the American Water Ski Association Falling may be fun for the adventurous student, has been sponsoring water ski tournaments, but the time it takes to pick him up cuts down on

201 202 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

instruction time. Falls are rarely dangerous and HAZARDS CAUSED BY THE BOAT DRIVER are morefrequentlycaused by unexpected A common hazard caused by boat drivers is rough water or by the misjudgment of the in- "hitting it" before the towrope is taut, before structor or boat driver than by the skier. In the skier's tips are visible, and before the skier falling, a skier is less likely to be injured from has indicated readiness. The driver should steer hitting the water than from hitting docks, piers, away from objects, such as piers, docks, pilings, pilings, sea walls, and boats. In salt water areas, sea walls, and other boats. Additional hazards oyster bars, barnacle encrusted walls) and pil- caused by the driver include not cutting the ings can cause serious injuries. Skiing in shallow speed of the boat when the skier falls or climbs water is hazardous because the skis hit bottom aboard the boat and following another boat too and throw the skier forward, resulting in sand closely 200 feet is a safe distance. Accidents and grass burns, rock scratches, or fractures. are also caused when the driver or observer The minimum depth for safe skiing is four feet rides on the gunwale or on the back of the for children and five feet for adults. seat, jumps from a moving boat, or boards an Skiing at night is unwise and several states outboard motor boat from the stern. forbid it. Exceptions to night skiing include ski shows or exhibitions, ski schools, and organ- REMOVAL OF HAZARDS ized water activities with adequate lighting and When the skier falls, the observer should give the skier's use of luminous bathing caps, gloves, instant notice to the boat driver who, in turn, and ski tips. should reduce speed immediately and determine It is unsafe for two people to ski together if the skier is entangled in the towline. After a with ropes of different lengths. If the skier on skier falls, he should clasp both hands overhead the long rope falls, the rope can easily wrap to signal that he is all right or hold up a ski so around and entangle the skier on the short that other boat drivers can see him. With an towline. It is difficult to avoid the dragging and OK signal from the skier, the driver should whipping rope or the spray thrown by the proceed toward the skier at a reduced speed. handle dragging in the water. Another hazard is This will allow time for the skier to put on his fatigue; a tired skier not only ceases to learn, skis, the observer to coil the rope, and the driver but becomes a hazard to himself and others. In to circle accordingly. The driver should ap- landing, a skier should run parallel to the shore proach the skier from the downwind (i.e., lee- rather than straight into it. Before skiing, one ward) side so that the boat will not drift over should check the steering cables, towropes for the skier. The motor should always be in neutral worn and frayed spots, loose runners, wing when passing near the skier. However, an idling nuts, binder slivers, and any sharp protruding motor is not always safe since the propeller may objects on the skis. In jumping, a single handle still be turning and thus cut the skier. After the should be used. Double handles are dangerous fallen skier has grasped the rope and handle, in a fell because they may wrap mound the the driver should continue forward at idling skier's body. Burns can result from ,not releas- speed until the towlineistight. The driver ing the rope after falling. should then check the lake traffic and proceed The greatest hazard in ski racing is falling accordingly. Boats can be equipped with a it can cause broken ankles, shoulders, and collar safety throttle that automatically returns the bones. Falling is usually caused by the bindings, motor to idling speed when pressure is released. called "beartraps," which hold the skier's feet To prevent hitting a dock, pier, or piling when solid. The foot must be "jerked" out. Speed landing, the skier should sit down on the skis skiers must lean well back on their skis to pre- and drag his hands in the water. In heading vent thetip of their skis from digging into directly toward shore, the skier should crouch the water. slightly as the tow handle is released and, judg- WATER SKIING 203 ing the speed accordingly, sink into waist deep thigh extensions will strengthen the knees to water.Skiers should look ahead and know the fullest extent. "Sitting pulley rows" and the where they are going at all times. "two-hand bar bell curl" are used mainly for increasing bicep strength and building power in CONDITIONING the upper arms. Sit-ups will build abdominal Skiers sho 'i develop their muscles with bar- strength. Other exercises will help to strengthen bells and isometric exercises. Quarter squats and the wrist, arm, and back.

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

It is important that a proper combination boat aid kit; extra gas supply; and registration num- and motor be used for skiing. An average, well bers. However, when a boat is used expressly performing ski boat is 14 feet long, with a 50 for skiing, all chrome and other fixtures pro- to 70 inch beam, equipped with a 25 to 40 horse- jecting from the sides and top, such as flag power outboard motor. This combination is the standards, lights, and cleats which may snag recommended minimum requirement to pull one the rope and rip out of the wood when they skier with a driver and observer. It is especially become entangled with the rope, should be re- important that the ski boat have a wide beam moved. Windshields are optional. for safety and stability against the pull of a The ski tow hitch should be sturdy and well skier cutting sharply to the side of the boat. For constructed. It can be a center mounted pylon; more versatility, a 15 to 17 foot boat with a a transom mounted hitch, which also carries proportionately wider beam, powered by a 50 the rope out of the water for easier visibility; to 100 horsepower motor, will pull two or three or a rope yoke attached to the tow eyes on the skiers. Inboard boats, which also perform well transom of the boat. A rope yoke should be for skiing, should be 15 to 18 feet long with a equipped with a free riding swivel to which the 90 to 210 horsepower engine. In general, an towline is attached. The swivel distributes the inboard requires'a larger maneuvering area than pull of the skier equally on both sides of the an outboard combination. A driver should never transom and makes driving safer and easier. A attempt to pull a skier with a boat lacking a safe way to attach a towline is to install eye steering wheel. A good ski boat need not be bolts in the transom of the boat. Life handles extremely fast. A good speed for beginners is on the boat or motor clamps should not be used 18 mph. and as they improve the speed can as substitutes. Electric ski rope retrievers play be increased to 22 mph, to 27 mph. For safety, line out automatically so that if a skier falls, a the maximum speed of a boat should be be- touch of a button, operated in the boat, retrieves tween 30 mph. and 35 mph. A good planing the rope. A hitch should be designed to hold the hull of semi-V construction is also recommended. rope away from the motor. Some hitches hold Boats should be equipped with a minimum of the rope above the motor to prevent its dipping two paddles; small anchor; extra line and motor into the water and becoming fouled in the pro- parts; horn or whistle; speedometer or tachom- peller. Many hitches attach to the transom, eter (engine revolutions per minute); tool kit; while others are installed inside the boat, for- lifesaving equipment; fire extinguisher (if the ward of the motor. boat has any enclosed spaces); boarding ladder; For water skiing, a low freeboard is recom- rearview mirror; sufficient life jackets and/or mended to provide easy boarding for the skier cushions for the driver, observer, skier, and any in the water and reduce weather vaning or wind passengers; running lights; steering wheel; first drift while standing still. High freeboards are 204 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

NATIONAL WATER SKI ASSOCIATION, INC.

SKIERS' SIGNALS SPEED OKAY The okay signal, with FASTER SLOWER thumb and forefinger START Palmup motionup- Palm down motion making a"0." No mo Shout "HIT IT" or nod wards, or nod head if downward, or shake head lion of hecA if bc,th hands head. both hands are in use. if both hands are in use. are in use.

TURN WHIP OFF STOP Palm vertical,describe Point to direction and then JUMP Hand up,fingers out. curving motion with hand give quickcircular mo Raise hand sharply imitat- stretched policeman in direction desired. ions with hand. ing jumping arc s yle.

BACK TO DOCK CUT MOTOR With bent elbow,, point Stillpointing,extend Draw Finger across wind. forefingerdownward, arm downward sharply. pipe in cutting motion.

While on land the Ski Instructor should demonstrate all Skiers' Signals as part of his "Dry Land Instruction". To pass the Intermediate rating of the National Water Ski Association, campers must be able to demonstrate on land all ten of the Skiers' Signals; therefore, signals should be used while riding whenever appropriate.These ten signals seem to be commonly accepted and universally used; however, Ski Instructors can develop additional signals as they see fit. WATER SKIING 205 designed more for heavy seas and open water eter, but is longer than the single bar. Most where skiing is rarely done. Hardware and its skiers prefer a trick bar 18 inches long. attachments, such as fins, foot binders, screws, There are three main types of throttles on and nuts, should be as simple as possible and boats: the pivot, the foot, and the hand throttle. tree of sharp protruding surfaces that could The hand throttle is best suited for the skiing scrape or cut the skin. Ski lines and handles boat. Water skiing is still a new sport, and the should likewise be free of complicated hooks design of skis and other equipment is constantly and eyes as well as unnecessary loops that being improved. All skis have fins or skegs, might entangle, catch, or cut the skier. except turnaround or trick skis. The bindings of skis are made of soft rubber or plastic. Wood is Ordinarily, lines are made of 1/4 inch twisted the best material for skis, although fiberglass Manila hemp or braided 1/4 inch polyethylene has recently been used with some success. or linen. The three most widely used handles The specifications of the American Water Ski are the single bar, the trick bar, and the slalom Association state that skis should be not less of double handles. The single bar is a wooden than four feet long nor more than eight inches handle 11/4 inch thick and 12 inches long which wide. There should be a rack for the skis out of is used for all conventional skiing, doubles, and the sun, a place to dry the two ropes, a rack jumps. The trick bar is also 11/4 inch in diam- for the life belts, and a fuel supply.

CONCLUSION

Many states lack legislative provisions deal- In addition, the Model Act calls for the in- ing with reckless and negligent behavior in auguration of a comprehensive boating safety water skiing and boating. While legislators have education program and provides that state agen- attempted to enact laws that would make these cies may issue certificates to persons who com- activities as safe as possible, the proposals fre- plete the program. The action of the NASBLA quently have been restrictive and impractical. is an important step in the establishment of In 1967, the National Association of State Boat- uniform boating laws. It also arms state ad- ing Law Administrators (NASBLA) adopted a ministrators with information on which to base draft of the Model Boating Act which contains recommendations to legislative committees con- clauses that prohibit participating in skiing, sidering boating regulations. No rule book or surfing, boating, and aquaplaning while display- statute can replace common sense. Be he a ing reckless or negligent behavior or while novice or tournament champion, a water skier under the influence of liquor or drugs. must first and always use good judgment.

References

Brentz, Leo. How to put method in a water ski school. Model Boating Act wins approval. The Water Skier 17: The Water_4kier* 16:20-26, no. 13, June-July 1966. 23-24, no. 7, Dec.-Jan. 1968. Prince, Walter N. Water Skiing for All. 2d ed. Phila- Christensen, Al. Developing muscles for water skiing. delphia: Chilton Book Co., 1956. The Water Skier 17:18-19, no. 1, Febr.-March 1967. * The Water Skier American Water Ski Association Clifford, William D. A safety lesson that never grows P. 0. Box 191 old. The Water Skier 17:42-44, no. 5, Aug.-Sept. 1967. Winter Haven, Fla. 33880 Skin and Scuba Diving IBERNARD E. EMPLETON, M.S.

It is estimated that some two million scuba dition to two dozen other national organizations, divers venture underwater in the United States. has devoted considerable time to the problems The number of skin divers is considered to be of safety in skin and scuba diving. The best many times this number. resources of the country have met under the Agencies devoted to providing training for auspices of CNCA for the past 15 years to work these submarine adventurers are few. This obvi- for the safety of the underwater venturer. ously means that a great number of Americans A natural beginning for instruction is in the are risking their lives because of inadequate schools. What better approach is there for the training. Divingfatalitiesincrease with the young person than to learn at school in a fine mounting sale of equipment. National organiza- combination of physical education and physics tions such as the YMCA, Red Cross, Boy Scouts, what diving is all about? There needs to be a and Underwater Society of America have de- healthy respect engendered for a sport that, veloped instruction programs. The Council for while comparatively easy to learn in terms of National Cooperation in Aquatics, which repre- fundamentals, is fraught with hazard to the sents the above mentioned organizations in ad- uninitiated.

SKIN DIVING

Skin diving is a term often used erroneously the diver to stay under water for a prolonged when one really means scuba diving. Skin div- time, depending upon the amount of air carried, ing refers to diving with fins, faceplate, and the depth to which the diver goes, and his work snorkel while scuba (self-contained underwater load. breathing apparatus) diving refers to diving While diving is great fun it is not without with a tank or tanks of compressed air on one's hazard. Even skin diving, while not subject to back. the same accident potential as scuba diving, In skin diving one is able to stay under water does have its record of fatalities. There is no for as long as he can hold his breath. In scuba substitute for knowledge and training. Without diving the air which is carried in tanks enables this as a beginning step, the sportsman risks

206 SKIN AND SCUBA DIVING 207 everything for want of the relatively little time a strong exhalation displace the water in the it might take to orient himself properly. mask with air. The most common kick is the easy, efficient flutter kick. The dolphin kick is also efficient EQUIPMENT but not as simple or useful as the flutter kick. Basic skin diving equipment consists of a Since man's progress underwater with fins is faceplate, snorkel, and fins. The faceplate should about a knot per hour one should not attempt be a good fit of soft rubber or neoprene so that to hurry. The conservation of the held breath no water leaks into the air spaces. The plate is far more effective with a relaxed, easy ap- should be made of safety glass, not plastic. The proach to skin diving. After adequate adjust- more snug the fit the easier to use and to clear ment one discovers increasing efficiency below. if it should accidentally fill with water. Proper training and the release of psychological The snorkel is a "J"-shaped tube usually of inhibitions permit the full use of the individual rubber or neoprene with a soft mouthpiece of potential. rubber. Its purpose is to enable the diver to Wet suit. In cold climates or where the water swim on the surface by breathing through his is cold, even in temperate zones, a protective mouth into the snorkel, which protrudes above suit should be worn. The most common type in the water's surface. current use is the wet suit, which is made of Since the head Is relatively heavy between neoprene anywhere from one-eighth to three- 19 and 23 pounds a snorkel is a great help in sixteenths, or a quarter of an inch thick. Thou- staving off fatigue while simultaneously pro- sands of tiny cells add a great deal of buoyancy viding he diver an opportunity to look below to the suit. The water gets into the cells and is and to breath freely. As soon as the diver de- heated by the body. The loss of heat from one's scends, the snorkel fills with water up to the body is considerably lessened by such a device. small air space in the hook of the "J." When Yet even the best suit will yield to long sessions the diver surfaces he exhales with a short, sharp in very cold water. breath which shoots the water from the snorkel Dry suit. This device is designed to prevent and permits surface air to enter again. any water from entering the suit and contacting At first, one may experience a psychological the diver. The diver wears a layer of protective problem in using the snorkel but practice and underclothing under the dry suit. In exceedingly experience usuallyeliminateinitialfear and cold water, wers may wear a wet suit and over greatly add to the diver's pleasure and con- it a dry suit. venience. The length of the snorkel rarely ex- Since the trapped air in a protective suit ceeds 12 inches. One simply cannot inhale makes it virtually impossible to submerge, one through a long tube. Beware of two and three must use lead weights which are threaded onto foot snorkels; they are distinct hazards. a web belt. The weights come in sizes which Fins vary in type and size. One should seek make it convenient to get all one requires on a pair that fits comfortably, is not too large, one belt. The idea isto get close to neutral moves easily, and is of good quality. buoyancy so that little effort is required to go The three pieces of equipment just described either up or down. can unlock a veritable treasure chest of enjoy- In the early days of the diving craze and ment. Itis of principal importance, however, beforethe advent of simple, quick release that the diver learn to use them well before he buckles one was well-advised to fasten his belt ventures into deep water areas either fresh or with a safety hookup. When itis imperative salt. A very basic skillisto fill one's mask to release the weight belt, one can ill afford to underwater and learn to expel the air by holding struggle to unfasten a knotted belt or undo a one side of the mask firmly to the face and with rig that lacks the element of quick release. The 208 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES lore of diving has many casualties to show for for progressively longer periods, the carbon failure in this important department. dioxide buildup inthe system becomes in- tolerable. When that occurs and nature insists BREATHHOLDING that the time has come, the diver may black out and ',chile unconscious and underwater, in- Since the skin diveris dependent on his hale. The result can be catastrophic unless a ability to hold his breath he is tempted to try buddy is handy and a very prompt rescue pro- to improve himself in this skill. Up to a point this gram is undertaken. is fine; if carried too far, this skill can prove fatal. One should know his limitations and not Our need to breathe is signaled to us by the push beyond a reasonable point of endurance. buildup of carbon dioxide in the body. Practice It is for this reason that the underwater endur- and will power enable the diver to override this ance swim, popular during the early part of signal of nature's. If he manages to stay down this century, has long been discontinued.

SCUBA DIVING Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus What we will consider, however, are some of was introduced into the sporting world during the problems and dangers to be aware of as World War II. There are three types of scuba well as the overriding importance of full, ade- diving: closedcircuit scuba and semiclosed- quate training. circuit scuba, which are of restricted use for As soon as man takes a supply of air with military or highly spAcialized professional occu- him to depths he takes also the problems jailer- pations, and open circuit scuba, which is the ent in the gas laws of nature. Diving involves popular diving sport. Whereas in closed and heavy exertion. Sooner or later the diver will semiclosed circuit scuba the breathing medium find his strength and endurance heavily taxed. is recirculated for rebreathing purposes, in open The finest breathing apparatusstillrequires circuit scuba the breathing air is exhaled into more than usual effort to breath. This added to the water and not reused. the exertion increases the diver's load. Lifting The most common type of scuba used today and carryingthe equipment, which can be is the single hose design. There are. however, heavy, demand a quality of fitness hat enables many two hose regulators in use and one should one to cope with emergency situations. A sound know how to use them, as well as the full face cardiovascular respiratory system is a must. If mask design. The latter has special preference the individual is sound but relatively unfit he by those who have dental plate problems. should improve his physical condition by en- All open circuit scuba are somewhat alike. durance swimming and running. They consist of a high pressure air cylinder, a A requirement for a diver is the ability of valve on the cylinder, a harness, and a valve for the middle ear and sinuses to take the pressure exerting control over the high pressure air com- equalization changes required. Gas Law: Very ing from the cylinder to the diver. They utilize simply, when a diver descends to depths with a a mask or mouthpiece for inhalation and a cylinder of air fastened to his back, as the air valve for exhalation. in his lungs is compressed by the pressures at The detailed operation of scuba gear will not depth, he inhales from his tank to fill his lungs be treated here; the topic is adequately covered to their usual capacity. As he ascends he must in The New Science of Skin and Scuba Diving.' continue to inhale and exhale to prevent his lungs from overexpanding and bursting. If a 1 National Aquatics Association, The New Science of Skin and Scuba Diving (New York: Association Press, diver is 66 feet underwater and attempts to 1968). surface without releasing any of the air he has SKIN AND SCUBA DIVING 209 taken in at that depth, the one lung ful at 66 prompt recompression. This may not be readily feet va ill equal three lungsful of air at surface. available and even if it is it may not guarantee If the pressure in the lungs causes a break in recovery. the lining and air bubbles enter the bloodstream, First aid involves artificial respiration if the they may cause an embolism in the blood ves- victim has stopped breathing. Sometimes lower- sels, which prevents the blood from circulating. ing the head or rocking between the , horizontal The result can be serious impairment or death. and head down position may relieve the em- Pressure acts on the air spaces in the body, bolism. Other results of lung damage are chest such as in the ears, sinuses, lungs, stomach, pain, difficulty with breathing and swallowing, and intestines as well as air space in a mask shock, and mediastinal emphysema (i.e., air is or suit. The failure of body air spaces to equal- forced into the middle chest tissue spaces). The ize under pressure '11result in injury, such treatment in serious cases is recompression. Rest as a broken eardrum. and general medical care is prescribed for milder Rupture of the eardrum in cold water can cases. cause a sharp upset in the balance mechanism. Subcutaneous emphysema. This is air in the Until the water warms up the person will ex- region of the neck under the skin. It is not par- perience marked dizziness and nausea. Attempts ticularly serious though it may interfere with to surface may end in going the wrong way. It talking, swallowing, or breathing. is best to just hang on and wait for the sensa- Pneumothorax. This is air in the space be- tion to pass unless, of course, a buddy is on tween the lungs and the lining of the chest wall. the spot to assist. It may cause a partial collapsing of the lung Mask squeeze occurs when on descent the affected and interfere with breathing. If there mask sucks to the face and increases the pres- is a great buildup of pressure in the pneumo- sure unless one admits air into the mask. If a thorax the lung may be completely collapsed diver is wearing goggles he has no way of and affect breathing and heart action. diminishing the squeeze and the blood vessels The treatment is recompression for temporary in the eyes and soft membranes suffer. for this relief. However, frequently the pressure needs mason goggles are only useful in very shallow to be relieved by the insertion of a needle. A diving. medical person will be required for this. One can also have suit squeeze when wearing Prevention of lung accidents. The best way is a dry rubber suit. The folds of the suit can press to understand thoroughly the operation of scuba around the skin causing ridges and uncom- and the effect of the gas laws. In ascent one fortable pinching. The remedy is to introduce should always breath regularly to keep the air just enough air into the suit to allow the spaces passages open. When forced to leave the scuba to return to normal size. behind or during emergency ascent the diver must exhale all the way up. Since this is con- UNDERWATER BODY MALFUNCTIONS trary to his natural instinct he must learn these Air embolism. Air embolism is second only procedures by constant practice. A cool head to drowning as a cause of scuba fatalities. A is the answer in such situations and previous person suffering fromair embolism(i.e.,a experience in free ascent is invaluable. bubble in the vascular system preventing blood Before diving and as a matter of safety be circulation) may be unconscious before reach- sure you know where the nearest manned re- ing the surface. Or he may seem normal enough compression chamber is located. Know how you upon reaching sea level only to collapse, lose will reach it if circumstances require. co..sciousness, turn blue, or froth blood at the Carbon monoxide poisoning. This can result mouth. The severity depends on the extent of from contamination of the air used in filling the lung blowout damage. The treatment is scuba tanks. One of the most common problems 210 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES is engine exhaust gas finding its way into the the bubbles get into the joints, there may be a air intake of the compressor. One should be great deal of pain, a rash, or mottling of the sure of his air sources. skin. Commonly known as the bends, decom- Nitrogen narcosis. It is caused by the high pression sickness must be treated by decom- partial pressure of nitrogen at depth. The result pressing the diver. The standard Navy diving is similar to drinking to excess. There is an tables should be consulted to avoid decompres- anaesthetic effect. The diver becomes irresponsi- sion sickness. There are "No Decompression" ble and a hazard to himself. It is recommended limits w,tich permit a diver to dive without that sports divers limit their dives to no more resorting to decompression. Learning how to than 130 feet. use these tables is a must for any diver. Decompression sickness. When the diver is Additional symptoms of decompression sick- exposed to an increased partial pressure of any nees aredizziness, weakness or paralysis any- gas, large amounts of gas will enter the diver's where in body, numbness, loss of consciousness, blood and tissues. When the diver ascends, the vision impairment up to blindness, ringing in pressure is reduced and the gas tends to form the ears, and convulsions. Since a bend can lead bubbles. If the body tolerance is exceeded and to permanent injur) , treatment should be prompt.

SAFETY NOTES

When diving it is customary to carry a diver- spot in the metal which may blow out at some down flag either flown on a boat or afloat on point. an innertube with a carryall net. A line from Hanzess. Check the cylinder harness regu- the float to the diver will assure him of its close larly. Fasten all straps so that they can be easily proximity and will avoid his being run down reler sed. by boats. Lubrication. Avoid using oil or grease on high Personal float. This device, worn like a vest, pressure fittings. Use a silicon lubricating fluid has a carbon dioxide cartridge for emergency and use it sparingly. inflation and a tube outlet for breath inflation. It is exceptionally useful for emergency use and SKILLS OF SKTN AND SCUBA DIVING fine for supporting an unconscious or disabled diver. Because scuba is so easy to use many partici- Transporting cylinders. Since a fully chaiged pants tend to ignore the need to know basic air cylinder is potentially extremely dangerous swimming skills, to understand the nature of it should be transported with great care. Lay the environment into which they will be ventur- the cylinders down so that the valve is toward ing, and to comprehend the natural laws which the back of the car and the bottom of the govern and control the diver. cylinder is resting against the front wall of Basic skills and watermanship are essential the trunk and blocked against side motion. fci safe diving. The swimmer should be at ease Filling cylinders. This should be done slowly in the water, versatile in the use of strokes, and as there is a rapid increase in temperature. It have a thorough knowledge of the use of his is preferable to fill the cylinder while it is sub- equipment. merged in cold water. Under no circumstance The following skills are generally considered should work be done on a cylinder while it is requirements for watermanship in skin and under pressure. Avoid striking thecylinder scuba training: underwater swimming, the scis- against a sharp object; this can cause a weak sor or inverted scissor kick, the breaststroke, SKIN AND SCUBA DIVING 211

elementary backstroke, underwater dog paddle, 5. Refuse to participate in underwater cave, bicycle kick, dolphin kick, sculling, treading quarry, or derelict exploration if you are water, floating, towing methods, methods of an inexperienced diver, and never without submerging (feet first and head first), under- supplemental emergency equipment such water breaststroke, and dark water stroke. as a lifeline, flare, or light. In additiontothe basicstrokes students 6. Always use a reliable diving watch to time should know how to use the mask, the snorkel period underwater and to compute remain- and fins, the weight belt, and how to enter and ing oxygen supply. leave the water. Students should learn the use of scuba gear, the difference between open and closed circuit, and the mechanical principal involved in the operation of scuba. Important are methods of doffing and donning scuba gear, buddy breathing. In combination with the water work, the diver student should have a full exposure to the theory of diving with complete coverage of physics related to diving, medical aspects of diving, fundamentals of compressed gases, basic equipment, first aid, environment and marine life, and planning a dive. A full explanation of allthe foregoing is contained in the Council for National Coopera- tion in Aquatics publication, The New Science of Skin and Scuba Diving.2

PERSONAL SAFETY RULES Because of their important relationship to Figure 1. Proper instruction and equipment are es- needless accidents, the personal safety rules sentialto eliminate hazardsfortheuninitiated. which follow should always be reviewed and followed before diving: ENVIRONMENT AND MARINE LIFE 1. Inspect all equipment for completeness and operating condition before leaving home A factor in diving that varies the world over and again before diving. is, of course, environment. With basic skills 2. Refrain from diving when there are any firmly in hand the new diver ventures forth in symptoms of illness even a head cold this jet age to areas hitherto unavailable. If he or an upset stomach. has been well trained he will have a general 3. Never dive alone but always in the im- concept of the most common environmental mediate company of a pra,:ticed buddy, situations. He will want to check, however, with the local experts to find out the particular en- remembering that diving inthree'salso results in one diver being without a partner. vironmental hazards of the strange diving area. 4. Resist the temptation to stay down a little For example, what are the local referencescon- longer or to continue to dive rather than cerning: climate, temperature, bottom contour, resting as soon as the first sign of fatigue marine life, currents and tides, visibility? is apparent. Diving on the East Coast is different from the California coast. Diving in Florida caves is 2 Ibid. different from northern lakes. Special techniques 212 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

are required to negotiate the kelp beds of the divers since cuts and scratches can easily become West Coast. Worry about shark or other preda- infected. These should be cared for. tory marine life is of little concern to the lake Other varied forms of marine life include: diver. sea urchins which are dangerous if stepped on What of the peculiarities of current and bot- as the spines cause infection; scorpion fish, tom, what about fallen trees and man-made poisonous to man; and sea snakes which often clutter in dark waters? What of the crush of secrete a poison that acts on the nerves. They small boats and their inexperienced pilots? Ob- are usually timid and bite only when threatened. viously some caution is required, and a willing- Barnacles and tube worms because of sharp ness to learn from the locals can be helpful. shells can cause cuts and abrasions which are Marine life. Sharks are known and feared the easily infected. world over. They vary from the harmless whale Lobsters and crabs because of their powerful shark to the voracious great white shark with claws can cause painful wounds and in the case numerous varieties between. Unless the diver is of large lobsters even fingers may be severed. positive of his identification of the species he is Sea lions, while not generally aggressive, may advised to use utmost caution when he en- become so if the diver inadvertently wanders counters sharks. At best he is hardly a match near young members of the species. for them. There are stories of rare exploits Kelp, a form of seaweed, can be a real hazard against these fish but generally one is advised to the diver unacquainted with how to negotiate to leave the water if possible. such areas. A diver surfacing in kelp should, Many divers tell stories of swimming among with hands overhead, open the kelp and look barracuda. This voracious fish has a mouthful about for a clear area underwater. Swimming of sharp teeth and can be very aggressive where through such seaweed on the surface is a sure blood is spilled. way to become often hopelessly entangled. If Moray eels usually are content to guard their one does become entangled he sh,uld remain homes. An inquisitive diver may bear the brunt calm, quietly disentangle self, and drop under of an attack. They are best left alone. for a swim to clear area. Octopus is a peaceful sea dweller of nocturnal One should find out from local divers con- habits and retreating personality. The large cerning edible fish. Some fish are just not good variety is seldom seen. for human consumption. The squid is much more aggressive than the Ichthyotoxism is a form of poisoning brought octopus and can inflict a severe bite when an- on by eating fish. Nausea, vomiting, and ab- gered. The giant squid grows up to 50 feet. dominal cramps may occur some hours after Generally, members of the ray family are of eating. This may be followed by diarrhea, little trouble to the diver. If speared or stepped numbness, paralysis, and even some inhibition on, however, the sting ray can inflict a severe of the senses. Not much is known about the wound requiring medical attention. Shuffling treatment of such a malady, thus there should the fins along the bottom in shallow water be an informational survey in advance of eating. should cause the ray to move on. Consult a physician if any of the above symp- Coelenterates includes jellyfish, Portuguese toms are in evidence to an aggravated degree. man-of-war, sea anemones, and most coral polyps. The sting of the Portuguese man-of-war FIRST AID can be sufficient to hospitalize a swimmer. jelly- In diving, much of first aid lore will apply but fish cause discomfort to the swimmer in mild remember there are such problems as the bends and sometimes severe form. Protective clothing and embolism that are not relieved by ordinary will help here. Coral made up of millions of fiistaid procedures. These items have been living and dead polyps can be a menace to treated brieflyearlier in this discourse. The SKIN AND SCUBA DIVING 213 trained diver should have gone througha very If these three symptomsare absent, carefully complete course of first aid with specific refer- examine the victim to discover what his injuries encc to diving problems. are and try to make him comfortable. Remem- Being properly prepared through training is ber there may be internal bleeding, broken the best way to avoid accidents caused by sim- bones, severe damage to the neckor head. Know ple neglect. When the unavoidable happens, how to deal with bleeding, shock, internal knowing what to do can save a life. hemorrhaging, decompression sickness, andem- There is an order of priority in first aid. First, bolism. One should be familiar with first aid is the victim breathing? If not, artificial respira- for fractures, burns, and injuries caused by tion precedes everything except for unrestrained, marine life. heavy bleeding. If the victim is bleeding, appro- The most important first aid program anyone priate pressure point applications must be made can learn concerns good training, physical fit- immediately. What of shock? This usually fol- ness, and observance of the basic safety rules lows an injury and may cause death. of diving by planning and preparation.

References

Council for National Cooperation in Aquatics. The New Halstead, Bruce W. Dangerous Marine Animals. Cam- Science of Skin and Scuba Diving. rev. ed. New York: bridge, Md.: Cornell Maritime Press, 1959. Association Press, 1967. U.S. Navy Diving Manual (NAVSHIPS250-538).Wash- Gilbert, Perry W. Sharks and Survival. Ithaca, N.Y.: ington, D.C.: United States Department of the Navy, Cornell University Press, 1963. 1970. 687 pp. Surfboarding IHENRY F. POHL, A.B.

