Of the Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit: a Case Study of the Central Arava Valley

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research The Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies

Fresh Water Resource Development As A Result Of The Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit: A Case Study of The Central Arava Valley

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

"Master of Science"

By: Eliot Jay Sherman

August 2010

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research The Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies

Fresh Water Resource Development As A Result Of The Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit: A Case Study of The Central Arava Valley

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

"Master of Science"

By: Eliot Jay Sherman

Under the Supervision of Professor Eilon M. Adar Ben Gurion University of the Negev The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research - Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research &

Advised by Dr. Clive Lipchin

Arava Institute for Environmental Studies

Author's Signature …………….……………………… Date …………….

Approved by the Supervisor…………….…………….. Date ……………..

Approved by the Director of the School ……………... Date …………….

Fresh Water Resource Development As A Result Of The Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit: A Case Study of The Central Arava Valley

Abstract

The World Bank is currently sponsoring a feasibility study to determine the viability of a Red Sea Dead Sea Conveyance [RSDSC] program. This is the latest iteration of a regional water management strategy associated with the rapid decline of the Dead Sea water level that has been discussed for many years. The project aims to convey water from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea via pipeline or tunnel, and within the Dead Sea basin desalinate this sea water in an effort to provide potable water to the riparians (Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian Territories), as well as stabilize the Dead Sea water level.

Project plans indicate that after water is desalinated in the Dead Sea region, the newly generated fresh water will be conveyed to both Jordan and Israel/West Bank. Currently, multiple locations in Israel have been identified as possible recipients for desalinated water. The interest of this research aims to explore and determine the viability of increasing fresh water resources to Israel‘s Central Arava Valley.

The Central Arava Valley is a center of intensive export-oriented agricultural production and a hyper arid climatic zone, its water requirements are supplied completely by local fresh to brackish groundwater sources. Concurrently, increasing agricultural and settlement growth are mining regional groundwater. Determining if new water from the project can positively assist the region in development will be a key issue determining if this is a viable location for the use of new fresh water resources. Research was conducted through collection of existing data concerning the study area, as well as on-site interviews with regional experts in the various sectors under consideration in this research.

Research outcomes have determined that planned regional expansion of the agricultural industry is certain to lead to continued decrease in water quality, and supplies will not meet the quantity requirement for 2020 and beyond. If left without solution, this will have an adverse affect on the profitability of regional agriculture.

Interviews with regional experts have highlighted that external sources of high quality water will be needed to maintain and facilitate agricultural production. Regional developers are assessing the economic feasibility of independent water conveyance projects and irrigation profitability with more expensive, higher quality water. However, due to vague information on a variety of options for additional sources for fresh water supply, there is no desire to incorporate planning of the RSDSC water conveyance with regional plans.

The likelihood that the RSDSC project will commence is still uncertain, and for this reason, this research suggests that regional planning in the Central Arava continue to investigate the feasibility of the expansion efforts currently being considered and under way by regional developers. However, with this in mind, it is also in the best interests of the region to begin simultaneous cooperation with project planners, and to begin to assess the integration of RSDSC project plans and regional infrastructure

Additional research highlights include the recommendation that the RSDSC project coordinators meet with stakeholders and planners in the Central Arava. This will allow regional authorities the opportunity to provide necessary input and suggestions to help integrate fresh water conveyance plans with existing water infrastructure. Water can be utilized in the Central Arava though further storage development (e.g. infiltration reservoirs) as well as irrigation quality enhancement through on-site mixing with local brackish waters. This will be paramount in achieving and sustaining regional growth.

Acknowledgements

The completion of this research project would not have been possible without the guidance and help of many individuals, who, in one way or another contributed and extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this research.

I extend my gratitude to Professor Eilon Adar and Dr. Clive Lipchin, for their support and assistance as advisors throughout the duration of my studies. I thank Professors Alon Tal and Hendrik Bruins for their willingness to read and participate in the defense of this thesis. As well, without the willingness and participation of the many individuals who agreed to meet with me on one or more occasions to provide invaluable information, this research would not have been possible.

I extend my sincere appreciation to Shira Kronich, Eitan Krukowski and Ofer Arnon for their assistance with obtaining and translating much needed documentation. Special thanks are also extended to my teammate Elana Katz-Mink, and to my family, who helped make my graduate studies in Israel a reality.

iii

Table of Contents

Abstract...... i

Acknowledgements ...... iii

List of Figures & Tables ...... vi

1. Introduction ...... 1

1.1 Project background ...... 1

2. Research Procedure...... 10

2.1 Research Objectives ...... 10

2.2 Research Methods ...... 12

3. Description of Project in World Bank Terms of Reference ...... 13

Research Results ...... 20

3.1 Study Area (Central Arava Valley) ...... 20

4. Water Use and Management in Study Area ...... 30

4.1 Current Regional Water Requirements ...... 30

4.2 Predicted Regional Water Requirements ...... 33

5. Agriculture and Land Use in Central Arava ...... 38

5.1 Current Agricultural Production ...... 38

5.2 Regional Land Use and Expected Growth ...... 41

6. Tourism in the Central Arava ...... 45

6.1 Current Central Arava Tourism ...... 47

6.2 Tourism Growth in Central Arava ...... 49

7. Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit Fresh Water Conveyance ...... 55

7.1 Existing Regional Conveyance Plans...... 55

7.2 Economic Considerations ...... 58

7.3 Integrating Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit Fresh Water Conveyance ...... 61

7.4 Artificial Reservoir Use and Development ...... 64

8. Conclusions ...... 71

8.1 Research Findings ...... 73

8.2 Interview Results ...... 75

8.3 Recommendations for the Future ...... 76

9. Bibliography ...... 79

10. Appendices ...... 86

List of Figures & Tables

Figure 1.1: Expected developments in Dead Sea shrinking process ...... 2 Figure 1.2: Decline of Dead Sea level, 1976-2006 ...... 3 Figure 1.3: Timeline; Dead Sea decline and sinkhole occurrences ...... 4 Figure 1.4a: Sinkhole sites along Dead Sea shore……………………………………………….5 Figure 1.4b: Sinkhole by the Dead Sea shore ...... 6 Figure 1.5: Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit Plan & Profile Alignment ...... 9 Figure 3.1: Alternative conveyance options, ongoing World Bank feasibility study program ...... 16 Figure 3.2: Plan showing studied location of hydropower plant ...... 17 Figure 3.3: Schematic plan of RSDSC potable water transmission to Israel ...... 20 Figure 3.4: Spatial extension of aquifers along the Arava Valley ...... 22 Figure 3.5: Geological cross section, aquifers in the Zofar region - Central Arava Valley ...... 24 Figure 3.6: Total cultivated land comparison, Central Arava region & Southern Arava region ... 25 Figure 3.7: Water quality as measured by EC, comparision Central and Southern Arava ...... 26 Figure 3.8: Mean annual evaporation rates in Arava Valley ...... 28 Figure 3.9: Map of Central Arava region ...... 29 Figure 4.1: Wells along the Arava Valley, subdivision by region ...... 32 Figure 4.2a: Aggregated water quality in Central Arava, 1999 (measured by EC) ...... 35 Figure 0.2b: Aggregated water quality in Central Arava, 2007 (measured by EC)……..………..32 Figure 5.1: Main types of cultivation 2007/2008 (hectare) ...... 38 Figure 5.2: Centralized growing areas in Northern & Central Arava 2008/2009 (dunam) ...... 39 Figure 5.3: Outline of Central Arava, Regional Growing Areas highlighted ...... 42 Figure 5.4: Planned infrastructure and housing expansion; Idan Settlement - Central Arava ...... 44 Figure 6.1: Average unit occupancy; nights/year...... 48 Figure 6.2: Rest stop/tourism area design plans ...... 50 Figure 6.3: Theoretical B.T.R. design along Border ...... 52 Figure 6.4: Spatial overlay of planned B.T.R. Site along Israel/Jordan Border ...... 53 Figure 6.5: Location of future ‗Faran B‘ settlement, Central Arava ...... 55 Figure 7.1: Water Infrastructure map and quality sampling points, settlement Faran ...... 62 vi

Figure 7.2a: Scenario of initial phase of RSDSC fresh water regional distribution ...... 63 Figure 7.3: Reservoir aquifer infiltration ...... 65 Figure 7.4: Current reservoir locations along Central Arava Valley ...... 67 Figure 7.5a: Idan Reservoir...... 64 Figure 7.5b: Hatzeva Reservoir ...... 68 Figure 7.6a: Reservoir near Ein Yahav ...... 70 Figure 0.6b: Reservoir near Ein Yahav with polypropylene floating cover…………………….66

Table 1.1 : Compiled rain data for winters 1991-2009 in the Central Arava ...... 27 Table 1.2: Water Price Discount by Level of Conductivity...... 37 Table 1.3: Selected prices for items in foreign and local markets ...... 40

vii

1. Introduction

1.1 Project background

The Dead Sea holds both cultural and economic characteristics that make it an important landmark for Israel, Jordan, and The Palestine Authority. At once, a tourism hot-spot and one of Israel and Jordan‘s largest industrial sectors, many parties are invested in the preservation of the Dead Sea. The rapid decline in water level taking place reduces its value both as a tourism location, and industrial sector in Israel and Jordan. In response to this, considerable attention has been given to the issue by media, governments and NGO‘s (Asmar, 2003). The decline also raises ethical concerns surrounding the present exploitation of finite water resources at the expense of future generations (Lipchin, 2005).

While scientific studies widely agree that the Dead Sea will never completely disappear, its continued shrinkage is having adverse affects on the economy, tourism, as well as the infrastructure of the surrounding nations. The Dead Sea basin has a size of about 44,000 km² and its watershed is shared by Israel, Jordan and The Palestinian Authority. The sea itself has two basins separated by the Lisan Straits, and covers an area of over 950 km² (Murakami, 1995). Dead Sea water contains more than 30% mineral rich salts, a salinity that is 10 times higher than average sea water (compared to three percent in the Mediterranean). With a salinity of about 340 g/l it is the most saline water body in the world (Gertman, 1999; Qdais, 2008).

The Dead Sea Basin receives rainfall only in the winter months and the amount fluctuates between ±500 mm/yr in the north-western highlands to less than ±50 mm/yr in the valley floor. The potential evapotranspiration in the valley floor is about ±2,000 mm/yr, and actual evaporation from the Dead Sea surface is about 1,300-1,600 mm/yr. Perennial storage in surface and underground water reservoirs is limited and vulnerable to pollution and depletion (Stanhill, 1984).

1960’s

Figure 1.1: Expected developments in Dead Sea shrinking process Source: (Qdais, 2008)

Historically, the Dead Sea has experienced various episodes of change in water level. The largest change in water level occurred between 100 B.C.E. and 40 C.E. when the mean sea level rose some 70m in a 67 year period (from about 400m to about 330m below sea level) and subsequently fell roughly 65m in a similar timeframe. A second large rise occurred between C.E. 900 and 1100 and crested at about 350m below sea level. The total historical range in sea level fluctuation is around 83m (Klein, 1985).

While only a fraction of the historical sea level changes experienced, the Dead Sea level has been under continuous decline in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The water body sat at a level roughly 392m below sea level during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and currently hovers around 417m below sea level. The level has been decreasing steadily since the mid 1960‘s when a massive water withdrawl began from the upper Jordan River. Estimations vary, but show the water level dropping at a rate of ± 1m per year. Each meter drop in the Dead Sea equals 300 million cubic meters (MCM) of fresh water lost from surrounding aquifers (Abu-Jaber, 1998; Asmar, 2003; Qdais, 2008; Steinhorn and Gat, 1983). Figure 1.1 shows the recent water level decline, and estimation for future decline. Eighty percent of the decline in the level of the sea since ancient times has occurred within the last 30 years. As a result of this decline, in the last 35 years the Dead Sea 2

surface area has been reduced by about 30 %, and its north-south extent has shrunk from over 75km to 55 km (Anati and Shasha, 1989). Figure 1.2 illustrates the water level decline graphically.

Figure 1.2: Decline of Dead Sea level, 1976-2006 Source: Israel Hydrological Service, 2007

This drop can be attributed to two major anthropogenic causes taking place in the region. First, about twenty percent of the decline is due to extensive industrial use of water for mineral production, mainly the enhanced evaporation lagoons used to harvest Dead Sea minerals by The Arab Potash Company in Jordan and The Dead Sea Works in Israel. These companies divert and evaporate large amounts of water annually to concentrate and process minerals (Asmar, 2003). Second, about eighty percent is due to decreased inflow from the Jordan River (due to almost all the water in the Jordan River being diverted north of the sea) (Qdais, 2008).

These water diversions began in 1964 with the development of Israel‘s National Water Carrier project and the East Ghor (King Abdullah) Canal in Jordan. The National Water Carrier diverts water from the Jordan River and its tributaries for urban and agricultural applications both inside and outside the watershed, while King Abdullah Canal delivers water to the greater Amman region for similar uses. (Lipchin et al., 2004). While 100 years ago the River Jordan‘s discharge into the Dead Sea was about 1,200-1,300 million cubic meters per year (MCM/yr) of fresh water, it had

been reduced to about 900 MCM/yr by the 1940‘s and now is not more than 100-200 MCM/yr of mostly saline and polluted water (Lipchin et al., 2004; Orthofer, 2001; Orthofer et al., 2001; Rabi, 1997; Shavit et al., 2001). It may be said that the Dead Sea's steady disappearance is a direct result of the water management strategies of the Jordan River riparians (Tal, 2003). Considered a terminal lake, aside from regional flash flooding the Dead Sea has no other inflow or outflow of water. Water in the Jordan River Basin is a scarce resource whose availability is far below the amount needed for competing demands.

Four hazardous results of the drop in sea level are raising concern for restoration of the Dead Sea: the formation of more than one thousand sinkholes, 300 new ones each year, along the shore of the Dead Sea; the destruction of infrastructure like roads and bridges by flood erosion; severe ecological damage to the flora and fauna around the Dead Sea; and loss of fresh groundwater due to the change in the groundwater gradient. These, in addition to direct planning problems due to the Dead Sea level drop, create severe obstacles for both industry and tourism (Beyth, 2007). Most challenging is the constant development of new, and increasing severity of existing sink holes in the region. Hundreds of sinkholes have formed along the Dead Sea on both the Israeli side as well as the Jordanian in recent years (Yechieli et al., 2002). Figure 1.3 shows the increase in sinkhole prevalence as water level decline worsens.

