Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research
Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies
WATER BUDGET ANALYSIS AROUND THE DEAD SEA IN ISRAEL, JORDAN AND THE DISTRICT OF JERICHO
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of "Master of Arts”
By: Roee Elisha
Date: 28.05.2006 Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies
WATER BUDGET ANALYSIS AROUND THE DEAD SEA IN ISRAEL, JORDAN AND THE DISTRICT OF JERICHO
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of "Master of Arts”
By Roee Elisha
Under the Supervision of:
Prof. Hendrik J. Bruins Department of Man in the Desert
Dr. Clive D. Lipchin The Arava Institute for Environmental Studies
Author's signature …………….………………………… Date …………….
Approved by the Supervisors…… …… Date ………..…….
Approved by the Chairman of the Graduated Program Committee …….……………. Date ……………… Abstract
WATER BUDGET ANALYSIS AROUND THE DEAD SEA IN ISRAEL, JORDAN AND THE DISTRICT OF JERICHO
Roee Elisha
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of "Master of Arts”
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies
The water level of the Dead Sea has declined sharply in recent decades, causing
dramatic changes in the local landscape of all three riparian entities: Israel,
Jordan and the Palestinian Authority. Although numerous studies have dealt
with the general causes and effects of the decline, little information is available
regarding regional water supply and demand patterns in the Dead Sea area itself.
Understanding such patterns is of great importance, as human activities in the
area account for a staggering 46% of total water losses in the Dead Sea basin.
Moreover, regional master plans indicate increased pressure on local water
resources for the various economic activities around the lake, as well as for
accommodating population growth. A detailed water budget analysis was conducted of the different water resources around the lake among the three political riparian entities. The aim of the research was to identify desirable levels of water supply that enable current and future economic activities to function, while at the same time minimizing the deterioration of resources. An evaluation was made for alternative practices concerning local water use and supply patterns in order to increase the elasticity of the local water system.
The study suggests that demand levels will soon reach the limit of supply capabilities, thus disturbing the delicate water balance. Projected stress derives from both active policies, such as the damming of the eastern wadis of the Dead
Sea, the depletion of fossil aquifers, and the underutilization of captured runoff waters. Additional stress stems from negligence, as there are substantial water losses resulting from leakages and an underutilization of wastewater.
Furthermore, the pricing system of water often fails to provide any major economic incentives for dissuading the major users from over-consumption or from inefficient utilization of their water sources.
As for the agricultural sector, the study revealed that in all three political entities, scarce water resources were overused in order to grow non-arid tolerant crops in one of the most arid climates in the world.
Recommendations are offered for achieving a long-term water balance in the Dead Sea area. An in-lieu recharge scheme was suggested for the Israeli and
Palestinian domains. Within this scheme, it is advisable to consider the feasibility of directing wastewater generated and treated in the coastal plain to the Dead Sea area for industrial scrubbing and washing purposes and for the irrigation of fields in Kikar Sdom. In addition to wastewater import, the industrial sector should consider wastewater reuse. Thus, much water currently used by the Dead Sea Works can be stored and used for the growing needs of the tourist sector. In Jericho, treated wastewater levels should be tripled to supply one-third of the total amount of water used by the agricultural sector.
Consequently, a considerable amount of freshwater currently used for crops irrigation can be directed to the growing needs of the domestic sector. The introduction of “new” water resources in the form of wastewater reuse for agriculture purposes in the Jordanian domain would improve the management of a scarce resource. Finally, the economic and cultural feasibility of modifying agricultural production to include more arid-tolerant crops, which consume less water, should be investigated.
This thesis presents for the first time a comprehensive water budget for the entire Dead Sea region, which is vital information for policy development by government agencies, NGO’s and decision makers. An understanding of the current water budget, potential future requirements, and the available water resources are necessary for the development of long-term water resource management in the Dead Sea region.
Acknowledgements This work was supported through a scholarship of the Programme of the European
Commission Research Directorate General, as part of the project, “The Future of the
Dead Sea Basin: Options for a more Sustainable Water Management.”
I am very grateful for the remarkable guidance of my supervisors, Prof. Hendrik J. Bruins and Dr. Clive D. Lipchin. I would like to express my great appreciation to Prof. Bruins who contributed much from his wide academic experience and knowledge to my research and skills. I am also exceedingly grateful to Dr. Lipchin for accompanying me during the last two years during which he patiently instilled in me methods of learning. Without both of their help, this thesis would not have been written in such a way that I am proud of. Thanks to Noa Yachot, Tzipporah Ben-Avraham, Phoenix Lawhon and Ilana Meallem who helped immensely in the linguistic aspect of this thesis. Special thanks are given to
David Lehrer, Prof. Yair Zarmi and Prof. Avigad Vonshak who were attentive to my economic needs throughout the last two years. Many thanks to the Arava Institute for
Environmental Studies’ staff who provided me with the tools to view and analyze the world more environmentally. My appreciation goes to the Albert Katz Institute
International School for Desert Studies which provided me the best study conditions a student could ask for. I am grateful to Dorit Levin for her patience kindness and help in administration-related issues. I would like to thank all the project’s colleagues and the specialists who provided me with the required information for this thesis as well as my friends who supported me with a great deal of love. Foremost, very special thanks to my dear family who provided me with warmth, love and support. Without their help this thesis would have never been written.