Surfboarding ranks as the third most popular Many beginners buy their boards first and individual aquaticsport, surpassed only by then try to learn the sport, Instructors generally swimming and underwater diving. Over one and use an oversized board which givesstability a half million Americans participatein the and buoyancy, for this type of board is the sport.' Of these, 85% are males under 21 years easiest to ride. Many youths, however, want to of age. Surfing seems to have mystical powers own the latest and slickest board. Theseboards on the youths who live, sleep, andbreathe it. are designed for the expert who has mastered With the development of the neoprene rubber the basic skills and can ride a plank. That is suit, surfers are able to enjoy the sport year- why it is best for beginners first to seek advice round. Water of 48 degrees or lower does not from a surfing school or surfshop as to which deter the young surfers. In fact, some munici- board is most suitable for them. palities conduct surfing contests during the One does not become an expert surfer in a winter months. year or two. It is a long, arduous learning proc- All over the country surfing schoolsare ess under allconditions. From the physical cropping up and it is best for a beginner to standpoint, the smaller, agile surfer makes the take lessons. Although many outstanding surf- more picturesque and better surfer; theheavy ers are self-taught, the processis long and six-footer needs powerful waves to push him arduous. With modern techniques, learning time through the water to gain all the advantages can be greatly reduced. An expert surfingin- the lighter surfer will enjoy. This is why the structor can give the youngster allessential little man is the one who gets most of the acco- fundamental knowledge in one lesson. From lades in this sport. However, when it comes to that point, it is a matter of long and patient big wave riding, the larger men come out on top. practice. The beginner must get out into the water and spend several hours each daywork- ACCIDENTS ing on his techniques under varying conditions. Fatalities resulting from surfing accidents are Every wave is a personal challenge, for no two relatively few. Most surfing experts consider it waves are alike. a comparatively safe sport. Statistics regarding accidents, however, are limited and unreliable. 'Market research for Surfing East Magazine. Most surfing accidents do not disable the surfer

214 SURFBOARDING 215 for participation while recovering from his in- any injury is caused by negligence on the part jury. Perhaps disabling accidents are minimal of the surfer. Surfing is a calculated risk, which because the surfer usually lands on a soft to many is a small price to pay for the precious cushion, as compared to an automobile accident moments of exhilaration one receives as he victim who is flung onto a hard surface. whips through a wild wave. Unfortunately, The greatest speed that a surfer travels is 25 some surfers regard it as a badge of honor to or 30 miles per hour. His chances of surviving a carry scars of the sport; wipeouts and injuries wipeout (a wave breaking on top of a surfer, make tremendous conversation for those nights causing the surfer to be knocked off his board) when one is with his closest friends and surfers. or a pearl dive (the nose of the board knifing underwater) depends upon the amount of time MODERN SURFBOARD the surfer spends on the board during the ride. Once a surfer overcomes the initial moments This ancient sport of the Polynesian kings of the ride, he can generally control any disaster was reborn with the advent of World War II. by maneuvering the board into such a position Prior to this time, the West Coast was peppered that he will be free from collision with the with surf clubs. They had virtually all the area plunging or flying board. Many surfers are they could use for this sport. No limitations aware of the pitfalls of being wiped out by a were placed upon the surfer or his club. During wall of water and have trained themselves to those times the surfer used equipment which hold their breath underwater for 15 to 20 sec- only a fine physical specimen could handle and onds or longer, Once a turbulence passes, the paddle. The boards, which were solid and made surfer is popped upward and is free to fend for of redwood and balsa, weighed approximately himself. This type of condition exists where 100 pounds or more. With the development of polyurethane foam, huge masses of water break upon a shallow reef. the shape, weight, and performance of the board With the limited areas in which surfers are changed. The change occurred in 1947 with the allowed to practice their sport, loose boards introduction of the "pig" board, a light, short, cause many minor accidents which result in and wide polyurethane foam surfboard. Modern injury to the head and torso. In the United technology improved the materials and con- States in 1966, fairly reliable statistics revealed struction, the fiberglass covering, and the shape that 14 persons lost their lives in surfing acci- until today the average board weighs about 30 dents. In 1967, five persons died from surfing pounds, a far cry from the monsters with which accidents. One well-known surfer lost his life the old-timers battled the waves. In today's age by not practicing the safety rules of the Bonzai ofspecialization,manufacturersofsurfing pipeline, an area in Hawaii noted for dangerous equipment have devised a surfboard for every waves. The rules require that when a surfer possible wave condition. Surfing has probably misreads a wave and takes off incorrectly, he reached its highest point of technical perfection should dive back into the wave. This individual, with the foam board. Manufacturers have done who was an expert surfer in a foreign country everything possible to make the boards faster and conditionedto deep water, forgotthis and more maneuverable. safety measure and dove head first into the Modern surf-riding developed in the United shallow water, receiving fatal injuries. States and the techniques and skills used by Broken teeth and noses, cut eyebrows and the West Coasters have spread all over the chins, scalp gashes, and broken ribs are some world. surfinginjuries. A properlytrainedsurfer knows the techniques of rising to the water MINI BOARD surface after leaving his board in an emergency. This is a cardinal rule of surfing. Most expert The surfboard, from thebeginning, was surfers believe that surfing is a safe sport and standardized in length, width, weight, and type 216 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

elAL

Figure 1. Cutting in front of another surfer about to take off can lead to collision and possible injury.

i 6

Figure 2. Courtesy prevents accidents. The bottom surfer is about to "pull out" and swing his board into the path of the other surfer. Figure 3. Because of shallow water, riding the wave all the way to the beach is a dangerous stunt.

Figure 4.Collisionbe- tween surfers is a common hazard at crowded beaches and where waves are small and close to shore. 218 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

of wood. In 1920, surfers began to experiment the movements drastically different from those with the lengths and shapes of boards. Light- performed on the 10 footers. Only arduous and ness began to make its appearance with the continuous practice results in mastery of the introduction of the balsa and, immediately after new Mini board. that, the hollow board, patented by Thomas Professionalsurfers who represent manu- Edward Blake. The most popular boards were facturers are constantly changing and improving solid, 12 to 14 feet long, and difficult to carry the modern board. If the present trend contin- and maneuver in the water, for they weighed ues, eventually a four foot disc made of foam ... over 100 pounds. The invention of fiberglass will be created, introducing a new venture into cloth and polyester resin in the 1940s enabled this ancient sport of Polynesian kings. the surfer to experiment with rigidity and protection of the light, soft woods which were used in surfboard manufacture. SAFETY EQUIPMENT. Immediately after World War H, a complete There is a group of surfing enthusiasts who revolution of the sport took place with the ap- believe that participants should wear protective pearance of foam boards. These boards were equipment while surfing. The item that has light, durable, sensitive to movements, and pre- made inroads into the sport is the crash helmet, sented a new challenge to the surfer. The boards which is similar to the one worn by motor- rapidly supplanted the balsa and hollow boards. cyclists. An outstanding surfing contest on the As surfers began to improve their techniques West Coast demands that each surfer wear the and discover new adventures in wave riding, helmet or be disqualified. Many contestants manufacturers sought new ideas to market their dislike the requirement because they find the products in a highly competitive field. They en- helmet cumbersome and a detriment once they gaged professional surfers to seek new avenues are underwater. No contestant has yet claimed for the expression of their abilities; hence, they that the helmet has saved his life or prevented began to change the shape, to shorten, and to an injury. Because the majority of surfers who lighten the boards by using higher density engage in contests are expert enough to handle foams. any emergency, the wearing of the helmet is In 1968, the Mini board, or the short board, still highly controversial. with its various shapes and designs, was intro- Another suggested item is an inflated ski belt duced. Its impact on surfers was tremendous. wrapped around the waist of the surfer. Not Within a very short time, the Mini board proved many have used it, but several surfing spokes- that it was here to stay and has now replaced men feel this would be much better than the the heavy 10 foot foam board. helmet. Life jackets are a poor device because One must be an expert surfer to handle this they need to be inflated before leaving the short, unstable, lightning fast board. The mod- board. Then, ifthe jacket were inflated and ern surfer is no longer interested in riding the worn on the board it would be difficult for the waves in the classic style of a Duke Kahana- surfer to maneuver with it. moku. He looks upon a wave as a challenge. He Most expert surfers who engage in contests wants to "wring-out-the-wave," that is, shoot frown upon safety devices, probably because the wave, climb the wave, "go-over-the-falls," they surf in =congested areas, know what they cut right, cut left, and perform maneuvers never are doing, and have expertise. With such favor- before attempted. The Mini board answers his able conditions, the chances of becoming injured desires for freedom and accomplishment of are 1,000 in one. The expert surfers assume that these feats. surfers have a better chance of survival if they This modern equipment is solely for the ac- are unhindered by head gear, waist belt, or complished surfer. The techniques are radical, carbon dioxide packet. At any rate, the funda- SURFBOARDING 219 mental skill required of a surfer is that he be Too many surfers do not observe safe habits. an efficient swimmer. Many ride directly up to the beach. Many young surfers abandon their boards once they feel they are going to be spilled. The loose board SURFING AREAS isa weapon which causes much danger to With the approach of spring and summer, up bathers. Some beaches confiscate loose boards go the signs at the beach fronts warning the and make the surfer pay a fine to recover his surfers of the hours when surfing is permitted. board. A surfer has two alternatives: to surf early in the morning before the beaches open for bathers FORMAL SURFBOARDING INSTRUCTION and swimmers, or to surf after the beach closes In the opinion of the author, an instructional in the early evening. Some municipalities have program in surfboarding should be divided into designated areas where surfers can surf all day. two phases beginner and standard. The be- It is in these areas that congestion occurs and ginner course, comprising about eight one-hour many accidents happen. Some areas are marked lessons, is intended for individuals who have off by rock jetties, others by wooden bulkheads had no previous formal instruction. The stand- or by buoys in the water. Ifall the surfers ard course, of about 10 hours, is designed for could be allowed more room there would be those who wish to perfect the beginner skills less danger of congestion. and offers advanced techniques to an all-around The surfer often feels that he has the right surfboardman. Each lesson may include an in- of way and incidents have occurred when surf- troductory lecture on the topic of the day (10 ers have literally surfed over swimmers and minutes), demonstration and practice of skills, bathers with their surfboards. Such discourtesy both land and water (45 minutes), and a con- and lack of consideration for others have created cluding question or discussion period (5 min- animosity and have banned surfers from many utes). Variations can be made both in time and areas. content to meet different situations.

References

Dixon, Peter L. Men and Waves: A Treasury of Surfing. Kirk, Cameron and Hanle, Zack. Surfer's Handbook. New York: Coward-McCann, Inc., 1966. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1968. The Complete Book of Surfing. rev. ed. New Kuhns, Grant W. On Surfing. Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. York: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1969. Tuttle Co., Inc., 1963.

Ice Skating ICARL W. MOEN, B.A.

The exact date of the origin of skating is 4. Ice safety is based upon a knowledge of uncertain, although it is referred to in literature the physical characteristics of ice. Without as early as the lath century, and possibly dates this background, itis difficult to under- back even earlier.It very likely originated in stand the dangers inherent in this winter Scandinavia. sport and recreation. The first skates were fashioned from bone or 5. A cardinal principle of safety is the law wood fastened to the feet with strips of leather. of transfer of training. Safety conscious- Next in the transition of the skate was theuse ness developed at home, learned on the of iron, and finally steel. In 1850 steel-bladed athletic field, implanted in the shop, or skates were invented by E. W. Bushnell of Phil- acquired on other fields is transferred to adelphia; his invention truly marked the begin- the out-of-doors and contributes materially ning of modern day skating. Adaptations in- to our safe conduct on ice. cluded the skate designed for speed skating Ice is a relatively safe playground; basic to (indoors or out), figure skating, hockey,or for all ice and water safety is the knowledge of any other special usage. how to swim. This may seem far afield when writing about ice safety, but many a life has PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY been saved because the victim ofa plunge through ice did not panic. Acase in point is a 1. A major principle of ice safety is respect man who stretched his arms up on the ice, per- the ice. This is fundamental in the de- mitting his mittens to freeze to the ice before velopment of a sound philosophy of ice pulling himself to safety. safety. In this field, the American Red Cross deserves 2. Man's drive for safety underlies the entire recognition for inaugurating the learn to swim safety program. A man in combat under- program and foritscontinuingleadership. stands this principle very well. It may be Major credit also must be given to the National actuated by fear or panic, yet when under- Safety Council for coordinating, motivating, and stood -and properly disciplined, itis the directing the safety program ona state and most powerful motivating factor in safety. national level in order to achieve a united effort 3. Safety is a state of mind and it is best on all fronts to prevent needless injuries and achieved through education and experience. accidents.

221 222 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

FACTS ABOUT ICE

Since safety is all-inclusive, ice safety should Depending upon the degree of turbulence, as include the hazards of ice. Safety in skating well as the temperature, the crystals of frazil must anticipate many hazards, such as unsafe ice unite and form little floating masses of ice, ice at inlets and outlets of lakes fed by springs which continue to grow by accretion of other and areas between the stakes of the nets of similar ice masses. If this growth is accom- fishermen where a large catch of fish struggling plished without crushing, a thin sheet of rubber in nets will wear ice paper thin. These are some ice forms. of the hazards which are multiplied by the early Freezing oftenoccurs very suddenly,six freeze-up and the spring thaw. inches of ice cover forming in a few days. How- What is said here about the physical char- ever, normal winter temperatures in our north- acteristics of ice applies equally to iceboating, ern tier of states rarely produce sheets of ice fishing, or any other activity on ice. Several years more than 30 inches thick. On the other hand, ago the newspapers reported an accident on ice on Great Slave Lake in northern Canada, ice involving a snowmobile towing a sled with five begins to form about October 15, freezes to a aboard (a father and his four children). The maximum depth of 5 to 6 feet in March, and snowmobile crashed through thin ice near the goes out in late June. Sea ice on the Arctic Sea inlet of a lake. This accident involved a crucial is said to Le about 15 feet thick, which is suffi- lack of knowledge about lakes and the forma- cient for ice safety. tion of ice. Most of us have some knowledge about sleet, Water exists in the atmosphere as a vapor hail, glaze, frazil ice, and anchor ice, but few and is precipitated as rain and snow, dew and bother to inquire about the detailed character- frost, water and ice. These forms are all chemi- istics of just "plain ice." cally related, but physically they have widely Liquid water is a mixture of several molecular different characteristics. forms of H2O, only one of which can change Many people are familiar with the actions of into solid ice. Water, upon freezing, increases streams and lakes during the summer, but little about one-eighth in bulk, but the resulting ice thought is given to the winter phase of their is less dense than the underlying water, and so annual cycle. With the coming of cold weather, it floats. the water in a lake or stream is gradually cooled. Ice has nearly eight times as great a capacity Temperatures Within the mass of water tend for thermal expansion as steel. Ice on a lake toward uniformity due to continuous, turbulent surface expands or contracts with the rise and currents. Cold, dense, surface layers sink, and fall of the air temperature, and since air tem- the lighter bottom layers of warm water rise peratures have a considerable range of fluctu- toward the surface. ation in winter, the ice changes in volume. An Gradually the entire mass attains a tempera- appreciable drop in temperature causes the ice ture of 39.2 degrees F.(point of maximum to contract, producing cracks which refill with density); the surface film of water is further more ice. When a subsequent rise in temperature cooled, and when itapproaches the freezing produces an expansion of the whole ice mass, point, needle-like crystals of ice called frazil ice a tremendous force is exerted against the shore, begin to form. On small lakes, or in the shelt- often in excess of 30,000 pounds per square ered portions of large lakes, ice begins to form foot. Imagine this impact upon shoreline beauty when air temperatures fall below freezing, vet and upon the safety of ice travel. wind and wave action may prevent the com- Extreme cases have been noted where ice plete freezing of large lakes even when the air action has moved houses off their foundations, temperature falls below 32 degrees F. destroyed retaining walls, damaged cottages, ICE SKATING 223 and uprooted trees. Expansion of a sheet of ice When walking or skating on ice, always re- 150 feet in width has been known to move a member the rule, "If you feel you are breaking masonry bridge pier weighing 1,000 tons two through, throw yourself forward and out flat, inches out of plumb, and in another instance if you possibly can." One may reach firm ice masonry piers on pile foundations have been or at least have sufficient purchase to pull or pushed from 2 to 12 inches out of line. wiggle his way out. At any rate, this action may keep an individual from going down under and WHEN IS ICE SAFE? getting lost under the ice. Recreation on ice is 20 times safer than other If the individual falls through the ice but recreational sports on water and 50 times safer has his arms outstretched on the ice, he should than travel on our streets and highways. This use his feet as a propeller and edge himself up is based on a 25 year study of fatalities on ice, and onto the ice. Getting out of water is greatly water, and highways. simplified if the person equips himself with a When is ice safe? Any answer must be con- pair of ice awls. They are not cumbersome and ditional. Ice might be safe for a man on skis, can be a real lifesaver. but unsafe for a man on foot. Ice may not be If an accident happens, the help of a com- of uniform thickness because of the thawing panion can be crucial. If an individual and his action of lake bottom springs of flowing water. companion are properly equipped with a rope, Generally, two inches of ice are considered safe the rescue can be expedited. Or if nearby there for a man on foot and four to six inches will sup- is a long branch or a pole, these could be used. port groups of people and vehicles. Four inches If these props are unavailable, but there are thick is considered safe for light loads and eight two or three companions, ,the "human chain" inches thick is considered safe for ;cads up to method can be used to effect the rescue: lie face- 1,000 pounds per square foot. Transportation down on the ice, grasping the ankles of the on ice should not be attempted unless a wide person ahead and edging forward until the margin for error is allowed. It is said that ice front person can reach the individual in distress. 15 inches thick will support a railway train. In Lying prone does not require much ice to sup- fact, during the Russo-Japanese War shortly port the human body. aftertheturnofthecentury,the Trans- After rescue 11,..s been made the job is only Siberian railroad begun in 1891 was extended half done. The clothes of the person rescued on ice across Lake Baikal to connect the east are going to freeze and make the victim prac- and west links during the winter. This strategem tically immobile. Shelter and warmth should be of trains on ice was repeated in the defense of sought immediately. The shelter may be a car Stalingrad during World War II. with a heater, it may be a fishing shack, a warming house for skaters, or a house a mile ICE SAFETY or so away. Waste no time in getting to shelter. When one is preparing for an outdoor journey on ice, whether it be skating or any other ac- HOCKEY tivity, there are certain items of equipment and certain things to remember that may save one's As skating developed, a natural outgrowth life. A pair of ice awls, which can be carried was hockey. Canada is recognized as the birth- with a strong cord around the neck, should be place of this international sport. As early as purchased. A hank of rope is a must if one is 1855 the first recorded ice hockey was attributed on an extended ice expedition with a friend or to the Royal Canadian Rifles at Kingston, On- party. Know the lake, make sure the ice is safe, tario. Later, the first organized game with pre- and abstain from free-lance skating over the scribed rules was played at McGill University wide reaches of the lake. in Montreal with possibly 15 players on a side. 224 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Rule changes followed rapidly until 1926 when "Ice Capades," "Sonja Heine Ice Revue," and six became the number of players on a team. the "Holiday on Ice Shows." Shows on ice have Hailed as a great contact sport, safety become to stay as a major attraction of the enter- came a prime consideration from the outset. tainment world. From the standpoint of safety Protective clothing t'as adopted and today is these shows areself-policed, haveexcellent standardized largely with the exception of pro- medical supervision, and cause no real concern fessional hockey player3, who for one reason or to the public. another disdain wearing the helmet. A recent Skating on an ice rink or controlled and death, however, from brain concussion by a supervised areais one thing, but free-lance professional hockey player may hasten the day skating on the wide open spaces of lakes and when helmets will be worn by all. Safety con- streams poses far greater hazards. Safety on ice siderations should make it mandatory. is predice an a few basic principles and on a knowledge of the physical characteristics of FIGURE AND SPEED SKATING ice, its formation, ane inherent variations.

Figure skating has become a major competi- ICE ACCIDENTS tive sport involving first sectional championships, next the United States championships, Accidents incidental to ice skating parallel then the North American championships, and those of other sports sprained ankles, bruises, finally the world championships. Of no less a broken arm or leg, or a concussion from a fall complexity has been the growth of speed skat- or other injury. But the accident that merits ing as evidenced by the United States Outdoor special attention is drowning. It is unrestricted child and Indoor Championships flanked bythe play on icethat most often leads to United States Open Indoor and Open Outdoor drowning. Championships. Skating has come of age. Haz- Parentsshould beacutely aware ofthe ards exist in both figure and speed skating but dangers of thin ice. Drowning tragedies occur they are largely of the nuisance variety and are every year because children skate, walk, or play of slight importance to the safety program. on a glazed-over body of water. Children are fascinated by ice and do not seem to realize the danger of thin ice. They find delight in playing ICE SHOW SPECTACULARS on "rubber ice." P- vn. y natural that skating should lend Children should be allowed to skate only in itself to showmanship. The advent of mechani- -upervised areas with a companion, never alone. cal refrigeration brought skating indoors. Almost They should be taught to stay close to shore immediately skating was destined to become a vhere the water is only waist deep. They should great spectator sport. The "Ice Follies" was be warned against congregating in gioups and first produced by Oscar Johnson and Edward against building warming fires on the ice. and Ray Shipstad in 1936. In 20 years it was Unsupervised child play is possibly our great- estimated that this one show played to over 40 est safety hazard, a crime chargeable in many million people. In rapid succession followed the cases to parental delinquency.

SUMMARY Safety L.; not a prescribed formula to be' ap- 1. Recreation on iceis 20 times safer than plied in any one given area. It is not wise to recreational sports on water and 50 times isolatesafetyiniceskating from all other safer than travel on our highways. avenues of safety. Safety is a state of mind. 2. Nothing is important, including safety, un- Consider the following summary statements: less it bears on the welfare of people. ICE SKATING 225

3. Ice is safe safe enough to carry a rail- 6. Ice has nearly eight times as great a capac- road train! ity for thermal expansion as steel. Ice is 4. The most disastrous accident of the a greater hazard to property than to life. century was the sinking of the Titanic on It is destructive of shoreline beauty. April 14, 1912 with a loss of 1,513 lives. 7. Water, in one form or another, has the 5. Studded tiresare on trial in connection greatest recreational potential of all our with ice safety. natural resources. Snowshoeing IROY MORRIS, B.A.

One day in central Asia about 4000 B.C. First, there is the sense of walking on water. somebody became tired of being snowbound Then, only yards from the road and into the and devised a way to walk up and across the trees, one finds himself included in nature's snow by fastening crude wooden slats onto his living room. With hushed excitement he sees feet. Hence, the first snowshoes, direct parents fresh tracks crossing his path or an incredible of the ski, were born. The idea did not happen creation of deep-fallen snow. Suddenly, a pine anywhere else; the rest of the world had to wait squirrel shatters the silence with a tirade against for it to emerge out of Asia. After that, men for intruders while a porcupine peeks from behind the first time were able to track and take their a trunk only one-third the size of his stomach. game regardless of heavy snow and to inhabit One fascination follows another until it is time onceinaccessiblelandsinnorthernNorth for the snowshoer to retract his tracks. He is America, northern Japan, Outer Mongolia, Si- surprised to realize what a small patch of space beria, northern Europe, and Scandinavia. it takes to make a wonderland. Today, after 6,000 years, snowshoes endure The chief dangers to consider when snow- not only because of the ranchers, foresters, sci- shoeing are bad weather, fording streams, and entists, and utility linemen who use them, but snowslides. Beyond that, if one remembers to also because of their popularity as a sport. In travel in company and carry a ski pole for pre- the high mountains it is increasingly common testing certain steps, he will probably have a to find snowshoe trails, many of which span safe trip. A very important tip is to walk na- into areas where even snowmobiles and skis turally. Comfort depends upon loose but warm are prohibited. Although there are some dis- clothing, goggles, and waterproof boots. Plea- sure, of course, depends upon planning. If one senters who say snowshoeing is not really fun, but hard work, increasing numbers of people remembers to bring food, a camera, matches, have welcomed it as an inexpensive addition binoculars, and other items that are important to their winter entertainment. to him, he will have a pleasurable trip. Finally, the snowshoer should seek the advice of some- A snowshoer enjoys firsthand what many one experienced when selectingshoes, even can only experience vicariously at the movies. when only for rental.

226 SNOWSHOEING 227

Figure1. A wintersportsman hikes in snowshoes.

Figure 2. A snowshoe with considerable upturn at the toe is best for light, unpacked snow. Lont,ar shoes are used for distance travel. JAMES G. GARRICK, M.D. Skiing IWILLIAM C. SEARS, M.S.

Apart from its highly touted glamour, skiing published data on ski safety has consisted of offers advantages seldom afforded by other opinions often unsubstantiated by fact. sports. Skiing may be a team or group endeavor, Any safety program is contingent upon uni- and thus has something in common with most versally accepted definitions; we will use the other athletic activities at the high school or definitions of the National Ski Safety Research. college level. However, it is almost unique in While these definitions are by no means uni- that it can be enjoyed equally well singly or versal, they are similar to those used in the in groups. An even bigger benefit enjoyed by study of ski safety that provides the back- the skier is that he can continue to ski after ground for this material. leaving formal educational environs. Skier. Any active participant in the sport if Skiing tends to have universal appeal because only for a single day. The individual need not there are few people physically incapable of own equipment to qualify as a skier. skiing. Indeed, the loss of hearing, sight, or Injury. Any physical disability suffered as a even an arm or leg does not preclude skiing. result of skiing or using uphill transportation All ages ski. As opposed to football, basketball, (while wearing skis) in order to ski (i.e., a ski soccer, and other team sports, two teams aren't lift or tow). required for skiing. Ski area. Terrain used for skiing regardless of Because skiing has traditionally been some- height, acreage, ancillary facilities, etc. what removed from the typical high school Bindings. The apparatus which holds skier or college athletic program, it is often judged (boot) to ski. Essentially, all currently available harshly by the uninformed. Thus ski safety is bindings employ some mechanical system de- usuallypresentedinthe negative sense of signed to release the boot from the ski following prominent people with broken legs and plaster the application of certain stresses. The term casts and a host of circumstances implying in- "release" or "releasable" binding could be used. herent dangers. However, thisis currently being discouraged Certainly much of the misunderstanding sur- because the adjective "release" (or "releasable") rounding skiing stems from the fact that the often, and wrongly, impliesa measure of sport has, in the United States, only recently safety,muchastheolderterm,"safety come of age. With a few notable exceptions, binding," did. SKIING 229

1111111L114411Lari..

- ;.!:;Z.L'ae" 'itzt,ralk±v: 4.14.;ki 41111N.

Figure 1. Good technique leads to enjoymentof skiing and the outdoors.

PROBLEMS UNIQUE TO SKIING

A system of uniform injury reportingin athletic supervisor responsible for skiing pro- skiingisalmost nonexistent. Thus we lack grams. He will, no doubt, have a high percent- validinformation regardingthe number of age of the injuries reported to him and, as a skiers and the number who are injured. result, it will appear that an inordinate number Injuries sustained by skiers are reported for of his students is being injured. Like the in- reasons far more capricious than most investi- structor of a ski school class, he will find him- gators care to admit. Although most disabling self in a position of being "responsible" for injuries (i.e., fractures and major sprains) come the safety of the skiers; this is a situation almost to the attention of persons in the area, these unique in skiing. injuries represent, at most, a quarter of all ski A problem intrinsic to ski areas stems from injuries. The less severe injuries are reported the fact that unless the skier is a member of a to the area people for a variety of reasons. For ski school class, he is a free agent on the slopes. example, injuries occurring to preteenage chil- Restraintsregardingtrafficcontrol,reckless dren are more likely to be reported than those skiing, and discourteous acts are generally kept involving skiing conditions within the realm of to a minimum. In addition, skiers are free to ski control of the ski area (e.g., injuries occurring where they please. on uphill transportation devices or those caused by rutted trails or exposed rocks). On the other TRAIL MARKINGS hand, male and more expert skiers are less likely to report their injuries. The current universal system of trail mark- The lack of consistency in the reporting of ings classifies the various slopes as to difficulty. injuries makes it difficult to ascertain the prob- There is still nothing except the sign to prevent lems that will face the high school or college the novice from attempting to ski a slope for 230 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

experts. Although this situation rarely yields AID TO SKIERS injuries, the loss of self-confidence resulting from a prolonged, terrifying journey down a too The skipatrol meritsadditional mention. difficult slope can be devastating. Class instruc- There are no uniform, enforceable rules regard- tion or supervised group skiing can easily ing the training and expertise of the individuals alleviate this problem. who will be responsible for giving first aid and transporting the injured skier off the slope. Individual ski areas are free to establish their LIFTS AND TOWS own qualificationsregarding theindividuals Skiing involves active and passive injuries. they designate as ski patrolmen. These designees The former are those occurring while the indi- usually wear parkas marked with a cross and/or vidual is actually skiing; the latter involve the the words "Ski Patrol." use of the various uphill conveyances. There is a national organization, the National The well managed ski area not only posts Ski Patrol System (NSPS), which establishes directions regarding the proper method of using and teaches the optimum methods of handling uphill transportation, but also helps the neo- injured skiers. The actual first aid is within the phyte board the lift his first few times. The framework of the American Red Cross while skier must, however, indicate a lack of familiar- the transportation methods have been developed ity with the lift equipment, an admission seldom by the organization. Ski patrols (and patrolmen) made by teenagers. affiliated with this organization usually wear a rust colored parka with a blue and gold patch THE INJURED SKIER displaying the words "National Ski Patrol." The group consists mainly of volunteers who do an Finding, transporting, and caring for the in- admirable job with rescue and first aid. jured skier involve circumstances not commonly In addition to the NSPS volunteers, most ski encountered in other sports. The reporting of a areas hire at least one full-time, paid patrolman. ski injury and locating the injured skier should Larger areas may use full-time, paid, profes- involve no problem if the skiers follow posted sional patrolmen who are generally, in every instructions, do not ignore "closed" signs, and sense of the word, truly 'professional rescuers new., ski alone. The buddy system so success- and skiers. These professional groups may or ful in swimming is equally applicable in skiing. may not be NSPS affiliated. A lack of this affili- Skiers should know how to obtain help at ation implies nothing regarding competence in the particular area in use. The injured skier the work involved. Indeed, employment require- should be marked with a pair of skis stuck up- ments (e.g., first aid and rescue training and right into the snow so they form an "X" at a skiing ability) for paid professional ski patrol- location slightly uphill from the injured skier. men are, almost without exception, more strin- The injured skier should be allowed to lie where gent than those required by the NSPS. he has fallen. If a ski remains attached to the Regardless of the area's ski patrol affiliations, boot it should be removed only if it is causing itisof absolute importance that thearea pain and only if it can be accomplished without selected for organized student skiing have a causing additional discomfort to the skier. ski patrol of adequate size and training. In case of accident, the ski patrol should be notified. The injured skier generally should not be moved, his boots should not be removed, and EVALUATION OF THE INJURY no attempts should be made to correct a de- After the injured skier has been transported formity involving an arm or leg. The ski patrol- off the mountain and to the first aid facility, men who aid the injured skier are specially there remain two rather formidable problems: trained to deal with these problems. (1) who is available to determine the extent of SKIING 231 the injuries and (2) how will the injured skier seat of a car will serve adequately as a make- be transported to medical facilities for treatment? shift ambulance. Only the larger and more affluent ski areas Because skiing is not an on-campus activity, will have a physician. If there is no resident it presents other potential problems. The most physician, then the injured skier must be taken significantistransportation to the ski area. to a medical facility. One must assume that the Motor vehicle accidents are, in themselves, im- ski patrolmen or first aid attendants at the area portant considerations; they become more so will be capable of preparing the patient for this when coupled with icy roads, hilly or moun- journey (e.g., applying splints and dressings). tainous terrain, crowded vehicles with fogged One must also assume that the journey will windows, and loose,sharp, and heavyski be necessary. It goes without saying that the equipment in cars. It is quite probable that the skier who is injured severely enough that he trip to and from the ski area constitutes a more is brought to the first aid facility for treatment significant threat to the participants than does merits a physician's examination. "Over diag- the actual skiing. Thus, in addition to the ac- nosis" or judging a minor injury to be a severe cepted safe driving recommendations, the fol- one, is generally not the problem associated lowing should be stressed as well: with the evaluation of ski injuries. 1. Skies, boots, boot trees, and poles should Many ski areas will have available an am- never be carried in the passenger section bulance for transporting injured skiers. If this of the vehicle. is not available, especially in the case of school 2. Drivers should wear adequate, protective sponsored, supervised skiing, this contingency sunglasses which should be grey or grey- must be provided for. green and dark enough to transmit only a Ski injuries should be treated as soon as quarter of the light presented to them. possible. The injured skier should not have to 3. Ski boots should not be worn by the driver wait hours for a bus. In most cases the back of the vehicle.

ACCIDENT DETERRENTS

Because of lack of information, it is difficult three and six injuries per thousand ski man to determine whether skiing, in general, is be- days, i.e., three to six tenths of 1%. When this coming more or less safe. Because the sport figure is compared to the 20% to 30% seasonal lacks the organization and supervision of school- rate reported in some high school and college oriented sports, we are unable to compare spe- contact sports, the magnitude of the ski injury cific skiing safety trends with those of other problem is placed in a more proper perspective. athletic endeavors. Various facets of the ski industry have not been content with the safety record and have As skiingisoneofthemostvigorous athletic activities and is practiced mainly by instituted programs designed to promote safer skiing. non-athletes, its safety record is admirable. The lack of uniformity of injury reporting precludes the calculation of an absolute inju ry rate (i.e., ORGANIZED SAFETY EFFORTS- SKI AREAS the number of injuries per 1,000 skiing days). Among those displaying the most active in- However, thereexists no indisputedly valid, terest in injury prevention is the National Ski published report that places the reported injury Areas Association. This group's development, rate at greater than 1%. Indeed, most reports promulgation, and enforcement of a uniform place the rate of reported injuries at between code for uphill transportation facilities(lifts) 232 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

stands as a major milestone in injury preven- INSTRUCTION tion. Because of this organization's efforts, the If a goal of injury prevention can be attained severe (although never common)liftrelated by active participation of the industry and only injuries have nearly become a thing of the past. passive involvement of the individualskier, Uphill transportationfacilities continueto then the situation is ideal. Herein lies the suc- account for about 10% of all reported ski in- cess of programs instituted by area operators. juries. However, most of these injuries are a Significantly, another group in the ski world result of skier ineptitude. This is evidenced by activelypromotes ski the fact that most occur to novice skiers and safety with an even greater degree of personal skier contact. This are unrelated to lift malfunction. group isthe Professional Ski Instructors of The fact that these injuries are more frequent America (PSIA). on the less sophisticated lifts (e.g., rope tows) At present, the most effective deterrent of ski offers further credence to the novice aspect of injuries is an increase in skiing ability. This is these injuries. Many areas reserve their more particularly true for the least advanced skier. elaborate lifts (chair lifts, gondolas) for the The more advanced skier capable of "stem longer journeys to the more difficult slopes. turns" or more exacting maneuvers does little Thus, most lift oriented injuries are clearly to decrease his injury rate by increasing his the responsibility of the skier, a responsibility ability.However,atthesemore advanced to be shared by the supervisor of a school spon- stages, increased proficiency generally leads to sored ski program. Most ski areas will be willing more enjoyment at a minimal injury rate. to assist the supervisor in assuming this re- By establishing uniform ski instruction and sponsibility by detailing employees to instruct techniques throughout the country PSIA has in lift usage. Thus, the sponsor need only pro- made it possible for a skier to enjoy a con- vide the pupils for this instruction. tinuum of ski instruction regardless of the area Although there is no specific policy among in which he skies. This is of particular im- ski areas on slope grooming, the National Ski portance to the person responsible for student Areas Association (NSAA) provides for the skiers. Ski injuries are almost nonexistent dur- interchange of information. This allows member ing ski lessons under the direction of a certified areas to use techniques developed elsewhere. ski instructor. This in itself should be reason Skiinjuriesresulting from improper hill enough to seek the assistance of a ski school grooming are exceedingly uncommon (5% of under the direction of a certified ski instructor. reported injuries). This low incidence is, generally, the result of current grooming techniques. TRAIL MARKINGS There remain, in the ski world, zealots who A recent joint effort within the ski industry contend that learning to ski under less than also merits mention in regard to ski safety, the desirable circumstances (ice, rutted trails) pro- system of uniform trail markings. The student duces better skiers. There islittlestatistical skier should be acquainted with the shape, evidence to support this contention. There is, color, and meaning of these signs before he however, an equal paucity of evidence indicat- begins skiing. ing icy conditions as a major causal factor in The signs are presented in the context of each ski injuries. individual ski area. A sign indicating a "most Thus the party responsible for a group of difficult" trail or slope simply means that the student skiers (particularly if the students are particular slope. is "most difficult" for that area. neophytes) can rationalize using a well-groomed Another ski area, five miles away, might have a area only on the basis that it will provide more slope that is far easier (or more difficult) rated pleasurable skiing. This would surely seem to with the same sign because the second area's be an adequate rationale. designations relate only to its slopes. SKIING 233

However, the markings are consistent from The neophyte skier must also be acquainted area to area because the various degrees of diffi- with the "rules of the road" and the common culty are always presented by signs of similar courtesies of skiing. These include: stopping colors and shapes. A few words from the super- only on the sides of..trails or slopes never in visor can indicate the general degree of diffi- the center; using Arlberg straps (or some kind culty of the particular area to be skied. The of tether) to prevent runaway skis; looking markings can then be placed in a proper frame uphill before skiing onto a trail or slope; and of reference. acting in a courteous manner.