Figure 1.3: Timeline; Dead Sea decline and sinkhole occurrences Source:(Shalev et al., 2006)

Sinkholes in the areas surrounding the Dead Sea are mainly located in areas that were submerged before the water recessed, and the rate of their formation accelerates while the Dead Sea level continues to recede. This sinkhole formation reflects subsurface cavities formed by salt dissolution when now fresh groundwater infiltrates into, and flow through salt-rich formations and dissolve the soluble salts (Shalev et al., 2006). Formation is attributed to the drop in water level, and the subsequent change in groundwater balance. Changes in groundwater flow bring fresh waters into direct contact with subsurface salt layers dissolving them and collapsing the covering soils above. Sinkhole dimensions reach up to about 10 meters in depth and 25 meters in diameter. They represent danger both to life and property, disrupt activity in the area, and adversely affect building and development (Yechieli et al., 1995; Yechieli et al., 2002).

Figure 1.4a: Sinkhole sites along Dead Sea shore Figure 1.4b: Sinkhole by the Dead Sea shore Source:(Yechieli et al., 2002) Source: GSI (Balan, 2008)

Future population growth in the countries surrounding the Dead Sea basin will only further increase the pressure for freshwater extraction from this already unbalanced ecosystem. Development policies have disregarded environmental impacts, as well as social stress on local populations and small farmers. Water is increasingly allocated to the urban sector and to large-scale agriculture at the expense of the needs and rights of the rural and indigenous people.

The destruction of the Dead Sea basin also has global implications. Since 1998, there have been efforts to promote the Dead Sea Basin as a UNESCO Man and Biosphere Reserve and a

World Heritage site, as it is a both a unique habitat for wildlife (particularly important around springs (e.g. Ein Fashkha and Ein Gedi) and wadis (e.g. Wadi Mujib) and a global cultural heritage site with some of the world‘s oldest continuous human settlements (e.g. the city of Jericho). Without a plan for intervention soon the current trend is predicted to continue, leading to more harmful effects in the future (Abu Faris et al., 1999; Lipchin, 2005; Lipchin et al., 2004).

Recent work regarding a possible solution to the issues threatening the Dead Sea is certainly not a new topic. The first proposal for a Mediterranean–Dead Sea Conduit (MSDSC) and Red Sea- Dead Sea conduit (RSDSC) was presented some 50 years before Theodore Herzl (founder of modern political Zionism) by William Allen in 1855 (Beyth, 2007). Allen suggested linking Haifa Bay, the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and the Gulf of Aqaba as an alternative to the then French- controlled Suez Canal. Theodore Herzl later published ideas for a Med-Dead canal in his novel Altneuland in 1902. Suggested to him by Johann Kremenitzki, and developed with the help of Max Boutcart, Herzl developed the idea into a combined irrigation and hydropower project (utilizing the difference in level between the Mediterranean and Dead Sea) (Asmar, 2003).

Similar projects have been in and out of the spotlight depending on political and economic situations in the region ever since then. Of note, were a few attempted projects in the 1970‘s when the issue again gained considerable attention from the government and media. Between 1974 and 1977, Israeli committees studied and determined the feasibility of a tunnel route linking the Mediterranean and Dead Seas via the Qatif-Massada route. Planning for this project was later abandoned in the 1980‘s due to economic pressures and legal concerns related to the route crossing the Gaza Strip. Years later, a scenario was considered to operate conduits simultaneously from the Mediterranean and Red Seas, sharing the water load between the two. However, this was deemed infeasible due to logistical issues and the study concluded that a water conveyance project would only be practical with trans-boundary cooperation between Israel and Jordan (Kally, 1991).

Cooperation on studies and options for the Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyance project (hereafter RSDSC) between Israel and Jordan have been taking place since the peace treaty in 1994, and since then the project has been gaining momentum (Wolf, 1995). Due to the extreme water scarcity that is faced by Jordan, the water needs in Israel and the Palestinian Authority, and importance of the Dead Sea to multiple Israeli/Jordanian sectors, the RSDSC has become the project option deemed to be

most ideal at the moment. It has been seen as a catalyst for further peaceful international development in the Jordan Rift Valley (Murakami, 1995).

A major RSDSC feasibility study was conducted by Harza Group between 1996 and 1998, outlining five main alternatives for possible alignment of the conduit between Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Territories. These routes were examined from environmental, technical and economic points of view (Harza, 1996). The recommended alignment was 203 km long and located completely within the Jordanian territory. The intake would be from the Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat and would be located on the border between Israel and Jordan (Asmar, 2003). This schematic is visible in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit Plan & Profile Alignment Source: (Harza, 1996)

In 2005, The World Bank developed a ‗terms of reference‘ document, and began to oversee the development of a feasibility study to be conducted during a two year period, originally to be completed between 2008 and 2010. According to the revised schedule, the overall study program is now planned to be completed by the end of June 2011 (World Bank, 2009). The study is looking into both the engineering/economic, as well as social and environmental impacts of such a trans- boundary project. These terms of reference stipulate that the feasibility study and the environmental and social assessment will be comprehensive and transparent, and will involve extensive stakeholder participation and disclosure. The study program will consist of the preparation by independent consultants, of a feasibility study and an environmental and social cost and benefit assessment (World Bank, 2007).

As with previous iterations of the idea, the current project is proposed as a solution to the decreasing Dead Sea levels, and also as a source of freshwater and electricity made possible through desalination. The Red Sea Dead Sea Conveyor (RSDSC) will have measurable impacts on the socio- economic development (Qdais, 2008) and can also have tremendous impact on tourism in the region. The major benefit of the proposed endeavor would be a new source of potable water for Jordan, with one-third of the produced potable water going to Israel and the Palestinian Authority and two-thirds going to Jordan. Jordan is considered one of the ten water poorest countries in the world, with the annual per capita share from water resources at about 150 m3; far below the water poverty line of 500 m3/cap/year (Oren et al., 2004).

2. Research Procedure

2.1 Research Objectives

This research was conducted as a conjecture based on the World Bank sponsored feasibility study and environmental/social assessments currently underway, and the terms of reference serving to guide their conductance. The outcome of the feasibility study and assessments will serve as a tool for stakeholders to determine whether the construction of the Red Sea Dead Sea Conveyance project (RSDSC) is feasible, taking into account all relevant

aspects including the technical, economic, financial, environmental, and social factors. This research aims to explore the implications of options and designs for freshwater conveyance as a result of the project, as described in the World Bank terms of reference document. Details of this section of the project are still in the early stages, and before a course of action is chosen for the development of the fresh water conveyance, baseline studies will need to be conducted.

This research aims to explore the implication of this conveyance on the Central Arava Valley, one region mentioned as a possible site of conveyance. Influx of desalinated water to a hyper-arid region, such as the Central Arava, will likely have impacts on the local water sources and local water management. This research aims to explore these effects. Determining if new water from the project can positively assist the region in development will be a key issue determining if this is a viable location for the use of additional fresh water resources. Due to the extensive, highly productive agriculture carried out in the Central Arava, maintaining the quality of local hydrology is a key concern for the region.

A comprehensive management plan will be developed outlining how regional water use will be affected, and how management can be theoretically carried out. To properly achieve this, the research aims to establish the Central Arava‘s expected future need for water, taking into account all the current regional factors and their predicted and planned expansion. This will also include establishing a comprehensive current inventory of resources in the region, and expected limitation on these local resources in the Central Arava.

Along with determining the scope of local resources, research efforts will aim to collect and evaluate current existing regional development and masterplans that exist in various stages of completion in the Central Arava. The research aims to utilize information pertaining to land use development, settlement and population growth, agricultural productivity and expansion and tourism-based industry and infrastructure.

2.2 Research Methods

In order achieve the aforementioned research objectives, various methods and sources were consulted to assist in the collection of necessary and pertinent data. Collection of existing data concerning the study area from secondary sources included government records, regional R&D information and studies, census data, regional and national websites, and publications on research dealing with issues in the Central Arava. Further regional information and specific masterplans and development outlines were gathered through focused interviews with various regional experts in the Central Arava in different fields of concern.

Interviews with local experts in the Central Arava provided two beneficial tools for this research. First, they provide scientific advice and opinions on areas and sectors which are being considered in this research, both in relation to the RSDSC development, and aspects specifically relating to impacts on the Central Arava. Second, personal interviews allowed for the collection of regional scientific and statistical information from the various sectors being considered for this study.

Data collected was both quantitative and qualitative; to help build a scenario for future regional development combining expected plans for expansion with current baseline trends and development phases of the RSDSC. Development plans, mapping data and preliminary expansion figures, and statistical information gathered via professional expertise were gathered to aid in this goal.

Data collection from first hand sources (regional professionals) was conducted utilizing semi-structured interviews to gain necessary information. Initial interviews utilized the ―snowball‖ technique (Goodman, 1961) to assist in further identification of individuals in positions of importance to research collection. Through this process, the first professionals contacted in the Central Arava were able to provide additional information about regional departments and individuals for future contacts as information gathering progressed.

Semi-structured interviews are forms of guided conversations where broader questions are asked during initial questioning of the interviewee. Unlike a conventional interview, the

conversation is not constrained to planned questions but rather the conversation progresses openly so new questions and information that might assist the researcher can be brought to light as a result of this openness. This is different from other forms of research such as questionnaires or surveys where the discussion is lead through a series of very structured questions with little room for deviation. Despite this fluidity of semi-structured interviews, they do follow a defined goal, and the interviewer is responsible for addressing and expanding upon important issues as they are brought up.

3. Description of Project in World Bank Terms of Reference

As laid out in the World Bank Terms of Reference, the vision of the RSDSC or ―Peace Conduit‖ is multifaceted: to convey seawater from the Red Sea (Gulf of Aqaba) to the Dead Sea to both restore the Dead Sea to its historic levels; to produce desalinated water and hydroelectric power by utilizing the difference in elevations between the Red and Dead Seas; and to serve as a working symbol of peace and cooperation in the Middle East, actively incorporating the participation of the involved parties. The project will constitute a major opportunity for the stakeholders to work together in its preparation, construction, and operation. If successful, this will constitute a major breakthrough in relationship-building in the region (World Bank, 2005).

In an effort to support objective evaluation of the project, the feasibility study and environmental and social assessment are being conducted by two separate consulting firms. These contractors are authorized to work in an interactive manner to allow for the effective and timely exchange of information. The contractors involved include the British consulting firm, Environmental Resource Management (ERM), who is responsible for the social and environmental analyses, and the French engineering firm Coyne et Bellier who is conducting the economic and engineering feasibility analysis. Together, their assessment will include potential positive and negative impacts, review alternatives to the proposed project (including the ―no

action‖ or ―without-project‖ alternative), and provide an Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP).

The ESMP constitutes a critical link between the management and mitigation measures specified in the report, and the proper implementation and management of the measures during the construction and operation of the project. It will summarize the anticipated environmental and social impacts and provide specific details on migration, as well as cost and implementation of any needed mitigation (ERM, 2009). The report will also include provisions for monitoring any described impacts of the project. Various national institutions and teams of specialists in Israel, the Palestinian Authority, and Jordan will be included in the process by preparing a series of four sub-studies. These sub-studies will allow for the effective use of the findings from earlier studies, and allow for coordination with teams that are conducting ongoing research in the study area. An interdisciplinary nine-member panel of internationally recognized experts was appointed to serve as an independent reviewer of the study.

The total cost of the Study Program (including study teams, stakeholder consultations and the implementation costs) is estimated at US $16.7 million. The cost reflects the complex environmental, social, economic, and technical issues and concerns to be addressed. The World Bank has set up a multi-donor trust fund as a vehicle to finance the study. Eight bilateral donors have made firm commitments to financing the Study Program: France, Greece, Italy, Japan, South Korea, The Netherlands, Sweden and the United States of America (World Bank, 2005; World Bank, 2009).

If the project is found to be feasible and implemented, crucial and much-needed additional water resources resulting from the Project will become available to the beneficiary parties as a result. Freshwater availability in the region is less than half the 500 cubic meters per capita per year, commonly used as standard for water scarcity (World Bank, 2005). The project aims to desalinate and distribute approximately 2 BCM/yr (billion cubic meters per year) of water from the Red Sea, providing approximately 900MCM/yr of fresh water from desalination, based on a 45% recovery rate (Qdais, 2008). Two-thirds of the fresh water will be allocated to Jordan, while the remaining one-third will be allotted to Israel and the Palestinian Authority. The amount of fresh water Israel will receive and the phases that this construction will take have not

yet been determined; however recent estimates place the total amount around 60MCM/yr or less, because the project will be expanded in sections.

At the current stage of project development, there is uncertainty about the route and design that the conveyance system will take. Construction arrangements and methods are also in the planning stages, and will be set at a later date. The conveyance will be constructed from one of multiple discussed options. The first being through a series of 3-4 buried pipelines, each 3.5m in diameter, laid in parallel along the valley floor in an excavated trench about 10m wide. Including land needed for operation and construction, the right-of-way will be up to 60m wide. Part of the pipeline route will be a pressurized system and the remainder will be gravity-fed.

The second option being discussed is a high-level excavated tunnel about 8m in diameter through the hills to the east of the Arava Valley. Where local topography and geology allow, this conveyance option will also have stretches of open canal (to reduce overall project costs and for ease of construction). The tunnel will generally be situated above the ground water table and will include precautions such as the design of a pipe within the tunnel to allow for sectional monitoring and emergency shut-off to control the leakage of salt water.

The final option is a low-level tunnel following a similar alignment as the high-level tunnel. Due to the lower elevation, this entire tunnel lies below ground level, and there is no opportunity for economizing by using open canal sections.

All the discussed options will include the utilization of a large seawater intake in the Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat. Plans for both alignments lie entirely within Jordanian territory and the conveyance will carry the seawater for around 200 km northwards where it will terminate just south of the evaporation ponds, which now constitute the southern basin of the Dead Sea (World Bank, 2005).

Figure 3.1: Alternative conveyance options as a part of ongoing World Bank feasibility study program Source: (Coyne et Bellier, 2009; World Bank, 2005)

The seawater will then be directed through a desalination plant and/or a hydropower plant located in the vicinity of Ghor Fifa (figure 3.2). At this location, the side-slopes of the Dead Sea basin flatten out, and the elevation in the area is ±355 m below sea level. This makes it an optimal location to utilize the available hydraulic head for electricity generation. Initially, most of the water will be channelled through the hydropower plant into the Dead Sea, with a smaller

fraction being diverted to a reverse osmosis desalination plant to produce potable water. The hydropower plant is included to make use of the difference in level between the Red Sea and the Dead Sea to provide energy. There will be no excess utility from this project, since the energy required (mainly for pumping) will exceed that which is generated (Coyne et Bellier, 2009).

Figure 3.2: Plan showing studied location of hydropower plant Source: Adapted from (Coyne et Bellier, 2009) 17

Current plans suggest that the capacity of the desalination plant will be expanded in phases until eventually all the water will pass through the plant. Freshwater conveyances will be constructed to take the potable water from the desalination plant to population centres in Jordan (the southern outskirts of Amman), Israel (three possible scenarios mentioned later in this research) and the Palestinian Authority (probably low lying areas near Jericho). The brine from the desalination process will be discharged to the Dead Sea (Coyne et Bellier, 2009; World Bank, 2005).