Table of contents Page
1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………..1-34
1.1 Water Scarcity In the Arid Realm……………………………………………..…1-4
1.2 Relevance And Limitations of the Water Balance Approach……………………4-9
1.3 Background Information………………………………………………………...9-28
1.3.1 Water Scarcity East and West of Jordan River……………………………..9-13
1.3.2 General Physiography of the Dead Sea……………… ..………………….13-16
1.3.3 Geological Development of the DS Basin………...…….………………....16-17
1.3.4 Economic Activities Around The Dead Sea…….…………………………17-18
1.3.5 Recent Fluctuations of the Dead Sea Water Level………………………...19-20
1.3.6 Dead Sea Lake Level Fluctuations in the Past………………………………..20
1.3.7 Rainfall and Dead Sea Level since the Availability of Meteorological
Data……………………………………………………………..…………22-28
1.3.8 Anthropogenic Impact…………………………………………………...... 10-13
1.3.8.1 Water Diversion……………………………………………………..23-26
1.3.8.2 Loss of Water through Industrial Evaporation Ponds to Obtain DS
Minerals….…………………………………………………….……26-27
1.3.8.3 Loss of Water through Wells Water Pumping …………….………..27-28
1.3.8.4 Water Use By Agriculture in the DS area………………………………28
1.4 Relevance of this Thesis……………………………………………………..28-33
1.5 Main Objectives and Hypothesis for the MA Research………………………...34
Page
2. Research Design………………………………………………………………..35-62
2.1 Research Subject……………………………………………………………….35
2.2 Research questions………………………………………………………….35-36
2.3 Study Area………………………………………………………………….36-38
2.4 Social Economy of the Study Area…………………………………………38-40
2.5 General information on the “Dead Sea Project”…………………….………….41
2.6 Data Collection for the MA Research within the Framework of the
“Dead Sea Project”………………………………………………………...42-44
2.6.1 Data Collection Duration and Period………………………………………42
2.6.2 Problems Encountered and Solutions………………………….……….42-44
2.7 Data collection in the Israeli study area……………………………………..45-51
2.7.1 Data collection of water resources and their quality…………………...45-47
2.7.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption in the Israeli
study area……………………………………………………………...….47
2.7.3 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within
the industrial sector in the Israeli study area.…………………………47-48
2.7.4 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the
agricultural sector in the Israeli study area………………………….…48-51
2.7.4.1 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within
the tourism sector in the Israeli study area………………………...49
2.7.4.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption
within the domestic sector in the Israeli study area…….…………...50 Page
2.7.4.3 Data collection of the types of agricultural crops produced
and the irrigation systems used…………….……………………50
2.7.4.4 Data collection of the amount of Wastewater (WW)
generated, treated and reused…………………………………50-51
2.7.4.5 Data collection of the population size and number of
households within the Israeli study area……………….…….…..51
2.8 Field trips……………………………………………………….…………..52-54
2.8.1 Field trip to Megilot Regional Council…………………………………...52
2.8.2 Field trip to Tamar Regional Council…………………………………52-53
2.8.3 Field trip to Ein-Bokek tourism site……………………………….……..53
2.9 Literature review………………………………………………………………..53
2.10 Data analysis and mapping in the Israeli study area………………………53-54
2.11 Data collection in the Jordanian study area………………………………..54-56
2.11.1 Data collection of water resources and their quality in the Jordanian
Study area…………………………………………………………….…56
2.11.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption in the Jordanian
study area……….………………………………………………………..57
2.11.2.1 Data collection of water allocation and consumption
within the industrial sector in the Jordanian study area………….57
2.11.2.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within
the agricultural sector in the Jordanian study area…………… …58
Page
2.11.2.3 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within
the tourism sector in the Jordanian study area…………………………..58
2.11.2.4 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within
the domestic sector in the Jordanian study area………………...58
2.12 Data collection of the types of agricultural crops produced and the
irrigation systems used in the Jordanian study area………………………….58
2.13 Data collection of the amounts of WW generated, treated and reused in
the Jordanian study area……………………………………………………....59
2.14 Data collection of the population size and number of households within
the Jordanian study area……………………………………………………..59
2.15 Data collection in the Palestinian study area………………..……………59-61
2.15.1 Data collection of water resources and their quality in the
Palestinian study area……………………………………….………59-60
2.15.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption in the
Palestinian study area……………………………………………….60-61
2.15.2.1 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within
the industrial sector in the Palestinian study area………………60