FIRST AID

A discussion of first aid for injured alders First aid for ski injuries involves splinting might indicate a lack of faith in a safety pro- and the avoidance of heat application. Ski boots gram. There are, however, two reasons for con- should not be removed on the slope. A snug sidering first aid material: (1) In a practical boot splints the ankle and provides a fixation sense, no safety program will prevent all in- point for the application of a long leg splint. juries, and (2) the first aid of ski injuries differs The boot will also impede swelling. appreciably from general first aid. Bleeding resulting from open wounds (usually Ski injuries cccut in a cold environment an lacerations from ski edges) can be controlled idealmedicalcircumstance. A combination by pressure bandages placed over the wound. of snow and low temperature decreases the Compound or open fractures should be covered amount of pain and swelling accompanying the by sterile dressings. A protruding bone should injury. While this is advantageous from a diag- not be withdrawn beneath the skin. Regardless nostic and treatment standpoint, it often gen- of the severity of the injury, the injured part erates a feeling of complacency regarding the should be elevated above the level of the heart severity of the injury. The fact remains that if possible. serious ski injuries are often relatively painless. Even when painful, the injuries are often more If the skier does not immediately seek a severe than would be expected on the basis of physician's evaluation, he should not take a hot pain and swelling alone. bath or shower. Ice packs should be applied to Minor injuries, especially those involving the the injured area. Heat should not be applied ankle and knee, require a physician's evaluation. during the first 36 to 48 hours after the injury. It is possible, in the first few hours, to walk First aid should be the responsibility of the (and indeed, ski) painlessly on a broken leg skipatrol. Thisisstillanother reason for or a knee with massive damage to the ligaments. choosing a ski area with an adequate ski patrol.

THE INJURED SKIER

Many individual considerations have been incidence of ski injuries appears to be a func- tentatively indicted as causal factors in ski in- tion of age, sex, and/or skiing ability. juries. This list includes: age, sex, marital status, occupation, physical condition, and geographic AGE location. Statistical credence can only be associated with age and sex of the skier. The relation- There appears to be a statistically significant ship of the other variablesto an increased relationship between age and the rate of occur- 234 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES rence of ski injuries. Generally, the increased is well accepted. Various reasons have been incidence involves those skiers of both sexes, suggested for this: and all abilities, before age 21 or 22; thisis most pronounced prior to age 19 and 20. 1. The anatomically awkward postureas- Age probably serves only as a measurable sumed by the novice skier in the snowplow parameter of some other variable (yet unknown) position. This would seem to be related to responsible for the increased incidence of in- the incidence of injuries, but proving the juries. Regardless of the true cause, the age relationship statistically significant has yet factor acts almost universally in the "student- to be undertaken. skier" age group; therefore, the school desig- 2. The inability of the novice to "fall prop- nated supervisor must be particularly diligent erly." Statistical support of this contention in the promotion of his safety program. is also lacking. 3. The increased frequency of accidents (falls, SEX notnecessarilyinjuries)inthenovice Sex isthe other measurable parameter re- groups. It may be that the incidence of ski sponsible for determining injury rates. More is injuries is directly proportional to the inci- involved here than the increase in injury rates dence of ski accidents. The distinction be- associated with females. Interestingly, this sex tween "ski accident" and "ski injury" is difference does not appear prior to puberty. an important one. When it does appear, it does so at the age of 4. Increased frequency of "lack of control" in female, not male, puberty. the novice groups. The importance of "be- This all may be on a pure physiologic basis. ing out of control" as a cause of injuries It is doubtful that the increased injury rate in is open to question. By definition, almost females is secondary to the lack of conditioning anyone who is injured skiing was "out of as some authors would contend. Regarding the control" at the time of the injury. If he was skier of student age it has yet to be shown that "in control" we must assume the injury females are in less ideal physical condition than was intentional. males of a comparable age. Thus, again, although we are not sure why to be injured than Preventive measures relating to ability are females are more likely obvious; improve the skier's ability and the males, the increased rate is statistically signifi. likelihood of his being injured will decrease. cant and safety programs for female student Thus, ski lessons are the keystone to an effec- skiers must be pursued diligently. (Ski instruc- tive safety program. tors agree generally that beginning women and Ski lessons not only increase the skier's abili- older males find the short ski of assistance dur- ties, but of equal importance, place the skier in ing the learning process.) an environment that is virtually injury free. If we are to believe the opinions of many authors SKIING ABILITY regarding the causes of injuries (e.g., "out of Until someone determines why females or control," skiing too difficult terrain, and skiing young people are more ski injury prone, we too fast or recklessly) then the skier's presence cannot correct the increased incidence of injury. in ski school will preclude the existence of these For this group of persons we must be more variables. diligent regarding proved safety measures. Ex- Regardless of what philosophy of ski safety pertise of the skier, on the other hand, is a one chooses, ski school, under the direction of controllable factor. The fact that the incidence a certified ski instructor, offers distinct safety of ski injuries decreases with increasing ability advantages. SKIING 235

SKI EQUIPMENT

Ski equipment is more frequently assailed expertise and integrity of the "reputable ski than any of the variables involved in ski safety. shop." Any attempt to define such a shop is The bases for these attacks are many and varied. meaningless.However, the barest minimum The skier blames his bindings for his injuries standard is that the shop must adhere scrupu- (quite possibly with some justification) often lously to the binding manufacturers' instruc- because there is nothing else to blame. How- tions. Fortunately, many shops do this. ever, most injuries cannot be validly related The use of a binding test device has its maxi- to negligence on anyone's part. mal usefulness in determining proper installa- The skier is often led to believe that a par- tion of the binding. Although National Ski ticular binding offers a greater degree of injury Safety Research has used all three testing de- protectionthanotherbrands.Advertising, vices, the major experience has been with the usually by implication, is frequently misleading. lipe release and heel check, and discussion will Regardless of the claims, there is no study that be limited to that apparatus. lends credence to claims made by any manufac- The boot toe must be released with equal ease turer regarding the safety advantages of his from medial (outside) pressure. The test ap- bindings. . paratus givesareproducible value for the There is only a minimum of evidence sup- amount of pressure required to release the boot. porting the hypothesis that the use of bindings The value should be the same medially and with release capabilities leads to fewer injuries. laterally. Part of this is, no doubt, because of our investi- All major bindings aresymmetrically de- gative inadequacies it is virtually impossible signed, so the mechanisms for medial and lateral to compare current equipment with equipment release are identical. Thus, if forces of different of older design as both are not used concur- magnitudes are required to effect release, the rently, Older studies are not available for com- symmetry of the system has been disturbed parison purposes. and the binding is not functioning properly. Equally difficult is any attempt to establish Asymmetry can result from protruding screw differences in safety records for various bind- heads, improper alignment, misplaced toe plates ings. Even if such differences did exist, proof or toe notches, and a host of other causes. The would bea long time coming. Establishing skier should not be required to determine the matched groups for a meaningful statistical cause, but only the effect, which is unequal study would be a prodigious task. medial and lateral release. The cause of the The consensus of the skiing public seems to malfunction should be determined and corrected be "there are bindings available that will pro- by the ski shop. tect." This rather idealistic view may be true, The problem of faulty bindings is of suffi- but only if qualified by two statements: (1) the cient importance to merit procurement of a test bindings must be installed properly and (2) the device. Certainly, an institution responsible for bindings must be adjusted properly. Improper a student ski program should use such a test installation is a major cause of "binding failure device., Purchase price need not exceed $15. injuries."' Unfortunately, the average skier has Bindings should be tested before each use, but neither the know-how nor the testing equip- if this is impossible, they should be tested at ment to determine whether or not a binding is least three times each season. correctly mounted. He must depend on the The proper binding adjustment is unknown. Current concepts generally rely on the skier's ' A "binding failure injury" is ofie that would not have occurred had the boot released from the ski earlier weight, sex, and expertise to arrive at a proper in the course of the fall. setting. There is little scientific evidence to sup- 236 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

port any of these criteria. Indeed, the only OTHER SKI EQUIPMENT published, statistically valid support is that of Haddon, Ellison, etal., who demonstrated a Boots, skis, and poles account for a very trend that bindings with release capabilities small proportion of ski injuries. There are, how- offered less protection to females than males.2 ever, a few points worthy of mention: There has been no published report showing 1. All skiers should use some device to pre- that heavier skiers require tighter adjustment vent runaway skis. This may be an Arlbert of their bindings or that novices require more strap with its two point fixation to the ski; a loosely adjusted bindings than experts. check-rein fixed at one point each to binding The evidence appears clear on one point and boot; or the spring-loaded, metallic device alone that most injuries might have been which stops the ski by digging into the snow. prevented had the bindings releasedearlier. The devices that attach binding to boot have Some people argue that premature binding re- been condemned as dangerous. The danger is lease is an important factor contributing to the reputedly a result of the ski (after binding re- incidence ofskiinjuries. Our studies have lease) "wind-milling" around the fulcrum pro- shown consistently, however, that premature or vided by the strap attachment. Although this inadvertent binding releases are responsible for circumstance does occasionally exist, itsinci- less than 5% of all ski injuries. dence is minimal compared to the danger en- Bindings should be adjusted to minimum countered with a runaway ski. The additional settings. Countless ski instructors, professional problems of retrieving the ski or negotiating a ski patrolmen, and even those among the most slope with only one ski are also significant. famous racers are able to ski to their maximal 2. The straps on ski poles should be used capabilities on bindingssetatadjustments with caution, if at all, especially in the case of recommended for 100 pound female beginners. the novice skier. Recommendations for adjusting bindings are: Ski pole straps are designed and used to pre- 1. With the use of a testing device, determine vent loss of a pole, but a pole is rarely dropped if the bindings release equally in medial without provocation. Pole fuss :3 usually the and lateral directions. result of catching the pole in deep snow, or on 2. With the skier in his boots and the boots a tree limb. In nearly every instance the skier attached to the bindings, immobilize the will be safer if the pole is lost. Catching a pole skis. The skier should then be able to twist that is attached to the wrist is a frequent cause either boot from binding in either direction of shoulder dislocations and hand and wrist without pain in the ankle, leg, or knee. injuries that would not normally occur were the 3. See that heels release while leaning for- poles not attached to the skier. ward in the bindings and before any dis- Contrary to the situation of runaway skis, comfort is felt in the calf. the temporary loss of a pole does not signifi- 4. Mark skis left and right and always use cantly incrtase the danger of skiing. Indeed, accordingly. many expert skiers never use the straps.

SKI INJURIES Ski injuries usually are merely nuisances, deter skiing for more than a week or two for forcing the skier to take off a few days from one half of those concerned. skiing. Even the more severe injuries do not Cuts, scrapes, and bruises account for about one sixth of the reported injuries. After appro- 2 William Haddon, Jr., Arthur E. Ellison, and Robert E. Carroll, Skiing injuries, Public Health Reports 77 priate first aid, many of these injuries will per- (Nov. 1962), no. 11. mit further skiing on the same day. SKIING 237

Approximately one half the injuries involve will be able to ski safely the following season. sprains and strains. Most oftheseinjuries The decision regarding subsequent skiing must should be examined by a physician. rest with the physician. The remainder of reported ski injuries involve Although the subject of fractures is always fractures.The terms "fracture" or "broken discussed in articles dealing with ski safety, the bone" elicit visions of months spent in plaster rate of occurrence of a fracture while skiing is casts and the cessation of further skiing. The about once for every 42 years of average pleas- fact is that almost all skiers suffering fractures ure skiing -- hardly an ominous incidence.

SAFETY OUTLINE FORA GROUP SKI TRIP

A. The Ski Trip Leader b. Where (how far) is the nearest hospital? 1. He must be officially recognized by the c. Does the ski area provide ambulance institution sponsoring the trip. service? 2. He must be given the authority to disci- 10. How long will it take to drive to the ski pline. area? What are road conditions likely 3. He must be a skier. to be? B. Choosing the Ski Area (see conclusion of C. The Classroom Session section) (This event should take place approximately 1. Is the ski patrol adequately staffed and one week prior to the ski trip. This will equipped? allow time to buy, re-install, or repair equip- 2. Are instructionsforliftand tow use ment.) readily available? 1. Attendance should be mandatory for all 3. Are lift operators available to assist the who will attend the trip. uninitiated skiers in the use of lifts and 2. Check all bindings for adequate functional tows? installation (see section on bindings). 4. Are slope grooming methods used (espe- 3. Adjust bindings (see section on bindings). cially in the novice areas)? 4. Check all skis for devices capable of pre- 5. Are maps (individual) or map signs avail- venting runaway skis. able to help acquaint the skier with the 5. Discuss ski courtesy. various slopes and their difficulty? a. Stop only at sides of slopes or trails, 6. Is the universal system of trail markings never in the center. used? If not, what system is used? b. Wait your turn in lift lines. 7. Does the area have a ski school directed c. Always look uphill before coming onto by a certified ski instructor? a slope or trail. a. Is there an adequate number of instruc- d. Never pass too closely to other skiers. tors to accommodate the group? e. Call "trackleft," "track right," "on b. Are classes(especiallynovice)con - your left," or "on your right" before du'ted on a slope reserved for exclusive passing another skier. use Ly the ski school? f. Fill in sitzmarks. 8. Does the area provide facilities for locking g. Don't litter the ski area. ski equipment when it is not in use? h. Follow all posted instructions ("closed" 9. Is there a physician practicing at the ski slopes, etc.). area? i. The golden rule applies in skiing too. a. If not, where (how far) is the nearest 6. Discuss (and show examples) of the trail physician? markings theare used at the area. 238 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

7. Encourage skiers to purchase locks for necessity if the ski area does not n_ rovide their skis and poles, or,if skis are not ambulance service. locked, stand one ski and pole away from a. The car should contain at least two the other. blankets, and an empty seat. 8. .:ornovice and beginning classskiers, b. The car should be equipped for winter have an instructor give a brief classroom driving (i.e., chains, flares, maps, etc.). lesson on fundamentals (the principles in- c. Upon arrival at the ski area, the driver volved in skiing, what manuevers will be of this vehicle must be available on 10 taught, and why they are taught in the to 15 minutes notice. The best solution progression that they are, etc.). is for the driver not to ski; attempting 9. Determineifanyskiers have medical to find a driver somewhere on the ski problems or healing injuries. These stu- slopes is a time consuming and frus- dents should have a written consent to trating experience. ski from parents and/or physician. E.Arrival at the Ski Area Preparing to Ski 10. Discuss fundamentals of ski equipment 1. Be sure skiers are dressed appropriately care. for the weather. Do they all have gloves a. Boots or mittens, parkas, sunglasses? Clothing i. Keep polished. never should be loose fitting. ii. Store in boot tree (keep soles flat). 2. Do all skiers have their runaway preven- iii. Be sure toe of sole is not irregular tive devices? or damaged. 3. Spot check for proper binding installation b. Skis and adjustment. i. Keep edges sharp and regular. 4. Discuss the ski area layout. ii. If wood. store in retain camber. a. Use large, painted map signs or indi- c. Bindings vidual maps pro,, '..d by the area. i. Tighten all mounting screws. b. Discussexpertiseindicatedbytrail ii. Lubricate moving parts with silicone markings in that particularskiarea lubricant. (e.g., what does "most difficult" mean D. Getting to the Ski Area at that "ea as compared to other areas 1. All cars should be driven by licensed, where.e students might have skied?). competent drivers, ableto drive confi- c. Point out (on map): dently on ice and snow. i. Closed areas 2. Students should be told when and where ii. Location of emergency telephones to meet on arrival at the ski area. At that or other devices used for summon- time not prior to arrival at the area, they ing help should be given their lift and ski school iii. Location of first aid room tickets. iv. Location of ski school meeting area 3. Vehicles should contain an adequate num- v. Location of rest rooms ber ofblankets and other emergency vi. Location of warming facilities equipment (chains, box of sand, flares, vii. Area where group will meet at the windshield scrapers, full gas tank, etc.) conclusion of skiing forthe day.. consistent with potential weather hazards. Indicate the exact time this meeting 4. Departure should allow time for reason- will take place. able driving speeds, possible hazardous 5. Tell skiers how and where the supervisor driving conditions, and heavy traffic. can be reached at any tim ".(Itis not 5. A car (preferably a station wagon) should enough to advise skiers a. Jut notifying accompany the bus. This is an absolute the ski patrol to find the supervisor. It is SKIING 239

the responsibility of the supervisor to be 2. If an injury occurs, the following steps constantly and readily available.) should be taken: 6. Be sure all skiers know the supervisor's a. When there is any doubt regarding the name. severity of an injury, or when skiing, 7.Be sure all skiers know how to notify the walking, or standing is painful, the ski ski patrol. patrol should be called to transport the skier off the slope. F.Skiing b. The injured skier must wait in the first 1. Most students, especially novices, will en- aid room until the supervisor arrives. joy and learn more if at least the morning c. The injured skier must be examined by is spent in ski school. a physician. a. Ski school will offer levels of instruc- d. Skiers should be encouraged to seek tion consistent with the skiers' abilities aid for all injuries even those which (if the area was chosen properly). appear minor.

A SERVICE FOR ORGANIZED SKIING

National Ski Safety Research is a nonprofit 7.Ski patrol organization which studies and promotes ski a. Number of paid professional patrolmen safety. It receives no financial support from any b. National Ski Patrol System affiliation facet of the ski industry. National Ski Safety c. Number of patrolmen (weekdays and Research offers an advisory service to organized weekends) ski groups. Representative of informationit d. Equipment in use gathers from ski areas are 8.First aid facilities 9.Area sponsored ambulance (including cost 1. Tow ticket costs and method of payment for services) 2.Maximum height of area's slopes 10. Presence of a resident physician 3. Maximum length of slope as well as aver- a. Nearest physican and hospital age lerigth of slopes of varying difficulties National Ski Safety Research will, in addi- 4.Proportion of beginner, intermediate, and tion, critique the above information and indicate expert slopes the existence of factors not readily apparent that 5. Trail marking system used might encourage or deter use of the area for 6.Presence of a ski school ski trips. The critique will also consider reports a. Directed by a .ertified ski instructor obtained from previous groups. b. Total number of instructors Information about this service can be ob- c. Proportion of certified to noncertified tainedfrom NationalSkiSafetyResearch instructors Group,126CrestaRd.,ColoradoSprings, d. Cost of lessons Colo.80906. Sledding ICARL W. MOEN

Safety in sledding covers a wide area from Because of the speed element bobsledding the popular sledding on small inclines or hills has inherent dangers, thus the risk of injury is to the ..ighly specialized bobsledding in Olym- unavoidable. Standby firstaidand medical pic competition. assistance are provided as a matter of course. Safety for a child on a sled depends largely Ambulance service is always ready to rush the on adult supervision. Parents should join their more severely injured to the hospital. children in the activity; if this is not possible, Speeds of the bobsled in competition can spell some type of supervision must be provided. disaster at any moment. It is this thrill factor The uncontrolled sled can be a lethal weapon that provides spectator appeal, offering the ex- in the hands of youngsters. citement of the mad flight downhill.

ORGANIZED AND UNORGANIZED PLAY

Winter recreational sports are either organ- his child's activities, for children on their own ized or unorganized. Safety in organized sports are usually oblivious to potential hazards. isgenerally insured through well developed sports programs as attested by the supervised SLEDDING recreational areas maintained by city and municipal governments, public schools, colleges, Suggestions for the promotion of safety in and professional sports organizations. sledding are the following: Child's play is often unorganized and un- 1. Provide supervision, personal or other- supervised. Sledding belongs to this realm of wise, for children sledding. unorganized play. Children use their sleds in 2. Sehct an area safe from cars. vacarif-lots and on hills or inclines and quite 3. Eliminate courses that cross street inter- often the course leads to intersecting streets. sections. In most residential localitiesthere are some 4. Chart courses as free of trees and other areas for organized play.If not, the parent hazards as possible. must assume the responsibility and structure 5. Acquaint the children with the course.

240 SLEDDING 241

6. Check ice for safety if the slide ends on cellent physical condition of the participants is a pond or lake. a must. The excitement of the run and the thrill 7. Teach the children to watch out for sled- of unthrottled speed, the whip of the wind and ders returning uphill. the challenge of competition all make it a top 8. Teach children the danger of straying off sport for the hardy souls who follow it. the course and running into fixed objects. Fortunately, bobsledding in the Olympics is 9. Do not allow overloading. designed only for highly qualified entrants. Its 10. Check sleds for splinters and other unsafe demands in terms of reaction and performance features. parallel those placed on a jet pilot aboard an 11. Do not permit sledding at night unless aircraft carrier. It is an exciting sport with great there is adequate lighting. spectator appeal and danger, but it is no par- The sport of towing sleds and toboggans be- ticular friend of safety. It is a sport only for hind automobiles is extremely dangerous and those who dare. should be discouraged. The added thrills are not Safety apparently is of little consideration in worth the risk of the tragic accidents that can some of the Winter Olympic events. There is result. a sport called luge (rhymes with huge) which is the epitome of recklessness and a total dis- TOBOGGANING regard for life or limb. Luge can be a one-man or two-man event. In the one-man event the The toboggan can be considered in the same participant lies on his back on a toboggan or category as the sled. Originally a utility vehicle, two-runner sled and negotiates the icy chute, the toboggan soon gained popularity in the field using his feet to steer in speeds up to 70 miles of recreation.It proved to be more versatile per hour. In the two-man event one man lies than the sled for it lent itself to coasting in the atop the other. From the standpoint of safety, mountains on most ice or snow covered terrain. luge defies all convention and presents a scene It is best known as the forerunner of the bob- of utter and complete mayhem. sled. In terms of safety, there is an element of danger associated with the toboggan, but it is Ice safety in winter sports will assume greater significance in the future. It is estimated we will negligible if ordinary common sense safety rules have twice as many people, twice as much in- are observed. come per person, 1.5 times as much leisure, and nearly twice as much travel in the year 2000 BOBSLEDDING as in 1960. Translate this into terms of recre- Bobsledding was introduced as a recognized ational demand and we must find new play- winter sport at the First Winter Olympics in - rounds, one of which will have I.,: be a winter 1924. Because of its speed factor aid precise wonderland for sledding. navigation, danger and bobsledding.re prac- Safety is a code for living. While safety must tically synonymous. Speeds upwards of no never become a fetish that will deny both young miles an hour have been obtained in this thrill- and old the pleasures of outdoor recreation, it packed sport, which requires a high degree of should, nevertheless, be the guiding principle skilland split-secondtiming.Because bob- for steering the behavior of participantsin sledding does not permit a single mistake, ex- sledding, as in all sports. Iceboating ICARL W MOEN

Originating approximately 400 years ago in SAFETY RULES FOR ICEBOATING Europe, iceboating, or yachting, is our fastest 1. "Hiking" (stunting on the .ce)is for the winter sport. Iceboating is strictly an amateur proficient; it is not for the novice. sport. Its devotees find the thrills of racing and the battle with wind and speed sufficient to 2. "Skinning" (just trying to miss another compensate for the lack of plush purses and craft) is foolhardy. championships for glory. It is a selective sport 3. Conduct a trial run of your course at re- followed by a relatively hard core group of duced speeds to check the ice, drifted snow, participants. or other hazards. Generally there is no license to pay, no ex- 4. Observe the same rules of the road on ice pensive maintenance, no speed laws, no gas to as you would on the highway. buy, no fee to enter the course, and only nature 5. Too much speed for the beginner in ice- to contend with to power your craft. There is boating invites disaster. only one limiting factor to iceboating safety. 6. Carry liability insurance on your ice craft. The greatest concentration of iceboating is in 7. Use common sense in all your iceboating the United States, specifically, the Northeast and abide by established practices. and Midwest from Maine to the Dakotas.

KINDS OF CRAFT DRESS AND EQUIPMENT Iceboating has been popularized by the intro- Thermal or woolen underwear, windproof duction of new boat models which are small outer garments, gloves that are both warm and and inexpensive. The 75 sq. ft. Sketter and the flexible, and footwear for both warmth and DN-60 are typical of these small boats. They footing are essential in this sport, which seems are safe, easy to navigate, and turn on a dime. to raise temperatures to a wind chill of Arctic Homemade boats cost $250 and up, ready-made proportions. Also, goggles, face masks, and for about $500, and the large skeeters cost $2,000 racing, crash helmets, are necessities. In addi- or more. Class A boats, popularly called "Big tion,iceboaterswearinsulatedunderwear, Daddies," with 350 sq. ft. of sail, pose special dacronjumpsuits, sheepskinmitts,welder's safety problems when underway because of helmet liners(liners have a protective face their awesome power and speed. mask), surplus Marine flyer's helmets, in fact,

242 ICEBOATING 243 nearly everything they can put their hands on. policing are needed on many lakes in winter. Ice yachts should carry emergency boxes con- In some areas patrols have been established. taining extra clothing, a first aid kit, rope, and other miscellaneous items. Sealed compartments HIKING which insure flotability should be installed in Stunting with your craft while careening over the craft. Safe equipment is a must. the ice on two of three runners is dangerous because of the possibility of a strong gust of SPEED AND SAFETY wind flipping the craft over and snapping the Speed varies with the type of craft. A good mast. If done at all, stunting should only be iceboat with a wind of 15 to 20 mph will performed by an expert skipper; it can be a travel 75 to 100 mph. For the amateur, 50 or beautiful maneuver and an addedthrillto 60 mph is easily attained; for the professional spectators. In racing, stunting is not practiced on larger yachts, speeds soar to 120 and 130 for it reduces speed. mph. Speed also varies with the weather. The hard-water sailor glories in a brisk wind of THE ICE COURSE 20 mph, temperatures well below freezing, and Any sport involving speed requires greater unlimited smooth, clear ice. On the other hand, than average alertness and attention to opera- there are times of little wind and mild or melt- tion. Iceboating is no exception. Know the ice ing temperatures that stalemate the iceboater. expanse on which you are operating snow Because of the speed factor in iceboating, the that may have drifted, the ice that may have operator's expert judgment and skill become cracked and heaved, open water caused by crucial elements of safety. It has been said springs or thermal pollution by industry, and that the best protection offered iceboaters from any natural or artificial barriers that may exist. the careless operator and the inept beginner is Before high speeds are attempted, a trial run the dispersion of craft over large and almost or reconnaissance is required for safety. unlimited expanses of ice. Unlike the auto- Speed is the principal hazard in iceboating. mobile, there are no lanes to follow and traffic It can be the critical element in an iceboat going is seldom, if ever, congested. out of control and running ashore; striking a No man has the right to court danger or en- snow drift or a hidden object on the ice; collid- danger the lives of others on the ice. Horseplay, ing with another craft; or hitting a hapless "skinning" (trying to just miss another craft), skater or a pedestrian afoot on ice. The good and other acrobatics that threaten control of a boat operator,just as the good automobile craft and jeopardize the lives of others are inde- driver, anticipates danger and practices defensive fensible. Laws forregulation and adequate driving. Ice Fishing ICARL W. MOEN

Ice fishing has become a popular winter sport One cannot always tell the strength of ice sim- and it has a growing number of followers. The ply by its appearance, its thickness, the tem- sport may take the form of angling through the perature, or whether or not it is covered by ice with no shelter, angling in a fishing shack, snow. However, new iceisgenerally much or spearing. stronger than old ice; in fact, a few inches of In the early days of ice fishing the principal new, clear ice may be strong enough to support drawback was the chore of chiseling a hole a person while a foot of old, honeycombed ice through the ice. This in itself was not too bad, will not. Four inches of new ice is considered the but as it was time consuming it limited travel, minimum for safety. and fishermen love to move. Today, power Beware of the following: inlets and outlets (gasoline or electric) augers make fast work to lakes; areas in spring-fed lakes that have of tnis tedious job. thin patches of ice; dark spots in the ice or Angling or spearing in a fishing shack or places where the snow looks discolored; water house has one big advantage shelter from the areas or rivers where the ice may be weakened wind and cold. A relatively large hole is cut in from the release of warm waters (thermal pollu- the ice, possibly two feet by three feet, depend- tion from industrial plants and sewage disposal ing on the fisherman. It gives a fascinating view units); and all ice during freeze-up time and of the world below. For the angler it provides the spring thaw. . the added thrill of watching the fish approach Don't trust honeycombed iceit can be the bait. The dark house fisherman may watch treacherous. Also, special conditions often create the fishing drama in up to 20 feet of water. unsafe ice. For instance, in the winter netting of certain fish, such as whitefish (legal in some ICE FISHING SAFETY states), the constant movement of a large catch of fish will wear ice paper thin between the Safe ice fishing begins by sizing up conditions stakes holding the net. on a lake before carting fish shacks and other paraphernalia onto the ice. A good place to start checking a lake is around shore. If the TRAVEL ON ICE shoreline seems fragile, squashy, or broken up, Driving cars on ice is dangerous at any time. it is a good indication that the lake is unsafe. If one drives on ice he should leave safety belts

244 ICE FISHING 245 unbuckled, keep the doors open, and be ready to the ski plane. Because of its speed, the ski plane jump out.If vehicle stays afloat, the driver can be a danger especially when visibility is should try to knock out rear window and poor. Most state air patrol agencies designate crawl out. However, if he disregards all these certain lakes for landings. In future years, with precautions he may stillsurvive, as did one increased population, lake use may require rigid man who in his car plunged through the ice and regulation. 20 feet of water to the bottom. This man was The following code should be followed by ice a good swimmer. He did not panic he waited fishermen: for the water to seep into the car to relieve the pressure on the doors, then went out and up CODE OF SAFETY ETHICS with his eyes open. He is alive and well today, thanks to his ability to swim and perhaps luck. 1. Learn to respect ice. Knowing how to swim is possibly the best pro- 2. Know your lakes. tection one has if he goes through the ice. 3. Know the vagaries of ice. When fishing from a darkhouse, be sure of 4. Beware of early freeze-ups and the spring proper ventilation, whether it be a simple hole thaw. in the roof Or a regular stove pipe. Danger 5. Dress for all kinds of weather. exists for fishermen who t,-,e small burners and 6. Respect the rights of other fishermen. similar heating devices which lack some type of venting for escaping fumes. Carbon dioxide 7. Help others in distress. may make one feel uncomfortable, but carbon 8. Observe the law on littering and pollution monoxide is a silent killer. of lakes. On the more populous lakes an extra hazard 9. Obey the game and fish laws. to ice fishing is introduced the landing of 10. Be a sportsman in all respects.

Figure 1. Proper clothing is essential. 246 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

CITIES ON ICE must contend with the encroachment of industry, highways, cities and suburbs, summer Cities on ice create an entirely new problem cabins, ana estates and private hunting pre- for ice safety in winter fishing. A classic ex- serves to mention only a part of the land ample is Mille Lacs Lake in Minnesota. This acquisition program today. city averages 5,000 fish houses annually, which Predictably, population pressures will cata- does not include outside fishing through the ice. pult ice and water into a popularity undreamed This setting approximates a city with a popula- of yesterday or even today. Winter sports, a tion of 10,000, and poses a parking problem for multimillion dollar industry for many states, is two or three thousand cars. conservatively a billion dollar industry for the Imagine a city of this size with relatively no nation. It is slated to double and triple in the police protection, no rescue squads, no formal years ahead. Ice, water, and snow constitute city ordinances, no curfew, no communications our last recreational frontier. system, no ambulance service, no sewage dis- Ice fishing is a democratic sport because any- posal system, and no city government. one can engage in it: age is no factor, young and old may participate, the handicapped are RECREATIONAL DEMAND AND ICE SAFETY not barred, and there is no color or creed barrier. With such a large following, ice fishing Water, in one form or another, has the great- crucially needs an expanded ice safety program, est potential for recreation of all our resources. the cooperation of many agencies including law An acre of water has a far greater potential for enforcement (local and county), conservation recreation than the land surrounding it. Land officers, and even our public schools. Snowmobiling IHENRY V. ZIMINSKI, B.S.