Estimates place the dissolved solids concentration of the brine around 72,220 mg/L, based on 40,000 mg/L average salinity of the feed water from the Gulf of Aqaba and 45% recovery. This level of salinity is far below the Dead Sea salinity, and implies the brine water will have a lesser density than that of the Dead Sea water. As well, sea water undergoing desalination processes is generally subjected to various chemical processes which lead to changes in its physical and chemical properties. Therefore, while the brine discharge will contribute to restoration of the Dead Sea surface to its original level, new chemicals will be added to the sea which may have a major impact on its salinity, limnology, geochemistry and biology (Qdais, 2008).

Current scientific opinion is uncertain of the affect this will have on the Dead Sea‘s composition, however it is generally agreed that the mixing of seawater in the Dead Sea brine has the potential to bring about undesirable changes with significant impacts. Changes in the water and mineral layer of the sea may develop, as well as precipitation of gypsum upon mixing. Change in rate of evaporation, microbial blooming in the diluted surface waters and development of anoxic conditions in the lower levels of the sea, and long-term overall changes in the composition of the Dead Sea are possible (Gavrieli et al., 2005). Further studies are to be conducted in order to determine the scope of these effects. Modeling and quantifying which side effects are likely, and to what extent they will occur will be important to allow for possible mitigation techniques to be determined when further developing this segment of the project.

This research focuses on the proposed fresh water conveyance related to the project, specifically options dealing with Israel‘s allotment of the total desalinated water. According to project descriptions (Coyne et Bellier, 2009) fresh water transmission is being considered for a

combination of three routes within Israel. The conveyance will comprise a single fresh water off- take from the desalination plant. The pipeline will run northwards across the border, connecting to a first branching node south-west of the Dead Sea Works evaporation ponds. Current plans estimate this section to be ±12km, with a reduction in pipeline diameter to 1.6m. From this first branching node, a spur will run south for a length of ±35km to the Ein Hatzeva region of the Arava Valley, with an estimated diameter of 0.75m. A second spur with a diameter of 1.45m will also run northwards for approximately 35 km paralleling the road along the western shore of the Dead Sea, to a second branching node. This second branching point will allow for a conveyance line to run westward, supplying water as far as the municipality of Arad at a distance of ±20 km long with a diameter of 0.75m. This section will be built reaching an elevation of 520 m. A conveyance line will also be built running northward from this second node as far north as Ein Gedi at a length of ±28km with a diameter of 1.25m (Coyne et Bellier, 2009; World Bank, 2005). Figure 3.3 shows these planned options.

More details on the fresh water conveyance have yet to be developed, however it is clear that the construction of conveyance from the Fifa area in Jordan will be a major operation. This research makes the recommendation that given the current scope and terms of the RSDSC project, and taking into consideration the expected growth in the Central Arava region (Ein Hatzeva and south), the amount of total fresh water conveyance provided to Israel at its current estimation (~60MCM likely developed incrementally) is well suited to be used in the Central Arava Valley. This water will help the region sustain and achieve its predicted expansion, as well as insure that local water resources are not completely exhausted. As plans for fresh water expansion are still in beginning stages, decisions based on need-for-water have not yet been made. However, conveyance to the Central Arava Valley is the shortest route in consideration. As well, it is an area with very high water usage and expected water need.

Central Arava

Figure 3.3: Schematic plan of RSDSC potable water transmission to Israel Source: Adapted from (Coyne et Bellier, 2009)

Research Results

3.1 Study Area (Central Arava Valley)

The Arava Valley is a unique area with many extreme features. With the most extreme desert climate in Israel, the area is a rift valley developed along a tectonic suture, the Dead Sea Transform. This tectonic feature extends longitudinally some 1000 km from the Red Sea to the zone of plate convergence in southern Turkey and is part of the 6500-km-long Syrian–African Rift Valley. The area is also part of the 30˚ latitude global belt of deserts. The Arava Valley extends over a 165-Km long section of this system, between the southern tip of the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba. The elevation of the valley varies from ~400 m below sea level at the Dead Sea shore to 210 m above sea level in the Arvat Yafruq region in the center of the valley, and then descends southward to sea level at the Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat (Goldreich and Karni, 2001). The valley ranges in width and has three distinct parts: the Northern Arava, an almost rectangular area, approximately 14 km in length; the Central Arava, 74 km long and up to 32 km wide; and the Southern Arava, 77 km long and five to 15 km wide (Efrat, 1993). It is

edged by mountain ranges made up of Precambrian to Tertiary rock formations. The eastern side reaches the Edom Mountains, exposing crystalline rocks and sandstones, reaching elevations of 1000m and to the west are the hills of the Negev highlands, mostly composed of limestones, dolomites, and marls reaching elevations of 500m (Avni et al., 2001; Ginat et al., 1998; Rosenthal and Bein, 2001; Shirav-Schwartz et al., 2006).

This geology forms a regional drainage basin into which both surface and groundwaters flow, covered and underlain by a thick layer of alluvial clastic sediments deposited since Neogene times. Wherever wadis flow into the valley, alluvial fans have accumulated. As a result of the greater volume of water flowing from the east, alluvial fans are larger and thicker on this side of the valley. Surface water is exclusively in the form of flash floods which develop sporadically and may reach high flow volumes over short time. Some 5mm of rainfall may cause floods due to the relatively impermeable soil cover. The water drains to the final drainage basins: the Dead Sea in the north and Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat in the south (Rosenthal et al., 1990).

Groundwater in the Arava Valley includes regional aquifers that drain across the Rift margins into the local alluvial aquifers. The morphotectonic setting of the region dictates a hydrogeological regime through which deep confined aquifers leak upwards, merge and mix with shallow aquifers and local brines. Due to this mixing, groundwater of varying quality is exploited throughout the valley. Four aquifers are exploited along the margins of the Arava valley, shown in figure 3.4. Two aquifers are in Cretaceous rocks and the other two are in Neogene and the alluvial fill Quaternary strata. The Lower Cretaceous Kurnub Group (upper part of the Nubian Sandstone sequence) is composed of sandstones and clays and contains water that is mostly ―fossil‖ with low rate of natural replenishment, and nonrenewable under the current hydrological regime. Leakage from this aquifer into the overlying permeable Neogene and Quaternary alluvial strata and Judea Group beds is present due to high artesian pressures. The Judea Group aquifer is also recharged through floods running over its exposures in the wadis draining to the valley. The Alluvial Fill aquifer, made up of the Neogene Hazeva Formation and the Quarternary Arava Formation consists of alternating alluvial clay, sand and some conglomerate beds. Due to this geology, the Fill aquifer forms an aquiferial system made up of sub-aquifers hydraulically connected and of limited areal extension. Along with leakage from the

―fossil‖ aquifer, water in the Fill aquifer is derived from direct recharge from flooding and seasonal rainwater over the bordering mountains though developed alluvial fans (Rosenthal and Bein, 2001; Rosenthal et al., 1990; Shirav-Schwartz et al., 2006).

Figure 0.1: Spatial extension of aquifers along the Arava Valley Source: (Shirav-Schwartz et al., 2006)

The water of the Arava is of variable quality and chemical composition. In the Kurnub Group, the water is somewhat brackish and characterized by high sulfate content. Brackish to saline groundwater with higher mineral content is found in various sections of the valley, mostly at the southernmost and northernmost segments. Groundwater recharged by floods, such as the water in the alluvial aquifer system, is of low salinity and is therefore of prime importance both

for agriculture and the tourism industry (Rosenthal and Bein, 2001). In the Central Arava region (the focus area of this research) 80% of the exploited groundwater is derived from this alluvial fill aquifer system. The remaining 20% is drawn from the deeper Kurnub Group aquifers (Naor and Granit, 2000; Oren et al., 2004; Yechieli et al., 1992). Figure 3.5 shows a cross section of the alluvial aquifer.

Figure 0.2: Geological cross section depicting aquifers in the Zofar region, Central Arava Valley Source: (Shirav-Schwartz et al., 2006)

However, differences in water quality vary greatly. The Hazeva Formation exhibits salinity ranges between 250 and 450mg of Cl per liter and the Arava Formation can have up to 650mg Cl per liter. Despite this variance, the central region exhibits much lower TDS (total

dissolved solids) levels than the southern region of the valley (where values range from 1100mgCl/liter to greater than 3700mgCl/liter). Minor differences can result in major effects on agriculture, and the slightly lower salinity experienced in the Central Arava‘s aquifer makes intensive agriculture in this region of the Arava more feasible than farther south in the valley, where less than 50% as much agricultural land is cultivated, visible in figures 3.5 and 3.6 (Shirav- Schwartz et al., 2006; Strom, 2003).

Figure 0.3: Total cultivated land comparison, Central Arava (Arava Tichona) & Southern Arava (Hevel Eilot) Source: (Strom, 2003)

Figure 0.4: Water quality as measured by EC (ppm TDS), comparision Central and Southern Arava Source: (Mekorot, Central & Southern Arava Water Commissioners, Strom, 2003)

The Arava Valley has some of the highest solar radiation and temperatures in Israel. The mean annual temperature in the valley is 25˚C, however temperatures fluctuate greatly throughout the year and during the winter season, frosts can occur in various parts of the region. Common winter temperatures are usually around 14-16˚C with extreme minimums falling below 10˚C. Conversely, summer temperatures are some of the highest in the country, averaging between 34 and 40 ºC with peaks as high as 45 ºC (Goldreich and Karni, 2001; Rosenthal and Bein, 2001; IMF, 2010).

Distance from the Mediterranean Sea, high temperatures, and northerly dry winds turn the Arava into the most arid part of the country. This extreme aridity increases southward in the Arava and is characterized by small seasonal rainfall amounts. Historically, annual rainfall averages of 50mm or less have been recorded (Adar et al., 1992). In the past decade, compiled annual rainfall averages in the Central Arava have been between 25mm and 38mm, with noticeably steep declining trends in average rainfall in the past three years (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009).

Table 1.1 : Compiled rain data for winters 1991-2009 in the Central Arava Source: Central and Northern Arava R & D, 2009

Winter (rainy season Sept 1 – Aug 1) Idan Ein Yahav Ein Tamar Faran Hatzeva 1991/1992 23.5 1992/1993 16.1 1993/1994 39.7 41.8 1994/1995 22.7 57.4 62.8 1995/1996 30.3 24.2 20.2 1996/1997 41.1 34.7 45.1 1997/1998 71.0 35.3 48.3 1998/1999 33.1 24.4 9.3 1999/2000 6.6 3.4 9.3 2000/2001 22.1 18.5 26.0 2001/2002 24.0 5.2 13.2 2002/2003 44.5 11.8 38.7 2003/2004 32.7 69.0 28.8 46.0 2004/2005 35.1 59.3 76.3 28.2 27.4 2005/2006 64.3 39.5 37.9 19.8 51.9 2006/2007 45.5 25.7 30.0 20.5 27.5 2007/2008 27.3 33.6 20.0 26.5 23.6 2008/2009 14.9 12.4 25.4 14.8 8.1 Average(mm) 37.4 33.9 36.9 24.6 29.9

At the same time, evaporation rates in the Arava Valley are the highest in Israel, with the yearly rate of evaporation between 60 and 100 times greater than the seasonal rain amount. The mean annual rate of evaporation exceeds 3,000 mm, with maximum values between 13.8 and 14.7mm/day measured during June and July, and minimums during December and January between 3.5 and 4.5mm/day, shown in figure 3.8. This is in stark contrast compared to only 1,600–1,800 mm annually experienced on the coastal plain of Israel. Northern and southern

sections of the Valley experience higher evaporation rates than those in the central region, due to its situation at a higher elevation. With slightly lower average temperatures, the evaporation rate is on average 6% lower (Goldreich and Karni, 2001).

Figure 0.5: Mean annual evaporation rates in Arava Valley Source: (Goldreich and Karni, 2001)

The economic basis of the settlements in the Arava Valley is mainly agricultural, in spite of the aforementioned unique climate. With relatively high temperatures even in winter months, the Arava benefits from seasonal differences with other regions. Agriculture in the valley thrives on growing crops that are generally ‗out of season‘ products in Europe and supplying them to these markets at a competitive price. Before 1951, no permanent settlements existed in the Arava, and the region remained unsettled on both the current Israeli and Jordanian sides. Settlements on the Israeli side of the Arava began three years after the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 with the aim of dispersing population in the Negev and along the Arava. The immediate goal of the Israeli government was to populate the Arava in a linear pattern, from north to south, in order to protect the long border between Israel and Jordan.

Motivated by both ideology and circumstances, the early pioneers set up two unique forms of agricultural settlements: the kibbutz, a collective community in which the means of

production are communally owned and income is equally distributed; and the moshav, a cooperative village where each family maintains its own household and works its own land, while purchasing and marketing are conducted cooperatively (Markou and Stavri, 2005). In 1951 the first kibbutz Yotvata was established in the Southern Arava. Following the initial success in developing agriculture at Kibbutz Yotvata (particularly the production of winter vegetables in the salty soil) settlements continued to be developed rapidly throughout the 1970‘s and 1980‘s. By the end of the 1980‘s the number of settlements in the valley numbered twenty.

In the Central Arava, the regional centre of Sappir was set up with packing houses, community services and a school as the center of the area. Including Sappir, the region is made up of seven settlements. Five of the settlements are agricultural villages, including the settlements Ein Yahav, Hatzeva, Idan Paran and Tzofar. The most recently constructed settlement of Tzukim is not agriculturally based, but rather centers around the expanding tourism industry in the region. A map of the region is depicted in figure 3.9.

Figure 0.6: Map of Central Arava region Source: (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009)

4. Water Use and Management in Study Area

4.1 Current Regional Water Requirements

Water is the most precious life-supporting factor in the area, and enormous efforts have been made to find, exploit, and develop local water resources. At the same time, limitations related to the quality and quantity of the water, which in part is ―fossil‖ with limited replenishment (Rosenthal and Bein, 2001). Arid regions offer large undeveloped land and a climate conducive to plant growth and can provide high yielding cultivation on condition that water is available, and the Arava Valley is an example of this type of agricultural expansion. Given the inherent dynamics of scarcity, the most fundamental question regarding water management to support agriculture in an arid region like the Arava involves the sustainability of water sources in terms of water quality and quantity (Ben-Gal et al., 2006).

The Arava does not receive its water from the National Water Carrier, but rather, is an independent water supply system fed from localized groundwater sources, which are limited due to the aridity of the Arava basin. Portions of these groundwater resources are (for all practical aspects) nonrenewable, and large percentages are also brackish in nature with a trend in increasing salination levels. Two subsystems comprise the main water structure in the region. Lower quality brackish and saline waters are treated and diluted for use in agriculture. Higher quality water with significantly less salt content is used for domestic purposes and subjected to local small-scale desalination.