2.15.2.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within
the agricultural sector in the Palestinian study area………….....61
2.15.2.3 Data collection of water allocation and consumption
within the tourism sector in the Palestinian study area…………61
Page
2.15.4 Data collection of water allocation and consumption
within the domestic sector in the Palestinian study area………….61
2.16 Data collection of the types of agricultural crops produced and the
irrigation systems used in the Palestinian study area…………………….....62
2.17 Data collection of the amounts of Wastewater generated, treated and
reused in the Palestinian study area…………………………………………62
2.18 Data collection of the population size and number of households
within the Palestinian study area……………………………………………62
3. Water Resources Management in the Regional Councils near the
Dead Sea: Israel……..………………………………………………………63-106
3.1 Hydrogeology of the study area: Israel……………………………………...63-72
3.2 Current usages of wells………………………………….…………………..72-78
3.3 Discharge levels of springs………………………………………………….78-81
3.4 Current usages of springs……………………………………………………82-89
3.5 WW reuse…………………………………………………………………..89-101
3..5.1 Current generation and usages………………………………………….92-98
3.5.2 Future generation and usages………………………………………….98-101
3.6 Surface water reservoirs…………………………………………………..102-106
3.6.1 Total capacity………………………………………………………...102-105
3.6.2 Current and future usages…………………………………………….105-106
Page
4. Supply and demand of water in the study area: Israel………………….107-127
4.1 Supply and demand of water in the industrial sector……………………...107-114
4.2 Supply and demand of water in the agricultural sector……………………114-120
4.2.1 Types of crops grown and water demand by crop……………………….114-119
4.2.2 Irrigation systems in use……………………………………………….119-120
4.3 Supply and demand of water in the tourism sector………………………...122-125
4.3.1 Water consumption within the hotels…………………………………122-124
4.3.2 Water Consumption within the guesthouses…………………………..124-125
4.4 Supply and demand of water in the domestic sector………………………125-127
4.4.1 Total population in the study area and water demand by household…..125-127
4.4.2 Future water demand…………………………………………………….....127
5. The Monetary Value of Water in the Study Area: Israel…………………128-137
5.1. Water pricing in the industrial sector……………………………………...128-131
5.2.Water pricing in the agricultural sector………………………………...….132-134
5.3.Water pricing in the Tourism sector……………………………………….134-136
5.4.Water pricing in the Domestic sector………………………..…………….136-137
Page
6. Water Resources Management in the Regional Councils near the
Dead Sea: Jordan………………………………….……………………138-157
6.1. Hydrogeology of the study area: Jordan………………………………..138-140
6.2. Groundwater Resources………………………………………………...140-141
6.3. Surface water Resources………………………………………………..141-145
6.3.1. Springs………………………………………………………….……...141
6.3.2. Water dams, surface water reservoirs, and desalination plant……141-144
6.3.3. Wastewater generated, treated and reused…………………..……….….145
6.4. Supply And Demand of Water In the Study Area: Jordan…..………….145-155
6.4.1. Water use in the agricultural sector………….………..…………...147-151
6.4.2. Water use in the Industrial sector……………………..…………..151-152
6.4.3. Water use in the Domestic sector…………………..……………….....153
6.4.4. Water use in the Tourism sector……………………………...…...153-155
6.5.The Monetary Value of Water In the Study Area: Jordan…………..…….155-157
7. Water Resources Management in the Regional Councils near the
Dead Sea: The district of Jericho (the Palestinian Authority)………….158-164
7.1 Hydrogeology of the study area: Jericho district……………………………..159
7.2 Groundwater Resources in the study area…………………………………….159
7.2.1 Wells…………………………………………………………………….159
7.3 Surface water Resources in the study area……………………………………159
7.3.1 Springs…………………………………………………………………...159
7.3.2 Rooftop cisterns…………………………………………………………160 Page
7.3.3 Wastewater generated, treated and reused……………………...160
7.4 Water Use In the Study Area: Jericho District…………………..160-163
7.4.1 Water use in the Agricultural sector……………………..161-162
7.4.2 Water use in the Domestic sector……………………………..162
7.4.3 Water use in the Industrial sector……………………………..162
7.4.4 Water use in the Tourism sector………………………………163
7.5 The Monetary Value of Water In the Study Area: Jericho District…163-164
8. Discussion and Conclusions…………………………………………165-205
8.1 Recommended Measures Toward a Long-term Water Balance in the
Israeli Study Area….…………………...... 171-190
8.2 Recommended Measures Toward a Long-term Water Balance in the
Jordanian Study Area…………………………………………...... 190-197
8.3 Recommended Measures Toward a Long-term Water Balance in
the Palestinian Study Area…………………………………………197-201
8.4 An Integrative Approach Toward a Long-term Water Balance in
the Entire Dead Sea Area……… ………………………………...202-205
References………………………………………………………………206-217
Appendices…………………………………………………..…....…….218-226