The growth in the use of snowmobiles is are capable of speeds up to 50 miles per hour. dramatic.In 1968 more than 225,000 snow- Racing vehicles can travel much faster. Such mobiles were in use, compared with only 8,000 speeds enable operators to travel long distances in 1964.1 There are between 300 and 400 active into isolated country in a short time. snowmobile clubs in existence. Snowmobiles have a wide appeal. For winter To facilitate enjoyment of the sport, land recreation they are used for ice fishing, hunting, management agencies administering county and cross-countrytouring,camping,skijoring(a state forests and parks, national forests and sport in which a vehicle draws a skier over ice), national parks, and industrial forest ownerships rallies, and racing. The family is a most im- have designed and laid out many miles of trail. portant segment of users. Age and poor physi- A uniform trail signing system is being worked cal condition need not be a deterrent. Even out cooperatively by the Bureau of Outdoor those who lack stamina for skiing, or who are Recreation, Forest Service, National Park Serv- physically handicapped, can enjoy snowmobiling ice, state agencies, and manufacturers' repre- in certain circumstances. sentatives. To provide a safersport, public The appeal of the snowmobile is its ease of agencies have also adopted a safety code and operation, itsspeed, and mobility. Depending code of ethics, which are being disseminated in on engine size, stock models of snowmobiles brochures and operators' manuals.

HAZARDS

Hazards ofthissport can be grouped into THE MACHINE three classes: the machine, the terrain, and the Snowmobiles are well engineered machines. sport participants. Though they are deceptively simple because of small size and ease of operation, the snowmobile ' Stewart L. Udall and Orville L. Freeman, Secretaries of Interior and Agriculture, Joint news release com- demands the respect of a complicated machine. mending sponsors of a code of ethics and safety (USDA Snowmobiles have a tendency to tip on rough 279-68,Jan.25, 1968). terrain and side hills. Their open construction

247 248 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES makes riders vulnerable to injury from collision exposes the passengers to a wind-chill tempera- or low hanging branches. ture of 3302 Machine breakdowns in deep Snowmobiles can tow toboggans or trailer snows make walking impossible unless passen- sleds designed for hauling supplies or extra gers are equipped with snowshoes orskis. passengers. The safety designed trailers have Spending the night under survival conditions rigid tow bars to prevent tailgate collisions and is a possibility but in many mountain valleys to provide better control on turns. Unlike car there is danger of avalanches. Also, unexpected brakes that depend on pavement for friction, snowstorms may cause a group to become lost. snowmobile brakes are not designed for sudden Ice travel is one of the most hazardous of all stops. snowmobile operations. Moreover, most snowmobile fatalities have been drownings as a re- THE TERRAIN sult of machines breaking through the ice.3 Slush will stop a machine faster than deep snow. Snowmobiles travel best in flat terrain. While Snowblindness, another potential hazard, is they can go over short pitches, they are in- caused by the glare of sunlight on snow. This capable of traveling over long, steep hills. danger increases in late winter months when Deep snow will mire a machine, requiring thawing leaves a glaze on the snow. considerable physical exertion to free it. Snow- mobiles, like all machines, are subject to breakdowns. Inability to perform repairs or to find THE USERS one's sruy through isolated country may leave Snowmobilers can be a hazard to themselves passengers vulnerable to the effects of exposure. as well as others. Some dangerous practices in- Snowmobiling is done in a variety of environ- clude operating machines at speeds excessive ments: urban and rural areas; open fields and for the terrain; failure to recognize hazards and forests; over flat and rough terrain; and in iso- heed warnings; and permitting children to oper- lated country. Snowmobilers are found on un- ate machines without adequate supervision or plowed roads, mountain valleys, and frozen instruction. Also, inadequate first aid training swamplands, risers and lake surfaces. The sport and supplies can complicate injuries which is popular at night, as well as during the day. might occur. One factor common to all snowmobiling is Do not risk insufficient preparation for a trip cold weather. Rapid speeds expose passengers by failing to obtain adequate maps, a compass, to high wind-chill factors and the danger of informationonconditionsconcerningthe frostbite. For example, a snowmobile traveling planned route, and failing to notify others of 30 miles per hour when the temperature is 10° intended route.

HAZARD REDUCTION

Snowmobiling is less than 10 years old, and such accidents have been numerous. Several there is already a growing concern over the drownings have been reported annually, result- increasing number of accidents and injuries. ing from machines going throughice, and Newspapers have reported collisions involving usually involving multiple deaths. Avalanches one or more snowmobiles, snowmobiles and have also accounted for several deaths. cars, and even snowmobiles and such animals Snowmobile operators can do little to change as horses. Arm and leg injuries resulting from the terrain and weather, but by taking necessary 3 NationalSafety Council, Meet the snowmobile, 2 United States Army Wind Chill Index Table. Family Safety 26 (Winter 1967), p. 14. SNOWMOBILING 249 precautions they can minimize hazards and cautious approach to highway crossings or other injuries. trails. Driving in highway rights-of-way open to traffic is not encouraged, particularly at night THE MACHINE when auto drivers can be confused by snow- Snowmobile designers areconcerned with mobile headlights. safety. Despite engineered simplicity of control and handling, however, basic owner training is TRIP PLANNING necessary for safe operation. At present this For long trips or overnight camping trips, can only be obtained from field practice and several precautions are suggested. A definite study of owners manuals. Operators should travel route should be planned. Family, friends, know as much as possible about mechanical or other concerned parties should be informed operation, and should be able to perform minor of intended route and the time of expected re- repairs or adjustments. turn. Obtain maps of the territory for which Know the limitations of a snowmobile under the trip is planned, as well as information on different field conditions, its capability in differ- trail locations, avalanche hazards, and where ent types of snow and snow depths, its turning unsafe ice or slush conditions can be expected. characteristics, and what precautions are neces- Travel over lakes and streams only when cer- sary for side slopes and rough terrain. Know the tain that their surfaces are safe. On long trips, cruising range of the machine and provide extra the "buddy system" of two or more machines is fuel. Users must realize that by covering long advisable. Advanced weather forecasts are es- distances in a short time they will soon be in sential to reduce the chance of isolation because isolated country and thus victims of the weather of storms, and to determine expected wind-chill if engine failure occurs. temperatures.Wheneverpossible,someone Through continued self-training,operators trained in first aid techniques should be in the can become thoroughly familiar with all aspects party. of machine controls and safety features. Only through study of owners manuals and field experience can proper operating techniques be learned for travel in various types of terrain and snow conditions. i a Common sense should be used at all times. Hot-rodding and jumping is for specially trained i- and experienced racers. Control of the machine is a primary necessity. Excessive speed can result in upset or collision with other vehicles or objects. Reduced visibilityat night callsfor slower speeds. Parents must be the judge of their children's ability to understand and control the tremendous power of a snowmobile. Parents have the responsibility to train youngsters in safe operation of the vehicle and must instill a sense of responsibility in them. Many safe automobile driving practices are applicable in snowmobiling. These are: maintaining safe distance between machines; reduc- Figure 1. A wise precaution on long trips is use of the ing speed in making turns; and making a "buddy system." 250 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES Thermal boots, or leather-top rubber pats wit', felt inner boots, and two pairs of socks An emergency tool kit is a necessity. Recom- are excellent for keeping the feet warm. Fleece mended basic components include extra spark lined, plugs, extra drive belts, plug wrench, pliers, insulated leather mittens, or deerhide choppers mitts with wool liners are better than screwdriver., frictiontape, flashlight, owners gloves. manual, and towrope. Use a warm cap for head protection. For Other essentials include a compass, matches extreme cold, a wool face mask should be worn. in a waterproof container, axe, extra fuel,snowshoes or skis for each passenger, dehydrated Tinted, shatterproof goggles reduce glare and are effective in cold weather operation Travel emergency rations, a small kettle, space type blankets, and a small tarpaulin. A lightweight through heavily wooded areas may requirea safety helmet to prevent head injury. Plastic block-and-tackle to free machines stuck in deep snow could save a life. shields and visors are not recommended because breath moisture obstructs vision.

CLOTHING SURVIVAL PRECAUTIONS A most important factor in enjoyment of Becoming lostor experiencing equipment snowmobiling is adequate clothing. Good qual- failure can require persons to spent.: a night out- ity thermal underwear is essential. Outer cloth- doors under severe conditions. Don't panic, is ing should be light, windproof, and flexibleso the first rule. Keeping warm is crucial; a plenti- as not to impede movement. A wool shirt under ful wood supply and the ability to lighta fire an insulated windbreaker jacket, along with are essential. Wind shelters of poles and ever- wind resistant wool or insulated pants, makea green boughs can be built to break the wind. good combination. Special one-piece suits de- Food and energy should be conserved. Walking signed for snowmobiling are appearingon the out at night should not be attempted, even if market. snowshoes are available.

References

Brisbois, El-ter. Snowmobile safety tips. Snow Goer National Safety Council. Meet the snowmobile. Famili 2:16, Fall 1967. Safety 62:12-14, Winter 1967. How to Organize for More Winter Fun. Milwaukee, Wisc.: Evinrudv Motors, Inc., c. 1967. 12 pp. Play Safe with Snowmobiles. Chicago: The International Snowmobile Industry Association. How Council, 1969. 13 pp. to Organize Local Snowmobile CU*. Minneapolis, Minn.: The Assoc:r.tion, 1966. 23 pp. Snow Cruising Handbook. Milwaukee, Wisc.: Evinrude Motors, Inc., c. 1967. 23 pp. The Wonderful World of Snowmobiles. Minne- apolis, Minn.: Th.! ASJsociation, 1966. 6 pp. Snowmobile Safety. Milwaukee, Wisc.: United States Maxam, June. Snowmobiling: New family sport. Better Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Eastern Camping 9:18-21, Febr. 1968. Region, c. 1968. 6 pp. SAFETY IN OUTING ACTIVITIES

le4 /IA 6 -4Lien 1:

, V tt

tN2.*: A : JA* "' t . "lb

J.'

..t. );

.,.1'-I, *

4 S.:' e;41.17 il" I ' . ": tl Si AO ... A I 4 . ..e / 40.7e.,4 f .. ' i .1."..fii .0 /.. ,..., A. Fishing IJUTIAN W. SMITH, Ed.D.

Fishing is one of the 11,,_,st popular outdoor ships, not on the seat. The body should be kept sports. The simplicity of equipment and relative low with one hand on the gunwale. Care should solif,,le of lakes and streams in America offer a be taken in hoisting the anchor when it is fouled safe and relaxing sport for millions of people. in weeds or mud to prevent water from coming Most of the potential fishing hazards are related in over the sides. to a lack of swimming skills and improper use Standing in a boat is always risky, especially of boats, especially motorboats. in rough water or when trying to get unhooked after a bad cast. There is always danger of the FISHING IN BOATS boat hitting a snag or of having the motor thrown accidentally into reverse. Regardless of life jacket equipment, fisher- Operating the motor. Stepping into a boat men using boats should have sufficient skills while holding a motor may cause loss of balance to s iim fully clothed. While most accidents in or the dropping of the motor. The motor should and on the water result from carelessness, slip- be on the dock edge before entering the boat; pery boat bottoms, or overloading, thereis then, with feet apart, it may be swung into the always a possibility of sudden storms and boat boat and over the transom. When pulling the collisions. starter rope, the operator and all other persons Many of the safety precautions relating to in the boat should be seated. Hard to start boats are discussed elsewhere in the section. motors need to be checked by servicemen to However, since most fishing accidents involve guard against engine failure; such a breakdown boats, some of the accident causing situations could be tragicin storms or darkness. The are described here. operator should never use the motor as a seat. Moving about in a boat.. Unexpected move- When the boat is running at full throttle, boat ments due to excitement, landing fish, or casting occupants should be watchful for rocks, snags, an anchor may cause boat occupants tofall and floating debris. overboard or capsize the craft. If it is necessary Fishermen using motorboats on larger bodies to stand to keep a line from fouling, the fellow of water should have full weather information. fishermen should remain seated to keep the boat If a storm threatens while the boat is out on the on an even keel. When moving forward to hoi.;t water, the operator should return the boat to anchor one should step on the bottom amiu- shore immediately.

252 FISHING 253

Safeboatsandneededequipment. Boat Caution must be always exercised around manufacturers use a standard formula for set- gasoline. Do not smoke when refilling and be ting a safe capacity, which is usually displayed careful when wiping spills. on a permanent transom plate. Heed total load Drinking liquor is no more compatible with rating, not only persons, because the weight of the ope-ation of a motorboat than with an motor and gas can exceed the weight of one automobire. person. The Coast Guard, as well as most states, re- USE OF FISHING TACKLE quires a life preserver or buoyant cushion for each occupant in a bc-:t. Many fishermen do not Hooks rank second to boats as causes of fish- use life preservers because they are hot and ing accidents. Improper form, such as sidearm bulky, and rely instead on cushions. Weak casting when there is more than one person in swimmers, however, should not depend on the boat, is the chief cause of accidents with cushions, but should use a life preserver at all lures. Overhead casting is not only safer but times. is more accurate. However, any form of casting

vw+.=.1.

vft I

Figure 1. Trim your craft to stay afloat. 254 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES can cause accidents when the backcast is in the for those with little experience on frozen lakes direction of other boat occupants. The proper and streams. An ice fisherman should always form is to cast at right angles from the boat. check ice for strength and thickness. Four to six When removing weeds or changing lures, re- inches of solid ice is sufficient for a few fisher- lease enough slack line so that it is not under men in a small area, but is not enough for fish tension. A bowed rod can snap a hook into a shanties or for driving cars on the ice. Fish finger or other part of the body. Side cutters shanties are small, crude structures, such as a should be a standard item in every tackle box. tent or wood shack, which fishermen set up on In the event a hook penetrates past the barb the ice to protect themselves from the cold and it should be pushed through the flesh so that the wind while they fish. Using cars on ice is recom- barb can be removed with the side cutters. A mended only in very cold climates where the wound c: used by a hook should be treated with thickness of ice is measured in feet instead of antiseptic, another important item for a tackle inches. In all ice fishing, fishermen should stay box. a safe distance from open water, inlets and Handle fish carefully, especially those with outlets, and springs. sharp teeth and fins. Some fish, such as muskies, Ice fishermen should not leave debris on ice should be stunned with a club before gaffing or which later in warm weather could cause danger immediately upon being brought into the boat. in swimming and boating areas. Fish shanties Long nosed pliers, an important tackle box item, must be removed from the lake or stream be- are useful in removing gang hooks from fish. fore the ice becomes unsafe through melting. When fishing in a heated ice shanty, check for STREAM AND BANK FISHING proper ventilation. Homemade heaters are dangerous because of their fumes and fire. The main danger in stream fishing is wading in water of unknown depth, especially when the As with other sports, the best safety guar- fisherman is wearing boots and heavy clothing. antee in fishing comes through developing com- Slippery stones and logs are also hazardous. petent skills. Important, too, is that fishermen constantly inspect their boats and tackle. Teach- ing casting and angling in schools and youth ICE FISHING agencies can make fishing a safer sport. Local The increasing popularity of ice fishing has casting clubs also can further the goal of im- created a need for safety procedures, especially proving skills and safety in fishing. Hunting and Shooting ILOUIS F. LUCAS, M.C.S., C.P.A.

Hunting is one of the oldest outdoor sports. Huntingandinformalshootingrequire It has been practiced out of necessity or for knowledge, skill, and judgment by those who sport since man first armed himself with clubs wouldparticipatesafely.Diminishing open and stones. Today, it is among the most popular spaces and increasing population have almost outdoor recreational activities. Recent reports eliminated the places where a shot can be fired indicate that nearly 14 million people bought without the possibility of another person being 18 million different types of licenses in 1966. within range.

HUNTINGACCIDENTS

FIREARMS ACCIDENTS when dropped or bumped; the hunter slips or falls and firesthe gun unintentionally;the Hunting accidents involving firearms fall into hunter has the gun completely ready to fire and two types: those in which the gun is fired de- the trigger is caught on a limb, barbed wire, or liberately and those in which the gun fires other similar object. accidentally. Accidents stemming from a deliberately fired gun occur in different ways: the hunter shoots BOW HUNTING ACCIDENTS another person when he is firing at a moving Hunting accidents with archery tackle parallel target; the hunter mistakes another person for those with firearms since, in both cases, the game; the hunter fires in the direction of a hunting instrument shoots aprojectile. Bow sound or movement without first identifying the hunters are subject to the same mistakes in source; a bullet ricochets; a bullet goes beyond judgment as hunters who use rifles and shot- the target and strikes an unseen person; the guns. The arrow ricochets or goes beyond the hunter fails to make certain that the gun was target and strikes an unseen person. The bow unloaded; the hunter uses the wrong ammuni- can also shoot its arrow accidentally. The arrow tion or a faulty gun. is carried in the cocked position with tension The gun can fire accidentally also in a variety on the bowstring. The hunter's fingers slip. The of circumstances: the gun is faulty and fires bow is faulty. There is one additional hazard in

255 256 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES archery hunting equipment that does not figure The 1966 Uniform Hunter Casualty Report in gun hunting equipment. The projectileis analyzed 2,267 accident reports, of which ap- hazardous even when at rest. The bow hunter proximately 13% concerned fatalities.3 Shot- must treat his arrow in much the same way he guns accounted for 55% of the accidents. In would treat a handful of razor blades. 48% of the accidents, the victim was 30 feet or less from the gun. In 26%, the victim was 150 STATISTICS feet or less from the gun. Self-inflicted wounds accounted for 32% of the accidents. Although statistics do not prevent accidents, they do provide information on how accidents More accidents occurred while rabbits were happen and can guide in the designing of acci- being hunted than while deer was the game. dent prevention programs. Squirrel hunters had the next highest number Statistics on hunting accidents come from of accidents. The majority of hunting accidents two sources, Accident Facts and the Hunter occurred when the victim moved into line of Casualty Report.1.2 The former deals with the fire; was covered when shooter swung on game; number of fatalities annually. The latter ana- was out of sight of shooter; was mistaken for lyzes the types of accidents, conditions under game; or stumbled and fell. Other accidents in- which they happened, percentage of fatal and volved the following situations: clubbing cover nonfatal accidents, ages of those involved, type or game; trigger caught on brush or other ob- of hunting arm, range, and other pertinent data. ject; removing weapon from or placing in vehi- The Uniform Hunter Casualty Report Form de- cleor boat;ridinginvehicle with loaded fines a hunting accident as "a hunter casualty weapon; weapon falling from insecure rest; in which a person is injured by the discharge of "horseplay"; gun thought to be unloaded; cross- a hunting firearm outside of the home and arising fence or other obstacle with loaded weapon; ing from the activity of hunting, including travel loading;unloading;defective gun;ricochet- to and from the hunting field." stray bullet. ording to Accident Facts, there were 1,000 In the shotgun accidents alone, 38% of the fatal hunting accidents in 1966; this figure in- shooters were 19 years old or younger. Inter- cludes some deaths (less than 5%) from acci- estingly, 39% of the victims wore bright, promi- dents involving explosives such as dynamite. nently colored clothing.

HUNTING EQUIPMENT

Accident prevention programs must concen- as a game having rules of conduct which are as trate on educating potential participants. These rigid as those controlling baseball, football, or programs should teach what equipment to use, basketball, his skills will be of little use to him. how to use it, to be aware of potential hazards, A nationwide program of hunter safety train- and how to avoid dangerous mistakes. ing has been in operation for more than 15 Any training program for accident prevention years. In 40 states, the Game and Fish Depart- in hunting should influence the attitudes of the ment (oritsequivalent)provides statewide hunter. Unless the,participant regards hunting hunter safety training programs r.ith the co- ' National Safety Council, Accident Facts (Chicago: operation of the National Rifle Association of The Council), an annual publication. America. These programs have trained almost ?National Rifle Association, Uniform Hunter Casualty four million hunters, predominantly young peo- Report (Washington, D.C.: National Rifle Association), an annual publication. 3 Ibid. HUNTING AND SHOOTING 257 ple under 20 years of age. They have also be- breech is exposed and the shotshells are pu' in come a part of the physical education curriculum place by hand. When the gun is hinged shut, in numerous schools and colleges. the shells are locked into the closed breech. The other terms bear the same relationship to the e- _:T.JNS AND BOWS actions they describe. Hunting safety begins with a thorough knowl- Handguns are not commonly used for hunt- edge of the implements. Popularity ranking of ing. They are difficult to shoot accurately- nd hunting instruments isasfollows:shotgun, their range is short. The two common typtof rifle, bow and arrow, handgun. handguns are the revolver and the semi-auto- While rifles and pistols have barrels which matic. Again, the name is descriptive of the differ in length, other characteristics are similar. operation of the action. In a revolver, the cylin- The bore(thehole which runs lengthwise der revolves each time the trigger is pulled. The through the center of the barrel) has rifling in revolution of the cylinder brings a fresh cartridge it. Rifling consists of a series of grooves which into line with the barrel. When all cartridges have spiral from the breech (the place where the been fired, the empty cases are removed from the bullet comes out). These grooves cause the cylinder and fresh ones inserted in the chambers. bullet to spin on its own axis and stabilize it in Semi-automatic actions are common to handguns, flight. The comparatively predictable course of rifles, and shotguns and operate in the same way. a football which has a tight spiral as against Every semi-automatic action requires a maga- one which does not is a common example. zine, a receptacle that holds ammunition and The shotgun, on the other hand, has no feeds a fresh cartridge into the action each time grooves in the bore. This is because the shot- the gun fires. With the magazine loaded and the gun is designed to shoot a number of shot action closed, the gun is ready to operate semi- (round pellets) at the same time and they spread automatically. Each time the trigger is squeezed, out to make a pattern in flight. Also the wall the gun fires; it does not fire continuously.. It of the shotgun barrel is considerably thinner will not fire the fresh cartridge until the trigger than that of the rifle or handgun. is released and squeezed again. Part of the The action of a gun is that group of parts energy released by the burning power opens the which carries the cartridge or shotshell into the action, ejects the fired cartridge case, and places chamber, fires it, and removes the fired cartridge a fresh cartridge in the breech. The gun is ready case. Each action has a handle which the shooter to fire again. can operate. In bolt action rifle, for instance, the Modern hunting bows are usually recurved, bolt handle is used to open and close the action. but the straight limbed bow is still seen occa- Even semi-automatic actions, which insert a sionally. Straight limbed bows are almost arc- fresh cartridge and remove the used case after shaped when strung but the recurved bow has firing, have an external handle with which the tips which curve again, out of the basic arc- shooter can open the action. Each action has an shape, and away from the archer. The recurved external projection by which it can be operated. bow is easier to draw than a straight limbed There are several actions which are common bow of the same weight and has better cast, to hunting firearms. These are: bolt, lever, semi- that is, it drives the arrow faster. The users of automatic, hinge, slide (or pump). In each case the straight limbed bow claim that it offers the name describes the mechanical means by more accurate shooting. which the action operates. The bolt, for in- Bows used to be made of different types of stance, locks shut and opens just as a door bolt wood. Solid wood bows have almost disappeared does. The hinge action is most frequently found from the archery scene. Bows are now made in shotguns. These guns "break" on a pivot, or entirely of fiberglass or of a lamination con- hinge, at the breech end of the barrel. The sisting of several layers of wood and fiberglass. 258 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Hunting bows come in different "weights." tion of the primer and do not indicate any dif- This term indicates the number of pounds of ference in the components which makeup the energy required to draw the bow fully. Bow cartridge. The cartridge used in thecommon .22 weights run from 30 to 75 pounds, but theaver- caliber rifle is rimfire. Larger caliber cartridges age hunting bow is somewhere between 40 and are centerfire. The case is the container for all 60 pounds. Bows also differ in length. of the components. The primer furnishes the Every potential hunter should have complete ignition. The powder burns and the resulting familiarity with the gun or bow with which he gasses, which expand very rapidly, push the expects to hunt. He should be so at ease with bullet or shot from the barrel of thegun. The this equipment that his manipulatory skill is operation is similar to that of the sparkplug, not only perfect, but comes naturally. He can gasoline vapor, cylinder, and piston inan in- then devote his mind entirely to the situation ternal combustion engine. at hand. Shotshells differ from rifle and pistolammu- nition in that they include wads which separate AMMUNITION the powder from the shot. When the shell fires, Firearms ammunition should be considered these wads push the shot charge through the almost as a part of the gun itself. Thesizes of barrel of the shotgun. guns are described in terms of calibers for rifles Gunpowder comesinvarioussizesand and handguns and gauges for shotguns. Gauge shapes. These character;stics,as well as chemi- shows the number of lead balls and the diameter cal composition, control the speed at which the of the bore, which would weigha pound. Cali- powder burns. The burning rate is important to bers are expressed in one-hundredths ofan safety. A given amount of a fast burningpow- inch. For instance, .22 calibermeans 22/100. All der will create greater pressures thanan equal cartridges of the same caliber do not fita rifle amount of a slower burning powder. Casual or handgun designed for that caliber. Differ- experimentation with reloading can cause trou- ences in the case or the amount of powder with ble. Priming compounds are stable but touchy. which it is loaded may makea certain cartridge Cartridges should not be struckor exposed to unsuitable, or even dangerous, foruse in a fire- great heat. However, they are completely safe arm. In short, the cartridge must be the one when handled properly. specifically designed foruse in a particular gun. Arrows should be mated to the bow with When proper ammunition is:zsed in a gun which they will be shot. Matching thearrow which is in top operating condition, the possi- with the bow is called spining. Arrows which bility of a "blown"gun is virtually eliminated. perform well when shot from a 30-pound bow There are many hunters who make theirown may perform poorly when used with a bow of a ammunition, a process called reloading. A cart- different weight. ridge case in good conditionmay be used a Arrow shafts are made from several different number of times. Reloading requiresa thorough materials, the most common of whichare wood, knowledge of the type andamount of powder aluminum, and fiberglass. Woodenarrows are which goes into a certain load. It alsorequires still widely used but the other materials, al- scrupulous attention to detailon the part of the though more expensive, arelesssubject to reloader. Carelessness can create the risk of breakage and warping. Arrow length varies and wrecking the gun and injuring the shooter. is related to the length of the bow arm of the Types of ammunition for sportingarms are shooter. Generally, men shoot 28-incharrows much alike. Each type consists of four basic and women and young peopleuse 26-inch. parts: primer, case, powder, bullet (or 1.1ot). The parts which make up an arrow are: shaft, There are two basic types of cartridges,rim Ire head, nock, fletching. The nock is the slot at and centerfire. These terms designate the loca- the rear end of the shaft into which the bow- HUNTING AND SHOOTING 259 string fits. Fletching consists of feathers (or objects. Modern sporting arms are mechanical equivalent) just ahead of the nock. The feathers works of art; they have fine finishes and exhibit are fastened to the shaft along spiral lines and excellent craftsmanship. With regular mainte- cause a stabilizing spin in flight. One of the nance and proper care, they should last a life- feathers serves as a cock feather and stands time. perpendicular to the bowstring when the arrow Close examination of guns, ammunition, and is nocked. Itis usually a different color. The bows and arrows should be made before use. tip of the hunting arrow is called a broadhead. Guns should be checked, while unloaded, to Broadheads are made in a variety of designs but insure proper functioning and that there is no fall into three general designations. The single- obstruction in the barrel. Between seasons, they blade is a one-piece point with the two edges should be checked periodically to prevent rust. sharpened and comes in numerous shapes. The Check ammunition before going to the field to bodkin is three-bladed. The multi-bladed point be sure that it is clean and free of high primers. has four or more cutting edges. Also, sometimes the primer is not fully seated, While firearms ammunition is entirely safe and high primers can cause jamming of the under normal handling conditions, broadheads action or even accidental discharge of the fire- are inherently dangerous because of the razor- arm. They are fairly easy to detect by touch or sharp cutting edges. They should be handled sight. Reloaded ammunition should be inspected carefully when they are examined, repaired, or carefully for cracked or malformed cases. drawn from the quiver (the carrying container Archeryequipmentshouldbeinspected for the arrows). The design of the quiver is closely. Cracked bows or arrows are potential quite important sinceits'louldprotect the sources of injury. Frayed bowstrings may break hunter from his own broadheads. The hunter and cause erratic or unintentional flight of the must guard against injury when drawing a arrow. Sudden release may also break the bow. broadhead from the quiver in the field. Arrows should be checked for sharpness, cracks, secure fletching, and damaged nocks. SAFETIES After use, inspect hunting equipment for Many types of firearms, especially those used damage and clean thoroughly. Guns should be in hunting, have some sort of a mechanical oiled lightly, inside and out. Excessive oil can safety. Too often, the safety is a source of false collect dust and lint which, in turn, attract confidence for hunters; as itis a mechanical moisture. Excessiveoilalsoseepsintothe device, it can fail. It should never be considered wooden parts and causes deterioration. Archery a substitute for safe gun handling practices. tackle should be inspected closely' and cleaned. Safeties do, however, have their place in gun The bowstring should be waxed periodically handling. When the gun is loaded and ready with special wax for this purpose. The bow to fire, it should be kept on "safe," except when should be checked fc' dirt between the tips a shot is imminent. Proper use of the safety will help avoid accidental discharge of a gun. and the string. Although the bow does not have a safety, Wide ranges of temperature and high humid- accidental shooting can be avoided. An arrow ity are the enemies of guns, ammunition, and should not be nocked with the bowstring pulled. archery equipment. Find a storage place where Even that slight tension is sufficient to propel an the temperature is even and the humidity is arrow several yards if released accidentally. constant and moderate. To protect children, store guns in a locked gun case, closet, or sim- CLEANING, INSPECTION, STORAGE ilar place. Ammunition should be locked up Learning about hunting implements should separately. involve developing an appreciation for them as Guns should be stored completely unloaded 260 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

(breech and magazine). The action should be them to rust and warp. They should be stored closed and the gun uncocked. Bows should be in the box in which they were packed originally, unstrung and hung up for storage. Broadheads or one similar to it, since it offers support at should not be left in the quiver for long periods both ends. Broadheads should be locked up out of time because accumulated moisture can cause of the reach of children.