Along the region, efforts have been taken to collect surface waters in reservoirs from flood events to help enrich the local alluvial groundwater. Management of these reservoirs is very important when considering water infiltration, as a decrease in percolation rate within reservoirs has been observed after flooding. This is due mainly to the clay deposits that build up in reservoirs (Stanton and Dahan, 2007).

In the area of the Central Arava, there are currently 79 groundwater wells maintained and operated by Mekorot. The majority of these wells are active, however some are still considered to be in different stages of development, from new drilling sites to wells awaiting connection to the main system and some for observation. Figure 4.1 shows the current wells along the Arava Valley. In addition, the area controls 12 active wells within Jordanian territory, accounting for roughly seven (and with the agreed potential of twelve) MCM of water for the region. This water exchange was agreed upon during the 1994 peace treaty, and is based on water exchanges taking place at the national level. Three wells in the area are also privately owned by the agricultural settlement Ein Hatzeva (Schacham, 2009).

Figure 4.1: Wells along the Arava Valley, subdivision by region Source: (Shirav-Schwartz et al., 2006)

Water in the Central Arava from Mekorot is billed separately to each agricultural village. Each village has its own water license, and water is divided within each village internally. Within each agricultural settlement, water is allocated to each individual family farming plot. According to the Central Arava Drainage Authority, since 2006 each plot is provided with 70,000 CM per

year from Mekorot. The area currently has 485 farming plots spread throughout the agricultural settlements, resulting in a current annual water consumption of 35 MCM in the region. Roughly 98% of this usage is for agricultural purposes. This use has doubled in the last 30 years due to increased expansion and continued intensive agriculture. In addition, agriculturalists in the region systematically exceed their annual water quotas in an effort to insure future water quotas of identical or augmented amounts are provided (Schacham, 2009).

In the last decade in Israel, there has been both a noticeable trend of decreasing water allocation for agriculture out of the total national consumption, as well as a decrease in fresh water consumption in agriculture. This fresh water use has shifted towards domestic usage. At the same time, agricultural expansion continues to take place. While marginal waters and increased reuse and irrigation efficiency continue to be utilized, the prevailing focus for future water usage and management strategy in Israel is on development of new sources of water, which will eventually be needed on the horizon to keep up with planned expansion. This scenario is particularly applicable to the Arava Valley, as agriculture continues to grow rapidly and water sources continue to decrease in terms of quality and quantity (Balan, 2008).

According to regional developers and masterplans outlining growth, water consumption in the coming years is expected to grow significantly as agricultural and settlement expansion continues. By the year 2020, the Central Arava is expected to require a gross 55 MCM of water. Extrapolating using the same formula for expansion based on the number of additional family and farming units, the region will necessitate 60-65 MCM by the year 2030, twice the amount currently abstracted and consumed.

4.2 Predicted Regional Water Requirements

Increasing overall water use raises an issue existing with the regional planning in the Central Arava. While fairly detailed agricultural and development plans have been produced, similar development plans for water planning and infrastructure are only in the beginning stages of development, despite the fact that these are codependent on one another. The region has

outlined its expected need for water through 2030, without yet any serious consideration for how this will be accomplished. According to the Drainage Authority of the Central Arava, if water exploitation from the local aquifers is to continue and increase, the maximum yield that is expected to be achieved is around 51 MCM annually. If expansion and construction of new wells were to take place, this would only allow the region to partially achieve their expected need in the coming years (Schacham, 2009).

When the total amount of abstraction from an aquifer is close to, or greater than the total recharge over several years, it is often said that there is groundwater or aquifer mining, or over-exploitation. Over-exploitation can be determined when some persistent negative results of aquifer development are felt or perceived, such as a continuous water-level drawdown, progressive water-quality deterioration or an increase in abstraction costs (Custodio, 2002). Some of these negative attributes are clearly visible and befitting of the current hydrological situation in the Central Arava, where it can be said that the effects of over-utilization of local aquifers are now being felt.

Should groundwater well development continue, not only will the aquifers maximum yield not sustain the regions overall expected annual need for domestic and agricultural usage, but additionally, overall quality of the regional aquifers will continue to degrade. Success in the continued expansion of agricultural productivity in the Central Arava depends not only on the total quantity of water available for irrigation, but on its quality as well. As groundwater usage continues to increase in the region, inversely, water quality will persist in its overall reduction, the main problem being salination processes, which are abundant (Kafri et al., 2008).

Constant increasing usage from these relatively static groundwater sources has led to serious water quality issues, with a trend towards increasing water salinity as aquifer use continues to grow. Waters exploited from the aquifers are also exhibiting increasingly high concentrations of sulfur and iron. These levels necessitate further filtering and treatment, in addition to dilution with other water sources to maintain stable salinity levels. Figure 4.2a illustrates the aggregated water quality in the Central Arava region in 1999. The graph illustrates that during this period, 50% of the extracted groundwater was low-salinity brackish water, with an electrical conductivity level between 1900 and 2650, well suited for irrigation and agricultural

purposes. As well, 12% was high quality water suitable for domestic usage with an electrical conductivity below 1900.

2% 12% 12% High Quality (<1900) 7% 1900-2650 2650-3400 17% 3400-4100 4100-4800 50% Corrosive (high H₂S, Fe)

Figure 4.2a: Aggregated water quality in Central Arava, 1999 (measured by EC, electrical conductivity) Source: Central Arava Drainage Authority (Schacham, 2009)

3% 3% 4% 2% High Quality (<1900) 11% 1900-2650 37% 2650-3400 3400-4100 4100-4800 40% 4800-5200 Corrosive (high H₂S, Fe)

Figure 4.2b: Aggregated Water Quality in Central Arava 2007 (measured by EC, electrical conductivity) Source: Central Arava Drainage Authority (Schacham, 2009)

Figure 4.2b shows that less than 10 years later, overall quality levels were significantly reduced, with a 13% reduction in the total amount of water with conductivity in the range of 1900-2650. High quality water was reduced to 3% of the total water extracted. Moreover, lower quality waters with conductivity in the 2650-3400 range increased in concentration from only 17% of the total in 1999 to 40% in 2007. This comparison in water qualities illustrates the negative effects that increased groundwater abstraction for agricultural development and subsequent aquifer pumping are having on groundwater makeup. As pumping amounts continue to increase in the coming years, these quality issues will only be further exacerbated.

The quantities and qualities of the waters recharging the local aquifers also substantially influence the pumping potential and quality. The natural sources of recharge are limited to mountain front recharge from the surrounding mountain ridges and infiltration during floods, which are characterized by low frequency and irregularity. Anthropogenic sources of recharge may be attributed to excess irrigation water and limited amount of leakage from sewage, as well as flood catchment recharge basins, of which the Central Arava has currently developed six flood catchment reservoirs to utilize flood run-off waters during winter months (Oren et al., 2004; Schacham, 2009; Simmers et al., 1997).

Extensive research has been conducted on the effect that water quality and salinity have on agricultural yields. While the region is generally successful at producing high agricultural output with brackish water, slight variances in quality can have adverse effects on yields. After researchers at the Arava Research and Development Station determined that higher levels of salinity had adverse affects on yield and soil quality and viability, discounts on water pricing were established. Water of lower quality is sold at a reduced price to farmers based on increasing levels of salinity as well as the presence of iron and sulfur compounds (Schacham, 2009; Strom, 2003).

Table 1.2: Water Price Discount by Level of Conductivity Source: (Strom, 2003)

Maximization of crop yields in the Central Arava when the salinity of the regional irrigation water is high, depends on providing for plant transpiration needs and evaporative losses, as well as on maintaining minimum soil solution salinity. In order to minimize soil salinization, excess amounts of irrigation water are required, much beyond that needed by the crops, thus keeping soil salinity low and helping to prevent salinity-caused yield reductions. Additional irrigation water is used to leach salts and maintain productive root-zone conditions. These leached salts end up in the groundwater (Ayers and Westcot, 1985; Ben-Gal et al., 2008).

There is an interesting farming slogan that says that irrigation in arid regions in fact needs water twice: first to meet the high crop water requirements, and second to provide the leaching and dilution water to counter the concentration of soil salts (Smedema and Shiati, 2002). This leaching of salts out of the soil leads to more serious detriment of the groundwater in the region, as a recycling of salts has been shown to take place. Salts in groundwater that is used for irrigation penetrate to the aquifer system again after evapotranspiration with higher concentration. The major salts are not taken up substantially by plants and therefore eventually reach the local groundwater reservoir (Oren et al., 2004).

5. Agriculture and Land Use in Central Arava

5.1 Current Agricultural Production

With roughly 98 percent of regional water sources being used for intensive agriculture, much of the area within the settlements is designated for growing operations. More than 90 percent of the local economy in the Central Arava region is comprised of agricultural activity, and the region is also responsible for a large amount of Israel‘s export agricultural production. In 2007, the central and northern Arava produced roughly 60 percent of Israel‘s fresh vegetable exports, as well as 15 percent of the ornamental exports. These export crops are not endemic arid-land species, and thus require large amounts of water to achieve adequate yield. Within the region, 81 percent of growing areas are designated for vegetable production, 14 percent fruit orchards and the remaining 5 percent of growth area being used for flower production, shown in figure 5.1 (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009). Each year the Central and Northern Arava produce roughly 300 million (USD) worth of products for sales in export and within Israel (Gadiel, 2009).

5% 14%

Vegetables

Fruit Plantation 81% Horticulture

Figure 5.1: Main types of cultivation 2007/2008 (hectare) Source: Central and Northern Arava R & D, 2009

Vegetable production consists of roughly ten species of crops, with most resources dedicated to bell pepper production. Since the late 1970s, peppers and melons together have made up 55-70 percent of the vegetables grown in the Central Arava. From the late 1970s through the mid-1980s, peppers were the dominant crop; afterward melons were preferred. In recent years, peppers have again comprised the majority of production for export in the region. The graph in figure 5.2 illustrates the growing areas in 2008-2009. Since the 1990‘s, the majority of growing areas in the Central Arava have been inside either net houses or hot houses, built with partial grants from the Ministry of Agriculture in an effort to sustain increased efficiency (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2009; Strom, 2003).

Melon winter, Melon, autum 309.0 1,549.0 Melon, spring, 1,077.0 Onion, 110.5

Squash, 296.0 Spices, 556.0 Pepper, Water melon, 16,780.2 2,126.0

Others, 77.0 Tomato, 1,117.0 Cherry Eggplant, 622.0 tomato, 549.0

Figure 5.2: Centralized growing areas in Northern & Central Arava 2008/2009 (dunam) Source: Central and Northern Arava R & D, 2009

Annually, more than 40,000 tons of peppers are exported to the United States and European countries. In recent years, Israel‘s vegetable exports to Eastern Europe have seen a steady increase, with Russia becoming a key market. The main source of competition for Israel‘s exported crops comes from Spain, Morocco, Italy, Sicily, Egypt and Turkey. Produce generally arrives to European shelves by ship within two weeks, with a shelf life of 17-23 days. Produce

aimed at markets in the United States travels by sea from Israel to Europe before being air- transported. This produce is still able to arrive in United States stores within 7-10 days, however this transport adds significant costs to exporters, and in recent years competition from regional producers has increased. Mexican peppers, grown in greenhouses and benefiting from cheap labor and low cost over-land transport are chiefly undermining this market (Agrexco, 2010).

Central Arava farmers are able to achieve much higher revenues for their crops than is generally achievable in local markets within Israel, seen in table 1.3. This incentive affords them the extra capital necessary to carry out timely research and development, and comply with foreign market chemical and quality standards, and is only feasible due to the high profit margins that export of off-season products to these markets in wealthy developed countries can provide. While market forces fluctuate often, it is common that prices are set at the beginning of growing seasons, before production and sales have begun. This offers further economic stability to regional farmers and export cooperatives.

Table 1.3: Selected prices for items in foreign and local markets Source: (Central and Northern Arava R & D, 2007; Balan, 2008)

Product Foreign Market Price Local Market Price Pepper (greenhouse) 5,000 NIS/ton 2,200 NIS/ton Spring Onion 12,500 NIS/ton 3,200 NIS/ton Melon (fall season) 3,300 NIS/ton 1,800 NIS/ton Cherry Tomato 7,000 NIS/ton 4,500 NIS/ton

Aquaculture of fish and algae for export has also been an increasing area of development in the region in recent years, with specific emphasis on high-priced ornamental species. Development of this industry in the region began in the mid 1990‘s initiated by the Research and Development Station. Beginning in the 2000‘s, there was significant development of this industry, with expansion of existing farm operation, and growth of new farming sites. There are currently upwards of 15 locations containing fish farming industries, with a total revenue around eight million (USD) annually (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009).

5.2 Regional Land Use and Expected Growth

The Central Arava encompasses an area of 1.5 million dunams (one dunam = 100m²), which is 6 percent of the total area of Israel. Despite this large area of land, a majority of the area is reserved for military use or zoned as nature reserves (over 800,000 dunams). A very narrow corridor zoned for settlement development exists. Gross agricultural areas make up only 38,800 dunams of this total. Figure 5.3 is a map outlining the area of the Central Arava region.

Currently, growing takes place on 485 farming units in the region, each with a gross allotment of 80 dunams of land. Of the roughly 40,000 dunams for farming, actual growing fields take up a net area of 24,250 dunams (one farming unit equals 50 net farming dunams). This agricultural activity is carried out by 500 families living in the region. The map depicted in figure 5.4 shows the entire region encompassed by the Central Arava Regional Council, as well as the slim corridor in which the settlements and agricultural growing areas are situated.

Figure 5.3: Outline of Central Arava, Regional Growing Areas highlighted Source: (Silver, 2009)

Until recently, regional plans were set to allow for the total addition of a 120 additional farming units per agricultural community. However, a recent government resolution has provided for an increase, now allowing an additional 150 farming units per community. From 2007-2009 an additional 10 farming units were added to each of the agricultural settlements in the region. According to development planners in the regional council, 20 additional units per year is the maximum that communities can successfully absorb. Regional planners indicate that the current expansion plans expect to complete a total of 750-800 farming units by 2020-2030 (Gadiel, 2009; Slavin, 2010). Allocating the current figure of 50 dunams per farm, it can be calculated that the Central Arava plans to expand its total area of agricultural activity by nearly double the present amount in the future.

According to regional developers, population expansion and available living units are issues that need to be addressed, even for the near future. The map represented in figure 5.4 depicts the increase and development plans for the settlement Idan in the Central Arava. This serves as an example of the settlement infrastructure expansion planned for the near future within the region. Due to efforts to draw people to the region to undertake agricultural expansion as mentioned, and also to provide for natural population expansion, the intention is to double the available housing space currently existing.