Appendix 1: Private wells within the study area, operated by the
Dead Sea Works (2004)…………………………………..……218
Appendix 2: Wastewater generation in the Megilot Regional Council in 2003
and wastewater generator- coefficient……………….……...... 219
Page
Appendix 3: The figure used by national planners in Israel concerning annual
water use per capita………………………………………..…….220
Appendix 4: Tourism-related master plans for the Tamar
Regional Council………………………………………..…...221-225
Appendix 5: Tourist hotels, rooms, occupancy, person-nights, revenues
and employed persons in tourist’s hotels in selected
localities (2003)……………………………………………..……..226
Page
List of tables and figures
List of tables
Table 1.1: Water Balance Projection East And West Of Jordan River………………11
Table 1.2: Water balance of the Dead Sea in the first half of the 20th century
(estimated) and today……………………………………………………..25
Table 3.1: Production wells supplying water in the Tamar Regional
Council (not including the ones operated by the DSW (appendix 1))…….65
Table 3.2: Wells supplying water in the Megilot Regional Council…………………66
Table 3.3: Water allocation and production of the Dead Sea Works
(C/M, 1999-2004)………………………………………………………..74
Table 3.4: Springs along the western shore of the Dead Sea…………………………79
Table 3.5: Salinity index (according to the Israeli Water Commission’s
classification)……………………………………………………………..80
Table 3.6: Current generation of wastewater and their generators in the Tamar
Regional Council, 2003………………………………………………….94
Table 3.7: Current generation of wastewater by communities in the
Megilot Regional Council, 2003…...……………………………………94
Table 3.8: Annual allocation of treated wastewater stored in Og 1 treated
Wastewater reservoir (in MCM, 2000-2003)……………………………..98
Table 3.9: Future generation of wastewater and their generators in the Tamar
Regional Council, 2020 (MCM)………………………………………….99
Table 3.10: Surface water reservoirs in the Tamar Regional Council, 2003………..102 Page
Table 3.11: Volumes of streams in the Tamar Regional Council and the
estimated reduction of their influx to the DS following the
construction of the surface water reservoirs…………………..….…..104
Table 4.1: Types of crops grown and water demand by crop in the
Tamar Regional Council, 2003…………………………………………115
Table 4.2: Types of crops grown and water demand by crop in the
Megilot Regional Council, 2003………………………………..……..118
Table 5.1: Water prices per cubic meter (CM) as charged by the State
of Israel in 2004………………………………………………………..130
Table 5.2: Water prices as charged by Mekorot within the four investigated
sectors in the study area, 2004…………………………………………131
Table 5.3: Water prices as charged by Kibbutz Ein-Gedi within the four
investigated sectors in the study area, 2004…………………………....131
Table 5.4: Water prices among the guesthouses in the Tamar Regional Council….135
Table 5.5: Water prices among the guesthouses in Megilot Regional Council…….135
Table 6.1: Water resources in the study area: Jordan (in MCM)…………………..140
Table 6.2: Water use in the study area by formal accessed sources and
informally accessed sources (in MCM)………………………………..147
Table 6.3: Yearly water requirements by crop as calculated through
Remote Sensing analysis in all three study areas, compared
to the amount actually consumed minus water losses…………………..150
Table 6.4: Current and future water use in the Jordanian study area………………152 Page
Table 6.5: Charges for water within the four investigated sectors by supplier………156
Table 6.6: Water prices for licensed agricultural wells in the study area…………....157
Table 6.7: Water charges for unlicensed agricultural wells in the study area…….....157
Table 7.1: Annual capacity of the water sources and the amount used in
the district of Jericho in 2003…………………………………………...... 158
Table 7.2: Water prices within the four investigated sectors by supplier
in the Palestinian study area……………………………………………..163
List of figures
Figure 1.1: The Dead Sea Basin……………………………………………………….10
Figure 1.2: Aerial image of the Dead Sea……………………………………………..15
Figure 1.3: The Dead Sea’s water composition……………………………………….18
Figure 1.4: Water level of the Dead Sea in the last two decades……………………...19
Figure 1.5: Estimated and measured fluctuations in the water level of the
Dead Sea since 110 BC…………………………………………………...20
Figure 1.6: Trends in the water level of the Dead Sea and rainfall in Jerusalem……..21
Figure 1.7: Batimetric Map of the Dead Sea Northern Basin………………………...24
Figure 1.8: Present water losses due to anthropogenic interferences ………………...27
Figure 2.1: A Spatial Extent of the Study Area……………………………………….40
Figure 3.1: Production wells supplying water to Tamar Regional Council and
Megilot Regional Council, 2003 (by operator)…………………………...64
Figure 3.2: Replenishment zones of the Dead Sea’s western watershed……………..68 Page
Figure 3.3: Water consumption by sector (Tamar Regional Council, 2003)………...... 72
Figure 3.4: Water consumption by sector (Megilot Regional Council, 2003)……...... 73