SHOOTING

Marksmanship training develops manipula- sight appears to the eye to be precisely in the tory skills and gives the hunter confidence in center of the rear sight. The top of the front his ability to hit the target. sight should be in the same plane as the top of If the delivery of a shot to a precise point the rear sight. Most hunters sight in their guns risks safety, the shot should not be fired. Ex- in such a way that the shot hits the spot at ternal stimuli, rather than lack of shooting skill, which the top of the front sight appears on the could cause a shot to go wider of its mark. Skills target. Telescopic sights make sight alignment involved in accurate shooting are not learned simpler for the hunter. The sighting in process quickly. Sources on "how to shoot" are listed gets the telescope into alignment with the gun. at the end of this chapter. The hunter simply looks through the telescope and the shot is fired when the crosshairs or post RIFLES AND HANDGUNS are in the proper relationship to the target. The trigger is squeezed when a rifle or hand- The elements which determine the course of gun is fired. Sudden actuation of the trigger a bullet from a rifle or handgun are the same, will cause movement of the gun and the shot in spite of the fact that the two guns differ in will be wide of the mark. size. The theory behind shooting is simple Stability of the rifle while the trigger is being the sights of the rifle or handgun are aligned squeezed has much to do with an accurate shot. and the gun is fired without disturbing that In target shooting there are rigid rules about alignment. This condition is difficult to achieve how this stability may be obtained. Artificial in any setting but a laboratory. When the gun support is illegal. The shooter must use body is picked up to shoot, the movement of the conformation and a rifle sling to achieve sta- body, involvement of certain muscles, eyesight, bility. The hunter, however, is not restricted by trigger finger control, breath control, and other such rule;. In fact, he should use any artificial elements affect the point at which the bullet support available-to him. If there is no artificial strikes the target. The key to the process is support, the shooter should use his own body proper alignment of the sights. for support. When muscles alone are used, a Sights used on hunting guns are either open tremor usually results. The arm supporting the or telescopic. Open sight components include a gun should be directly under it. If the hunter is front post sight which is located at, or near, the standing, the supporting arm can be propped muzzle of the gun. The rear sight, a notch which against the body foradditional support;if may have any one of several shapes, is located kneeling, the supporting arm should be propped near the breech end of the barrel. Hunters on his knee. When the hunter can find a fence- should sight in their guns. Sighting in involves post, a limb, cr other support to lean against, firing a number of shots at a target at a known the arm is still used to support the rifle it is distance. The hunter, after suitable adjustments not rested directly on the support. Ordinarily, of the sights, gets on target. Alignment of the in handgun shooting, no support is allowed. sights involves holding the gun so that the front Even the free arm is not used. In hunting, how- HUNTING AND SHOOTING 261 ever, the chances of an accurate shot are con- The lead and swing technique is the most siderably improved if support is used. widelyusedleadingdevice,especiallyfor The hunter also must learn to control his beginners. As the gun swings with the target, breathing. Just before the shot, fill the lungs the speed of the movement is increased to over- with air. Enough air should be exhaled to allow take the target. Just as the muzzle passes the holding the breath comfortably for a few sec- target, the trigger is pulled. In shotgun shoot- onds. Active breathing must be halted while ing the trigger is moved abruptly but in such a the trigger is being squeezed. way that it does not pull the gun out of its arc. Through practice, physical requirements for The gun continues to move in the same path delivering an accurate shot can be molded into after the shot is fired. The continued movement a familiar, nearly automatic pattern. Practice of the gun during and after firing causes the also increases the manual skills needed for shot to string out in a horizontal pattern. The safety. follow through and spreading of the shot compensate for the reaction time of the shooter, SHOTGUNS the functioning time of the gun, the time When shotguns are used as rifles, with rifled required for the shot to reach the target, and the slugs on big game, they are fired in the same movement of the target while all these other way as rifles. Shotguns used for this purpose things are happening. often have :fights similar to the open sights used on hunting rifles. The technique for shooting SHOOTING THE BOW accurately is the -ame as that used with the rifle. There are several steps involved in hitting a Most shotguns are used on moving targets, target with archery tackle. These stepsare and the shooting technique is entirely different similarto those involved inshooting guns. from that of rifles. Sights are not used. Some They involvethesameposition,sighting, shotguns have a small bead at the muzzle end of breathcontrol,triggersqueeze, andfollow the barrel which serves only as a means for lo- through. cating the end of the barrel. The shotgun is The archer stands at a right angle to the pointed rather than aimed. The shotgun is target with his feet spread comfortably. The mounted to the body in such a way that, during body is not twisted. The toes are on an imag- shooting, the body and gun move as though inary line which runs to the target. they were one piece. The eyes do not move When nocking the arrow, the bow is held independently, but instead become the guide parallel to the ground with the string toward for the entire upper portion of the body. The the body. The bow supports the arrow while it gun follows the body. This is what is meant is being nocked. The arrow is nocked with the by pointing. cock feather pointing up; then the bow is The shooting stance for shotgunners is very raised. As the bow israised, the stringis similar to the stance used by boxers. Placement brought back with the first three fingers of the of the feet is important; the leading foot should shooting hand. This step is called drawing. The point in the same direction that the shot is to handle of the bow is gripped firmly but not be fired. The body is inclined forward slightly. squeezed. Control isnecessary but a heavy The hand supporting the shotgun is forward. grip could cause muscle tremor. The handle is The supporting hand keeps the muzzle swing- brought up to a point just below eye level. The ing with the eyes and body. In fact, many shot- bow arm is straight but flexed slightly to give gunners place the hand under the gun in such the string clearance. The point to which the a way that the forefinger actually points. The string is drawn is called the anchor point, and hand then moves as if it were pointing out the is approximately at the upper, back portion of target. the cheekbone. All archers should develop a 262 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES specific point as the anchor point to maintain The foregoing has taken place almost as one consistency in shooting. motion.This motion completed,thearcher Bow sights, which are fairly common on holds for a few seconds before releasing. Aim hunting bows, have distances marked on them. is checked and the pause is taken to ensure that Through sighting in, the hunter discovers what everything is as it should be. This is a deliberate the location of the sight must be for thearrow part of the shooting procedure and is called to go a certain distance. Two other aiming holding. processes are used in archery. The point of aim method relates the tip of the arrow to an object The release of the bowstring and arrow is as in the foreground. When the tip of the arrow, delicate as a trigger squeeze. The hands open the archer's eye, and an object ata certain smoothly and quickly and the fingers move distance are in line, the arrow will flya known away from the string and the arrow nock at the distance. The third method is instinctive shoot- same time. Sudden motion or pulling to the side ing, whereby the archer uses his eye much as a will spoil the shot. shotgunner does. The bow and arrow follow it. Naturally, the speed of an arrow seems slow He is also aware of the location of the tip of the when compared to a bullet. Regardless of speed, arrow. The height adjustment of the bow is a follow-through is necessary for both types of done almost reflexively. The shooter shoots with equipment. Concerning archery, the position both eyes open, just as the shotgunner does; should be held untilthe arrow reaches the accurate depth perception is essential to the target. The archer can then be certain that he instinctive shooter and sight from both eyes did nothing to change the flight of the arrow is required. after its release.

FIELD SAFETY PRACTICES There are many rules for gun and archery a gun is loaded or not. Guns should be un- safety practices. The real problem lies not in loaded when the shooting or hunting is fin- learning the rules but in knowing when to apply ished, and then checked again before put away. them. The safest hunters master certain simple Leaning on the muzzle of an empty gun, or manipulatory skills related to loading, unload- placing the muzzle on a foot and leaning on the ing, and handling. When these actions become butt, is a dangerous practice. Soon the habit almost automatic, the hunter can devote more of becomes established and the gun is used as a his time to the recognition of potentially hazard- prop when itis loaded. Leaning a loaded or ous situations and the judgments required to unloaded gun against a tree or other insecure overcome them. support is unwise. There is an old phrase which merits attention. 2. Always point the muzzle in a safe direc- Many people have said, "It's always the unload- tion. Even the empty gun should not be pointed ed gun which does the harm." This statement toward another person. The safe hunter always may mislead one into thinking that there really knows where his gun is pointing, even when he is no way to make a gun safe. The saying cannot see the muzzle. The gun must become should suggest instead that people often a;sume so much a part of him that it becomes almost a gun to be unloaded and discover only after an a physical extension of himself. accident happens that it was indeed loaded. Much bad gun handling takes place when several hunters begin loadingtheir guns in SAFETY RULES FOR GUNS preparation for the hunt. Often they stand in a 1. Treat every gun as if it were loaded. There group, talking while loading their guns. Nearly is never any excuse for failing to know whether everyone has one or more guns pointed at him. HUNTING AND SHOOTING )3

Out of respect for safety, each hunter should group is hunting birds, for instance, and walk- face away from the circle while loading his gun. ing fairly closely together across a field, definite He must then carry it so that it does not point assignments as to the zone each party will cover at anyone. are imperative. It is obvious that all hunters 3. Be sure of your target and what is be- cannot shoot at every bird they see without yond. The shooter should know exactly what endangering each other. In a group of three, he is shooting at. If hunting, he should see the the center hunter takes the birds going straight whole animal and clearly enough to identify it away from him. The hunters at the sides take positively. The gun should be used as if it were those on their respective side of the line. When a camera. Like the nature photographer, the parties split up and individuals hunt separately hunter should have a clear, unmistakable pic- over a wide area, each hunter should be as- ture of the whole animal before he shoots. He signed a section and keep to it. should also anticipate where the shot will go if it fails to hit the game or passes completely SELF-PROTECTION through it. Some hunters do things which endanger their safety. For example, it is considered bad prac- GUN CARRIES tice to carry deer skins or antlers in such a way There are a number of ways to carry a gun in that they could be mistaken for a live deer. The the field which are safe, yet keep the gun avail- safe hunter must avoid actions or appearances able for use. Standard safety practices include which might be misinterpreted by another the following: the safety should be on; the hunter. finger should be kept outside the trigger guard There has been considerable discussion con- except when the hunter is ready to shoot; the cerning colors of clothing which would make muzzle should point in a safe direction and be the hunter so distinguishable that mistakes in under control. These practices apply whether identification could be avoided. Only a few the hunter is by himself or with a group. Many states require that a certain color be worn; of hunters carry the gun with the barrel over the these, some require red and others yellow or shoulder and the hand gripping the small of the florescent orange. Tests have proved that dark stock. This is a good carry except when some- reds virtually disappear in poor light conditions. one else is behind. Carrying the gun cradled in Generally, a bright color, one which would the bend of the elbow with the same hand, or make the hunter stand out from his environ- both hands holding it, is also a safe carry but ment, is recommended. Today, blaze orange has not when there is another hunter on that side. more backers than any other color. Many hunters use a carry which causes the gun Self-protection involves, among other things, to point forward and down. The butt is under getting over, through, and around obstacles. the arm and the forend of the gun is supported Good practice dictates that the gun should be by the forearm. This, too, is a good carry but unloaded when there is no possibility of an ac- not when the hunter is behind someone else. curate shot. In practice, since an accurate shot The hunter must be as aware of the constantly cannot be made while the hunter goes over, changing movement of other people and their under, or through a fence, he should unload. relationship to the muzzle of his gun, as he is The gun should be placed flat on the ground on aware of the shifting of automobiles in traffic the other side of the fence and the hunter should and the need to change course. cross at the butt end of the gun. When two hunters want to cross a fence, they unload. One ZONES OF FIRE hunter holds both guns while the other hunter When parties hunt together the areas to be crosses the fence. The guns are handed across covered should be decided in advance. If the and the second hunter crosses. This rule also 264 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

applies when crossing logs; going through heavy tension on the bowstring. The bow may be brush; climbing trees, steep banks, and cliffs; drawn quickly but the chance of accidentalre- or crossing any point where footing is bad. lease is to be avoided. The broadhead should be in the quiver when the huntercannot make SAFETY RULES FOR ARCHERY an accurate shot or when he stops to rest or While hunting accidents with bows andar- crosses a fence. rows are comparatively few, the bow hunter Automobiles are not the place for loaded fire- must realize that the potential for accidents arms, strung bows, or unprotected broadheads. exists every time the bow is drawn. The firearm should be unloaded, the bowun- 1. Never draw a bow or nock anarrow if strung, and the broadhead in its quiver or stor- someone is in front of you. Accidental release age box.Ready-to-shoot hunting equipment of the broadhead is alwaysa threat. Another should not be taken into campor placed in auto- person should never be used as a target, nor mobiles unless the automobilesare used in open should a target ever be held bya person. Great country to find game. Where this is true, the care should be taken wh'n examining, showing, hunter should open the action of thegun. An or handling broadheads in a group. The only accurate shot cannot be made until the auto- safe place for a broadhead, except whenitis mobile is at a standstill. Where the hunter is about to be shot, is in its storage boxor quiver. doing the driving, the gun should be carried in 2. Never release an arrow without being able the same opened- action condition, but it should to see its full path to the target. This practice is be in a rack which will hold it securely. especiallyimportant for bow hunters. Bow Recently, in a certain Rocky Mountain state hunters often use camouflaged clothingfor there were more deaths from heart attacks hunting and are sometimes difficult tosee. The among hunters in the field than there were from target should be seen clearly. Also,an arrow gunshot accidents. Many huntersare once-a- should never be shot straightup in the air. year outdoorsmen. Hunting, in many cases, is a 3. Never use imperfect equipment. All equip- vigorous sport. A physical checkup is needed, ment should be inspected carefully beforeuse. especially if the hunt will involve heavy physi- Loose or broken nocks, cracked bowor arrow cal exertion or take place ata high altitude. shafts, loose fletching or broadheads,or a frayed Physical conditioning is also important. Fatigue bowstring may cause injury to the shooteror distortsjudgment and opensthedoorto to another hunter. accidents. The same field safety practices mentionedin If possible, the hunter should be familiar with the section on guns generally apply to bow the hunting area in advance. Knowing the terri- hunting. There are, however, a few differences. tory guards against becoming lost and helps the The arrow may be kept in the shooting position hunter to condition his outdoor vision and to in the field but great care must be taken notto know where any natural hazards exist. Many point it at anyone. The nocked arrow may be hunters fail to get game or make mistakes in held tight against the string with the index identification because they are unaccustomed to finger of the bow hand, but there should beno seeing things under this new light.

References American Association for Health, Physical Education, National Rifle Association. NRA Home Firearm Safety. and Recreation. Shooting and Hunting. Washington, Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1962. 20 pp. D.C.: The Association, 1960. 94 pp. NRA Hunter Safety Handbook. Washington, Haugen, A. 0. tnd Metcalf, H. G. Field Archery and D.C.: The Association, 1959. 22 pp. Bowhunt'ng. New York: Ronald PressCo.,1963. Shigley, F. D. All About Guns For Boys. Minneapolis, 213 pp. Minn.: T. S. Denison and Co., Inc., 1962. 48 pp. Camping IERNEST F. SCHMIDT, A.B. .

If anyone had taken a survey of the number By 1900, with the population at 76 million, of campers in the United States in 1492, he of which 39% was urban, magazine articles on would have found that the figure was about camping began to appear. During the next few three million persons 100% of the popula- years, youth agencies with programs emphasiz- tion. In that day.- the ability to camp and the ing camping as well as safety oriented organi- ability to survive were synonymous, with flint zations, such as the American Red Cross, came arrowhead poisoning an occupational hazard. into existence. In 1950, 64% of the population Camping was taken for granted, with itsat- of 151 million lived in urban areas; now, the tendant hazards, as a way of life. urban figure is more than 70%. Beginning about 1850, when the population The number of "lone" campers has probably was 23 million (85% rural), a few people began changed very little since Columbus' day. Today to realize that camping had values and that there are at least three million Americans and some of the skills possessed by the Indians were Canadians who take their packsacks or canoes too valuable to be lost. to the forests, high mountains, or wild lake country in search of adventure and solitude. In 1850, Daniel Carter Beard was born. Lc 1 Another 40 million Americans also go camping, Baden Powell, who started Boy Scouting, was but in an entirely different manner, preferring born in 1857. Ernest Thompson Seton was born to camp in trailer parks or national or state in 1860. George Sears ("Nessmuk"), the pioneer parks, and often just as close to the next camper outdoor writer, was born in 1821 and Horace as possible. Tc make space for camping vehicles Kephart in 1862. Each of these people was and tents, the national, state, and local parks articulate and even eloquent about the advan- have provided thousands of camping places, and tages of camping ant' oequeathed priceless inan ever growing number of private camp- spiration and guidance for today's campers. grounds have sprung up.

CAMPING UNORGANIZED AND ORGANIZED Unorganized camping applies to the lone and his less venturesome counterparts in the hiker of the Appalachian or Pacific Crest Trail trailercampgrounds.Organized campingis

265 266 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES done by an organized group on either a fixed ond, how many of these children, if they had or moving base. stayed at home durirK; the camp season and People camp for many reasons. Parents enjoy gone about their normal activities in their home having the family doing something together and and neighborhood, would have received injuries in an economical way. Fun and adventure are that would have also involved a claim? prime goals for both young and old. For young people, organized camps provide thespecial TOP TEN REASONS FOR CLAIMS educational advantage of learning to live with Number of others as well as having one's self-confidence Reason Claims Percentage built by achievement at one's own le% el. Both Colds (including tonsillitis) 6,528 19.1 organized and unorganized camping offer edu- Cuts, lacerations 3,584 10.4 cational opportunity, challenge for proving, one- Sprains 3,270 9.5 self in the outdoors, ,nd a happy, healthy way Bruises 2,590 7.5 Skin inflammation of life. (including poison ivy) 2,075 6.0 But is it? Upset stomach, stomach flu 1,941 5.6 Ear inflammation and infection 1,862 5.3 Infections (other than skin) 1,672 4.7 ASTUDY OF INJURIES TN ORGANIZED CAMPS Broken bones 1,227 3. Statistics on camping related accidents are Puncture wounds 1,041 3.0 extremely hard to obtain, but some studies have Total 25,790 74.7 been made which provide information for pre- ventinp-cidents in camping. In 1965, the Mu- The life insuranc,r, company also studied 88 tual Set arity Life Insurance Company of Fort death claims submitted by camps between 1958 Wayne, Indiana made a study of three and one- and 1965. Of 16.2 million persons insured, the half million campers (mostly youths in organ- claims represented 5.4 deaths. ized camps) between 1962 and 1964, of whom 35,000(thatis, 1%) receivedinjuries and ANALYSIS OF 88 DEATH CLAIMS illnesses serious enough to submit an insurance Number of claim. Since 1965, the company has taken other Reason Claims Percentage samplings, which have validated the origir al Drowning 47 53.4 statistics cites in the next column. Automobile (including travel Several things must be kept in mind as we to and from camps) 22 25.0 Falls 5 5.7 analyze the insurance claim record. First, be- Struck by car in camp 4 4.5 cause a claim involves money, the average cut Freak accidents 3 3.4 or scrape in a camp represents mr injury but not Plane crash 2 2.3 a claim. The health staff of a youth camp prob- Lightning 1 1.0 a. ly give:.3 bandage or sympathetic shoulder Horseback accident 1 1.0 to 20 or more banged or bumped children for Water skiing 1 1.0 Hit by falling tree 1 1.0

evcry one child who is seriously injured. Sec- pride upset 1 1.0

A DOZEN DANGERS THE WOODS As one lives in the outdoors, and even more 1. Poisonous insects 7. Poisonous reptiles importantly studies accident opportunities and 2. People 8. Trees prevention, one realizes that there are about a 3. Fire 9. Poisonous plants dozen dangers of the woods. Listed from kinds 4. Sanitation 10. Injury and illness of dangers that come to you to thosr; you have 5. Water 11. Exposure to go to, they are: 6. Animals 12. Lost CAMPING 267

Since Daniel Boone's day, the intensity of effective on a short-term basis, but denying the many of these dangers has decreased, but. in mosquitoes a breeding place is the best solution. areas like sanitation °I injury, it has risen, as Because drainage may be impractical, nonper- attested, for example, by the number of hunt- sistent or degradable chemical poison sprays are ing deaths during an active season. the recommended preventive. The poisons must be used with great care since they are indis- DANGER NO. 1 POISONOUS INSECTS criminate and probably kill the good insects Insects can make miserable even the finest along with the bad. camping environment. Their lethal capabilities Wasps and bees. One has to see the effects vary by locality but in the catalog of pests the of a bee sting or wasp puncture to an allergic following rank high in the United States: person to gain respect for these insects. They are not just a painful nuisance, but are a menace 1. Flies 6. Spiders to life. Repellents are somewhat useful here but 2. Mosquitoes 7. Chiggers (red bugs) even more important is education in methods of 3. Wasps and bees 8. Black flies avoiding these pests and in using great caution 4. Ticks 9. Punkies (no-see-umf) when they are nearby. Get competent medical 5. Scorpions 10. Centipedes advice and equipment before someone gets House flies. House flies, because of their dis- stung. ease carrying ability,are probably the most Ticks.Ticks, which livein bushy areas menacing insect. Screening, poisons, and traps throughout most of the United States, can carry do block their filth-to-food routes, but denial Rocky Mountain spotted fever. They can be of breeding places is the most effective solution. carried in a house by a cat or dog. Repellents Latrines and kitchens must particularly be pro- are helpful, but more important is avoiding tected. Nonpersistent poisons may Le used but places inhabited by ticks and carefully check- theireffectson beneficialinsects must be ing for ticks. A tick may crawl on a person for considered. many hours before it actually "digs in." When In one camp which had a serious fly problem, it does, the tick has to be removed carefully to someone used a new kind of fly trap which avoid crushing it and getting juices on your attracted the insects by scent,. caused them to skin. Tweezers or the heat from a lighted ciga- enter a quart jar, and killed them quickly. In rette or match are recommended for the removal. the following week or two, the camp's fly popu- 'scorpions, spiders, and centipedes. Scorpions, lation was noticeably reduced. Then the flies spiders, and centipedes cause more psychologi- reappeared in numbers even larger than the cal fear than physical harm. It is wise to check original plague. A close examination of the fly shoes each morning; to be cautious in rocky traps revealed that the traps were also attract- and brushy places and in rural dwellings; to be ing "burying beetles," which are the under- able to recognize black widow and brown re- takers for small animals and birds that die of cluse spiders. Black widows like the undersides natural causes. With the elimination of these of country sanitary facilities so a brushing away beetles the dead animals of the forest remained of cobwebs under seats is recommended. on the surface and became the breeding area for Chiggers (red bugs). Chiggers are minute, more flies than were previously present. spider-like creatures that live in the woods over Some camps have found that keeping a flock a large part of the middle and southern areas of chickens near the stable compost pile cuts of the United States. They crawl beneath peo- the fly population drastically. ple's clothing until they find a tight, sweaty Mosquitoes. In some places the mosquito is place and promptly dig in, leaving a welt that merely a nuisance but in other places the dis- itches and sometimes festers for one or two ease it can carry is a menace. Repellents are weeks. 268 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

A clear plastic coating (like nail polish) on a death claims was "struck by a car in camp." bite relieves a great deal of itching but avoid- There are four logical answers to this danger. ance of the chiggers in the first place is better 1. To dispense with roads in the campground yet. Don't sit on logs, keep clear of brush and so far as is possible. leaves, and use plenty of repellent, including 2. To restrict all vehicles to a parking lot and sulphur powder. to allow no vehicles in the camp itself. Black flies and punkies ("no-see-urns"). Black 3. To train drivers of camp vehicles to handle flies and punkies are occupational dangers of their vehicle in a safe manner. many hikers in forest areas. Insect repellent is 4. To forbid anyone from riding on the back thebestsolution.Punkiesareparticularly of an open truck or any other vehicle that bothersome because of their small size, which is not designed for carrying pitssengers. enables them to walk through screenwire. Get- Implicit in a camp's p:.-)gram are a great many ting rid of low underbrush or tall grass near safety hazards. Archery,rifle marksmanship, the camp deniessheltertcblackfliesand swimming, boating, sailing, hiking, climbing, mosquitoes. horseback riding these are all dangerous parts Of all these T,,nt::,, fli, and mosquitoes cause of the camp program if they are improperly campers the most misery. Education, proper taught or poorly supervised. poison or repellent that is applied correctly, and caution will solve most of the problems with DANGER NO. 3 FIRE insects. Sharp, pungent, and fresh in the noses and minds of all campers aze the scent and smell of DANGER NO. 2 PEOPLE forest or camp fires in which they have been Whether through curiosity, malice, or care- personally involved. Equally fresh, though a lessness, people can be aserious danger to little harder to admit, is the lurking realization campers. This is particularly true of girls' camps that proper precaution or better training would where privacy is important. Use No Trespassing have prevented the fire, or at least alleviated to signs and adequate fencing; arrange for police some extent its effects. protection, good lighting, careful supervision of Basically, camping fires cause trouble in two outposts in far-out camp sites, and in some areas: forest or fields and camp buildings. cases, a night guard. Forest fires. According to our Forest Service, During hunting season, hunters are often a most fires are started by smoking. Lightning and very serious menace as they disregard No Tres- a few other causes follow. Prohibition of smok- passing signs and hunt where children are hiking or use of good manners by smokers would ing or camping. In this case, obviously the only probably eliminate almost half of all forest fires. adequate protection is active patrolling of the Camp fires escaping from control are another campsite by authorized personnel. cause of fires and here the remedy is easy. First, Vandalism, while not necessarily a source of don't build fires when the wind is too high. injury, is another danger that all camps must Second, always clear the area in which you are face, whether the camp is remote from civiliza- going to build a fire so that nothing flammable tion or close to a city, or even just a camp- is close by. ground. Here again, ease of access has a bearing In a few ar-.-,, such as the open plains, one on the degree of the danger and certainly too, may have to dig a hole to escare the wind. But active patrolling is, in many cases, the indis- in forested areas, it is usually smart to build a pensable ingredient for protection. fire on top of something fireproof, such as rocks Automobiles. Automobiles are lethal beyond or le-se dirt, so that no root ends are exposed all proportion to their numbers. Almost one out to pick up a spark and transmit it for many feet of 20 of the deaths reflected on the analysis of or yards before the forest catches fire. CAMPING 269

Fire permits are required in many states and DANGER NO. 4 SANITATION in almost all states there are local, state, and federal experts who could teach proper methods Water. While many states have laws regard- of fire control and the best ways to organize ing the purity of the water supply for an or- one's personnel into an efficient, effective fire ganized camp, others still lack such protection. fighting crew. Lone campers,the camp director,or camp Equipment of the more sophisticated types is health officer must see that drinking water is expensive. An oil drum filled with water in the pure. This is realized generally by adults, but middle of a camp site or a couple of #10 tin there are always children who must be carefully cans hanging from a stick near each tent are taught that the clean-looking, running stream inexpensive and effective. But, the bestfire may be deceptive. fighting tool of all is a trained group of camp Water can be purified by boiling or by treat- leaders with a plan, practice, and plenty of ing with chemicals, such as iodine or chlorine training. (halazone). State agencies will test water sam- Fire in camp buildings. The main cause of fire ples for purity, but they will caution that the in camp buildings is carelessness with potential test applies now. Any clear, pure well or spring firemaking materials, with maintenance of heat- can be contaminated within five minutes by a ers or fireplaces, in the inspection of electrical rainstorm or animals. The safest way is to as- wiring and fixtures, and in the general building sume that the water is contaminated and purify area. Matches cannot be left loose for mice or it. Water storage tanks and vessels must not chipmunks to gnaw; oily rags cannot be thrown only be :lean to start with, but screened against into a corner to ignite by spontaneous combus- rodents, insects, and drainage. A new water tion; flammable rubbish must be disposed of system in a camp or a travel trailer should be promptly; fire extinguishers or water and hose flushed out thoroughly with chlorine treated must be available and operative; flammable water before use. liquids of any kind must never be stored inside The source of the drinking water in any buildings. camp, whether it be a deep or shallow well, Gasoline or kerosene must be stored in a spring, orstream, should be carefullysafe- locked, ventilated shelter, well away from build- guarded from contamination. One very fine mid- ings. The use of lanterns using liquid fuel is western camp was closed by the state when it extremely dangerous, particularly if the lanterns was discovered that the effluent of the septic are old or in poor repair. Wherever this type of system flowed into the lake within a few yards illumination must be used, it should be carefully of the intake of the camp water system and not supervised and handled by a capable adult. too far from the swimming area. The presence of a pool or small pond close to Per capita water supply needed each day is: buildings will almost automatically reduce fire 30 gallons (no flush toilets); 50 gallons (with insurance premiums. Cultivation of the local fire flush toilets, showers, drinking fountains); and department even if it is several miles away -- 80 gallons (with flush toilets and a swimming could be even more profitable than a good in- pool). Minimum storage capacity should be for surance policy. Get their understanding and a 48 hour supply of water. cooperation. Food. Obviously food handlers must pass re- Camps in heavily forested, high-fire danger quired state exams. The camp director is re- areas should have an adequate fire-break around sporisibile for getting his food handlers carefully the property and most certainly should have examined by a licensed physician. training and equipment sufficient to evacuate Food storage areas must be rodent and insect thepropertyathighspeed when danger proof, with refrigeration facilities at a tempera- threatens. ture not to exceed 40°F. for walk-in refriger- 270 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES ators. A thermometer should be kept in the Garbage disposal. A camp in the wilderness refrigerator to check this. with a small group or only a few individuals The service area for food must always be might seem a simple thing, but those who have immaculate and subject to frequent inspection. found these campsites have seen what people There must be screens in the windows and who lived there have done. Two suggested rules handwashing facilities in the kitchen with plenty are: (1) burn everything burnable and (2) carry of hot water, soap, and towels for kitchen everything else back to civilization. If this sec- personnel. ond rule seems a bit drastic or hard to do, make Kitchen e(Juipment and dishes must be kept the burning and crushing of tin cans and other clean and stored properly in dust, rodent, and nonburnable containers an honor job and a insect proof areas. Dishwashing is another es- challenge. If the pile seem,: imposingly big, plan sential to sanitation. There are five clear steps your containers better next time. in dishwashing, whether one is family camping Garbage disposal is a problem whenever there or in an organized camp, or even in one's own is a large quantity of garbage. Where the topog- home. raphy and acreage allow, land fill can be used. Step 1. Scrape the dishes to remove garbage. It is wisest, however, to use available municipal Step 2.. Pre-rinse to clear away small particles or individual garbage disposal facilities and have of food. the stuff carted or trucked aw. y. Step 3. Wash in hot (120° in a tank or 160° Algae and aquatic weeds.If lake water is in machine) water, treated with deter- warm or shallow or fertilized from an agricul- gent or soap. tural upstream source, inevitably there will be Step 4. Rinse in water ai least 180°F. in tem- algae and aquatic weeds, which may range from perature, or in sterilization chemicals. merely unpleasant to "dangerous." Chemicals Step 5. Dry without a towel. Dishes, after can effectively and safely control this nuisance. rinsing, should be air dryed as quickly But in order to save the animal life in the lake, as possible. This is particularly true of expert guidance should be sought before treat- mouth-contact dishes such as cups and ing the water. silve.ware, which, incidentally, should always be washed first. DANGER NO. 5 -- WATER One problem does remain dishwater dis- Under thesection dealing with "Aquatic posal. If enough of it is thrown in one spot, it Activities," swimming, diving, boating, canoe- will draw flies and cause odor because of the ing, sailing, skin and scuba diving, outboard small particles of food remaining. In a resident motoring, water skiing, and other sports are camp, this water can be sent into the water covered. They are all well-known and importaia disposal system, but on an outpost camp, une camping activities whose popularity and haz- will need a sizeable tin can with quite a few ardous nature must be recognized. small holes in the very bottom, a handful of Too much water at the wrong time or place straw, hay, grass, or pine needles, and a dry can be serious. Campsites should be located spot (different each time) somewhere away from where abnormally high floodwater cannot reach camp. Pour the dishwater through the grass, the site or, in another season, where snow- etc., let it soak into the ground, and then burn slides could not engulf it. A tent or building the grass. A plastic bag, filled with grass, leaves, never should be placed in a normal drainage or needles, etc. and with pin holes punched in route. the bottom will do just as well and the whole thing can be burned. In any case, the water DANGER NO. 6 ANIMALS should be distributed where itwill quickly One of the major attractions of the outdoors soak away. is animals. Many organized camps have riding CAMPING 271