Figure 5.4: Planned infrastructure and housing expansion; Idan Settlement - Central Arava Source: (Slavin, 2010)

Planning for natural population expansion in the region, the number of residents will grow to around 5000 by the year 2020. This is a 79 percent increase in local population, simply accounting for natural family growth in the area, and not taking into consideration the regional development plans to attract new residents to the area to facilitate increasing agricultural activity. In accordance with this expected growth, 860 additional family units are planned through the settlements in the area.

The region aims to not only attract new residents to the area, but also to provide enough opportunities and incentives to the younger generation to allow them the viable possibility to stay in the region. Along with the expansion in regional agriculture, other more flexible

employment opportunities will be necessitated if these visions of family growth and the retention of members are to be realized.

While the main draw for new residents to come to the Central Arava is still agricultural ventures, tourism is seen as a solution for an alternative to this for further future regional employment, and as a way to facilitate the expanding regional population. Tourism in the whole of the Arava valley is an actively expanding economic sector. It is a similarly important part of the local economy in the Central Arava region, second to agriculture as a driver of local economy. Regional tourism has been steadily expanding in recent years, and regional development plans call for extensive continued growth in this economic sector, which will necessitate resource allocation.

6. Tourism in the Central Arava

Rural tourism, especially in arid terrains, is the most rapidly growing economic activity in rural areas of Israel. It accelerated towards the end of the 1980s, when agriculture was experiencing significant crises with production and markets. Due to this drop in income from agricultural activities, residents of rural settlements began to look for alternative sources of income. Despite the stabilization of agricultural practices since then, rural tourism has remained a viable source of income for many settlements, and is viewed as an economic sector with considerable room to grow. Since its inception, the industry has been continuously growing, exhibiting an average annual growth rate of 15 percent over 20 years (Tchetchik et al., 2006).

Rural tourism is developing rapidly not only in the number of services and sites, but also in size and capacity, in the variety and diversity of activities offered, and in the organization and promotion of the industry (Collins-Kreiner and Wall, 2007). By the year 2004, the rural accommodations industry accounted for 18 percent of the total domestic tourism market in terms of room nights, with a large percentage of this market located in the Negev and Arava

Valley. This percentage is expected to grow, if resources allow planned expansion to continue in regions such as the Central Arava.

The rural tourism industry can be categorized by its products, such as Farm Tourism, Agri-tourism, Green Tourism and Ecotourism, each relating to a different aspect of the rural setting (Tchetchik et al., 2006). Tourism activity taking place in the Central Arava is characterized as rural tourism under this definition and seeks to attract people to the region utilizing the local resources and aesthetics the area is known for. Attractions in the region usually boast an unspoiled atmosphere, removed from industrial and other human activity and often focus on highlighting unique geological phenomena and virgin landscape. Current rural accommodations in the Central Arava are small, based on family labor, include very few rooms or units, and do not require large capital investment. These ‗bed and breakfast‘ operations are the leading component in rural tourism, especially in the Central Arava, as they establish an anchor for other entrepreneurial activities and attractions to develop around (Collins-Kreiner and Wall, 2007). In the early stage of development, the Jewish Agency was the only organization giving support to the rural tourism industry. With the expansion of the industry and the recognition of its importance, the Ministry of Tourism started supporting it in 1993 (Tchetchik et al., 2006).

Tourism in the Central Arava also began to take shape in the early 1990‘s, with the establishment of the Negev Tourism Development Administration. After initial plans and groundwork, this sector quickly began to expand. By 2000, the Central Arava had developed its own regional tourism department within the regional council, and the number of guest rooms throughout the region numbered 90. During the initial stages of regional planning, areas were set aside specifically for tourism including Sappir Park, Moa Nature Area, and sections of the Hatzeva settlement. In recent years, newer settlements such as Tzukim, have been established explicitly for tourism ventures (Central Arava Regional Tourism Department, 2006).

6.1 Current Central Arava Tourism

While tourism‘s water use is low in comparison to agricultural consumption, planned expansion of economic activity in the region is expected to grow significantly in coming years, which will put additional strain on already scarce supplies. In addition to increasing volume requirements, tourist accommodations require higher quality water, of which the areas‘ quantities are declining rapidly. An influx of available water may therefore allow for further development of tourism to take place while simultaneously assisting in preservation of existing resources.

Tourism in the Central Arava is defined in two ways by the Tourism Department and the Regional Council: Pass through tourists and Stay over tourists. Many short-term tourists are simply stopping part way through their journey to their final destination of Eilat. Annually, four to five million people pass through the Arava region on their way to Eilat (Central Arava Regional Tourism Department, 2006). The most important goal of current tourism expansion efforts is to increase the percentage of tourist who make the Central Arava their final destination, and stay longer than one day. This has proved a difficult challenge, as the regional tourism department has done extensive research on the general breakdown of Arava tourists. The Arava has proven to be a vacation destination for a particular cross section of people who enjoy natural settings for leisure. The attraction to the rural Negev is not for everyone, and the area has built itself around this niche, recognizing that the Central Arava is a unique locale and thus desirable (Rosenberg, 2009).

Currently more than 70 families are involved in local tourism operations, with one or more family members participating in some work. While attractions vary, the indicator of capacity is based on available beds throughout the region. There are upwards of 250 different Bed and Breakfast operations in the Central Arava with over 1000 beds available to tourists. The current demand on total bed-nights needed each year is around 100,000. However, this utilization is only 30% of the available capacity year round. Future goals are to increase this potential. While this may seem like a low figure, it is in fact average throughout rural accommodation in the whole of Israel, as shown by figure 6.1.

140 120 132 100 110 103 107 80 60 72 40 20 0 Upper Galilee West Galilee Galilee Sea Golan Arava

Figure 6.1: Average unit occupancy; nights/year Source: (Tchetchik et al., 2006)

The Central Arava currently has many ecotourism-type attractions, and much of the future development planned is aimed at following this type of development. Tourism activities taking place at the Tzukim settlement (the first and only current settlement fully based upon tourism) try to have an ecological focus. Many visitors might not completely abide by the definition of ecotourism as ―responsible travel in which the visitor is aware and takes into account the effect of his or her actions on both the host culture and the environment‖ (Brouse, 1992). Still, the regional tourism department still sees this as a good base for long lasting business in the region, and as a good marketing method, as people traveling to the region are interested in being a part of the natural environment. It aims to continue increasing this type of activity in the area (Rosenberg, 2009).

While the area prides itself on ecotourism ventures, its efforts to expand regional tourism and visitor volume will have to somewhat deviate from ecotourism in a pure sense in order to accommodate larger numbers of visitors each year. However, as has been shown, maintaining the natural environment as the central theme to local tourism while expanding infrastructure at the same time is certainly achievable. The perspective of ‗soft‘ ecotourism allows for activities designed for large numbers of visitors making relatively short and comfortable visits which can still be facilitated by a larger formal industry. Ecotourism in this sense can be used as an overall ideology, applicable to the broader tourism sector. In this manner, tourism expansion in the Arava is possible with the smallest possible impact on local natural system (Reichel et al., 2008).

6.2 Tourism Growth in Central Arava

As tourism in the regions continues to grow and become a larger part of the local economy, so too will its demand for local resources. The Central Arava Tourism Department is aware that expanding operations will necessitate more high-quality water. As a condition of vacation travel to the area, people require water, and vacation venues necessitate at the minimum shower facilities and more commonly some combination of pool and spa facilities. Especially in summer months, potential tourists are keen on the opportunity for some sort of water activity. Plans for future expansion hinge on the availability of these resources. Existing plans for new building and tourism attractions are in the planning stages, but dependent on the availability of regional resources, and specifically water.

There are many existing plans in the Central Arava for future tourism growth. ―Which ideas‖ and ―how many of them are implemented‖, hinge on a number of issues, the most pressing are the availability of resources and the insured expansion of annual tourist visitations. Recognizing the area‘s current function as a stopping point on the journey to Eilat for many, certain expansion plans aim to further exploit this function, and incorporate it with the regional ideology of highlighting the natural beauty of the region to visitors.

Another common stopping point for many tourists on the way to Eilat is gas stations positioned along the Arava Valley. These provide travelers with necessary services, but do not express much of the local landscape or regional uniqueness. Some plans for future expansion of tourism in the Central Arava have taken this into account, and suggest that an alternative option to frequented gas stations be available. In contrast, a series of more natural and pleasant parks along the roadway will give motorists an option that encompasses the beauty of the region, and simultaneously provide economic revenue and an increased chance of a revisit explicitly to the area. Initial plans incorporate the development of reservoir pools within these park areas.

Development of such reservoirs can act to serve a dual purpose; the attraction and potential respite for tourists, as well as the possibility of positively assisting in protecting local aquifers (an idea developed further in this research). The regional tourism department has plans for such development and capacity expansion, mainly focused in the existing Moa tourism area 49

and section of the Hatzeva settlement. The tourism project site near the existing Moa tourism area of the Central Arava aims to include a natural lake and a shaded park area where such attractions like natural hydrotherapy pools and guest rooms will be built. A proposed design is shown in figure 6.2 (Central Arava Regional Tourism Department, 2006; Ofra, 2009). Larger scale hotels are planned with an expected capacity of up to 100 rooms each. In general, the expansion plans for the region aim to expand towards a total of 800 rooms in the whole Central Arava region, a significant increase from the current capacity.

Figure 6.2: Rest stop/tourism area design plans Source: (Rosenberg, 2009)

Another concept discussed in the past but yet to be implemented due to political complications is the idea of a mutually shared ‗peace-park‘ between Israel and Jordan (Rosenberg, 2009). In the past, concepts surrounding this idea have been developed and publicized favorably, however until this point in time none have been able to come to fruition because of complicated politics and bureaucracy surrounding such a project. A trans-boundary

peace-park would involve shared infrastructure along the border area of the Arava Valley and allow for cooperative activities to take place between the countries.

If the construction of the RSDSC is undertaken, a hopeful and necessary outcome will be the ability of Israel and Jordan to successfully cooperate on the management of the water conveyance. This will ideally allow for other cooperative management to take place between the countries, and reopen to door for development of trans-boundary initiatives, such as peace- parks and shared tourism ventures. Peace-parks can be developed in a way to complement the existing environmentally focused tourism development already taking place in the Central Arava. With proper planning, reservoir development can be incorporated to serve as both a tourism attraction and management scheme for fresh water resources from the RSDSC.

Joint tourism opportunities incorporating nature park areas can be realized through various existing plans for development. An active border crossing near the Tzofar settlement is an existing idea for cooperative development that has yet to be developed. Plans to reopen the border crossing at this location as a tourism attraction in conjunction with the spice route and sites in southern Jordan are indefinitely on hold. The cooperative structure of the RSDSC may serve as a solution to many details of this plan previously seen as obstacles too large to overcome. This idea also considers reopening border crossings for shared agricultural activity to take place, which was briefly operational when the peace treaty was first signed, but since has been closed due to complications.

Water allocation to the Central Arava will also allow for the possibility of another abandoned plan for trans-boundary cooperation to be revisited. Initially, Palestinian uprisings in the early 2000‘s challenged cooperative development, and the ambitious ‗Bridging the Rift‘ project was finally halted mid-way through the planning stages in 2006 due to political complications and funding problems, despite being announced with great fanfare and accompanied by the promise of millions of private dollars. The ‗Bridging the Rift‘ (BTR) project was aimed to be a joint academic complex shared by Israel and Jordan, with the cooperation of American institutions (Cornell and Stanford Universities) and other international academic faculties, seen in figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: Theoretical ‗Bridging the Rift‘, B.T.R. design along Border Source: (Slavin, 2010)

Both Jordan and Israel initially agreed to provide 30 hectares of land straddling the border area in the Central Arava, with a modest academic complex serving as a portal for an estimated 150 staff members, researchers, and students to the adjoining countries. A map outlining the proposed location of the complex is shown in figure 6.4. While an optimistic groundbreaking ceremony was held on the Israeli/Jordanian border in the Central Arava in 2005, politics eventually made initial participation of Israeli and Jordanian universities difficult, and ultimately no lasting partnerships were forged (Krajick, 2004). Being able to ensure water resource allocation for such construction, as well as the precedent of working cooperation on the management of the RSDSC could allow for cooperative development of the project to continue, revisiting the development of the trans-boundary research center.

Figure 6.4: Spatial overlay of planned ‗Bridging the Rift‘, B.T.R. Site along Israel/Jordan Border Source: (Slavin, 2010)

Along with the expansion of existing settlements in the Central Arava previously mentioned, development masterplans also outline construction of a completely new settlement to be established along the valley. Known currently in the planning stages as ‗Faran B‘, this development will allow for a new area to facilitate expected population increases and help bring new members to the region. Figure 6.5 shows where this new settlement is planned to be built. While it will likely be five to ten years before this settlement is fully realized due to bureaucratic procedure and resource allocation, full plans and an environmental impact assessment on a viable location have been carried out, and the plan has received approval to be incorporated in both regional and national planning documents.

Increased regional freshwater allocation could speed up the construction and planning process. Outlines plan for an initial development phase allowing for 250 families with emphasis on non-agricultural businesses, and designed as an ecologically based settlement like the neighboring Zukim settlement. A second phase will increase the growth by an additional 150 families (Central Arava Regional Tourism Department, 2006; Rosenberg, 2009; Slavin, 2010).

Figure 6.5: Location of future ‗Faran B‘ settlement, Central Arava Source: (Slavin, 2010)

7. Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit Fresh Water Conveyance

7.1 Existing Regional Conveyance Plans

Research findings have highlighted a planning and management dilemma in the Central Arava. While the locality continues in-depth development plans for agricultural and settlement growth scenarios, including finalized zoning and building areas, a finalized masterplan has yet to be developed outlining a long-term plan for expansion of water resources and infrastructure in the region. For sustainable management of regional growth, these masterplans ideally should have been developed parallel to each other, as the expansion of agriculture and settlement development is directly related to the availability of water allotment in the region.

Regional planners in the Central Arava are aware of the serious water shortage expected in the future as predicted growth continues. Interviews conducted as a part of this research revealed strategies being considered as solutions to diminishing water supplies. To date, the Central Arava Drainage Authority has only conducted baseline studies on options for meeting the region‘s water requirement in the coming years.

Two main approaches exist for the continued sustainability of the local growth and productivity. The first option is to continue the development of additional local wells from brackish aquifers. However, research has shown that maximum yield in the Central Arava is close to being reached. The second approach being seriously considered by planners is an independent conveyance system from an external source of desalinated water from outside of the Central Arava valley.