Figure 3.5: Water allocation by source (Tamar Regional Council, 2003)………….....74
Figure 3.6: Water allocation by source (Megilot Regional Council, 2003)…………..76
Figure 3.7: Trends in water consumption by water resource (Megilot
Regional Council, 2000-2003)……………………………………………77
Figure 3.8: Outlet of springs along the Dead Sea, Israel……………………………..81
Figure 3.9: Nature Reserves …………………………………………………………83
Figure 3.10: Human exploitation in Ein Gedi group of springs……………………….85
Figure 3.11: Distribution of water usages obtained from Ein Gedi group
of springs ………………………………………………………………..86
Figure 3.12: Waste water treatment plants and wastewater reservoir in the
Israeli study area…………………………………………………………91
Figure 3.13: Current generation of wastewater in the Tamar Regional
Council (in MCM)……………………………………………………….92
Figure 3.14: Current generation of wastewater in the Megilot Regional
Council (MCM)…………………………………………………………...93
Figure 3.15: Current usages of wastewater in the Tamar Regional Council (2003)……96
Figure 3.16: The expected increment of wastewater generation in the
Tamar Regional Council (until 2020, in MCM)………………………..100
Figure 3.17: Surface Water Reservoirs in the Tamar Regional Council……………..103
Page
Figure 4.1: Average water consumption by sector, Tamar Regional
Council (2000-2003)……………………………………………………108
Figure 4.2: Water consumption in the industrial sector along the Dead Sea, 2003…109
Figure 4.3: Average water consumption by sector, Megilot Regional Council
(2000-2003)……………………………………………………………..110
Figure 4.4: Water consumption within the four investigated sectors in
the Tamar Regional Council (2000-2003)………………………………111
Figure 4.5: Distribution of water consumption by source within the
industrial sector, Tamar Regional Council, 2003……………………….112
Figure 4.6: Distribution of water consumption by consumer within the
industrial sector, Tamar Regional Council (2003, figures are rounded)..112
Figure 4.7: Grown crops in the Tamar Regional Council, 2004……………………117
Figure 4.8: Hotels and guesthouses within the Israeli study area in 2005…………..121
Figure 4.9: Water consumption in the Ein Bokek Hotels (2000-2003)……………..123
Figure 4.10: Number of visitors in the Dead Sea hotels (1991-2003)……………….124
Figure 4.11: Communities within the Israeli study area, 2004………………………126
Figure 6.1: Water-related infrastructures in the Jordanian study area………………143
Figure 6.2: Distribution of springs, wells, waste water treatment plants, and
wastewater discharge locations in the Jordanian study area
and the Jericho district…………………………………………………..144
Figure 6.3: Water consumption by sector in the study area, Jordan…………………146
Page
Figure 6.4: Water use (by source) of the agricultural sector in the
Jordanian study area……………………………………………………..148
Figure 6.5: Distribution of agriculture, industry and tourist
activities in the Jordanian study area and the district of Jericho…………149
Figure 6.6: Distribution of settlements in the Jordanian study area………………….154
Figure 7.1: Water consumption by sector in the Jericho district……………………..161
Figure 8.1: Water Availability And Consumption Around the Dead Sea
Today and by 2020 (estimated)…………...... 165
Figure 8.2: Water Consumption By Sector In the Investigated Study Areas ………..172
Figure 8.3: Proposed wastewater pipes in the Israeli study area …….………………177
Figure 8.4: Water From Natural Springs Should Be Left Untouched..…………..…..199
Figure 8.5: Water consumption Around The Dead Sea Today And By 2020
(estimated), Current And Potential Availability Following The
Implementation of the Recommended Measures………………………..203
List of acronyms (in alphabetical order)
AIES Arava Institute for Environmental Studies APC Arab Potash Company ARIJ Applied Research Institute- Jerusalem BC Before Christ BCM Billion Cubic Meters BOD Biological Oxygen Demand Cl/l Chloride/ liter CM Cubic Meters DA Drainage Authority DS Dead Sea DSW Dead Sea Works ECO Environmental Consulting Office GPS Global Positioning System HIS Hydrological Service of Israel IBS Israeli Bureau of Statistics IPWC Israeli-Palestinian Joint Water Committee IUCN International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources IWC Israeli Water Commission JVA Jordan Valley Authority JWA Jordan Water Authority MCM Million Cubic Meters MCM/yr Million Cubic Meters/ year MRC Megilot Regional Council MWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation NIS New Israeli Shekel NWC National Water Carrier PA Palestinian Authority PCBS Palestinian Center for Bureau of Statistics PWA Palestinian Water Authority SWR Surface Water Reservoir TRC Tamar Regional Council TWW Treated Waste Water WP Work Package WW Wastewaters WWTP Waste Water Treatment Plant
1
1. Introduction
1.1 Water Scarcity In the Arid Realm
The arid realm is a vast area covering one-third of the earth’s land surface and includes approximately 40 percent of the world’s population (Agnew and
Anderson, 1992; Wilson, 2004).