horses. These give a lot of pleasure, but there DANGER NO. 7 POISONOUS REPTILES are also hazards. The two major sources of in- While reptiles cannot be disregarded as a jury with riding horses are: (1)fall-offs and source of injury in the outdoors, they are vastly (2) kicks and bites received from the horse. overrated. Snake bite deaths average 14 persons Proper direction, training, and supervision a year, while bee and spider bites account for lessen the chances of these injuries occurring. 30 deaths a year. Stables and riding rings should be located to In northeastern United States (north of the avoid the health hazards of flies breeding in Ohio River, east of the Mississippi), there are manure, drainage emptying into water sources only four kinds of poisonous snakes. They are or swimming areas, and uncontrolled dust in the pigmy rattlesnake, the timber rattlesnake, the riding ring. copperhead, and (rarely), water moccasin. The Pet dogs in camp can be another hazard, no water moccasin is occasionally found as far matter how friendly, docile, or gentle they may north as southern Illinois and parts of Virginia. be. Children do tease animals. Itis doubtful In the southeastern part of the United States that camp directors will want to take a chance (east of the Mississippi, south or the Ohio of a dog bite. River), thereare seven kinds of lisonous Mice and rats may be a problem around snakes: the phymy, timer, canebrak. and dia- camps, principally at the sanitary areas. Chip- mondback rattlesnakes, copperhead, water moc- munks, squirrels, bats, and rabbits are often casin, and coral snake. Six of the these snakes found. The bites, kicks, or scratches of these are pit vipers with a distinct depression between animals can be not only painful, but dangerous the nostril and the eye and somewhat below because of the possibility of infection. this line. The coral snake, found only in the Other animals found in the fields and forests extreme southern part of the United States, is aroundcamps arebears,deer,porcupines, small and brightly colored, with black snout skunks, raccoons, and foxes. Of these, the bear and red and yellow bands touching. is by far the most dangerous, especially the West of the Mississippi River, there are 26 tame looking bears found in national parks and kinds of poisonous snakes. Of these, all but five forest.Although therearelotsoffearless are rattlesnakes. There are two kinds of copper- bears, there is no such thing as a tame '.1ear! heads, the water moccasin, and two kinds of Since a grown black bear can take a citilavb coral snake in the extreme southern part. hand off with one bite, campers should never In the far Southwest, there is one poisonous under any circumstances feed or get near a bear, lizard, called the Gila monster. Its salivais no matter how harmless it may look. poisonous, but it is not considered very dan- Male deer in the autumn rutting season are gerous because of its slowness and remoteness. dangerous. Except for human curiosity or care- In a camping area, some effort should be lessness, procupines are not really dangerous. made to control the poisonous reptile popula- Quills are barbed ar..1 extremely sharp. Skunks, tion. But, since these snakes also do a lot of raccoons, and foxes are subject to rabies. Upon good, it would probably be a mistake to try to seeing one of these animals behave in a strange eliminate them completely. Campers should be or fearless way, stay away, especially from trained to recognize the snakes and avoid en- foxes, who are normally shy. v4ronments which might harbor them. Skunks require nothing but respect and dis- The bites, as any puncture wound, should be tance. Raccoons areintelligentandquickly cleared of as much poison as possible by suc- learn that man can be a good provider. But man tion. The victim should not exercise violently should remember that raccoons are fighters and or become frightened so that his circulaZion incapable of whipping a dog their own size or creases greatly. Obviously, a doctor's care and larger. hospital treatment should be obtained as quickly 272 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES as possible. Again, snakes are more dramatic; is removed by soap and water within 5 or 10 wasps and hornets are more deadly! minutes after exposure, it will, within a few days, produce an intense itching with reddening DANGER NO. 8 --d-. TREES. and blisteeng of the skin and soon after this, A tree may not seem particularly lethal, yet open running blisters that itch terribly and are of the 88 death claims, several deaths were susceptible to secondary infections of several kinds. caused by trees. One was caused by lightning . under a tree; another by a falling tree; and A camper need not have direct contact with the plant to get poison ivy. He can get it from a several others by falls, some of which may have been from trees. dog or cat or by touching shoes or clothingor During a thunderstorm, avoid taking shelter camping gear that have been in contact with the plant, or by breathing smoke of burning under atr..2e, exposing yourself on an open poison ivy or poison oak leaves. mountaintop, or being in a metal canoe on an Poison sumac isfortunately a much rarer open lake. Few people have survived totell (andlarger)plant andis what it feels like to be too close to a bolt of usually found in swamps, but its effects are equally drastic. lightning. There is danger of being hit by falling limbs or whole trees during a windstorm. There are, of course, many plants that are Trees with large, dead branches, trees that extremely poisonous when takeninternally. are diseased, rotten at the base, or dead, and a Some mushrooms and quite a few berries are in tree or a group of trees undermined by erosion this category. The important thing is to have these plants ckarly identified by knowledgeable in or near camp should be removed. persons and then avoid them. Unidentified berries should not be eaten. DANGER NO. 9 POISONOUS PLANTS Commonest of the plants with poisonous DANGER NO. 10 INJURIES AND ILLNESSES juices are poison ivy and poison oak. They have Into this area fits every one of the top 10 compound leaves, three leaflets to the stem. The reasons for insurance claims and most of the plant may grow as a series of leaflets coming miseries of today's camping. Common types of out of the ground, as a low shrub sometimes injuries and illnesses include: reaching up as far as 25 'r 30 inches, or as a Colds. Preventions are proper clothing, food, climbing vine which could be the size of a man's and rest. In the organized camp, rest should be thigh in diameter and treetop high. The seeds built into the program. of poison ivy and poison oak are sometimes Falls. With 5.7% of the deaths in the analysis spread by birds. This means that poison ivy is of death claims given earlier inthissection very likely to grow below a tree in which birds caused by falls, this is obviously a serious cause commonly perch. Poison ivy prefers the edge of of injury. Some falis are probably inevitable, but forests, or under lone trees because it likes semi- falls from rocky places or cliffs can be controlled shade and cannot tolerate brilliant sunlight or by proper fencing and training. The chance of deep shade. falls from trees can be reduced by sawing off Best proientions are education and elimina- the lower limbs and removing rotten trees and tion of ti, : plant by poisons or by persistent and branches. Falls in and ar3und buildings can be thorough use of a hoe or similar cutting, digging lessened by proper mair tenance and supervi- tools. One must remember, however, that the sion, and falls on the trails of an organized sap of the roots is as poisonous as the sap of camp can be d'-ninished dramatically by enforc- the leaves or stems. ing a rule that prohibits running on the trails, This sapcl.. "varnish" has highly irritant Probably the most effective preventive of qualities on the skin of most people. Unless this accidents is an experienced camp director or CAMPING 273 counselor, who knows children well enough to have two-way communication between their anticipate what they are going to do and thus busses or station wagons. Where a family is can foresee potential accidents. using a camper on its pickup truck, there should As one eliminates, or at least reduces, the be wire communication between the cab of the incidence of falls, onP also reduces the number truck and the body of the camper. of cuts, lacerations, abrasions, sprains, bruises, For theresident camp, prevention can be broken bones, puncture wounds, and infections. built-in: guard rails on the steps, immediate An effective preventive of injuries and ill- replacement of broken boards in floors or plat- nesses is a health system that includes: forms, guy wires marked by white ribbons, 1. A thorough health examination should be visible white ropes holding up tents, fences at given by a physician before the child goes to key locations, and level pathways. camp. Although the best time to receive the During the planning stage of camp construc- examinationisone month priorto entering tion a consultant or camp director can be worth camp, the child may receive it as much as one his weight ininsurance. Hazards should be year before the camp season. eliminated before they are built-in. Adequate 2. When the child reaches camp, he should insurance can avoid financial catastrophe. receive a recheck by the camp's health staff. The camp director should not accept a child 3. The third defense is the health staff of the into camp unless he knows whom to contact if camp. Perhaps a doctor, and certainly a nurse, something goes wrong. This also applies to a should be.on the staff. If the camp lacks a resi- cross-country camp, and even to family campers, dent doctor, a nearby doctor should be avabble In most agency organized camps, a regular on a contractual or agreement basis. report system informs the camp's national head- 4. The fourth defense lies in the programs, qu irters immediately if something goes seri- which should be tailored to prevent the children ously wrong in the camp. The camp's health from becoming too tired, and the supervision of staff should maintain a record of all camp in- the camp oriented to constant vigilance. juries, even minor injuries, which might become It is necessary to have an arrangement with major. The law requires that records of treat- the nearest hospital and ttmaintain a camp ments be kept until two years after the child infirmary f( r treating wounds and providing concerned has reached his "majority." (A Penn- semi-isolation for more serious illnesses. The sylvania case established that a "child" can sue infirmary should operzte in a safe and sanitary on his own after age 21, even though his par- manner. Transportation must always be im- ents may have settled a claim.) mediately available so that if a child requires DANGER NO. 11 EXPOSURE hospitalization, no time will be lost. For the family camper, the availability of Heat and cold are the major causes of injury health facilities sometimes poses a problem, but from exposure. Sunburn is the most common the same kit of first aid supplies that the camp type of heat expo:- 're and can be extremely would have should be with the family camper, serious. Prevention, by staying o'it of the sun, only on a smaller scale. is almost impossible with children, but adequate Just as important as an adequate first aid kit, clothing and skin preparations will reduce or however, isa trained health staff, supervised slow down the burning. When children are in closely by an alert camp director, who has care- the sun for many hours or days, they must not fully worked out a standard operating procedure only be provided with proper clothing and sun- for emergencies. Telephone numbers should be burn lotion, but also with dark glasses to avoid prominently posted. sunstroke. Heat exhaustion, which occurs in For camps away from civilization, a two-way extremely hot weather, can be prevented by radio-phoneisuseful. Some traveling camps proper rest and control of activities. 274 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Sunburn is not limited to hot weather. On a equipment, but the vital ability to force oneself snowfield the burning might affect the eyes, to sit down, eat a candy bar, build a fire, do any- which would produce snowblindness. Formerly thing to prevent panic. sunburn from snow and snow blindness and In addition, one should use every means to even frostbite were unheard of in a camp. But establish one's location sounds, the slope of with increasing numbers of people using the the ground, the direction of the wind, etc. Boys outdoorsin cold weather and with 100,000 and girls should be taught the various methods snowmobiles in use (in 1968), inevitably there of walking in a straight line in forests. The will be an increase in deaths by exposure. If danger of traveling alone, separating from a .he riders of these vehicles fail to provide ade- companion, or the extreme danger of traveling quate survival gear and equipment to take care at night must be emphasized. If no fire can be of themselves away from civilization in bitterly built, a bed of leaves or other kinds of shelter cold climate, they will be subject to serious should be used and the lost victim should re- hazards if their vehicles break down. Camping main where he is until full daylight. under extreme heat or cold requires far more A compass is an essential item but the com- staff orientation andraining than camping pass carrier should realize that the compass under normal circumstances. itself will not get him back to civilization. It will only enable him to travel in a consistently DANGER NO. 12 LOST straight direction. Also important are matches, a knife, adequate Leaders of parties heading into the wilder- clothing, and a lightweight but sizeable piece ness must not only have a schedule of departure of yellow, red, or clear plastic, which can be and return, but must notify the authorities who used as a cover, rain cape, blanket, or even a are in charge of the particular area to which signal panel, they are going. But training is the essential thing training Parents on family camping trips and camp in observing the terrain, sounds, the location directors in organized camps must assume that of the stars, and the direction of the wind; train- every child has the potential of becoming lost ing in use of map and compass; and training to and should have training in what to do if lost. give self-confidence and abilityto carefor Training should include not only the use of oneself.

References

Berlyle, Milton K. Safe Drinking Water in Emergencies. . How to Control Woodchucks, Moles, Porcu- Monticello, N.Y.: Rhulen Agency, Inc.,1966. pines, Bats and Snakes. Monticello, N.Y.:. The Agency, Handbook for Camp Directors and Administrators in a 1966. 6pp. Girl Scout Council. New York: Girl Scouts of the USA,1967. --. Is .} our Camp Health Program Sick? Parts I & II. Monticello, N.Y.: The Agency,1966. 8 Harris, Dorothy V. and Vander Smissen, Betty. Camp- pp. craft. Chicago: The Athletic Institute,1965(series1), 1967(series 2). .Protecting Rustic and Unseasoned Wood from Inturioas insects. Monticello, N.Y.: The Agency,1966. Rhulen Agency, Inc. A Safe Horsebook Riding Program. 8 pp. Monticello, N.Y.: The Agency,1066. 4pp.

-. How tr Control Rabbits, S'uirrels, Skunks and . The Camp Chauffcar an Important Staff Chipmunks. Monticello, N.Y.: Th. Agency,1966. 4pp. Member. Monticello, N.Y.: The Agency,1966. 12pp. Hiking and

Mountaineering IJOHN M. MOPEITEAD, B.S.

This section is a guide for the person who is small a group as one other individual. The in- planning to lead a group on a hiking or moun- tent here is to help the leader plan and conduct taineering trip. A group leader is any person a safe, enjoyable outing experience in hiking who leads or plans the activity, even for as and mountaineering.

HIKING

DEFINITION just under 18 days "walking for pleasure." As a recreational activity, measured by days of par- Actually, anyone who is walking for any ticipation, walking for pleasure was second only recreational purpose could be called a hiker. to driving for pleasure, and was far more popu- For the purpose of this section, however, hiking lar than any of the other listed sports and means an activity where the hiking is the pri- activities. The survey showed that 33% of all mary purpose of the outing, not a secondary Americans engage in "walking for pleasure." means to an end in accomplishing some other sport. Walking or strolling for pleasure is con- HIX,NG HAZARDS sidered hiking. IIthe lower grades of difficulty in hiking, i.e., owalks or trails in normal terrain and weather, SCOPE ACTIVITY most hiking accidents are not severe. Blisters, As the population increases and available strains, sprains, abrasions, and an occasional leisure time becomes greater, the trend is for broke,' bone are the most common injuries. The the number of people actively engaging in hik- frequency rate for accidents is far below that ing as an outdoor activity also to increase. The of contact sports or some of the other action 1962 report to the President and Congress by oriented sports. This, initself, certainly con- the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Com- tributes to the popularity of the sport. mission, Outdoor Recreation for America, stated Climate. Climate can be a significant hazard that between June 1, 1960, and May 30, 1961, to the participant. The main factors involved the average Ame-ican over 12 years old spent are temperature and altitude.

275 276 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Cold: It is obvious that if a hike is,lanned hazard. The type of footgear can properly vary for a cold, stormy day, adequate clothing must with the physical make-up of the individual, be taken. It should be the leader's responsibility usage, local terrain, local climate and weather, to check this beforehand, to insure that every amount the individual is willing to spend, etc. participant complies. In many instances, espe- Inallcases, the leader should assure himself cially with young people or children, itis not that the footgear of all participants is adequate enough simply to mention the needs beforehand. for the hike proposed. Nonslip soles should be A check list or even a visual check before start- stressed, if not required. The rubber cleated ing may be required. Numerous serious, and vibram type soles are excellent in most areas, even fatal, accidents have occurred because of but often a common rubber sole will do just as this oversight. well. Ankle support should be given far more Heat: Heat may be a limiting factor in hiking. attention than it usually receives. Many pro- For older people, or for anyone with a weak fessionals contend (although there are no sta- heart, the problem of heat exhaustion or heat tisticsto prove this)that the rate of ankle stroke can be most severe. Itis essential that strains and sprains is far higher for those hikers the leader know both the area, including the wearing sneakers or tennis shoes than for those weather factors, and also the people involved wearing high top leather shoes or boots. It is in the hike. If a person is planning a hike for quite obvious that the high top leather does a young, athletic group from the immediate offer more physical support. In spite of ''.;s, vicinity, he should have no problem in estimat- tennis and other canvas type shoes are usually ing the physical limitations of the group. Too acceptable on most hiking outings, simply be- often, however, this same hike may be proposed cause they generally have an excellent nonslip for an unknown group which may not be ac- sole. On hiking trips of several days, ankle customed to the climate of the area. This hap- support becomes critical. A boot or hiking shoe pens quite commonly in youth and summer should be almost mandatory. camp groups. A hike should be planned for the Conditioning. The physical condition and the slower or weaker individuals, not for the strong- training or experience of the individual are not est. It is easy to extend most hikes with side as easy to solve as the equipment problem. It trips or with the introduction of other activities, would be wonderful if one had the time and but itis most difficult to extend safely the opportunity to-ain and condition the partici- physical capabilities of an exhausted individual. pants before lc-,iing a hike. The only solution Altitude: In some areas of the country, the is to tailor the hike to safely accommodate the altitude is the most limiting of all the climatic participants. By picking level or easy terrain, factors affecting recreation. To plan a strenuous shorter distances,etc., an experienced leader hike, or any other strenuous activity, for a per- can adjust the activity to safely fit the needs of son who is not acclimated is completely fool- those involved. hardy. Again, the leader must know his group, Training. It is a surprise to many that there as well as the area. is a real skill involved in hiking, even on level Equipment. Up to this point, hazards indige- ground or trails. Most people find that hiking, nous to the environment have been discussed. even for relatively short distances, can be quite Additional safety problems, related more to the fatiguinL. Itisinteresting, therefore, to note individual, are also present. As in other sports, that most :nexperienced people hike differently the equipment of each individual is an important from the way they walk. Have you ever really aspect affecting the safety of the activity. watched a group of hikers go by? In most cases, Obviously, a most important item of equip- you will find that they are mimicking what they ment in hiking is the footgear. Unfortunately, feel a good hiker should look like. Be objective there is no perfect solution to this potential ,,nd carefully observant the next time you see a HIKING AND MOUNTAINEERING 277 group of scouts on -a hike. You will notice, in mountaineering book, MountaineeringThe most cases, that the boys are walking with long, Freedom of the Hills, by the Seattle Moun- springy strides and are proceeding faster than a taineers. Under the section on "Wilderness normal walk. These reactions are typical of all Travel," this book describes the elements of inexperienced hikers, not just Boy Scouts. foot placement in various types of rough terrain Most people, including leaders, feel that they and several other techniques and methods of have to walk faster than normal when they hike. hiking ascent and descent. Most feel you must take long strides. These Probably the most important phase of the long strides probably account for the majority entire coverage isthe portion describing the of strained hip and thigh muscles. The springy "lock" step or "rest" step. In essence, this tech- step? How many people normally walk with nique calls for a slow ascending pace, where, on the greater part of their body weight on the each step forward, the lower knee is straight- ball of their foot? Very few. No wonder calves ened and momentarily "locked" so that the get cramped and ankle tendons get sore. The weight of the body is supported on the bone secret of good hiking technique isto relax. structure, rather than by muscle power. This Cover the ground in a normal and relaxed man- allows for the muscles of the advanced leg and ner with as little expended energy as possible. the back to be very briefly relaxed and rested As with the tortoise and the hare, a slow, re- during a portion of each step. Although sound- laxed, steady pace is far better in the long run ing quite complex in writing, this rest step is than the flashy, fast, and springy stride most quite simple to learn, and can make a tremen- beginners assume. dous difference in any person's performance in How many leaders teach this? Most of the hiking activities. At high altitudes, the rest step emphasis in hiking is on the distance covered. is even more important; because of the lark of The questions first asked are, "How 1P.: did you oxygen inthe air,a hiker must move more go?" and "How fast?" For safety, greater em- slowly to allow his body time to assimilate what phasis must be placed on finishing the hike in oxygen is provided. The rest step allows this good condition, rather than on seeing how many to be done without excessive muscle fatigue. miles it takes to cripple the group. Maintaining location. Certainly one of the Off-trail or rugged terrain. In essence, all the most publicized hazards of off-trail hiking is hazards and techniques mentioned before are that of getting lost. Most beginning hikers have present, and even magnified, when a hiking heard and read so many conflicting stories about group leaves the trail and/or enters rough ter- this matter that they are almost overwhelmed rain. Because of the terrain, there are additional by the choice of methods which can be used to safety hazards. Rough country can contribute avoid getting lost. Everyone can recall several to the danger of falls, sprained ankles, broken favorites: staying put, lining up tree trunks to legs, cuts and bruises from branches, rashes avoid circling, looking for moss on the north from poisonous plants, and bites and stings side of tree trunks, following a strea,a downhill, from animals and insects. using a watch for a compass, and numerous The leader should consider and plan for all others. In the exactly right location and time, of these contingencies before the group starts. each one of these may be perfect. It is vital that Make sure allnecessary equipment is taken a hiking leader be aw&re of the limitations of along, especially in the area of first aid gear. each method considered for use, as well as its Make sure the group is physically and men- good points. The problem of getting lost, how- tally prepared for the rough going; hiking be- ever, still remains a very real threat that should comes more difficult in rough terrain. A very be planned for in advance. excellent and complete coverage of the technique The best way to avoid getting lost is never of rough country hiking may be found in the to leave the trail. Once a group has decided to 278 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES do some off -trail hiking, however, other meas- Instead, the white man plows blindly ahead ures are called for. A map and a compass are until he becomes lost. This is too often true. excellent, but they are only as good as the When leaving the trail, be observant. If there is people using them. If a person cannot orient a landmark in sight, remember it and its loca- himself to find his location, this immediately tion in reference to your starting point. Think negates the value of the map. A compass is an and look for reference points which can serve excellent tool to use to maintain a constant as guides. Again, test your group. As a surpisa direction of travel. This is also dependent on move, ask individuals what landmarks they the person's knowing which direction he wants would use to show their location or to indicate to travel. The real key in the entire problem is the return direction. to avoid getting lost in the first place. If a leader Of course, there are many areas of the coun- is aware at all times of his location, he should try where landmarks simply cannot be seen. know the direction to travel to get back. This may be because of flat country, heavy As indicated before, many people become lost timber, or other reasons. Above anything else, even while carrying a map and compass. The being observant is the key to avoid becoming trick is to start using the map and compass lost. Note the position of the sun, the direction before you become lost. When you leave a trail, of the streams, the moss on the trees, or any- for example, take note of your map location thing else that will help you to keep your direc- and the compass direction in which you are tion and to return to your starting point. All heading. If there are major changes in direction, the hints you can think of, or have read about, note them. Estimate distances traveled. All of are valid as long as they are used to avoid be- this should give you a good picture of the dis- coming lost, rather than used after the fact. tance and direction to be followed to return to Certainly, one of the greatest contributions a your initial starting point. hiking leader can make in the way of safety is The above actually seems almost too obvious to teach all individuals of each group the skills to mention, until you actually see someone be- needed to avoid becoming lost. con e lost in spite of a map and compass. Because so many people carry a map and com- RESPONSIBILITY OF THE HIKING LEADER pass only for use after they become lost, these items are almost danger, rather than safety, Plan the outing devices. For an interesting surprise exercise, Know the participants. Know their physical take an unknowing group out into tough coun- and mental limitations and capabilities. try and, without pre-warning, see how many Know the area. Be aware of terrain, distances can locate themselves on the map and give a involved, difficulties and hazards, also the local compass reading back to the starting point. This climate and weather conditions. will perhaps prove a needed point." Notify group of needs. Notify the group in Landmarks are good only if they can be used advance of any special training or equipment to orient a person and indicate the direction to needed for the particular outing. travel to safety. In mountainous areas, land- Supervise the group marks can be excellent guides to the observant Control the group. Probably the most dan- hiker. Even with these excellent guides, itis frre,Is group in !liking is the group of young very common for people to I- lost simply people with a group advisor rather than a super- because the landmarks the.: an nothing visor. This often results in an uncontrolled group to them. The Indians are c with saying where individuals are leaving the main party, that one of the traits of the %N.. ,e man is that wandering off the trail, exploring on their own, he never looks back to see the country he has and racing ahead or lagging behind. This is too just been through (and may want to return to). often the type of group that gets completely to HIKING AND MOUNTAINEERING 279

its destination before someone raises the omi- Provide for safety of group nous question, "Hey, has anyone seen Johnny Prevent accidents. This is, of course, a re- lately?" Control of a hiking group is just as sponsibility of the leader. Checking equipment, important as the control of a swimming group planning for the specific group, maintaining con- and can often be handled in the same manner. stant group control, using a buddy system, A buddy system, especially for younger hikers, having a tail-end supervisor, not over-extending is an excellent accident prevention measure. the group, preventing getting lost, etc., are tech- Usually the hiking leader will lead at the front niques that should be used to prevert accidents. of the group. Someone, usually the next most Plan for potential accidents. Even with due qualified individual, should be appointed to bring care, there is always the possibility that an acci- up the rear of the party. This person can help dent might occur. There are a few basic pro- stragglers or handle small accidents, problems, cedures" that should be followedto plan in or equipment malfunctions before they develop advance of an accident. First, the leader should into serious situations. No one should be per- carry enough equipment to handle an injured mitted to leave the group, and periodic checks person. This goes beyond the mandatory first aid should be made to see that everyone is present. kit. If a person in the group is injured at the Teach safe hiking techniques and practices. furthest point of the hike, what can you do? The leader should explain and teach the safe The leader should have enough clothing or cov- techniques and practices of hiking, including not ering to protect the injured until he can be only the physical skills, but also the proper prope.iy taken care of. Depending on the area mental approach. This will not only help to pre- and the climate, a leader mAy want to take along vent accidents on each particular outing, but extra water, extra clothing, a sleeping bag, or will also help to prevent accidents when the other similar items. The newly introduced space individual hikes in the future. blankets are proving to be excellent back-up Teach enjoyment of secondary values. As a items for emergencies such as this. Probably too direct effort to help prevent accidents in hiking, much emphasis has been placed on carrying a leader should branch out into other fields of extra food. Extra food is excellent, of course, but interest. Many of the accidents now occurring it should be remembered that a person will die are a direct result of the emphasis on competi- far quicker from exposure than from starvation. tive hiking. To prevent "how far" and "how Enough food, especially high energy food, should fast" from becoming the only goals of hiking be carried so the delayed or injured person will as a sport, more emphasis should be placed on not lose heat or body energy. Concentrated food othervalues. The subject of environmental bars are excellent for this purpose. These can be awareness is rapidly becoming one of the most ordered from most mountaineering suppliers, important fields of study in our country. By the and from many ofthe large sporting good introduction of ecology or another form of na- companies. ture study, a leader can certainly provide a more In any event, a leader should be sure that relaxed and safer hiking experience as well as enough equipment is carried to handle an emer- a more enjoyable one. Environmental awareness gency. Most beginners overdo this; experienced should be one of the major objectives. hikers know how little they can get by on.

MOUNTAINEERING

DEFINITION axes, crampons) is needed for negotiating diffi- Mountaineering specifically differs from hik- cult terrain. Much of mountaineering may in- ing in that special equipment (ropes, pitons, ice volve hiking, but when the special equipment la, lip I.0

'" 111112'

1.8 tl

HI.25 1 .6

MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDKOS-1963-A 280 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES is in use,, then it is considered to be mountain- instruction and reference books on mountaineering. eering. Some of the best are: Belaying the Leader An Omnibus of Climb- SCOPE OF ACTIVITY ing Safety. San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1956. Mountaineering may be participated in at Henderson, Kenneth H. Handbook of American varying levels of difficulty. At the lower, safer Mountaineering. Boston: Houghton Mifflin level, one could be walking up a steep slope, Co., 1942. using a rope as a safety back-up only. At the Mandolf, Henry (ed.). Basic Mountaineering. higher levels of difficulty are such things as San Diego: San Diego Chapter of the Sierr the extreme grades of technical rock climbing Club, 1961. or some of the high altitude expedition climbing. Mountaineering The Freedom of the Hills. The hazards of the more difficult levels of Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1960. mountaineering are conspicuous and well pub- Rebuffat, Gaston. On Snow and Rock. Trans- licized. On a participant/hour ratio, this is cer- lated by E. Brockett. New York: Oxford Uni- tainly one o'i the most dangerous popular sports. .versity Press, Inc., 1967. At the present time, there are no accurate Styles, Showell. Men and Mountaineering. New figures available to indicate how many Ameri- York: David White Co., 1968. cans actually engage in mountaineering as a Wexler, Arnold. Theory of belaying. Sierra Club recreational activity. Undoubtedly, the percent- Bulletin. San Francisco: Sierra Clubidc. 1947. age is small compared to many other sports. Wheelock, Walt. Ropes, Knots, and Slings for Climbers. rev. ed. Glendale, Calif.: La Siesta MOUNTAINEERING HAZARDS Press, 1967. General discussion. To remove the hazards of Training sources. Training in mountaineering the rock or of the mountain would destroy the can be obtained from numerous sources. Many sport. The only practical way to reduce the colleges and universities now have hiking clubs accident rate in mountaineering is to increase the that offer at least an introduction to mountain- skill and knowledge of the participants. eering. Some go on into instruction inthe As in many other recreational activities, the advanced and technical aspects as well. Many accident rate is considerably higher in the be- conservation organizations have mountaineering ginning or novice class than in the expert class. groups that offer instruction and many cities or Beginning or inexperienced mountaineers have regions have specific mountaineering clubs that far more accidents per hour of participation than also offer instruction. Examples of just a few the skilled mountaineers, even though the latter of these are: Sierra Club, Mountain Rescue are participating on more difficult and poten- Association (Pacific Northwest), Colorado Moun- tially more dangerous terrain. Therefore train- tain Club, and the Appalachian Mountain Club. ing, conditioning, and experience are the primary Other groups and schools are now teaching means to improve safety in mountaineering ac- mountaineering; the "Outward Bound" type of tivities, especially if the training and condition- school is an example. ing are offered to the beginner. There should be no real difficulty for the Mountaineering is a very complex and diversi- interested person or group to arrange for some fied activity. Entirely different techniques may sort of mountaineering instruction. Extreme care be called for in different areas, depending on should be taken to assure that the quality of the the type of rock, altitude, weather, length of instruction is sufficiently high. Certain moun- the climb, party members, and whether the taineering training schools have outstandingly surface is rock, snow, or ice. safe records. Others do not. This should be Reference sources. There are several good thoroughly investigated before the instruction HIKING AND MOUNTAINEERING 281 is received. Poor or incomplete training in this ards that they are most likely to encounter while sport can be far more dangerous than no train- mountaineering. ing at all. Most mountaineering organizations have a Summary. If an individual or a group wants to series of qualifying standards that must be met participate in mountaineering activities, proper before a person is judged a competent leader.. training is mandatory. The group leader, again, Even more than in hiking, it is imperative that should be completely satisfied that the members this leader maintain complete control over the are properly equipped, have proper training, are group. A mountaineering activity without suffi- in good physical and mental condition, and have cient, well qualified leadership should not even a complete knowledge of the area and the haz- be considered.

REGISTRATION

Registration of hiking or mountaineering ac- occurs in the sign out of technical mountain tivities is frowned on by some as an invasion climbers in highly hazardous areas. Some of the of personal rights; their point is valid. However, National Parks are good examples of this. Each if you as an individual are responsible for the climber is required to register, giving his pro- safety of a group of people or are responsible posed climb and expected return. Before start- for the safety of all persons entering a specific ing the climb, his equipment and hispast area (a park would be an example), then registra- climbing experience are checked. This, of course, tion in some form or another is a hazard pre- requires that the person doing the checking be vention technique to be considered. an experienced and knowledgeable climber. In some areas a climber may be refused permission Registration definitely can reduce the safety to climb a particular route or peak if he does hazards of hiking or mountaineering. Registra- not qualify or if his equipment does not meet tion alone cannot, in most cases, actually prevent the requirements. Usually an easier climb is the accidents from happening. It can, however, recommended as an alternate. Many mountain- significantly cut down the hazard of having a eering clubs have similar checkouts for their small accident develop into a major tragedy own members. because of a lack of immediate help or a pro- There is no doubt that this type of control longed rescue time. iseffective in preventing accidents. There is Registration can take many forms. It may be also no doubt that this does affect, in some voluntary or mandatory, it can even include an degree, the rights of an individual. Each leader equipment check or a check of the qualifications of a group or organization, or each person with and experience of the group. Some groups or the responsibility for the management of an areas require registration for anyone leaving the area,will have to decide on the merits of marked trails. This certainly has helped in lo- registration. In some cases, it has been an effec- cating lost people, and in assisting the rescue tive tool in prevention of accidents; in others, parties to locate injured victims. The most exit is probably more of an administrative control treme registration system in this particular field rather than a real safety measure. Bicycling IJEAN SANFORD REPLINGER, M.S.

Bicycling in the United States has increased pany study of 151 industrial policyholders who markedly over recent years. The Athletic In- were killed in bicycle accidents, males accounted stitute of America calls it America's No. 1 par- for 10 times as many deaths as females, and half ticipation sport, with 61 million pedal pushers of the male fatalities were in theage interval in our country in 1968. In a survey of patterns of 10 to 14 years.' Perhaps there aremore miles of summer outdoor recreation, gathered by the per rider accumulated by males and more use of Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Outdoor bicycles by male youths. Recreation from June through August 1965, The 1968 edition of Accident Facts, published cycling topped the list in terms of "units of par- by the National Safety Council, disclosed some ticipation," which was expressed as 19 billion information on the age distribution factor in "occasions." Cycling ranked fifth in popularity, accidents including "lives lost" and injuries as trailing driving, swimming, walking, and out- a result of motor vehicle and bicycle accidents; door games. The figures indicate that it has however, there was no differentiation between grown 105% between 1960 and 1965. Itis the bicyclist or the motor vehicle occupant. predicted that there will be a 137% increase Seemingly significant conclusions were that the between 1960 and 1980. ages 5 to 14 have the highest death incidence and school grades 4 to 6 (generally ages 9 to 11) ACCIDFNTS AND SAIETY PROGRAMS have the highest incidence of accidents.

The National Safety Council states thata sound safety program must be basedupon acci- BICYCLE OWNERS dent statistics and exposure data. However,very According to the Bicycle Institute of America, few programs have been developed with such in 1969 there were 63 million bike owners in data in mind. In the case of bicycle safety, the America, of which 38 million were active Council found that most statistics lacked de- cyclists. These owners range in age from 5 to tails needed for designing educational programs 75. The bike is popular not only with elementary which would deal with primary and secondary factors related to bicycle accidents. 1 F. J. Vilardo, M. J. Nicol, and H. E. Heldreth, An investigation into bicycle usage. Mimeographed (Chi- In a 1956 Metropolitan Life Insurance Com- cago: National Safety Council, 1969).

282 BICYCLING 283

schoolchildren,but withcollegestudents One in seven Americans (15% of the popula- hemmed in by campus parking restrictions, and tion) has a bicycle of some kind. About 88% of with parents eager to trim their waistlines or to the users have bikes with adult frames, yet 25% invest in some physiological insurance for the of the market seems to be children and youths circulatory systems of advancing age. under the age of 15.

41 Figure /. In Oberlin, Ohio, nearly everybody rides a bicycle, as indicated by this senior citizen pedaling past the college.