Despite the ongoing World Bank feasibility study, and the section of the proposed project outline suggesting the likelihood of freshwater conveyance to the Central Arava as a part of the completed RSDSC project, it must be highlighted that no regional plan to bring water from an external source currently considers and identifies the RSDSC as an option to help meet future needs. On the contrary, and due partly to previous iterations of the conduit project advertised by private companies (where plans and designs differ greatly from the actual proposal being studied by the World Bank) most of the regional interviewees claimed that efforts are more focused and galvanized on preventing the development of the RSDSC project (Rosenberg, 2009).

This highlights a crucial link between the RSDSC project outline and the ongoing plans for development in the region. Central Arava planners in the Drainage Authority and Regional Council have been independently researching external water supplies to meet needs in the coming years. They have weighed different options and will likely move forward with planning on the most cost effective scenario in the near future with the help of Mekorot, in order to keep in line with supply needs. The Central Arava‘s independent plans for water conveyance are similar to the basic course of action outlined in the World Bank terms of reference for the RSDSC. Proper cooperation and planning need to be undertaken, so that RSDSC fresh water conveyance can be designed to coordinate with water management plans for the future of the Central Arava, and development of both can move forward jointly.

For this to take place, preexisting media bias needs to be corrected for, and factual project plans need to be explained to not only the regional developers in the Central Arava, but also settlement citizens who have a significant say in the planning process. This stage of the project has yet to be carried out, making this a significant setback in the planning and coordination of the fresh water conveyance aspect of development.

The Central Arava Drainage Authority with the help of Mekorot has independently identified three major options with regard to importing water from external sources. The options have been indentified to assist the Central Arava in meeting its water requirement in the coming years and keep up with expansion and productivity. Estimates consider bringing in around 20 MCM of water in an initial stage by 2020. Option one is conveyance of freshwater from the existing desalination plant in Askelon, of which there is currently no connection to the Arava Valley. Facilitating this would require import via pipeline likely running through the Dead Sea region requiring significant infrastructure investment.

A second options being considered by the Drainage Authority is to continue expanding groundwater extraction in the Central Arava and Dead Sea region. In combination with local desalination near the Dead Sea, this scenario would likely expand in smaller phases of 5-7 MCM each, connecting the series of wells in the Central and Northern Arava, as well as in the Sedom area farther north. This extracted and locally desalinated water would be providing to the regional settlements via a conveyance.

A third alternative would be a project to bring desalinated water from the Eilat-Sabcha area along the Arava valley to the settlements in the Central region. The Eilat desalination plant began operating on reverse osmosis technology in 1997, producing at present day roughly 10,000m³/day (Bruins, 2002). Enlarging the current Sabcha desalination plant in Eilat would provide excess water to be transported north to the Central Arava via a pipeline running along the valley floor. There are existing plans for expansion of this desalination plant, however detailed plans for construction and conveyance to the Arava do not yet exist.

According to these assessments, bringing water from the Ashkelon desalination plant, or enhancing the current plant in Eilat and building a pipeline along the valley have been determined to be the most reliable options. Import of desalinated fresh water will allow for 57

dilution of the current brackish groundwater, maintaining adequate water quality and increasing yields. While enhancing local wells was determined to be the cheapest option, quality and quantity concerns give this option less long-term viability in the region, as increased water use will mainly be for agricultural. The geographic separation of wells, and the low output (roughly 200 m³/hour in the Arava) makes centralized and efficient desalination challenging (Schacham, 2009).

7.2 Economic Considerations

The most important factor determining water development in the region is the economic aspects. Basic comparisons on the described options have been carried out by the Drainage Authority in the Central Arava, in conjunction with Mekorot. Overall construction costs, as well as costs per m³ of water have been estimated for each scenario. Estimating for an initial phase of 20 MCM, plans show that the most cost-effective option for the Central Arava is enlargement of the current Eilat desalination plant, and the construction of an Arava Valley pipeline. While most cost effective overall to construct, the difference in distance between the northern and southern settlements in the Central Arava will make pumping to northern settlements slightly more costly.

While prices for water produced as a result of the RSDSC are still unknown and may be high, they can be compared to the expansion scenarios currently being considered by the region, utilizing desalination in Eilat or on the Mediterranean. The most cost effective of these options is expected to be able to be afforded by regional settlements in the Central Arava, according to regional planners. Fresh water conveyance pumping costs for RSDSC water to the settlements in the Central Arava may be lower than the costs of the options being considered currently by the region, due to the closer proximity of the RSDSC desalination facility near the Dead Sea, and subsequent shorter fresh water pipeline connecting to settlement water infrastructure. The true cost of the water being supplied by the project needs to be determined, however, due to the

nature of water use in region, agricultural development may be able to afford slightly more expensive and higher quality water for irrigation.

As mentioned earlier, increasing water use in the region is having a detrimental effect on groundwater quality, as well as agricultural yields for many crops. As salinity in local water and soils continue to rise, maintaining high agricultural outputs will become more and more challenging. Sustaining and increasing economic success in the Central Arava in line with expansion plans will hinge upon increased water as well as increased water quality. In the Central Arava, desalination appears to be the only way to achieve this.

The use of desalinated water for agricultural applications is increasing in prevalence, and the constantly increasing technological innovations of the desalination industry have made it an economically feasible solution for high-return agriculture like that carried out in the Central Arava (Ben-Gal et al., 2009). A report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization concluded a few years ago that while the costs of desalination are still prohibitively high for most irrigated agriculture, it is economically feasible at present [2006] prices for use with high value cash crops such as greenhouse vegetables, flowers and other exports (Beltrán and Koo-Oshima, 2006; Yermiyahu et al., 2007).

Irrigation with saline water like that currently being used in the Central Arava requires excess amounts of water to minimize soil salinity around the root zone. Crop choice is also limited by the achievable yields for specific water quality levels. Peppers, the major crop currently being grown have been shown to exhibit yields of only 65% of maximum achievable yield with the current brackish water being used (with an EC around 3.20 dS m−1). Increasing the quality of irrigation water in the Central Arava is anticipated to increase yields due to reduced salinity stress, and to allow reductions in the amount of water currently used for leaching salts out of the root zone. This economic benefit of higher quality water is clear, and would allow for farmers to benefit.

The Central Arava agricultural R&D center is currently conducting tests to better understand the influence of water salinity on irrigation of peppers and other crops in the region. A change in 1 unit of EC, from 2.5 to 1.5 can have significant effects on productivity. While increasing yields, this change in water quality also decreases the total amount of irrigation water 59

and lowers the rate of salt accumulation within the root zone. However, water of increased quality is higher in cost, attributing to an increase in the percentage of total production costs going towards water use, and subsequently overall costs as well. Despite this increase, gross profit is greater, due to overall higher yields and a greater total expected income from crops. Thus, the higher cost of better quality water can be worth the investment when considering overall income and productivity (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009).

Despite seemingly obvious benefits from switching irrigation regimes to desalinated water, recent studies have also shown negative effects associated with pure desalinated waters use in agriculture which must be considered. Water sourced from reverse-osmosis (RO) desalination plants, while low in unwanted dissolved salts having the aforementioned negative effects on agriculture, also lacks a number of beneficial essential elements, including Ca, Mg, and S, that farmers in the Central Arava take for granted in brackish waters they currently employ for irrigation.

Studies of agricultural productivity with desalinated water have demonstrated deficiency symptoms related to lack of these elements. Levels of certain minerals, such as Boron, can also be damagingly high in desalinated water. Passing through RO membranes, Boron levels in desalinated water pose no threat to humans, but produce toxicity symptoms in many varieties of crops (Ben-Gal et al., 2009; Yermiyahu et al., 2007).

However, solutions exist, and have proven feasible in dealing with this problem. In order to maintain an economic benefit and increased productivity from irrigating with desalinated water, necessary minerals can be added at the desalination plant as part of post-treatment processing. Additionally, minerals can be added by farmers in the form of fertilizers on the field or directly into the irrigation water. Mixing this pure desalinated water with raw brackish water has also proven feasible and appropriate.

Adding nutrients separately to desalinated water (with an average of EC 0.40 dS m−1) can increase crop yields by 50% of current production, and simultaneously reduce irrigation needs by half, however this method adds significant costs to already expensive water in the form of additional fertilizers which farmers have to add or mix on site. In the case of the Central Arava, along with this method of direct irrigation with desalinated water, managing the use of 60

desalinated water for agriculture may also benefit from a method of blending high quality water from the RSDSC with lower quality saline waters already in use in the region.

A study conducted in the Central Arava (Ben-Gal et al., 2009) found that a management scenario blending 70% desalinated water and 30% brackish groundwater (achieving an average EC of 1.35 dS m−1) could produce and maintain crop yields at greater than 90% of those achieved with irrigation and fertilization with fully desalinated water. This would provide significant increases in productivity and crop choice for the region. The blending method requires more water than irrigation solely with desalinated water, and because soil salination in the region is already high, this method would represent an improvement in loading amounts, reducing salt loading by half the current amount with groundwater. It may prove a viable option for the Central Arava in conjunction with current irrigation and water management infrastructure.

7.3 Integrating Red Sea-Dead Sea Conduit Fresh Water Conveyance

The conveyance of fresh water from the RSDSC can be integrated into the existing regional water infrastructure in a way similar to that being discussed in regional plans bringing water from Eilat or Ashkelon. The expansion of existing reservoirs in the region, and the development of new reservoir sites will allow local storage or water, as well as the management of local aquifer levels to actively increase groundwater quality. If desalinated water is to be mixed with groundwater, increasing the amount of water available in the aquifer will also help achieve overall higher quality for agricultural use.

Consumer connections to the water system in the Central Arava are branched off of a water main running into each settlement in the area. An example of this is shown in figure 7.1, illustrating the Faran settlement‘s current infrastructure. In an effort to try and maintain average salinities throughout the region, waters of varying qualities from varying wells in the area are mixed locally. Due to this, water sampling points are distributed throughout the conveyance pipelines and often located at each consumer site. Utilizing the current management scheme,

freshwater influx from the project can be developed to feed into the existing regional water mains and mixing zones running to each settlement. Insuring that the proper ratio of desalinated water to existing brackish water being used is achieved, electrical conductivity can still be measured on site by famers to insure necessary mineral content. Buffering the current brackish water will also ease pressures on farmers in the area who currently receive waters of varying qualities and experience higher salinities yearly.

Figure 7.1: Water Infrastructure map and quality sampling points, settlement Faran Source: (Schacham, 2010)

As mentioned, it is likely that the RSDSC construction and development will be conducted in phases before reaching the maximum expected capacity. Development in phases will better allow infrastructure development and available water to be integrated into the

expected regional expansion. Development of a preliminary stage of desalination, allowing for the conveyance of between 20 and 30 MCM in the coming years is exactly in line with the expansion plans the region is undertaking separately to meet their expected needs. This infrastructure development could be designed to provide for both direct agricultural expansion, as well as stored in new and existing reservoirs to assist in groundwater remediation. Figure 7.2a shows a schematic of a preliminary phase of development.

Figure 7.2a: Scenario of initial phase of RSDSC fresh water regional distribution (© Eliot Sherman, 2010).

If initial stages of the project are successful, when expansion in a secondary phase is planned and built in the years following, adding and expanding infrastructure to the existing desalination and conveyance will be more easily achieved (as has been carried out in other desalination plants around the world), shown in figure 7.2b (Drezin, et. at 2008). At the same time, if development in the Arava region continues as is planned, phased addition of water supplies will be required to reach the ultimate amounts necessary to sustain the expected growth mentioned earlier. If targets for growth are still realistic at that point in time and deemed achievable, expansion of the conveyance to the region can be continued by adding additional infrastructure to the existing plant and pipelines. This will allow for the scope of regional expansion to be reassessed in the future. This method also allows the option of delivering

further resources to another area if regional dynamics change, and expansion falls short of the goals laid out in planning.

Figure 7.2b: Expansion phase scenario of RSDSC fresh water regional distribution (© Eliot Sherman, 2010).

7.4 Artificial Reservoir Use and Development

Water can also be brought to the region and utilized through reservoir expansion. This will provide onsite storage of water for mixing with existing water extracted from local wells. Enhancing recharge efforts will improve existing quality of groundwater in the region, and help with overall improvement of water resources in the area. Artificial or managed aquifer recharge as a means to avoid evaporation losses from on-surface reservoirs is a technology increasing in prevalence around the world, as has already been in use in the Central Arava for a number of years.

Artificial recharge of groundwater is achieved by pooling or flowing water on the soil surface in the form of basins, furrows, ditches, or other facilities (large reservoirs in the case of

the Arava) where it infiltrates into the soil and moves downward to recharge aquifers (Bouwer, 2002). Artificial recharge depends on several technical issues: a) sufficient water for recharging purposes; b) good water quality to prevent impairment of native groundwater c) land availability for recharging facilities; and d) prompt and easy recovery of recharged water (Tuinhof and Piet- Heederik, 2002). Quality of reservoir waters is important, especially in arid regions, as evaporation serves to increase salt contents over time. Utilizing waters from the RSDSC desalination effort will be of a high enough quality to negate this issue, and a steady supply will also serve to continuously keep reservoirs filled. Reservoir management will be important to keep infiltration rates up, as sediment buildup at the bottom will have to be monitored in order to allow proper recharge to occur.

Figure 7.3: Reservoir aquifer infiltration Source: (Dillon, 2005)

A number of local reservoirs in the area currently capture flood waters during the rare occurrence of heavy rains, and assist in recharging the fill aquifer. Reservoirs have been built strategically to capture and store this excess flood water in the winter months and are used both to assist in aquifer recharge, as well as for direct pumping for agricultural use. However as large floods have become more rare in recent years, reservoirs are typically rarely near capacity and often remain empty (Silver, 2009).

There are currently six active reservoirs being utilized in the Central Arava. The map in figure 7.4 illustrates the location of the current active reservoirs in the Central Arava. The first recharge reservoir was constructed in the early 1990‘s near the current Tzukim settlement with a

capacity of 750,000 m³. Throughout the 1990‘s, five additional reservoirs were built near the other existing settlements in the region. The largest of these is located near the Ein Yahav settlement, with a maximum capacity of 2.5 MCM. Smaller collection reservoirs were constructed at Idan and Hatzeva, with capacities of 1.25 MCM and 500,000 m³ respectively (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009; Mekorot, 2010).

Figure 7.4: Current reservoir locations along Central Arava Valley Source: (Silver, 2009)

Areas are available for development of further infiltration reservoirs; however the current problem with the recharge efforts in the Central Arava is the adequate supply of waters for the recharge operation of the aquifers. Annual use in the area far exceeds the maximum amount of flood waters that can be captured and used for infiltration. With water demand in the region as high as it presently is, reservoir waters are more often used for direct irrigation before significant percolation and groundwater improvement can be achieved. Conveyance from the RSDSC can be integrated into the existing 5 MCM of reservoir capacity to achieve more constant capacity, as well as aid in the creation of additional reservoirs throughout the region. Assisting in the recharge of the fill aquifer will preserve the viability of existing wells, and these will allow for the easy pumping and use of this water. Figure 7.5a and 7.5b show aerial views of existing reservoirs in the Central Arava.