Arid regions are characterized by great environmental and economic contrasts and contain some of the world’s most important mineral resources
(Heathcote, 1983; Mather, 1984; Helweg, 1985). However, they are also water- scarce areas that limit human settlement and industrial activities and represent some of humanity’s greatest ecological failures (Bruins and Lithwick, 1998;
Roberts, 1993; Kliot, 1994; James, 1974). UNESCO has listed ‘lack of water resources’ and ‘hostility’ as two of the main obstacles to development in these areas (Roberts, 1993).
Population growth in the early 20th century on arid lands compounded the pressure on these fragile environments, diminishing water supplies for the inhabitants of these areas. As the severity of water scarcity intensified, so did world research on arid land in general and water shortage issues in particular
(Roberts, 1993).
One example of this global acknowledgement of the crisis was a project initiated by UNESCO to study arid zones between the years of 1951 and 1962
(MAB, 1977). The drought and famine catastrophe between the years of 1968 and 1973 in the Sahelian area of Africa further heightened international concern over water resources in arid zones (Nicholson, 1979; Roberts, 1993). 2
The concern has only intensified in recent decades. At present, many
countries of the arid frontier consume more water than is replenished naturally
within their borders (Agnew and Anderson, 1992; Allan, 1995; Gvirtzman,
2002). The imbalance between supply and demand causes long-term
uncertainties regarding the availability of water resources, both because of the
complex environment and the difficulties of attempting to appraise existing
resources (Schiller, 1992).
With growing demand and limited resources, there is a mounting global
need to manage available water resources in these areas more effectively,
particularly in cases where all or nearly all water resources are exploited (Van
Vleck et al, 1987; Molden, 1997; Agnew and Anderson, 1992).
Experts have developed a system called Water Resources Management to measure existing water resources and allocate them to different sectors, taking into account the water quality demands of each sector (Lundqvist et al, 1985).
Allocation is a particularly complex issue, addressed by a number of researchers:
According to Khouri (1992), allocation decisions are usually guided by economic and social considerations, while Lithwick et al (1998) and Allan (1998) maintain that these decisions often reflect purly political considerations. Svendsen (2005) notes that allocation decisions must take into account the disparate geographical locations of the various consumers. Zaslavsky (2002) demonstrates that allocation decisions stem directly from the number of available water resources.
There is a broad consensus among scholars within the water management field (e.g. Mather, 1984; Waldman and Shevah, 1985; Lundqvist et al, 1985; 3
Tognetti et al, 2004; Molden et al, 2003) that policy decisions regarding water
allocation are frequently poor, and fail to take into consideration some important
factors affecting present water use patterns.
Lomborg (2002) claims that water scarcity, especially in the arid regions
of the world, is attributable first and foremost to inappropriate management.
Similar claims have been made by Roberts (1993) with regard to water resources
management in arid zones in China and the American Southwest. According to
Pigram and Musgrave (1998), the overall deterioration of water resources in the
Murray Darling River Basin in Australia is the result of neglect and an inability to
adapt, as traditional bureaucratic development decisions that were made during
periods of relatively abundant water supplies have remained in place for a
protracted period of time.
Similar opinions are held by different researchers who focus on water
scarcity in the Middle East. Kliot (1994) attributes poor water management to the
negative water balance in the Middle East. Nachmani (1995) specifically points to
existing patterns of allocation in the Middle East that fail to take into account its scarcity value. Zaslavsky, a former Israeli Water Commissioner affirmed: “There are local and temporary shortages because it’s not the highest priority of the countries involved; that’s all” (Lithwick, 1998, pg 27).
However, while the bulk of water management-related constraints seem to
be shared by most arid nations, water demand and usage patterns differ
according to several variables, such as population growth, economic
development, cultural practices and foreign policy objectives (Le Marquand, 4
1977). Given these factors, the success of methods implemented in one country
may not obtain elsewhere (Agnew and Anderson, 1992). Dingman, (1984)
wrote, “No specific formula for a long range water resources plan for a country
or for hydrologic unit has ever been defined” (Agnew and Anderson, 1992, pg
270).
However, the traditional practice has been to search for new water sources
in order to overcome perceived shortages, and a number of schemes have been
developed throughout the years (Lithwick et al, 1998). Among the most
prevalent of methods are, as Mather (1984) points out, storage via captured
runoff, the manipulation of the pricing system and the introduction of water
saving techniques and conveyance facilities.