ACCIDENTS CAUSATION AND PREVENTION

Cycling proficiency is related to basic move- and readjusting to growth spurts. Very basic ment ability, and this in turn isrelated to and important is the preventive part of cycle movement and judgment experience applied to safety inherent in basic movement activities such traffic predictability and uncertainties. as stunts and tumbling, running, jumping, dodging, balancing, pushing, and pulling. In using a bicycle properly, discretion and In addition, there is a real progression in judgment have to be superimposed upon some bicycle skill achievement. On the open highway fairlysophisticated though basickinesthetic or busy street the demands of cycling cannot responses. Yet, large numbers of bicyclists are accommodate anything but the best of skill. at that time of physical growth and personal When should a cyclist be allowed to cycle in maturation when motor skills are still adjusting certain areas? 284 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Accident facts are elusive but enlightening. adequate instruction will often turn a youngster In a 1962 study in Kansas City; Missouri in loose on a bike without precautions. which only bicycle-motor vehicle accidents to ParenLhave a significant responsibility in children aged 5 through 16 were investigated purchasing the right bicycle and in supervising and correlated with the results of a 1958 investi- its use. School and youth leaders can supple- gation of bicycle accidents by the National ment, but not replace, this responsibility. The Safety Council, the main violations found were cyclist must learn to consider himself as im- not yielding the right-of-way, improper turning, portant as the driver of a car; the predictability disregarding stop signs or signals, riding in the of the cyclist to the driver, and vice versa, is center of the street, and riding against traffic.2 extremely important. More specifically, the National Safety Coun- As we increase our knowledge about what cil study showed that: goes into good driving, we find that visibility 1. Two out of every three bicycle accidents is a significant safety factor. The cyclist's cloth- occur to riders who have failed to follow ing, and anything else in line with traffic pat- the rules of the road. terns, must be made visible. At no time must 2. One out of every five bikes involved in the cyclist feel complacently safe. Just as a these accidents was mechanically defective driver must drive defensively, so must a cyclist in some way. ride defensively, knowing at all times where 3. One out of four auto-bike accidents was and how to escape imminent dangers. caused by the motorist. The problem of assuring maximum safety for the nation's 60 million bicycle riders is a chal- One of the difficulties with plotting a safety lenge that is being met with better results all education program based on bicycle accident sta- the time. Even though the number of cyclists tistics and analysis is that the various surveys has risen to new heights in recent years, the include certain kinds of accidents or certain seg- accident rate among those cycling for health, ments of the population of bicycle users which recreation, and fun has been kept in check. are not directly comparable. Some of these statistics are helpful, but at the same time they There is, however, need for improvement. The remarkable strides already made have are apt to give an inaccurate emphasis because resulted in large measure from the voluntary of incompleteness. Use of common sense will efforts of public spirited men and women every- make for greater validity until we have statistics where who have worked tirelessly to achieve to support or reject suppositions. In any event, greater safety in their communities. Teachers, the loss of life and the number of injuries, sure civic leaders, school officials, police authorities, to increase with growth of the activity, indicate that community leaders must assume some re- recreation officials, and many others have co- sponsibility for designing and carrying out a operatedin advancing knowledge of bicycle safety program for cyclists and for those who safety, but there is a need for increased efforts. educate or influence cyclists. In promoting bicycle safety, there are methods other than the "scare" approach. Some feel this to have been less successful than that which ASSUMPTION OF RESPONSIBILITY recognizes that cycling can be made safer by: Children and adults, cyclists and motorists, 1. proper selection of cycle for the rider must know and obey the rules of the road, and 2. proper and continuous care of the bicycle operate their vehicles safely. Ironically, parents 3. a knowledge and practice of correct riding who would never think of allowing their sons rules, including rules of the road and rules and daughters to drive the family car without for cycle performance 4. instruction in safe operation, periodic in- 2 F. J. Vilardo et al., op. cit. spections, and skill proficiency tests. BICYCLING 285

BICYCLES

SELECTION mount importance when it is used for long, continued stretches. The saddle must be properly The wise selection of a bicycle depends on angled and positioned, and both the saddle and the use of the bicycle and size and ability of the its user well "broken in." rider. Bicycles may be classified as utility, light- The middleweight, which weighs about 40 weight, touring, and racing types. The utility pounds, has a raised handlebar, wide saddle, bike is the heaviest, about 40 to 50 pounds. It sturdy tires, and steel fenders. In boys' and girls' is good for the beginner and will stand up under models, itis the bicycle for the utility cyclist a fair amount of weight, irregularity of terrain, who uses the machine for shopping, errands, and abuse without as much need for sensitive and for short trips, but is not the best for long repair and replacement as other types. The light- rides over hilly country. It commonly is equipped weight bike, which weighs from 25 to 35 pounds, with a front basket, rear carrier, chain guard, is equally strong in terms of weight, usually has and a generator for a light. handbrakes which are a little more complicated The 10-speed derailleur bicycle comes almost to use, and has smaller tires. The touring bike exclusively in boys' models, and is the bicycle is for those who like to let the wind rush past for the pleasure cyclist. Weighing less than 30 hair and cheeks as they enjoy the countryside pounds, it has dropped handlebars, a narrow at a leisurely speed. It has special tires and a saddle, and light tires. It has no fenders nor derailleur system of from 5 to 15 speeds. The does it ordinarily have a carrier or a light. racing bike is seldom used for anything else, and Middleweights and 10-speed lightweights are for track racing has no brakes or gears. different not only in weight and gearing but also Within these classifications, there are many in the manner of riding. Since the rider sits styles from which one can choose, and with upright on the high rise and standard middle- time there undoubtedly will be additions. There weights, a fairly wide saddle is needed. On a are the high riser, the middleweight, the iiiini- 10-speed lightweight, the rider leans forward bike, the derailleur, and a variety of others such transferring part of the weight to the arms; as the tandem, unicycle, adult triwheeler. Any therefore, a narrow saddle can be used which bicycle dealer can discuss the differences. Ac- reduces chafing, and which in the long run gives cording, to estimates of the Bicycle Institute of more efficiency, easier pedaling, and greater America, 1967 sales totaled 6.288 million bi- comfort. cycles including 3.150 million middleweights, 2.223million highrise, and 915,000 light- CHECKING FIT OF THE BICYCLE w eigh ts.3 The lightweight bicycle with wide-range de- Bicycles are measured by the height of the railleur gearing, toe clips, metal pedals, and frame, that is, the distance between the bottom dropped pattern handlebars is recommended for axle and the point where the seat post enters all-around cycling, except for purely local travel the frame. Sizes range from 19 to 24 inches. in flat terrains, both for male and female riders. The frame size, forward reach, and saddle, next This type is selected because of the greater ease to body position, are most important for "com- of propulsion and of steering, improved weight fort." On the 10-speed bicycle the forward distribution, and effective use of the rider's reach is adjustable through the handlebar exten- energy. Proper fitting of the bicycle is of para- sion or gooseneck. Individuals with short arms . need a short gooseneck, and vice versa. A rough 3 Letter from John Auerbach, Executive Director of Bicycle Institute of America, to Harold E. Heldreth, measure of forward reach is the distance be- National Safety Council, Aug. 21, 1968. tween the peak of the saddle and the handlebar. 286 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

This distance should be about the same as the and reflectors on the rear fender of every bicycle distance from the tip of the elbow to the tips of with or without a tail lamp, unless the lens of the fingers. On a standard bicycle, the saddle the lamp is properly designed to reflect light. should be on a horizontal line with the top of The front light should be visible from a distance the handlebar, and the saddle itself should be of 500 feet; the rear reflector from 300 feet. The horizontal. To soften a new saddle, rub it vigor- coloring of a bicycle, particularly its rear fender, ously with an emolient. Changing the height of has an important effect upon its visibility; light bike saddles and banana seats is simply done colored paint is desirable. It is possible to apply with a bicycle wrench. white or other light colors on the rear fenders When sitting on the saddle with one pedal all of darkly painted bicycles for decorative pur- the way down, the rider should be able to rest poses. Reflection tape can be effective in increas- the ball of the foot on the pedal with only a ing bike iiisibility. slight bend in the knee. Sometimes adjustment Brakes should be able to skid the rear wheels in the seat can accommodate this fit; other times upon a dry, clean pavement. Many bikes are it requires a bicycle with a larger or smaller not equipped with proper warning devices. frame. In raising the seat, the saddle should Wheels and spokes, steering bar and front fork never be raised so high that there is less than sprocket and chain, pedals and mudguards often three inches of post extending down into the are found in poor condition. . frame; otherwise, the seat will be insecurely A bicycle will give many years of service, positioned. If that becomes necessary, the bike provided it is handled with respect. Preventive has been outgrown and should be replaced with maintenance including cleaning and oiling is one with a larger frame. simple. Keep the bike clean by wiping it with a dry cloth; at least once a month apply a good automobile wax on paint and chrome. If not CARE OF THE BICYCLE stainless steel the spokes will rust in spite of the The importance of having a bicycle in good best of efforts. Prevent scratches by not leaning mechanical condition and properly equipped the bike against brick walls. When the bike must be constantly stressed, and parents should must be laid Eat, always rest it on the side away insist upon this by regularly going over a bicycle from the derailleur. In the garage, hang it on inspection check chart with their youngsters. hooks. Also, the cycle should be taken to a local service- At least once a month, oil the chain. Brake man for inspection at least twice a year. Items cables, wheel bearings, and pedal bearings need to be checked are shown in Table 1 on p. 288. occasional greasing. If the owner is not mechani- Bicycles when purchased should have all the cally inclined, any bicycle shop will give the safety accessories prescribed by law. Proper cycle z complete check-up for a nominal charge. lighting should be required, such as headlamps, This should be done at least once a year.

RIDING RULES AND TECHNIQUES

Traffic regulations for bikes vary from state RULES AND TECHNIQUES to state, and sometimes from town to town Here -ard 12 basic rules of the road developed within a state. Generally, bicycles are considered by the-Bicycle Institute of America; bike riders vehicles, and are subject to the same regulations should know them all. which govern cars and trucks. The safety officer of a school or the police department can sum- 1. Obey alltraffic regulations, signs, and marize the laws of the community. lights. s

BICYCLING 287

2. Keep to the right and ride in a straight steep hills. Dismount and walk up unless you line. Always ride single file. have an American lightweight with gearshift, 3. Have a white light in front and a red light in which case the bike can be shifted into low or state approved reflector in back. gear. Low gears require the feet to go around rapidly but without much pressure. 4. Have a working signaling device, such as To change gears, wait until the feet are spin- a horn or bell. ning well, keep spinning, let up on the pedal 5. Give pedestrians the right-of-way. Avoid pressure, and shift. If gears are shifted while sidewalk riding. pushing,theteethon the newly engaged 6. Looll out for parked cars pulling into traf- sprocket may be snapped. A bicyclist should fic. Watch for doors opening on parked shift just before needing the new gear; this cars. willresult in a steady rhythm that insures 7. Never hitch onto other vehicles, stunt, or smooth cycling. race in traffic. In gaining control, one should learn to ride 8. Carry no passengers or objects which in- straight no matter how steep the hill or strong terfere with vision or control. the wind. The cyclist should fix his eyes on the 9. Make surebrakesarefunctioning road. One should watch for potholes and refrain smoothly. Keep your bike in perfect oper- from weaving or wobbling. A straight riding ating condition. cyclist is a pleasure to behold; a wobbly cyclist 10. Look to the right and left at all inter- is a menace. Until one is steady, he should con- fine riding to driveways and parking lots. sections. To ride masterfully isto ride defensively. 11. Always use proper hand signals for turn- Assuming that the bicycle is mechanically safe, ing or stopping. that the rider knows how to control it, and that 12. Don't weave in and out of traffic or he rides in a safe manner, he must be alert to swerve from side to side. errors made by pedestrians and other road users. The novice cyclist should ride slowly until The cyclist should be alert for the sounds of accustomed to the exercise and the muscles are impending motion changes such as the change limbered. More pressure should not be used in the sound of an automobile exhaust, the with one leg than with the other; rhythm is what rumble of tires or engines, sounds from the road, counts. To ride properly and with the least side, or from around the corner ahead. When effort, the ball of the foot should be on the riding alongside parked cars, he should be alert pedal and knees should be kept close to the for passengers who may open doors in his path. Attention should be given to watching the frame. wheels of cars approaching, and cars on either The shoulders should not be allowed to wob- side. The wheels should start to turn before the ble, as that makes the bicycle unsteady. Look vehicle begins its turn in your direction. This straight ahead, holding the head still and the gives an important little bit of extra time to handlebars naturally. Don't try to pump up take action needed.

BICYCLE TOURING

For a vacation tour by bicycle, preliminary of cycle touring, one is more closely "tuned in" planning and preparation pay handsome divi- on the countryside than by almost anyother dends. Route planning is fun; it builds antici- form of travel. pation and enthusiasm. At the moderate pace While an automobile road map may suffice 288 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

TABLE 1 MODEL INSPECTION FORM

Bicycle Make & Model Serial No. License No. Owner's Name Address SIZE Fit of bicycle to rider: Test saddle for level, tightness OK Frame Can rider straddle frame with both feet flat on ground? OK Saddle Height Can rider straighten leg when seated on saddle with one heel on low pedal? OK FRAME All tubes in line, not kinked or misaligned OK Front Fork In good condition, not bent backward, sideward OK Bearing Adjustment, Front Fork: Needs adjustment OK No looseness, binding, or "rough spots" when rotated OK Bearing Adjustment, Pedal Crank Hanger: Needs adjustment OK No shake, looseness, or binding OK PEDALS Bearing adjustment: No shake or bind OK Pedals intact and tight OK Treads intact and tight OK HANDLE BARS In lirie with wheel and symmetrical OK Height below rider's shoulder level OK Tightly fitted, both against horizontal and verticalrotation OK Tubing ends plugged OK Grips tight OK FRONT WHEEL Runs true, side to side and round OK Adjust OK Spokes: Repairs needed OK Rim: not dented or kinked OK Bearings OK Tire: Properly seated OK Tread OK Wheel centered in fork OK REAR WHEEL Runs true side to side and round OK Spokes OK Uniform spoke tension OK Repairs needed OK. Bearings: No looseness or bind OK Adjustments OK Backpedaling Brake (operates within 20° motion) OK Tires inflated properly with good tread OK CHAIN Tension correct (1/2" play, no excessive looseness) OK Sprocket teeth chain fit well OK Chain condition OK BRAKES Hand: Sufficient reserve at level when engaged? Adjust OK Cable: No frayed ends, cable is taut OK Brake shoes: Nuts tight? Adjust OK At least 3/16" rubber thickness. Replace OK OPERATING TEST EACH BRAKE SEPARATELY Front OK (Must hold well without catching) Rear OK SADDLE Is saddle tight and in good condition? Adjust OK REFLECTOR Does size conform to local requirements, if any? OK LIGHTS Battery and bulb satisfactory? Generator operative OK WARNING DEVICE Operative and audible OK REMARKS Inspector's Name THIS BICYCLE APPROVED FOR NIGHT RIDING NOT APPROVED FOR NIGHT RIDING BICYCLING 289

BICYCLE INSPECTION CHECK CHART

a) a) .13

co a) 13._ a) (D.,. c ,_LI ra c Item c.) a) ," Item ,_ 0 -- ,,,CO 0 a) 0 Inspected 2 .1-_ - -cis 0 .01: 0.-0. Inspected .= n 0. a, -co) 13' a j= a) a) 3 < cc cc < 3 1:: < cc CC < Frame Tubes V Wheel Nuts F & R : JAL.in----II Fork Blades True a d Wheel Bearings , . i-a-stgp a Handlebar Tight I Hub Rear Bearings ---.-4-1111....._ Extension Tight 1 Brake Operation ir-u--- Grips Tight Tire Condition F & R 11 Bar Height, Angle I Rims F & R eV:Enure a i a a ' Saddle Height,,Angle Spokes F & R --a)--,,,a s m-, Seat Post a Tire Inflation Jasm_mt & aip . Fit Bicycle Hand Brakes Steering Head Brake & Gear Cables Crank Bearings Brake & Gear Levers Cranks, Cotters Drive Sprocket Gear Shifter Driven Sprocket Chain Speedometer Pedals (Complete) Generator (Batteries) Pedal Bearings Headlight Tail Light --*-21-.--- Mudguards, Braces Reflector a Carriers Signal Device Thief:/IAN.____ Cleanliness 100%

Date Approved By

SOURCE: The Bicycle Institute of America, Bicycle Safety Tests (New York: Tne Institute, n.d.), pp. 7-8.

for overall routing, it tends to direct one to the desires, and in anycaseto be forewarned of heavily traveled highway, ignoring the pleasant, difficult terrain. It may be easier to take a longer lightly traveled local roads. Itis on the sec- route along the valleys than to take a shorter ondary roads that cycling is most pleasant and road "across the grain" of the countryside. Yet that the noise and bustle of the highway is left the experienced rider, with an adequately geared behind. In the vicinity of major cities, larger machine, may desire the hilly routes because of scale metropolitan area maps may show the their greater interest. smaller routes. County maps of the area to be traversed show even more detail, and can usually EQUIPMENT be obtained from the county seat. Since rainy weather can be anticipated on a Coast and Geodetic Survey maps are obtain- journey of two weeks or more, mudguards able for most sections of the country, and come should be fitted to the bicycle, and a removable in different scales for many areas on the ratio fender flap attached tothefront fender in of one mile per inch. The C&GS maps include periods of actual rain to prevent wetting of information on the ground contour, enabling the lower legs and feet. To permit evening travel, a cyclist to plan his route to avoid steep hills if he lightweight generator set also is fitted. 290 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIFS

Many items of routine and emergency equip- aidkit,smallsewingkit,tirepump,.":t ment can be spread among various members of wrenches, adjustablecrescent wrench,extra the party in order to distribute the load. Cloth- chain links, and wheel spokes (for front and ing should include nylon windbreaker, sweater, back wheels), screwdriver, pocket knife, tube long-sleeved shirt, slacks, scarf or cap, extra repair kit, extra brake cable, machine oil, Jriction sneakers or shoes, pajamas, sweatshirt, and tape, and a roll of wire. poncho; two sets of shorts and wash-wear short A handlebar mounted front bag of adequate sleeve shirts; three sets underwear and socks. size, and a roomy saddle bag with side pockets Personal items include camera and film, maps or a pair of pannier bags suspended from a and compass, flashlight and extra batteries, note- rear carrier, distributing weight between front book and pencil, wallet or money purse, suntan and rear for stability, provide luggage space. If lotion, insect repellent, comb and brush, tooth- a carrier is used, it and the luggage it carries brush and paste, face cloth and towel, small must be solidly mounted to avoid sway which mirror, cosmetic and personal hygiene items can interfere with control of the bicycle and including soap. Emergency items include first contribute to an accident.

FUTURE OF BIKEWAYS

Chief beneficiaries of bikeways have been shore, the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Sea- youngsters pedaling to school, playgrounds, and shore, and the Tocks Island National Recreation recreational areas, and all individuals using well Area. planned, marked routes.More metropolitan There is much that can be done on the local parks have arranged for Sunday bike riding than level. Local parks, reservoirs, and other scenic ever before in our history. Bike paths are in- and recreational areas can be surveyed to see creasingly importantinnationalparks and how bike paths can be added, thus increasing resort areas. their usefulness to the community. Abandoned Current Department of Interior plans call for rail and trolly beds can be converted at very low some 200,000 miles of path and trail construc- cost. Little trafficked streets can be designated tion in the next decade, including 25 miles of as bikeways in and around our towns and cities, bike paths for each 50,000 people in major as has been done successfully in Homestead, urban areas. The National Park Service has Florida; Dayton, Ohio; Denver, Colorado; San established bicycle trails as part of such new Diego, California; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and park programs as the Fire Island National Sea- more than 200 other cities.

References

American Cycling. Oakland,Calif.: American Cycling Press. Annual. Bicycle Institute of America,Inc. Bicycle Films Catalog. New York: The Institute.Annual. 16 pp. Bicycle Riding Clubs.New York: The Institute, n.d. 72 pp. Bicycle Safety Tests.New York: The Institute, n.d. 23 pp. BICYCLING 291

. Bike Ordinance in the Community. New York: The Institute, n.d. 32 pp.

.Bike Racing on the Campus. New York: The Institute, n.d. 36 pp. . Bikeways. New York: The Institute, n.d. 6 pp.

. What's All This Jazz About Bikeways? New York: The Institute, n.d. 6 pp. Hostel Guide and Handbook. New York: American Youth Hostels, 1970.

Information Sources

Aetna Life and Casualty Insurance Company (Safety), Hartford, Conn. Amateur Bicycle League of America (Racing), 6411 Orchard St., Dearborn, Mich. 48126 American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation(PhysicalFitness),1201 16thSt., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 American Automobile Association (Safety), 1712 G St., N.W., Washington, D.C. American Youth Hostels, Inc. (Trips and Maps), 20 W. 17 St., New York, N.Y. 10011 Bicycle Institute of America, Inc. (All Categories), 122 E. 42 St., New Ycrk, N.Y. 10017 Boy Scouts of America (Merit Badge), 2 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. Employers Mutual Liability Insurance Company (Safety), Wausau, Wisc. 55401 Girl Scouts of U.S.A. (Merit Badge), 830 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017 League of American Wheelmen (Clubs), 5118 Foster Ave., Chicago, III. 60630 Lumberman's Mutual Casualty Company (Safety), Mu- tual Insurance Bldg., Chicago, III. 60644 National 4-H Foundation (Programs and Safety), 7100 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 National Safety Council (Safety), 425 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, III. 60611 Standard Oil Company of New York (Safety), 150 E. 42 St., New York, N.Y. 10017 United States Junior Chamber of Commerce (Safety), Box 7, Tvlsa, Okla. 74102 Recreational Motorcycling IA. E. "JOE" FLORIO, Ed.D.

)

The use of motorcycles as a means of trans- rock enthusiasts, and nature lovers to reach their portation, for touring and in sports activities, has destinations with the ease and speed only a reached a new peak of popularity in this country. helicopter could surpass. Many of these new, "Although the motorcycle lu I been a popular light, compact machines can be carried on a car form of motorized transportation and recreation bumper or in a station wagon, trailer, camper, or in Europe and Asia for decades, its acceptance small boat, yet they can transport a rider and a in this country is a fairly recent phenomenon."' heavy load over the roughest terrain. The United States Bureau of Public Roads reports that the number of registered motorcycles DANGERS OF MOTORCYCLING rose from 412,000 in 1955 to nearly 596,000 in Although thousands of motorcyclists have en- 1966. The Bureau estimates that at least one-half joyed sports cycling without serious injury, a million more have been added to this number motorcycle is a potentially dangerous piece of each successive year since 1966. It is estimated equipment if used improperly. The following that an annual increase in new registrations will statistics bear this out. Motorcycle accidental reach one million per year by 1970, and that deaths rose from 731 in 1960 to close to 2,000 there probably will be more than five million in1968. Fortunately,inrecent yearsthere registered in that year. Experts predict that by has been a gradual decline in fatalities in spite of 1975 some 10 million Americans will be operat- an increase in vehicles. In approximately 90% ing two-wheel motor vehicles. of motorcycle accidents, death or injury results. The motorcycle has become popular because Collision with another motor vehicleisthe of its low cost, the relative prosperity of the predominate type of motorcycle accident. The times, the large teenage population, the move great majority of accidental deaths ai:e victims to suburbia, and increased leisure time. This last between the ages of 15 and 24. There is no factor has greatly influenced the development question as to the appeal which the cycle has of recreational, trail, and sports cycling. The for the teenager and young adult. . development of low cost, special geared trail The most frequent causes of motorcycle acci- machines allows fishermen, hunters, explorers, dents are reckless driving, speeding, and failure ' Common Sense Tips for Safe Sportscycling (Monte- to yield the right of way. Studies have also cello, Calif.: Yamaha International Corp., 1967). shown that motorcycle accidents are more the

292 RECREATIONAL MOTORCYCLING 293 fault of auton iriTS than motorcyclists. i. following and overtaking Because m.7.,Ly ,le accidents occur on j. maintaining proper lane position weekends and during June, July, and August, it k. night driving, riding in adverse condi- is fair to assume that mosi cycling is of a recre- tions and various wind conditions ational nature. 1. group riding The preceding knowledge and skills, coupled BASIC SKILLS with experience, can provide enjoyablerecre- Recreational cycling takes place in parks and ational motorcycling. on boulevards in our cities, and can be enjoyed Trail cycling is one of the most popular types on the trails of our forest preserves, state and of recreational or sports cycling. Riding on a national parks, and mountain terrain. Regardless paved surface is easier than riding on anun- of the type of motorcycling one does, the cyclist pavedtrail."Dirt" riding requiresdifferent should be skilled, courteous, and sportsmanlike. techniques than "road" riding and requires dif- The skilled driver has developed competencies ferent and heavier-duty equipment. Usually, the that allow him to drive safely in all situations. lightweight trail bikes are easier and safer to Basic skills and knowledge necessary to ride handle in dirt and sand than are the heavy- safely include the following: weights. Trail bikes are different in that they have special tires with different tread design. 1. Care and maintenance of They also have heavier-duty springs and sus- a. lights and horn pension systems to accommodate the pounding b. tight nuts and bolts they get from the rugged terrain. Handlebars c. tires (properly inflated and proper tread) are usually wider for greater steering leverage. d. front and rear brakes Among the skills needed for trail riding are e. chain (properly adjusted and lubricated) knowing how to ride in soft sand, mud, and up f. engine and transmission' and down steep hills. Before one attempts seri- g. battery ous trail riding, he should gain experience grad- 2. Proper dress ually in gentle terrain until he can handle the a. protective helmet (full helmet provides cycle under the various conditions he willen- greatest protection) counter on an extended trail riding trip. b. footwear hightop' boots or shoes with AdditiJnal tips for trailsters are: firm ankle support 1. Do not ride alone. c. clothing bright colors and heavy ma- 2. Check weather conditions. terial such as leather provides greatest 3. Check with forest rangers. protection 4. Observe all conservation, fire, and litter d. eye protection goggles or face shield regulations. constructed of shatterproof material 5. Obtain permission before riding on pri- e. gloves gauntlet type cuffs vate property. 3. Skills in 6. Respect signs, fences, and gates. a. operating the controls 7. Respect all animal life, wild or domestic. b. starting and stopping 8. Respect a horse pack train or people on c. riding in various gear positions horseback; turn off your motor and wait d. braking front and rear until they have passed. Remember, their e. turning and cornering mounts are not as manageable as yours. f. giving signals hand or mechanical 9. Avoid riding in areas which could be dam- g. driving on all kinds of road surfaces aged by your vehicle, such as soft mead- h. driving in all types of traffic situations ows, areas with loose topsoil, and par- 294 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

ticularlysteephillsideswhere erosion 12. Respect restricted areas such as water- might occur. sheds, high fire areas, and freshly seeded ranges. 10. Be careful with firearms and never shoot at game while astride the machine. It is These are only a few suggestions that can not only dangerous, but it isillegal in help make recreational motorcycling a safe and many states. enjoyable experience. With thousands of miles of forests, mountains, beach, and desert to ex- 11. When riding in forests or on grass cov- plore, the scope of this activity is virtually un- ered lands, be sure a spark arrestor is at- limited. All one needs are the proper skills and tached to the exhaust system. competencies required of any motorcyclist.

References

American Automobile Association.Motorcycles and Karping, William. Intelligent Motorcycling. Long Beach, Their Operation. Washington, D.C.: 74e Association, Calif.: Parkhurst Publishing Co., 1966. 63 pp. 1967. 18 pp. Motorcycle Driver Education Instructors Guide. Chicago: Common Sense Tips for Safe Sportcycling. Montecello, Montgomery Ward and Co., 1967. 7 pp. Calif.: Yamaha International Corp., 1967. 30 pp. National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Chicago: The Dark, Harris E. The tricky twc wheeler. Family Safety Council. Annual. 25:10-12, Spring 1966. .Motorcycles, rev. ed. Chicago: The Council, Your youngster and the motorcycle. Today's 1968. 8 pp. Health 45:21-24, no. 5, May 1967. Motorcycle Facts. Chicago : The Council, 1970. Danger on two wheels. Traffic Safety 66:22-24, 9 pp. no. 4, Apr. 1966. Northwestern University Traffic Institute. Motorcycle Davidson, Walter C. What the motorcycle industry is Operation: A Manual for Riders. Evaniton, Ill.: The doing to promote safe operation. Traffic Digest and Institute, 1964. 18 pp. Review 18:14-16, Jan. 1967. Porter, Harry. Motorcycle 'awsare a must.Traffic Driving in the Two -Wheel World. rev. ed. Gardena, Safety 66:12-13, no. 11, Nov. 1966. Calif.: American Honda Motor Co., Inc., 1968. 191 pp. Public Health Service, Injury Control Program. Your Dunn, LeRoy W. Motorcycle Research Project. Oswego, Motorcycling Fun and Personal Protection. Cincinnati, N.Y.: State University College, 1966. 80 pp. Ohio: United States Department of Health, Education, Teach them toride. Safety 3:16-19, no.2. and Welfare, 1967. 6 pp. March-Apr. 1967. Motorcycles In the United States. Cincinnati, Handbook for Motorcycle Operators. Chicago: Mont- Ohio: United States Department of Health, Educa- gomery Ward and Co., 1967. 23 pp. tion, and Welfare, 1967. 12 pp. Johnson, Duane R. What are you doing about motor- Timberlake, William E. The motorcycle rider in traffic. cycle education? Safety 5:20-23, no. 3, May-June 1969. Traffic Digest and Review 18:3-7, Jan. 1967, 1

'4- Dance IJACQUELINE A. CLIFFORD, P.E.D.

All forms of dance are unique to their setting, in the gymnasium, playroom or games room, performance, and structure. The mass, unified classroom, and in some instances, the play- dances of folk and square are most frequently ground area. These activities are most often taught in the gymnasium with free open space; performed in free space patterns and structured performed in organized floor patterns as circles, by such directives asthestory-line, music longways, and squares; and structured accord- sounds, and simple rhythmic patterns. ing to set rhythmic patterns of the music. Social As children grow and develop physiologically dance is taught in a setting similar to folk and and socially they express feelings and thoughts square dance, performed in less organized floor through rhythmic activities. Ample space should patterns, generally in couples, and structured in be provided in formal and informal environ- accordance with the rhythm and style of the ments for these expressions to be made unham- music. Ballet and modern dance, both mass and pered by hazardous conditions. Children should individual, are generally taught in a studio with be encouraged to use both large and petite open area surrounded by mirrors and a ballet movements accordingtotheirwishes. The bar; performed in unlimited floor patterns; and teacher has the responsibility of guiding these structured in free form without music or in movement activities and of describing safe areas complex rhythmic form with music. Children's for the performance of these rhythmical ex- rhythms or creative activities are usually taught pressions.

SETTING

Consideration should be given to the size of possibility of mishaps when planning the or- the facility in relation to the number of students ganizational patterns of the class and specific and the extent of the movement activities. Dance movement activities. classes are often large. The organization of the Note the quality of the floor space, wiaether class should allow ample space for each student it be wood or linoleum, tile or asphalt. The type to perform the movement activity without the of floor may be hazardous if the dance activities threat of bumping, hitting, or pushing another are notsarefully selected. When the gymnasium student. The teacher should be aware of the floor is slippery, fast sliding movements in folk,

296 DANCE 297 square, and social dancing should be avoided. the objects surrounding the activity space will There are many dances that do not include these be avoided. In modern dance and ballet, when types of movements. The teacher should select students are doing locomotor movements across the specific dances that can be safely performed the floor, they can be instructed to finish the on these floor conditions. If the texture of the given movement pattern in ample time to stop floor is rough, with cracks and occasional splin- before encountering the objects near the walls. ters, then the students should wear ballet slip- In children's creative activities, the movement pers or soft sandals for modern dance and area can be easily restricted when imaginary ballet. Some studio floors are not constructed walls enclose the activity space. It is interesting with flexible flooring. They may be a hardwood to note that the imaginary wall is often more surface over concrete. Activities such as jumps readily recognized by children than by older and leaps should be limited, if taught in such a students. Through imaginative teaching the sur- facility. The teacher should check the floor con- rounding objects can be easily eliminated from ditions to determine the type of dance and the child's creative space. extent of movement that the students can safely Class equipment such as record players, piano, execute. and rhythm instruments should be located in convenient places and yet safely out of the EQUIPMENT, OBJECTS activity area. All electric cords should be kept Apparatus, equipment, and objects within the off the floor and confined to the storage cabinet activity area should also concern the teacher. or table where the record player is kept. The In situations where equipment for other class piano should be placed where the accompanist activities must be kept in the gymnasium, the can see the activity but is out of the designated teacher should see that these objects are placed movement space. P!1 rhythm instruments should as far as possible from the activity area and be stored in enclosed cupboards or boxes and covered with protective materials when desir- not left around as possible hazardous objects. able. Caution should be used in this situation After the children use the instruments they and the hazards should be pointed out to the should be told where to put them in order to students. In folk and square dance, designated clear the activity area. The care and storage of areas for each square, circle, or line can be made equipment should be a prime concern of both so the possibility of the students running into the students and the teacher.

PERFORMANCE

Safety in performance is partially controlled niques employed in the lesson are primarily by the teaching progression. In folk, square, and warm-up activities. These should be taught in social dance the swing, slide, gallop, or run is a progression where the demands of the body presented so that when executed in the actual are on a degree scale, both of muscle activity dance the skillsare performed with control. and complexity. To avoid ankle and knee in- There should be no swinging into other couples juries, the feet and legs should be sufficiently or sliding, galloping,or running into other "warm" before the students progress into leaps dancers. If this occurs the teacher should point and jumps. There should be preparatory tech- out the style of the particular dance. niques or exercises of the torso and upper body before the students engage in turns and falls. PROGRESSION The teacher's presentation of techniques or exer- In modern and ballet, the teaching progres- cises preparatory to creative work is extremely sion is of utmost importance. Most of the tech- important. The student should feel the body is 298 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES ready for exploratory movement and be at ease In creative activity with children, the period to try new and different movements without the or length of time for the movement activity fear of a turned ankle or pulled muscle. These should be controlled by the teacher. The lesson creative movements should not cause any injury is planned with concern for the type, quality, and extent of physical activity the participant to the students if the warm-up period has been can execute as well as the amount of rest period wisely taught. or quiet activity that should be included.

STRUCTURE

The structure of the dance activity is deter- Inall instances where movement is to be mined by the particular type of dance being executed according to a controlled rhythmic taught. Students of all ages will be concerned pattern, the students should be conscious of with controlled movement in folk, square, and their individual movements as well astheir social that is governed by the rhythmic structure movements inrelationshiptoothers. They of the music. In modern and ballet when the should at all times work within the limits of rhythmic structure is free form there is more their own physical abilities. Their movements freedom in the movements; however, modern should be executed on the basis of sound me- and ballet also can be complex in rhythmic chanical principles. The extent to which the structure, and then there are high demands on teacher asks a student to execute movements the student's control of movement. Children's controlled by rhythmic structure is determined creative dance is the freest form of structure by the individual's ability. Conscious observa- and should be the least demanding on the con- tion and direction by the teacher can prevent trol of the child. stress and strain on the student.

RHYTHMIC EXPERIENCES FOR THE HANDICAPPED

Children who are confined to a wheelchair the two students involved grasping the arms of should not be denied the opportunity to par- airs. The swing will in no way ticipate in folk and square dancing. e w ee be hampered if the needed space for the move- chairs may be maneuvered by children who can ments is anticipated by the teacher. operate the wheelchairs in the execution of the The modern social dance patterns provide dance patterns. The music should be slowed to a tempo which will provide ample time for the more individual freedom since ballroom dancing students to complete the dance patterns without is no longer dependent on a closed dance posi- undue pressure. If a square dance is being tion with a partner. This allows children who taught, the square should be sufficiently large lack balance or the ability to perform exact to provide space for the children in the chairs movement patterns to enjoy the social advan- to coinplete a do-si-do, a swing, or a grand tages of ballroom dancing without feeling their right and left. The swing may be performed by inadequacies in executing set patterns. DANCE 299

CONCLUSION

Although rhythms and dance connotate great There should be a leveling off of physical self-control and physical poise, the safe per- activity planned within the scope of the lesson. formance of dance is largely dependent upon This will gradually decrease the body heat and one's physical readiness and the environmental allow the body to return to normalcy. The limitions. It is important that the body and warn -up and cool-off period in modern dance mind become a unified whole as expression and ballet are especially important to the par- evolves through rhythmic movement. This can- ticipant for safe physiological and kinesiological not be accomplished when the body has been participation. pulled, stretched, turned, or strained in any Rhythmic activities are no lesshazardous, manner; the ideas cannot be translated into than other activities in which movement and t movements. Ideas and movements are some- possibility of colliding with another indivial, times unfortunately limited because a facility group of individuals, or movable object is presents hazards which limit space and conse- possible. Speed or tempo and weight of the pa quently the length and tempo of the movement ticipant are factors which influence the safety patterns. In addition to space requirements, a hazards. The teacher must be aware of these desirable facility should be acoustically sound factors and provide guidance to students which so that directions from a teacher may be ac- will assist them in analyzing hazards that their curately interpreted. Social and emotional attri- movements will precipitate. butes arising from rhythmic experiences will be Hopefully, dance will add to the precision enhanced if the facility :s attractive. and refinement of movement, body control, and poise.Theseobjectivescannot beattained Ventilation is an important aspect of an en- unless the student is aware of the safety haz- vironment for rhythmic activity which may ards. Success will be a result of self-discipline cause students to perspire profusely. Ventilation which allows the student to eliminate hazardous should be controlled through mechanical engi- situations for himself and to be sensitive to neering or windows. others involved in dance activities. ' I - r

; r : : , Y' ' ' - ',

L._ ' , - I

- -A A J. -' A

' a: A A- A- -' t. .- -. -' -'

r I-: .'i $ -! R':'i-- -

14A HL%.r A 4 .4

4 ;

: A kA4c :tk

I Developmental and

Play Activities IANITA ALDRICH, Ed.D.