Figure 7.5a: Idan Reservoir Figure 7.5b: Hatzeva Reservoir Source: (Mekorot, 2010) Source: (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009)

In addition to the possibility of management and expansion of the existing reservoirs in the Central Arava, the development of one or more new infiltration reservoir ponds could serve both as storage for new water brought to the region, and coincide with further regional development. Developing multiple 500m² or 1km² reservoirs could act as an anchor for tourism

plans in the process of development as previously mentioned, and also contain a significant amount of water.

Evaporation will be a concern if one or more reservoirs are constructed in the Central Arava. With the highest evaporation rates in Israel, the Arava Valley sees considerable water loss due to the intense heat and solar radiation in summer months. Average daily evaporation rates are around 10mm/day, exceeding 3000mm annually. Depending on the surface size, daily evaporation rates in the hot summer months can be between 5,000 to 10,000m³ daily (Efrat, 1993). This is a significant amount of water. However, if functional reservoirs are built and contain water year round, mitigation measures to minimize evaporation when rates are highest will conserve water loss.

Various techniques have been developed to combat evaporation from large reservoirs in areas with high evaporation rates, like the Arava. Many sites around the world have experimented with various coverings, from floating liquid chemical formats decreasing evaporation by separating water from direct atmospheric contact, to floating pellet designs decreasing overall exposed surface area (Segal, 2010). Solutions such as these, while innovative, have proven to reduce evaporation rates by only five to 10 percent overall. As well, they have high maintenance requirements. On top of this, chemical layering can have additional ecological damage and floating pellets can lump together and cluster adding to already high costs and maintenance needs.

Alternative designs focus on floating sheeted layering, a form of evaporation reduction already being used on some reservoirs in the Central Arava, shown in figures 7.6a and 7.6b. Simple designs layer polypropylene over the open water body, with anchoring at the sides of the reservoir. This covering method is utilized at the Idan Reservoir when temperatures and evaporation rates are highest, and insures that reservoir resources are conserved (Arava , 2010). Newer methods aim to utilize lighter-than-water plastic combined with an umbrella-like design, leaving space between the surface of the water and the cover itself. Designs boast up to 80% coverage of the water body surface (Segal and Burstein, 2010). The design of new reservoirs in the area could necessitate the combined design of a evaporation reduction cover to be utilized as

the drainage authority sees fit, specifically in summer months when evaporation rates are highest, and insuring minimal water less is crucial.

Figure 7.6a: Reservoir near Ein Yahav Source: (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009)

Figure 7.6b: Reservoir near Ein Yahav with polypropylene floating cover Source: (Central and Northern Arava R&D, 2009)

8. Conclusions

Over the last 30 years the Dead Sea has been experiencing significant water losses. These are attributable to almost complete diversion of water from the Jordan River upstream of the Dead Sea, as well as enhanced evaporation for mineral extraction. As shrinking of the sea continues, it is expected to have negative effects on the infrastructure, tourism, industry and ecosystems in the area.

Many ideas for stabilization and rehabilitation of the Dead Sea Basin have existed over the last 50 years. Various plans exist, and focus on conveying water from either the Mediterranean or Red Sea to the Dead Sea, often incorporating the possibility of hydropower production, and in recent studies fresh water generation through desalination.

The World Bank is currently sponsoring an ongoing feasibility study looking into the possible impacts of the proposed Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyance project. This study is the result of a detailed ‗Terms of Reference‘ document completed by the World Bank in 2005. The document outlines the plans on how various aspects of the feasibility study will be completed, and the structured working of the parties involved.

Th e current feasibility study is not a new idea and is, in effect, resuming where many previous iterations and trial studies have left off. The idea of the project is to try to bridge the divides between Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinian Authority by creating a cooperative project that will provide water for the three polities, as well as replenish the water level of the Dead Sea. The outcome of the feasibility study will serve as a tool for these stakeholders and developers when moving forward with project design and construction.

This research has examined and analyzed the suggested planning of fresh water conveyance from the desalination plant which is to be constructed south of the Dead Sea, according to the terms of the proposed Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyance project. It specifically assesses the aspect of the project discussing conveyance of fresh water to the Central Arava region of Israel, and the possible planning and utilization of such water in this area. While the current stages of the feasibility study have not yet reached a point where specific details are

being developed or discussed, a basic outline of this section of the conveyance is laid out in the World Bank document, and allowed for this research extrapolation based on these plans.

Multiple regions are currently mentioned in the study as possible areas of conveyance of fresh water from the project via pipeline from the desalination plant. Along with the Central Arava, other options for conveyance include routing water towards the city of Arad, as well as north, along the Dead Sea to the Ein Gedi area and the hotels in the Dead Sea region. The amount of fresh water that will be provided to Israel as a result of desalination is still unclear; however current estimations place the maximum amount around 60 MCM/year, which will likely be developed in stages before reaching this capacity.

Fresh water conveyance to this region is being considered by the project due to its close proximity to the desalination site, as well as its significant export-oriented agricultural productivity. At the same time, the Central Arava receives no water from Israel‘s National Water Carrier, as it is supplied strictly from local brackish groundwater wells. For these reasons, this research was aimed at exploring this destination for fresh water conveyance.

The aim of this research was to provide a baseline report to project engineers detailing the feasibility and impacts of fresh water conveyance to the Central Arava. Current stages of the World Bank-sponsored study have not yet reached a point where details on fresh water conveyance are being discussed. The data and information compiled in this research, as well as recommendations made as a result, will allow RSDSC project engineers to better develop this aspect of the project as studies and plans progress.

The scope of this research in relation to the study was limited by its examination of only one proposed location as mentioned in the project plans. If and when project planning moves forward, it will be necessary to conduct similar and comprehensive studies on all three of the proposed locations for fresh water conveyance. Only after the engineering firms involved fully understand all the regions being considered as options, can the project truly move forward with further designing and building conveyance to the area(s) which is/are determined to be the most cost effective and most likely to benefit from increased water supply.

Determining if freshwater conveyance to the Central Arava is a viable option for the project necessitated that this research collect detailed information on the current baseline conditions of the region. This included collecting information on the economic situation, current hydrological characteristics and usage, population and settlement growth. As well, tourism activity was examined as a variable, as preliminary research determined the area to be placing significant resources in tourism planning and expansion.

In the course of this research, it was also necessary to review the Central Arava regional plans for expansion in the sectors being considered for water resources. Only by exploring how the region expects to grow, and in what way, can the positive or negative implications of desalinated water conveyance to the area be determined. This required collection of documents and data pertaining to regional growth. Interviews with regional experts aided in the collection of both baseline statistics as well as existing future planning documents.

8.1 Research Findings

As previously discussed, water resources utilized in the Central Arava are drawn strictly from regional aquifers through groundwater wells. Groundwater extracted from aquifers in the Arava is brackish, or slightly salty, with varying degrees of mineral content. Intensive agriculture is carried out utilizing these resources for irrigation. While mineral content is much higher than fresh water, agricultural research and development has provided growers in the region the ability to produce significant yields with lower quality water. This, combined with export to European and American markets in off seasons, has made agriculture in the region economically viable and overall quite profitable.

As a result, this intensive mining of relatively non-renewable groundwater resources in the region has lead to significant decrease in groundwater quality over the last decade. Regional agricultural productivity already requires significant attention to insure water quality and quantity are balanced properly to minimize salt accumulation in the root zones. This poses a serious problem for the region, as quality is only expected to continue decreasing.

At the same time, regional developers plan to expand the current agricultural production nearly two-fold in the coming years. Water is indeed the limiting factor to how far the region can continue to expand its agriculture, and developers know that an additional source of water needs to be introduced in order to help facilitate this expansion.

Growth in agriculture corresponds to expansion of the existing settlements and population in the region, as well. Expanding settlements in anticipation of future residents also will facilitate an increase in resource needs, including water which is already scarce and of low quality. Along with expansion and creation of new farms, settlement expansion also aims to bring new residents to the region for additional economic opportunities.

Tourism is second to agriculture in the Central Arava in terms of employment and income for the region. The region plans to continue expansion of this industry in the near future. Through the expansion of current attractions, as well as establishment of new lodging and activities, including plans for the development of new tourism-based settlements, the Central Arava hopes to increase the area‘s prevalence as a rural tourism destination for Israelis and foreign tourists.

Researching detailed information about the Central Arava shed light on a regional planning issue pertaining to the holistic development of the region. While a comprehensive development masterplan exists for settlement and agricultural expansion and productivity, a similar outline for future water resource availability, usage, and development has not received the same level of attention. This plan is not at the same level of completion, and has yet to be finalized. This is in spite of the fact that regional expansion is directly linked to the amount, and quality of water available to the area. Detailed planning for agricultural and commercial development growth without simultaneously planning for the necessary water resource expansion will certainly lead to issues in the future.

The Central Arava Drainage Authority is working to develop solutions to the water supply and quality issues likely to affect the region in the future. In the meantime, groundwater extraction will continue to increase at the expense of the quality of the aquifers. It is projected that the aquifers will produce their maximum yield around 51 MCM while the region anticipates

a need for 60-65 MCM in the next 10-20 years. Clearly, if expansion is to continue as is planned, an alternative source of water will be necessary to keep up with growth.

The regional drainage authority has conducted basic comparisons of alternatives to enhance the water supply of the region, with the support of Mekorot, Israel‘s national water supplier. These options focus on conveyance of water to the region from various other locations in Israel. The option of furthering groundwater extraction in the Central Arava and southern Dead Sea was also considered as well.

To date, based on the basic cost-analysis conducted comparing theoretical options, the most viable project for increasing regional water resources is expansion of desalination efforts taking place in Eilat, and the conveyance of fresh water via an Arava Valley pipeline. Also being considered is the possibility of bringing water from existing desalination plants on the Mediterranean coast, which will also necessitate construction of a pipeline running to the Central Arava Region. While increasing groundwater pumping in the region with local desalination is considered as an alternative, aquifer yields are not expected to sustain this option.

8.2 Interview Results

Even with the ongoing World Bank feasibility study, and the initial public engineering plans showing the Central Arava as a possible recipient of freshwater as a result of the project, this option is not currently being considered by regional developers as a solution to the expected regional water issues. Contrary to this, opinions in the region are actually more galvanized against the development of the RSDSC, despite the similarity of the project to other water development plans of the region. Interviews with regional developers were important in discovering the reasons behind this mindset.

Results of personal interviews were consolidated and have been anonymized. The box below outlines general statements expressed by interviewees when questioned about their opinions and perceptions of the RSDSC project. Interviewees were asked about their general

opinion of the project based on existing knowledge. They were also asked whether or not they believe it will have any positive effects on the Central Arava if constructed as designed.

Summary of Interviewees Perceptions on the RSDSC & Its Implications to the Central Arava

1. The majority of interviewees stated that they believe the proposed project is not a good idea, and will have an overall negative impact.

• High cost, environmental harm, lack of benefit to Israel and unknown implications were major concerns that led participants to feel strongly negative about the project.

2. Three interviewees suggested the project would have overall positive results after construction

• Economic growth, water supply and benefit to the dead sea were positive possible outcomes

3. The majority of interviewees stated that they believe the project will not benefit the Central Arava • Major concerns mentioned were unnecessary risks, and main benefits experienced by Jordan, and not Israel or the Arava.

Poor dissemination of comprehensive information describing the RSDSC by the World Bank and the engineering firms involved in the study, as well a general misunderstanding of the project, are the primary reasons behind this lack of support, and failure to integrate the project into local development plans in the Central Arava. Many individuals in the region are under the impression that the project will be developed in a way similar to privately funded plans featured in the media, portraying the project as an open canal and the Arava Valley as a 200km long oasis. To developers in the Central Arava, this idea is not only unsustainable, but undesirable to the region as well.

8.3 Recommendations for the Future

The findings of this research have concluded that RSDSC fresh water conveyance plans, as currently designed, will assist the Central Arava in completing their desired development goals for the future. As well, independent planning by the Central Arava Regional Council and 76

Drainage Authority includes options for desalinated fresh water conveyance from existing sites within Israel, including Eilat, with a theoretical structure and design along the same lines of that being proposed in the RSDSC. It therefore, would appear to be in the best interest of the Central Arava to include the RSDSC as a feasible alternative in future development plans to help the region meet their expected water resources need in the coming years.

In order to properly educate regional developers and residents about the true design of the project, and dispel stigmas and myths about unrelated and unrealistic projects, a series of informational focus group forums need to be held in the Central Arava Regional Council, with not only regional planners, but also residents. Led by the World Bank research team and engineering firms, these meetings would provide the region with an opportunity to review up-to- date plans for construction and conveyance aspects of the project. With this information, regional authorities can reassess and reevaluate the basic plans that are currently being considered for fresh water conveyance to the region. The would also have the opportunity to work with engineering companies to provide necessary input and suggestions as this aspect of the project is further developed and designed.

The likelihood that the project will be developed and implemented in phases will allow the Central Arava to integrate a smaller amount of 20-30 MCM of fresh water into the regional supply at first. A development of this amount of water will precisely meet the initial needs of the region as anticipated in the coming years. While sampling and mixing of water is often done on site at farms, settlements in the Central Arava currently receive water via centralized infrastructure connecting various wells from different areas in the region. Regional plans assessing the viability of bringing water from Eilat or Ashkelon discuss the direct integration of this new supply with the existing water infrastructure. Should additional fresh water conveyance be provided to the region by the RSDSC, a similar approach to connect this supply of fresh water to the system at various points along the region would be suitable.

Growing concern with regional water resources in the Central Arava not only surround the quantity of water available for the future, but also with the quality. Increasing demand on local water sources for irrigation, combined with the recycling of minerals and nutrients is leading to lower qualities of water every year. Mixing lower quality water with high quality

desalinated water directly at the point-of-use will allow for increased yield and productivity, however, improving aquifer water quality is also an important aspect that will remain essentially unaffected.

Storing additional water resources in new and existing local reservoirs will provide multiple benefits for the Central Arava. Direct recharge and improvement of aquifer quality through infiltration or direct pumping will help reduce the degradation taking place from overexploitation. At the same time, reservoir development can be integrated into current plans for tourism and settlement expansion. Expanding environmentally-focused tourism and developing settlements and rest areas along the region that are located near reservoirs in park-like settings, will allow for the integration and utilization of such infiltration ponds.

The likelihood that the RSDSC project will commence is still uncertain, and for this reason, it is suggested that regional planning in the Central Arava continue to investigate the feasibility of the expansion efforts currently being considered and under way by regional developers. However, with this in mind, it is also in the best interests of the region to begin simultaneous cooperation with project planners, and to begin to assess the integration of RSDSC project plans and regional infrastructure.