1.2 Relevance and limitations of the Water Balance Approach
No singular method of water management is far superior to the rest, but the consensus concerning inadequate management in the arid realm underlines the importance of providing decision makers in arid countries with a better understanding of current water patterns.
Many methods have been developed over the years to asses water use patterns based on the availability of water resources. One such method, the Water
Budget Analysis, follows from the Water Balance approach (IWMI, 2006;
Molden, 1997).
The disaggregated Water Balance inventory has long been used as a key tool for calculating the ratio between water demand patterns and the availability of water sources in a given domain (Mather, 1984). The water budget inventory, 5
under various different names (e.g. Water Accounting in Molden et al, 2003 or
Water Auditing in Pigram and Musgrave, 1998), is essentially a quantitative
summary of all of the inputs to and outputs from a water system (Helweg, 1985).
The central notion of the water budget concept is based on the argument that
understanding current water resources and the associated demand and use patterns
is essential for successful water management (IWMI, 2006).
Ideally, a water budget analysis can act as a stepping-stone for innovative
and practical recommendations that can be applied to specific water systems. A
precise assessment of available water through a water budget analysis is vital in
trying to understand the potential effect of different consumers on these sources
(Molden et al, 2003). Hence, it serves as an efficient tool for water planners
dealing with different courses of action, identifying potential trade-offs and
introducing new sources into the system (IWMI, 2006; Mather, 1984).
In the arid frontier, where demand is likely to exceed supply, a water budget analysis may help to prioritize different consumers. It may also aid in the
development of a more appropriate allocation system that will better meet desired
objectives (Barker et al, 2003).
However, the Water Budget method to date has been given only
perfunctory attention on the state level, usually in the context of ensuring
adequate national supplies. More recently, the Water Budget method has also
been applied to certain subsystems, including river basins , some inter-state basins
and a few international (Roberts, 1993). Several Water Audits1 conducted in the
1 The following examples of inventory schemes all follow the Water Budget model. However, in this study, I will use country-specific titles in referring to these studies. 6
Murray Darling River Basin in Australia revealed that water diversion increased
by about 8 percent across the basin between the years 1988 and 1994, and
threatened to rise to 14 percent in subsequent years (Murray Darling Basin
Ministerial Council, 1995). Consequently, the appropriate council appointed a
working group, which stated an interim “cap” at the 1993-1994 level in order to
achieve a long-term ecological balance in the basin. Additionally, following these audits, a few tradable water entitlements were adopted and rationalization of water pricing was carried out (Pigram and Musgrave, 1998).
An assessment of local water resources was also conducted in Arizona, situated in the arid US, and helped define water-short areas. Consequently, the
“Active Management Areas Program” was initiated, and sought to reach a safe yield through short-term plans such as registration and adjudication of water
rights, and the establishment of local augmentation projects (i.e. captured runoff
utilization and wastewater reuse). Following the program, old, unlimited pumping
rights have been replaced in these areas by a system of limited, quantified and verified rights, based on various types of criteria including previous use, the needs of agricultural and municipal services and a set of criteria for new users to acquire groundwater withdrawal permits (Roberts, 1993).
In South Asia, Water Accounting was used in the Bhakra and Christian
River Basins in the semiarid regions of India and Pakistan, In this case, the main objectives were to identify opportunities for saving water and enhancing the productivity of local resources (IWMI, 2006). 7
In China, Water Accounting in the Yellow River Basin revealed a trend of
potential decline in both precipitation and surface runoff. As a result, authorities
are investigating the possibility of instituting planning changes in light of figures
of average water flow (Zhu et al, 2003).
Water balance planning has also been introduced in the underdeveloped
Sahel-Sudan region of West Africa. Its main objectives are to determine the most
cost-effective set of sources to meet fixed demands (i.e. the minimization of
supply costs), thereby maximizing the benefits of water use (Agnew and
Anderson, 1992).
In Qatar, a Water Budget Analysis was used in each province, and changes
were instituted accordingly. The results revealed a significant deficit in the
Northern Province and as a result, the government decided to shut off the northern
well fields, to use brackish water for blending and to examine the possibility of
recycling sewage water in Doha (Agnew and Anderson, 1992).
These examples illustrate the advantages found in the use of various Water
Balances schemes worldwide. However, despite of the last two cases presented
(the Sahel-Sudan region of West Africa and Qatar), only rarely has the Water
Budget scheme been applied to smaller domains, such as water districts or regional councils, and if so, hardly ever has it been applied systematically. This may be attributed to the fact that Water Management has in the past lacked a clear understanding of the carrying capacity of existing water and land resources
(Roberts, 1993). 8
In the initial process of any water inventory, various problems may arise,
such as data deficiency and inaccuracy due to different methods used and
unreliable sources from which data is obtained. This can present a faulty or
inaccurate picture of the investigated inventory. In arid zones, successive droughts
and uncertainty regarding future demand may be reflected in fluctuations of the
figures (Mather, 1984; Bein et al, 2004).