Consider the factors that shape the personality foundations of safe movement. As children of a childhis experiences, abilities, interests, learn to take turns, how to use apparatus and attitudes, and other traits. Developmental and objects, and how to adjust to moving with each play experiences assist in stimulating the child other, they learn courtesy and to avoid careless to perceive and later to develop concepts. If he behavior, which may lead to accidents. is to understand the world in which he lives he must explore actively his environment so he can MOVEMENTS INVOLVING SELF organize and reorganize visual, auditory, and tactile impressions. These impressions must be A child who has only self, space, and floor channeled into safe practices. on which to move is the master of his temporary Play is an environment in which a child be- environment. He may survey the area thought- comes involved totally. He moves, he feels, he fully and silently; he may test his voice against thinks, he acts, and he reacts. Because a child is the walls and rafters. Finally, he moves slowly, receptive to play and possesses the potential for cautiously perhaps at first but he moves. He mastering neuromuscular skills early in his child- marches as a member of a military troop; he is hood, his elementary school years should be his father at the head of a platoon. Suddenly, replete with movement experiences. The pro- he mounts a white charger and gallops across gram in physical education should make chil- space. From an upright galloping position he dren desire to develop physically, mentally, and changes into a croaking frog that jumps from socially to their maximum potential. It should lily pad to lily pad. Now he emerges as Blue- also motivate them to evaluate themselves and beard the Pirate, adept at maintaining his bal- others, make comparisons, and draw conclu- ance as he runs the full length of his ship, leaps sions. the gangplank, and soars through the air land- Safe waysofmoving individually,with ing on the wharf. Finally, he revels in complete groups, and with objects are a part of good relaxation and sits and thinks of who and where teaching. Proper footgear, such as rubber-soled he was as he mov'd through the space. or heeled shoes, may be instrumental in the pre- An individual may occupy a very limited area vention of accidents; socks without shoes in- yet move with purpose and pleasure. He can crease hazards. Skill, knowledge, physical poise, twist and turn his body, lunge forward or diag- experience, and consideration for others are the onally, jump into the air, crouch, or stand tall.

301 302 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

roll from ject. The ball, because of itsshape and size, He may crawl in various directions or addi- side to side, then onto his knees and arm.This behaves in various ways when struck. In which causes rolling may be accompanied by kicking oneleg tion, the ball is attached to a rope his arms, or rolling his it to move in a circular patternaround the pole. or both legs, swinging of flight head. Of course, the area must becleared of As children strike the ball, its patterns variables require physical obstruction to avoid collisions. are changed. These and mental alertness for effectiveand safe MOVEMENTS INVOLVING OTHERS movement.

Children in the primary levels of school are MOVEMENTS INVOLVING COMBINATIONS the adjusting to one another in classrooms, on OF SELF, OTHERS, AND OBJECTS playground, and in the gymnasium. Some aggressiveness is necessary. Children shouldbe Movements involving self, others, andobjects given experiences in movementswhich involve should afford childrenchallenges, pleasures, moving with others, in opposition toethers, and and problems for solving. Solutionstothe spacing themselves with others toavoid physical problems should lie in skills both inbreadth contact. Experiences should bepleasurable and and depth, andinsightsintorelationships foster cooperation, competition, self-discipline, of problems previouslyexperienced.Relays and mental and physiological effort. Movements may incorporate complex movementsinvolv- involving others may be an end in themselves ing several people and objects ofdifferent or lead to structured games,rhythms, and self- sizes, weights, and shapes. Team effort is neces- testing activities. Dual movements rangefrom sary for success. In a situationwhere five differ- quiet games such as jacks and hopscotch to ent objects are passed over thehead, under the more active games such as jump rope,teFherball, legs, and to the side in alternating patterns, and stunts and tumbling. team members must follow the rulesand move As children move in opposition to one an- efficiently and rapidly, staying in their own lines other, as in tug-of-war, or coordinatetheir ef- and maintaining a safe distance from the person forts, as in leap frog, they become aware ofeach in front of them. other's movements. This awareness andbody Combining movements with othersand with control lead to safe play. objects is not confined to games. Folkdancing may involve individualsmanipulating objects in MOVEMENTS INVOLVING OBJECTS separately or in unison, as well as moving relation to other people, and learningspatial Objects, when combined with movement and relationships. Children's ability to movethe used with understanding and purpose,become body to a rhythmical beat while simultaneously learning tools for a child. In the early stages of manipulating scarves, balloons, a parachute, or learning to manipulate objects, the objects dic- other objects increases the difficulty andadds tate the movement. Lightweightobjects such as pleasure to the dancing. utility balls should be used initially to prevent As motor skills improve and childrenbecome injury. The child is taught to keep his eyes on the increasingly mature, they begin to enjoythe object and to be ready to move in any direction complexities of safe movement which increased to catch the object or to avoidbeing hit by it. numbers of people and objects afford. As a child becomes increasinglyskilled and develops concepts of the relationship between MOVEMENT EXPLORATION himself and objects, his movements control the objects. Movement exploration implies searching, ex- Tetherball is a prime example of a game re- amining, or discovering through the useof the quiring complex movement reactions to anob- body as it relates to time, space, motion,and DEVELOPMENTAL AND PLAY ACTIVITIES 303 objects.It begins in infancy when the child executed on first one foot then the other become starts to kick, move his head, and discover parts a skip; the gallop is a combination of a walk of his body. As the child grows, he learns that and a run using a step-together pattern. A side- the body has a system of levers and weights ward gallop may be interpreted as a slide to which can be handled w maintain balance, shift children. Most pattern dances such as a polka, weight, and produce force. schottische, or mazurka are built on a skip, By the time a child begins school, he is able gallop, or slide. These and other traditional to execute locomotor movements and many non- dance steps, such as the two-step and waltz, are locomotor!i.e.stationary) movements. As a combinations of basic locomotor movements. child understands and applies the principles involved in locomotor and nonlocomotor move- SELF-TESTING ACTIVITIES ments, he learns ways in which he can commu- Self-testing experiences are those in which nicate emotions, ideas, and feelings with his the emphasis'is on individual improvement and body. He may assume the role of a figure skater accomplishment. Play activities of a self-testing or a lonely man or pretend that he is walking nature appealito a child because he receives in the mud or changing an automobile tire. satisfaction from relying upon himself to test his control over his environment and learns to RHYTHMIC ACTIVITY recognize his strengths and weaknesses. Rhythm is the very essence of physiological Many schools have self-testing programs in existence. The heart beats rhythmically, the eye- which test scores are compared with national, lids move rhythmical:;, and breathing is based state, or local norms; the value of comparison upon rhythmical stimulation. Space, force, and lies in individual appraisal. This program should time are common to both movement exploration be designed so that increasingly difficult prob- and rhythm. Among the needs of children are lems in movement are provided for the child those born of combining movement with rhyth- as soon as he accomplishes a less complex one. mic skills. Self-testingactivitiesincreasethechild's The element of space includes many move- awareness of his need for greater body control ment possibilities. A child may walk forward, and improvement of his balance, timing, and sideward, or in a circle; his movements may be coordination. He learns how to fall and land big or little, narrow or wide. Time gives varia- safely from a jump. Not only are personal poten- tions to a walk. A child may move at a slow, tial an" achievement recognized through these medium, or fast rate of speed. As he walks he activities, but a child also learns appreciation may apply force in light, heavy, relaxed, or sud- for others' abilities. In tumbling he learns to den steps, controlling his movements to avoid assist others by "spotting" without injury to contact. himself. In introducing rhythmic activity to children, musical games can be incorporated. The games GAMES may involve responses to words or signals which require a change of direction or of body shape. Games provide recreation as well as educa- Because children identify with their environ- tional values for children. They enjoy associ- ment they like to be or do things with which ating with other children, meeting the goal of they are familiar, such as being an airplane or the game, and coping with the complexity of mowing the lawn. the rules. Most children can execute fundamental steps In selecting a game, it is important to deter- (i.e., walk, run, hop, and jump) before they be- mine whether it can be adapted to the space gin school. These steps can be combined into a safely, whether it interests the children, provides pattern. For example, a walk (step) and a hop vigorous activity and emotional release, offers 304 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

experiences in social adjustment, requires strat- ACTIVITIES INVOLVING PLAYGROUND egy, and utilizes skill appropriate to their stage APPARATUS of motor development. Incorporated within the No longer are haylofts available for children rules of the games children play are such loco- to enjoy. Trees in parks cannot be nurtured nor motor movements as chasing, tagging, throwing, will they grow if children, as they climb them, batting, and kicking. It has been said that games break Branches or skin the bark. Playground are one of the richest environments for foster- apparatus furnishes children an opportunity to ing aggressiveness. Children should be taught reach, bend, pull, swing, and climb in much the where to tag another and the force to be applied same way that haylofts and trees once did. to prevent injury. These activities develop the upper portion of Very young children live in an "I" centered the body, providing the child furnishes the environment. When they enter school, it is nec- movement. Apparatus which is developmental in essary for them to become accustomed to a nature includes horizontal bars and ladders, group situation so they may become a member jungle gyms, and climbers. Once the equipment of a "we" environment. Introductory games of has been safely installed and is periodically circle and line formations provide an excellent tested, the burden of safety should be placed setting for this transition. Gradually, children on the child when he is using the equipment; progress from solo and parallel playing to be- safety rules should be reduced to a minimum. coming a member of a group and feeling an The hand grip, the correct dismount, and the allegiance to a team. Team games with a mini- number of children using a single piece of ap- mum of rules lead quickly to a spirit of cooper- paratus should suffice for safe equipment use. ation. As games become more highly organized The safest hand grip is placing the fingers the need for discussion and strategy increases. over the rungs of a piece of apparatus with the Relays foster the team idea. Through them, a thumb under the rung and locked over the fin- child can be taught that he is racing for the gers. As the child walks the horizontal ladder group or team to which he belongs while ad- with his hands, this grasp is a natural one as hering to the rules, thus preventing injury and he reaches for the next rung. This grip also accidents. applies to climbing ropes or poles. Boys and girls at the intermediate level enjoy The important aspect of dismounting from learning and participating in advanced team apparatus is the manner in which it is executed games. The games should be geared to require rather than the surface to which one dismounts. motor coordination, social intelligence, and self- If a child drops carelessly because he thinks the discipline appropriate to their maturity. Itis surface will compensate for the poor drop, in- a fallacy for adults to insist upon regulation jury may result. Sand, tan bark, or turf worn by equipment, regulation playing courts or dia- use can cause a child to land off-balance when monds, and adult competitive standards. Not he dismounts. Too often a child uses a rubber- only could these practices be injurious to the ized surface or mat under apparatus as a landing safety of the immature child, but the majority crutch. A correct dismount precludes the child's of 9- to 11-year-olds prefer equipment and rules weight from going backward and assures that which will allow them to use those skills and his feet will land solidly in a parallel position. knowledge which their stage of development His hands should be in front of him in case he permits. needs to touch them to the surface for balance. This phase of physical education provides an A starting place painted on the apparatus or avenue for excellence in performance due to a directional arrows on the surface under the ap- continued refinement of skills as the child works paratus will aid to equalize equipment use as toward mastering progressively complex move- well as minimize the incidents of children ap- ment patterns. proaching the apparatus in opposite directions. DEVELOPMENTAL AND PLAY ACTIVITIES 305

The following diagram (Figure 1)suggests for themselves and others. They must also exer- a plan for locating apparatus and indicates the cise self-discipline and learn how to anticipate line of direction to follow in moving from one what will happen in various situations brought piece of apparatus to the next. Note that the about by movement. Strength,coordination, climbing apparatus is interspersed with appa- agility, balance, and flexibility are essential if ratus from which a child can hang. one is to move safely. Living is an adventure, an exploration. Mod- SUMMARY ern living presents increasedhazards because of The safety factors involved must be consid- the movement of many people and objects of ered in relationship to all movement. Children varying sizes, shapes, and speeds. If man is to should develop attitudes that foster respect and move safely with the masses, he must firstlearn consideration fry- others as they move and prac- in his youth to move safely as an individual and tice habits that will eliminate safety hazards then with groups in controlled environments.

ARROWS REPRESENT A SUGGESTED ROTATICN PLAN

DOUBLE SET OF J1NIOR BORIZCNTAL RORPm1AL LADDER

Figure 1. At ton is a plan for locating playground apparatusand at bottom a photograph of the Swedish Gym. 306 SAFETY IN SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES

Refer.mces

Axline, Virginia M. Dibs In Search of Self. Boston: Mussen, Paul H. The Psychological Development of the H.::;:ghton Mifflin Co1967. Child.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall,Inc., Baley, James A. An Illustrated Guide to Tumbling. 1964. 109 pp. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1968. O'Quinn, Garland, Jr. Gymnastics for Elementary School Broer, Marion R. Efficiency of Human Movement. Phila- Children. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., Inc., delphia:. W. B. Saunders Co., 1960. 351 pp. 1967. 122pp. Clarke, Harrison H. and Clarke, David H. Develop- mental and Adapted Physical Education. Englewood Russell, James E. Change and Challenge in American Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963. 364 pp. Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1965. 115 pp. Fabricius, Helen. Physical Education for the Classroom Sartain, Arron O.; North, Alvin J.; Strange, Jack R.; Teacher. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1965. and Chapman, Harold M. Psychology Understanding 349 pp. Human Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Hackett, Layne C. and Jenson, Robert G. A Guide to Inc.,1958. 444pp. Movement Exploration. Palo Alto, Calif.: Peek Pub- Shurr, Evelyn L. Movement Experiences for Children. lications, 1967.73pp. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967. 569 pp. Jones, Edwina; Morgan, Edna; and Stevens, Gladys. Methods and Materials in Elementary Physical Edu- Vannier, Maryhelen and Foster, Mildred. Teaching Phys- cation. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y.: World Book Co., ical Education in Elementary Schools. 4th ed. Phila- 1957. 432pp. delphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1968. 400 pp.

COURSE OUTLINE 309

SUGGESTED COURSE OUTLINE FOR A COLLEGE COURSE IN SPORTS SAFETY

COURSE TITLE AND DESCRIPTION Preschool physical activities School and college accidents and injuries Sports Safety in Modern Society. Philosophy Need for data and accident reporting of sports safety: human and environmental factors and their interrelationships in sports injury H. A PHILOSOPHY OF ACCIDENT AND and its control; risk-taking and decision solution INJURY CONTROL strategies; application of accident prevention Factors of causation and injury control to selected sports; contribu- Principles of accident prevention and hazards tions of sports medicine to safety. (30-45 hours; control 2-3 credits; U. or G.) Individual responsibilities for safety in sports Community relationships and involvement COURSE OBJECTIVES To develop a philosophy of sports safety III. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION To analyze the human factors leading to sports OF SPORTS PROGRAMS safety Deyelopment of policies for safety achieve- To identify the environmental factors in sports ment safety External controls To study measures for the control of hazards in Rules and regulations of leagues and con- sports ferences To determine risk-taking and decision-making State laws and liability procedures for control of sports injury Insurance and athletic benefit plans To study specific controls designed to lessen ac- Officiating controls cident experience in selected sports and ath- Internal controls . letic activities School administrative principles and To contribute a fuller understanding of leader- policies ship responsibilities of professionals in sports Superintendent-principal and athletics to achieve greater safety in sports Department heads; staff Faculty: instructors and coaches Students COURSE CONTENT Physical and health examinations I. THE INJURY PROBLEM IN SPORTS Limitations of parents' consent The problem defined Liability waivers Accidents in society Travel permit forms Injury control Homogeneous grouping for safe Risk-acceptance competition Accident prevention Age, height, weight Inherent risks in sports activities Competency Data of public involvement and accidents in Facilities, leadership, and equipment various activities controls Organized programs In school: boys-girls Unorganized recreational sports Out of school: adults 310 APPENDIX A

Transportation safety players, IV. FIRST AID AND EMERGENCY spectators PROCEDURES Environmental safety for spectators Definition and significance of first aid Fire prevention and fire protection for Role in accident prevention sports activities Relationships first aider with medical Conduct of sports for safety advisor Even and fair competition Implications from the nature of sports Limits on control of contests Master plan for first aid and emergency k Limits on practice sessions procedures Preseason practice policies Written policies Leadership controls Procedures Teaching techniques First aid facilities and supplies School policies for teacher responsibili- Competencies of leadership in first aid ties Progression in teachingsafety features V. ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND Motivational procedures REPORTING Evaluation of the teaching process and Purpose and procedures safety Report forms Facilities, equipment, and supplies Investigation remedial action Planning of facilities Reporting Program requirements Cooperation with state and national Equipment requirements agencies Arch: Lectural technology for safety Monthly-annual summaries of data controls Chief safety aspects of facilities, equip- VI. SPORTS ACTIVITIES ment, and supplies Development and play activities Game play areas, surface, lighting, Team sports ventilation Baseball and softball Protective enclosure Basketball Placement of equipment Field hockey Safety standards for purchase of facili- Football: touch, flag ties, equipment, and supplies Ice hockey Locker and shower room layout Lacrosse Storage areas, security against unau- Soccer thorized use Volleyball Color coding of devices, areas, equip- Individual sports ment for safety Archery Supervision on purchases for safety of Bowling materials Equitation Age, sex, participants, type of,activities Golf Educating the participant in safety Gymnastics procedures Marksmanship Periodic evaluation of facilities and Track and field equipment Weight lifting COURSE OUTLINE 311

Dual sports Snowmobiling Fencing Snowshoeing Handball Outing activities Judo Fishing: stream, surf, boat Racquet and paddle sports Camping Wrestling Hunting Hiking and mountaineering Aquatic activities Bicycling Swimming, diving, water survival and Recreational motorcycling rescue Recreational swimming Dance Fancy diving Water polo VII. EVALUATION AND SUMMARY Open water aquatic sports Objectives achieved Small craft New problems in sports safety Water skiing The future of sports safety Skin, scuba diving Surfing TEXT: Winter sports Sports Safety: Accident Prevention and Injury Skating Control in Physical Education, Athletics, and Skiing Recreation. Charles Peter Yost, Editor. American Tobogganing and sledding Association for Health, Physical Education, and Iceboating Recreation and U.S.Public Health Service. Ice fishing Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1970.

References

American Association for Health, Physical Education, National Association of College Directors ofAthletics and Division of Men's Athletics, American Associ- and Recreation. Annual Safety Education Review. Recreation. Washington, D.C.: The Association. Annual. ation for Health, Physical Education and Administration of AthleticsinColleges and Uni- School Safety Policies with Emphasis on Physi- versities. Edited by Edward S. Steitz. Washington, cal Education, Athletics, and Recreation. Washington, D.C.: AAHPER, 1971. D.C.: The Association, 1968. 32 pp. National Commission on Safety Education.Who Is American Medical Association. Standard Nomenclature Liable for Pupil Injuries? Washington, D.C.: National of Athletic Injuries. Chicago: AMA Subcommittee on Classification of Sports Injuries, Committee on the Education Association, 1963. Medical Aspects of Sports, 1966. 157 pp. National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Chicago:The American Public Health Association. The Role of Physi- Council. Annual. cians and Public Health Workers. Edited by Maxwell Seaton, Don Cash; Stack, Herbert J.; and Loft,Bernard N. Halsey. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1961. I. Administration and Supervision of SafetyEduca- 400 pp. tion. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1969. 368 pp. Florio, A. E. and Stafford, G. T. Safety Education. 3d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969. 459 pp. Stack, Herbert J. and Elkow, J. Duke. Education for Safe Living. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Grieve, Andrew. The Legal Aspects of Athletics. New Hall, Inc., 1966. 374 pp. York: A. S. Barnes & Co., Inc., 1969. 183 pp. Strasser, Marland K.; Aaron, James E.; Bohn, Ralph C.; Haddon, William, Jr.; Suchman, Edward A.; and Klein, and Eales, John R. Fundamentals of Safety Education. David. Accident ResearchMethods and Approaches. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964. 453 pp. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1964. 752 pp. Liebee, Howard. Tort Liability for Injuries to Pupils. Thomdike, Augustus. Athletic Injuries, Philadelphia: Ann Arbor: Campus Publishers, 1965. Lea & Febiger, 1962. 259 pp. APPENDIX B The following forms in Appendix B are reprinted by permission of the Joint Com- mission on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports, which is composed of the American College Health Association, National Athletic Trainers Assciation, National Col- legiate Athletic Association, National Federation State High" School Athletic Association, and National Junior College Athletic Association. FOOTBALL REPORT 315

JOINT COMMISSION ON COMPETITIVE SAFEGUARDS AND MEDICAL ASPECTS OF SPORTS

The information on this form will be used to make football a safer sport to play. Answer questions by placing an X in the brackets. Please answer carefully, since the study can be no better than the information you give us. When completed, return this form to your vainer. Thank you for your cooperation.

Pages 3 and 4 are to be filled in by trainer; remamang pages are to be filled an by playersTRAINER. PLAYER PROFILE DESCRIPTION What is your social security number? - - 14-22

What is your present age as of your last birthday?

01 ( ) Les than 14 03 () 17 years 09 () 21 yeazs 02 () 14 years 06 () 18 years 10 () 22 yeah 23-24 03 ( ) IS yews 07 () 19 years 11 () 23 years 04 () 16 years 08 () 20 years 12 () 24 years or older

Have you had a birthday in the past six months?

1( ) Yes 2 () No 25

What is your racial heritage?

1() Black 2 () White 3 () Other 26

Do you play for' 1 () a High School 2 () a Community or 3 () a College or University 27 junior College

What is your year of eligibility?

1() First ( Freshman ) 3 () Junior 28 2 () Second (Sophomore) 4 () Senior

Are you

1() Right handed 2 () Left handed 3 () Ambidextrous 29 .

Do you wear a dental protector or mouthpiece?

1 () Yes 2 () No 30

What type of football shoes do you wear?

I() Lowcut 3 () Hightop 4 () Soccer 31 2 () Medium ( three-quarter )

Do you wrap or tape your ankles for rout ine prevent ion of injury,

1() Yes 2 () No 32 If yes, what do you use'

1() Tape 3 () Elastic wrap 33 2 () Wrap 4 () Other

PAGE 1 316 APPENDIX B

How much do you weigh?

01 () Less than 100 pounds 07 () 150-159 pounds 13 ()210-219 pounds ,02 () 100-109 pounds 08 () 160-169 pounds 14 ()220-229 pounds 03 () 110-119 pounds 09 () 170-179 pounds IS ()230-239 pounds 34-35 04 () 120-129 Founds 10 () 180-189 pounds 16 ()240-249 pounds OS () 130-139 Founds 11 () 190-199 Founds 17 ()250-259 pounds 06 () 140-149 pounds 12 () 200-209 pounds 18 ()260 pounds or more

How tall are you?

01 () Under 5 feet, 3 inches 08 () 5 feet, 9inches IS ()6 feet, 4 inches 02 () 5 feet, 3 inches 09 () 5 feet, 10 inches 16 ()6 feet, 5 inches 03 () 5 feet, 4 inches 10 () 5 feet, II inches 17 ()6 feet, 6 inches 36-37 04 () 5 feet, 5 inches 11 () 6 feet 18 ()6 feet, 7 inches OS () 5 feet, 6 inches 12 () 6 feet,1 inch 19 ()6 feet, 8 inches 06 () 5 feet, 7 inches 13 (} 6 feet, 2 inches 20 ()6 feet, 9 inches and above 07 () 5 feet8 inches 14 () 6 feet, 3 inches

Do you routinely wear any bracing or tape on a knee because of previous injury?

1() Yes, on both knees 3 () Yes, on right knee 2 () Yes, on left knee 4 () No 38

If yes, what type? 1 () Tape 2() Brace 3 ,() Other 39

What is your normal offensive playing position? U you play more than one, indicate the one played most frequently.

01 () Split End OS () Center 09 () Tailback 02 () Tight End 06 () Quarterback 10 () Flanker 40-41 03 () Tackle 07 () Fullback 11 () Halfback 04 () Guard 08 () Wingback 12 () Kicker or Punter 13 () Don't play offense

What is your normal defensive playing position? ff you play more than one, indicate the one played most frequently.

1() End 4 () Roverguard 7 () Halfback or Cornerback 2 () Tackle 5 () Middle guard 3 () Safety 42 3 () Guard 6 () Linebacker 9 () Don't play defense

When you received your helmet, who fitted it?

1() Coach 4 () Student Manager 7 () Yourself 2 () Trainer 5 () Company Representative 43 3 () Equipment Manager 6 () Team Physician

Did you have a physical examination forf ootb al 1by a doctor within 6 months of the regular football season?

1() Yes 2 () No 44

PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM TO YOUR TRAINER

PAGE 2 FOOTBALL REPORT 317

PAGES 3 and 4 ARE TO BE COMPLETED BY TRAINER.

Year 021-2 3-4 5-7 Conference Code School Code

What is the make of this player's helmet? 1 () loll 5 () Riddel 2 () Gladiator 6 () Spalding 3 ( )McGregor 7 () Wibon S 4 () Rawlings 8 () Other write in brand name

How many years has this helmet been used?

1 () New ( stern used ) 5 () 3 years 2 ( ) Lass than 1 year 6 () 4 or snore yeas 9 3 () 1 year 7 () Unknown or not sure 4 () 2 years

Has this helmet ever been reconditioned? 1 () Yes 2 () No 3 () Unknown 10

U yes, bow many yeast ago?

1() 1 year 3 () 3 Yens 2 () 2 yeass 4 ( )4 yeast or more 11 U yes, who did the reconditioning?

write in company's name

What type of face gear does this helmet have?

1 () None 4 () Half cage 2 ( ) One bar 5 () Full cage 12 3 () Two ban

Does this player's helmet have?

1 ( ) Internal padding 3 ( ) Both internal padding and 2 () Internal suspension internal suspension 13

PAGE 3 318 APPENDIX B

THIS PAGE IS TO BE COMPLETED BY TRAINER AT END OF SEASON

In how many games did this player participate? 45-46 number of games 4

How many minutes did this player piay in actual games?

01 () Leos than 60 minutes OS () 241-300 minutes 09 () 481-540 minutes 10 () 541-600 minutes 02 () 60-120 minutes 06 ( )301-360 minute* 47-48 03 () 121-180 minutes 07 ( ) 361-420 minutes 11 ( ) 601-660 minutes 04 () 181-240 minuted 08 () 421-480 minutes 12 () 661-720 minutes

How many injury forms were completed for this player?

) Two injury forme 1 () None ( No Jolley for this player ) 3 ( 49 2 () One injury form 4 () Three or more injury forms

If this player was injured, will long term disability result?

1 () Yes 2 () No SO

If this player was injured, was surgical correction required, or will it be required?

I () Yes 2 ( ) No SI

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION

PAGE 4 FOOTBALL REPORT 319

JOINT COMMISSION COMPETITIVE SAFEGUARDS G MEDICAL ASPECTS OF SPORTS

NATIONAL TACKLE FOOTBALL INJURY REPORT

Instructions: A.Please answer all pertinent questions. B.This form should lie completed within 48 hours after the injury has occurred.

Injured player's social security number 1-9

Injury number of this player during this season ?

1() Fiat 2 () Second 3 () Third 4 () Fotrtb or more 10

INJURY DESCRIPTION

U injury is multiple injury type or more than one body part is involved, do not check nature of injury or body part involved but please describe the injury on the following lines.

11-14

Nature of Injury( check only one )

01 () Contusion 06 (1 Dislocation 12 () In degree Orlin ( muscle ) 02 () Minor concussion 07 () Fracnsre (stunned, clued) 13 () 2474 dome strain 08 () Puncture ( muscle ) 03 () Moderate concussion 09 () 1st degree swain (no symptoms after 14 () 3rd dares train 15-16 (ligament) 24 hours) ( complete rupture 10 () 2nd dense sprain of muscle ) 04 () Severe concussion (Marina) (symptoms persist 15 () Heat exhaustion or sun stroke over 24 hours) II () 3rd degree sprain 16 () Frostbite (complete rupture OS () Dental injury of ligament) 17 () Other 18 () Unknown

PAGE 5 320 APPENDIX B

Body Part Involved ( check one only )

Head and Face

01() jaw 06 () Forehead 11() Teeth

02() Face 07 () Eye 12() Inside of cheek 03() Nose 08 () Eyelid or eyebrow 13( )Ea 04() Scalp 09( ) UP 14() Head CNS OS () Skull 10 () Tongue

Neck 21 () Vertebrae 22 () Soft time Z3 () Nerve 24 () Spinal cord

Chest 31 () Ribs 32 () Lung 33 () Heart 34 () Sternum 35 () Other chat 17 -IS Abdomen 41 () Spleen 42 () Liver 43 () Other abdomen

CU Tract SI ( )1Cidney 52 () Bladder 53 () Testes 54() Penis

Musculo-__Skeletal

61 () Vertebrae 67() Upper arm 73() Pelvis 79() Knee 62 () Acromio-clavicular 68() Elbow 74() iliac Crest 80( ) Lower leg

63 () Sterno-clavIcular 69() Forearm 75() Hamstring 81() Ankle

64 () Shoulder 70() Wrist 76() Hip 82() Foot

65 () Clavicle 71() Hand 77() Groin 83() Toe

66 () Scapula 72() Finger 78() Thigh 84() Other WS

Body Side of Injury

1 () Right 2 () Left. 3 () Not applicable 19

Severity of Injury

1() Fatal 2 () Hospitalized more than 24 bouts 3 () Hospitalised less than ?A hohours 4 () Injury,with thus lost from 5 () Injury without time W game or practice lost horn participation

Was this a Reinjirry ? I( ) Yes 2( ) No It If yes, how did the original injury occur ?

I () Athletic activity 2 () Nonathletic activity 22

PAGE 6 FOOTBALL REPORT 321

Type of activity at time of injury

1 () Game 5 () Group drills 2 () Live scrimmage 6 () Individual drills 23 3 () Dummy scrimmage 7 () Omer 4 () Exercise (calisthenics, isometrics, weights )

If a tame our acrisnmene,indicate type of play

1() Pau 5 () Field goal 2 () Run 6 () MT 24 3 () Punt 7 () Fumble 4 ) Kick off () Other

If injury occurred during a scheduled game, did a rule infraction contribute to the injury?

I () Yes 2 ( ) No 25 If yes, was a penalty called ?

1 () Yes 2 () No 26

If injured player was on offense, was he ?

01 () Kicking py () piled on 02 () Being tackled 08 () Stepped on 03 () Shoulder blocking 09 () Running with no contact 27-28 04 ( ) Crack-back blocking 10 () Running into a fixed object OS () Butt blocking 11 () Not applicable 06 () Other blocking

If injured player was on defense, was he ?

01 () Blocking kick 07 () Piled on 02 () Tackling 08 () Stepped or 03 () Shoulder blocked 09 () Running with no contact 29-30 04 () Crack-back blocked 10 () Running into a fixed object OS () Butt blocked 11 ( ) Not applicable 06 () Other blocked

Field surface

1 () Gran 4 () Tartan turf 2 () ilirt 5 () Poly turf 31 3 () Astroturf 6( ) Mud

Time of injury

1 Spring Practice 3 () During scheduled game 32 2 () Practice prior to first game 4 () Practice after first game

U injury occurred prior to lint game, indicate practice session

01 () 1st 07 () 7th 13 () 13th 19 () 19th 25 () 25th 02 () 2nd 08 () 8th 14 () 14th 70 () 20th 26 () 26th 03 () 3rd 09 () 9th 15 () 15th 21 () 21st 27 () 27th 33-34 04 () 4th tO (1 10th 16 () 16th 22 () 22nd 28 () 28th OS () Sth 11 () 11th 17 () 17th 23 () 23rd 29 () 29th 06 () 6th 12 () 12th 18 () 18th 24 () 24th 30 () 30th

PAGE 7 322 APPENDIX B

U injury occurred after first game, please indicate week after first game.

01 () 1st 05 () Sth 09 () 9th 13 () 13th 10 () 10th 14 () 14th 02 () 2nd 06 () 6th 35-36 0 3 () 3rd 07 () 7th 1I () 11th 15 () 15th 04 () ^li 08 () 8th 12 () 12th 16 () 16th or more

Quarter of injury ) Not applicable 37 1 () 1st 2 () 2nd 3 () 3rd 4 () 4th 5 (

What type of cleats were on this player's football shoes at time of injury ,

1 () Conical cleats 4 () Ripple cleats 2 () Soccer cleats 5 () Other type of cleats 38 3 () Multiple cleats 6 () No cleats

What type of heel was on this player's football shoes at time of injury ?

1 () Ring 4 () Cleat 2 () Bar 5 () Other 3 () Shoe

Was this player's helmet at time of injury the same as orginally described on the PLAYER PROFILE DESCRIPTION at the beginning of the year ?

i() Yes 2( ) No U no, please describe the difference in the helmet.

Year is 02 39

PAGE 8