Should the conveyance project be deemed feasible and the construction phases commence, regional interests in the Central Arava will be well served. Proper development scenarios will need to be in place ahead of time, which involves the input of the project engineers, and the Central Arava Drainage Authority and regional planners. These plans will need to make clear the expansion timeframe that the region expects to undergo. This cooperation and design ahead of time will allow the RSDSC fresh water conveyance to the region to be planned in a way that considers the future regional goals for development and incorporates existing regional infrastructure.

9. Bibliography

Abu-Jaber N. (1998) A new look at the chemical and hydrological evolution of the Dead Sea. Geochimica et cosmochimica acta 62:1471-1479.

Abu Faris H., Bromberg G., Fariz G., Hoermann S., Turner M. (1999) Moving Towards a Dead Sea Basin Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Listings. Friends of the Earth Middle East, Amman, Jordan. Nov.

Adar E., Rosenthal E., Issar A., Batelaan O. (1992) Quantitative assessment of the flow pattern in the southern Arava Valley (Israel) by environmental tracers and a mixing cell model. Journal of Hydrology 136:333-352.

Agrexco Website. (2010) www.agrexco.co.il.

Anati D., Shasha S. (1989) Dead Sea surface-level changes. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences IJERAK 38.

Asmar B.N. (2003) The Science and Politics of the Dead Sea: Red Sea Canal or Pipeline. The Journal of Environment Development 12:325-339. DOI: 10.1177/1070496503255576.

Avni Y., Bartov Y., Ginat H., Ginata H. (2001) The Arava Formation-A Pliocene sequence in the Arava Valley and its western margin, southern Israel. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 50:101-120.

Ayers R., Westcot D. (1985) Water Quality for Agriculture: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 Rev. 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Balan V. (2008) Sustainable Agriculture in the Dead Sea Area: A Case Study of Agricultural Communities in Israel and Jordan, Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies.

Coyne et Bellier. (2009) RSDSC Project Description Update, World Bank Feasibility Study Team.

Beltrán J., Koo-Oshima S. (2006) Water desalination for agricultural applications. FAO Land and water discussion paper 5.

Ben-Gal A., Tal A., Tel-Zur N. (2006) The sustainability of arid agriculture: Trends and challenges. Annals of Arid Zone 45:227.

Ben-Gal A., Yermiyahu U., Cohen S. (2009) Fertilization and Blending Alternatives for Irrigation with Desalinated Water. Journal of environmental quality 38:529.

Ben-Gal A., Ityel E., Dudley L., Cohen S., Yermiyahu U., Presnov E., Zigmond L., Shani U. (2008) Effect of irrigation water salinity on transpiration and on leaching requirements: A case study for bell peppers. Agricultural Water Management 95:587-597.

Beyth M. (2007) The Red Sea and the Mediterranean-Dead Sea canal project. Desalination 214:365-371.

Bouwer H. (2002) Artificial recharge of groundwater: hydrogeology and engineering. Hydrogeology Journal 10:121-142.

Brouse D. (1992) Socially responsible travel. Transitions Abroad 15:22–25.

Bruins, H. J., Mays L. (2002) Urban Water Supply Handbook. Urban Water Infrastructure in the Negev Desert. McGraw-Hill Professional.

Central and Northern Arava Research and Development Center, Israel (2009) www.arava.co.il.

Central Arava Regional Tourism Department, Israel. (2006) www.arava.co.il/tourism.

Collins-Kreiner N., Wall G. (2007) Evaluating tourism potential: A SWOT analysis of the Western Negev, Israel. Tourism (Zagreb) 55:51-63.

Custodio E. (2002) Aquifer overexploitation: what does it mean? Hydrogeology Journal 10:254- 277.

Dillon P. (2005) Future management of aquifer recharge. Hydrogeology Journal 13:313-316.

Dreizin Y., Tenne A., Hoffman D. (2008) Integrating large scale seawater desalination plants within Israel's water supply system. Desalination 220:132-149.

Efrat E. (1993) Human ecology and the albedo effect in an arid environment. Human Ecology 21:281-293.

Environmental Resource Management [ERM]. (2009) Discussion of Theoretical Underpinnings, RSDSC Impacts workshop, Amman, Jordan.

Gavrieli I., Bein A., Oren A. (2005) The expected impact of the ―Peace Conduit‖ project (the Red Sea-Dead Sea pipeline) on the Dead Sea. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 10:759-777.

Gertman L. (1999) The Hydrogeography of the Dead Sea 1999-2000., Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research Center., Haifa, Israel.

Ginat H., Enzel Y., Avni Y. (1998) Translocated Plio-Pleistocene drainage systems along the Arava fault of the Dead Sea transform. Tectonophysics 284:151-160.

Goldreich Y., Karni O. (2001) Climate and precipitation regime in the Arava Valley, Israel. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 50:53-60.

Goodman L. (1961) Snowball sampling. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics 32:148-170.

Harza J. (1996) Group, 1996: Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal Project, Draft Prefeasibility Report, Main Report. Jordan Rift Valley Steering Committee of the Trilateral Economic Committee.

Israel Meteorological Service. (2010) www.ims.gov.il.

Kafri U., Goldman M., Levi E. (2008) The relationship between saline groundwater within the Arava Rift Valley in Israel and the present and ancient base levels as detected by deep geoelectromagnetic soundings. Environmental Geology 54:1435-1445.

Kally E. (1991) Water in peace: Israel‘s opinion, Palestinian studies establishment. Beirut, Lebanon: Institute of Palestine Studies.

Klein C . (1895) Fluctuations of the Level of the Dead Sea and Climatic Faluctuations in the Country during Historical Times. Symposium on Scientific Basis for Water Resources Management. International Association of Hydrological Sciences.

Krajick K. (2004) Ecology: Science Center on Jordan-Israel Border Aims to Bridge the Rift. Science 303:1457-. DOI: 10.1126/science.303.5663.1457.

Lipchin C. (2005) A Future for the Dead Sea Basin: Options for a More Sustainable Water Management. Environmental security and environmental management: the role of risk assessment:79-91.

Lipchin C., Antonius R., Rishmawi K., Afanah A., Orthofer R., Trottier J. (2004) Public Perceptions and Attitudes towards the Declining Water Level of the Dead Sea Basin: A Multi-Cultural Analysis. Palestinian and Israeli Environmental Narratives, York University, Toronto, December:5–8.

Markou M., Stavri M. (2005) National Agricultural Policy Report, Israel - Final. Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia - Cyprus.

Mekorot, Israel National Water Company. (2010) www.mekorot.co.il.

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Israel. (2009) www.moag.gov.il.

Murakami M. (1995) Eco-political decision making and techno-political alternative strategies in the inter-state development of the Jordan Valley and dead sea beyond the peace. International Journal of Water Resources Development 11:391-410.

Naor H., Granit Y. (2000) Central Arava: Updating the hydrological and operational situation of the aquifers and wells, and forecasts until 2004. Water Section - Hydrology Department, TAHAL (in hebrew).

Ofra Hydros Aquatic Systems. (2009) www.hydros.co.il.

Oren O., Yechieli Y., Böhlke J., Dody A. (2004) Contamination of groundwater under cultivated fields in an arid environment, Central Arava Valley, Israel. Journal of Hydrology 290:312- 328.

Orthofer R. (2001) Land use and water use in the Jordan valley. Environmental Planning.

Orthofer R., Daoud R., Fattal B., Ghanaye M., Isaac J., Kupfersberger H., Safar A., Salameh E., Shuval H., Wollman S. (2001) Developing sustainable water management in the Jordan Valley. Joint synthesis and assessment report. Final report to the European Community. Austrian Res. Centers, Vienna.

Qdais A. (2008) Environmental impacts of the mega desalination project: the Red-Dead Sea conveyor. Desalination 220:16-23.

Rabi A. (1997) Ecological resources of the Dead Sea basin and their sustainable use: problems and cooperation between the countries of the basin. pp. 16-18.

Reference, World Bank Terms of Reference. (2005) Feasibility Study - Environmental, Technical, Economic and Environmental and Social Assesment., Red Sea/Dead Sea Water Conveyance Project.

Reference, World Bank Terms of Reference. (2007) Feasibility Study Information Note - July 2007, Red Sea/ Dead Sea Water Conveyance Project.

Reference, World Bank Terms of Reference. (2009) Background Note – December 2009, Red Sea/ Dead Sea Water Conveyance Project.

Reichel A., Uriely N., Shani A. (2008) Ecotourism and Simulated Attractions: Tourists' Attitudes Towards Integrated Sites in a Desert Area. Journal of sustainable Tourism 16:23-41.

Rosenthal E., Bein A. (2001) The Arava Rift Valley (Dead Sea Transform)—An interdisciplinary approach to assess available water resources of an arid basin. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 50:49-52.

Rosenthal E., Adar E., Issar A., Batelaan O. (1990) Definition of groundwater flow pattern by environmental tracers in the multiple aquifer system of Southern Arava Valley. Israel. J. Hydrol 117:339–368.

Segal L., Burstein L. (2010) Retardation of Water Evaporation by a Protective Float. Water Resources Management 24:129-137.

Shalev E., Lyakhovsky V., Yechieli Y. (2006) Salt dissolution and sinkhole formation along the Dead Sea shore. Journal of geophysical research 111:B03102.

Shavit U., Holtzmann R., Segal S., Venghosh A., Faber E., Gavrieli I., Bullen T. (2001) Water Sources and Quality Along the Lower Jordan Valley, Regional Study. Water Resources Quality: Preserving the Quality of our Water Resources., H. Rubin et al.(eds.), Springer. Berlin Heidelberg New York:127-148.

Shirav-Schwartz M., Calvo R., Bein A., Burg A., Novitsky R., Baer G. (2006) Red Sea - Dead Sea Conduit Geo-Environmental Study along the Arava Valley. State of Israel – Ministry of National Infrastructure, Geological Survey of Israel Report GSI, 29.

Simmers I., Hendrickx J., Kruseman G., Rushton K. (1997) Recharge of phreatic aquifers in (semi-) arid areas.

Smedema L., Shiati K. (2002) Irrigation and salinity: a perspective review of the salinity hazards of irrigation development in the arid zone. Irrigation and Drainage Systems 16:161-174.

Stanhill G. (1984) Evaporation From the Dead Sea. A summary of Research till Sept.

Stanton, N., Dahan, O. (2007). Dynamics of Infiltration from Reservoirs in Arid Lands. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 39, No. 6, p. 331.

Steinhorn I., Gat J. (1983) The Dead Sea. Scientific American 249:102–109.

Strom M. (2003) Agriculture in the Arava Valley, Hebrew University of Jersusalem.

Tal A. (2003) From Development to Conservation: The Quantity and Quality of Israel's Water Resources.(Ed.) A, Tal. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Tchetchik A., Fleischer A., Finkelshtain I. (2006) Rural Tourism: Development, Public Intervention And Lessons from the Israeli Experience. Discussion Papers. The Center for Agricultural Economic Research.

Tuinhof A., Piet-Heederik J. (2002) Management of aquifer recharge and subsurface storage: making better use of our largest reservoir. Publication. Netherlands National Committee for the IAH in cooperation with Netherlands Hydrological Society.

Wolf A. (1995) Techno-political decision making for water resources development: The Jordan river watershed. International Journal of Water Resources Development 11:147-162.

Yechieli Y., Starinsky A., Rosenthal E. (1992) Evolution of brackish groundater in a typical arid region: Northern Arava Rift Valley, southern Israel. Applied Geochemistry 7:361-374.

Yechieli Y., Ronen D., Berkowitz B., Dershowitz W., Hadad A. (1995) Aquifer characteristics derived from the interaction between water levels of a terminal lake (Dead Sea) and an adjacent aquifer. Water Resources Research 31:893-902.

Yechieli Y., Wachs D., Abelson M., Crouvi O., Shtivelman V., Raz E., Baer G. (2002) Formation of sinkholes along the shore of the Dead Sea–summary of the first stage of investigation. Geological Survey of Israel Current Research 13:1-6.

Yermiyahu U., Tal A., Ben-Gal A., Bar-Tal A., Tarchitzky J., Lahav O. (2007) Rethinking desalinated water quality and agriculture. Science 318:920–921.

Alon Ben Gal. Research Scientist, Gilat Agricultural Research Center. Personal Communication October 15, 2010.

Ami Schacham. Director, Central Arava Drainage Authority. Personal Communication October 24, 2009.

Arie Issar. Professor, Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research - Ben Gurion University of the Negev. Personal Communication November 1, 2010.

Aylon Gadiel. Regional Director, Central Arava Research and Development Center. Personal Communication June 2, 2009.

Eli Raz. Research Scientist, Dead Sea & Arava Science Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev. Personal Communication October 25, 2010.

Gavriel Weinberger. Senior Consultant, Israel Hydrological Service. Personal Communication. Oct 1, 2010.

Gil Slavin. Director of Development, Central Arava Regional Council. Personal Communication January 31, 2010.

Hanan Ginat. Science Director, Dead Sea & Arava Science Center. Personal Communication August 25, 2009.

Micha Silver. Mapping Specialist, Central Arava Regional Council. Personal Communication September 2009, May 2010.

Rinat Rosenberg. Tourism Coordinator, Central Arava Regional Council. Personal Communication November 2, 2009.

Shlomo Kramer. Soil & Water Specialist Extension Service, Central Arava Research and Development Center. Personal Communication October 20, 2010.

Stephen McIlwaine. Deputy Team Leader, RSDSC Environmental Assessment Study Programme. Personal Communication December 17, 2009.

10. Appendices

Appendix 10a: Water Infrastructure map and quality sampling points, settlement Ein Yahav Source: (Schacham, 2010) 86

Appendix 10b: Water Infrastructure map and quality sampling points, settlement Faran Source: (Schacham, 2010) 87

Appendix 10c: Water Infrastructure map and quality sampling points, settlement Idan Source: (Schacham, 2010) 88

Appendix 10d: Water Infrastructure map and quality sampling points, settlement Tzofar Source: (Schacham, 2010)

Appendix 10e: Water Infrastructure map and quality sampling points, settlement Hatzeva Source: (Schacham, 2010)

Appendix 10f: Planned infrastructure and housing expansion; Ein Yahav Settlement - Central Arava Source: (Slavin, 2010) 91

Appendix 10g: Planned infrastructure and housing expansion; Faran Settlement - Central Arava Source: (Slavin, 2010) 92

Appendix 10h: Planned infrastructure and housing expansion; Idan Settlement - Central Arava Source: (Slavin, 2010)

Appendix 10i: Planned infrastructure and housing expansion; Tzofar Settlement - Central Arava Source: (Slavin, 2010) 94

Appendix 10j: Planned infrastructure and housing expansion; Hatzeva Settlement - Central Arava Source: (Slavin, 2010)