Nonetheless, a Water Budget Analysis is considered a necessary step and
an adequate method of quantifying the tolerable supply levels in arid regions,
while taking into account local constraints. Thus, in this study, a Water Budget
analysis is held to provide better information on allocation and consumption-
related practices for policy development by government agencies, NGOs and decision makers on a watershed-scale. As ineffective as this method may be in
directly changing current water supply and use patterns, it is believed that without
adequate records of quantities and qualities of water in a given domain, problems
cannot be accurately determined, regulations are extremely difficult to implement
and appropriate solutions cannot be developed (Burchi, 1992).
As noted earlier, the Water Budget scheme has primarily been used on a
state level. This is particularly true in water inventories conducted in the Middle
East. In some studies, water resources, water availability and water supply and
demand patterns were viewed in the context of regional shortfall (e.g. Bruins,
2000b; Allan and Mallat, 1995; Arlosoroff, 1996; Bar El, 1995). In others, they were viewed in relation to national supply and demand levels (e.g. Gvirtzman, 9
2002; Lithwick et al, 1998); and few authors chose to present them in the
context of a basin level (e.g. Bar El, 1995; Orthofer et al, 2004; Salem, 1994).
In light of the above, the International Dead Sea Basin (figure 1.1) – host
to three political entities, Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority – provides
a challenge to the use of the Water Balance scheme. Though numerous studies
have been conducted on the balance between the different sources feeding the
DS, its water level decline and its consequences (which will be further
discussed; e.g. Bein et al, 2004; Abu Farish, 1996; Niemi et al, 1997; Gavriely
et al, 2002; Becker et al, 2004), scant information is available on regional water
supply and demand patterns. Before presenting this challenge, a brief review of
water scarcity in the area is essential.
1.3 Background Information
1.3.1 Water Scarcity East and West of Jordan River
Water scarcity in the Middle East can be attributed to the inappropriate
management of local water resources, which directs large amounts of water to
the agriculture sector (Bruins, 2000d; Kliot, 1994). Likewise, infrastructure
frequently fails to meet demands, and fresh water is being wasted while reused
wastewater is underutilized (Allan, 1998). Israel, Jordan and the West Bank are
already confronting water shortages (table 1.1). The water crisis in this region is
quite tangible and pressing, given the amount of time necessary for preparing the
infrastructures to cope with the shortages (Bar El, 1995).
10
Figure 1.1: The Dead Sea Basin
Source: Transboundary Water Resources, 2005
11
Table 1.1: Water Balance Projection East and West Of Jordan River
Year/ Supply 1990 2000 2010 2020 2040 and Demand Population 10,254 13,749 17,400 21,617 31,329 (Thousands) Total Demand 2684 3157 3648 4540 6386 (MCM) Urban 894 1,218 1,577 2,056 3,082 Agriculture 1790 1939 2071 2484 3303 Total Supply 2876 3192 3578 3971 4587 (MCM) Drinking 2741 2827 2947 3046 3046 Water Reclaimed 135 365 631 925 1541 Water Balance 192 35 -70 -569 -1799 (MCM) Source: Bar El, 1995
Any discussion on the Middle East water crisis, whether in the national or
regional context, should include historical, cultural and religious factors specific
to the area. Perhaps the greatest obstacle facing decision makers trying to find
potential solutions for the regional water scarcity is the deeply rooted symbolism
attached to water (Allan, 1998). In Israel, it is tied to the early Zionist perception
of land and the importance attached to agriculture in settling and claiming it.
Former Prime Minister Moshe Sharret said in 1952: “Water for us is life itself. It
is food for the people and not food alone. Without large-scale irrigation…we
shall not be a people rooted in the land, secure in its existence and stable in its
character” (Feitelson and Haddad, 1994, pg 73). In Islam, the symbolism
attached to water is reflected in the Shari`ah Law, which holds that water should
be freely available to all, and any Muslim who withholds unneeded water from 12 those who do need it sins against Allah: “No one can refuse surplus water without sinning against Allah and against man” (Allan and Mallat, 1995, pg
130).
Such cultural considerations are extremely important to any analysis of water resources in the Middle East. The scarcer the resource, the larger the demand and the more emotional the attitudes of institutions towards the introduction of schemes that may alter the status quo (Allan and Mallat, 1995).
In addition to the relationship between cultural perceptions and water use and supply patterns, it should be noted that any water management strategy, including the use of the Water Budget scheme, must be viewed in the context of the overall national strategy (Agnew and Anderson, 1992). Sometimes the root of inadequate local water management lies in the fact that practices and implementation methods commonly in use on the national level are not applicable to the regional level. Thus, they reflect an immaturity of the system, expressed by its inability to acknowledge the carrying capacity of local resources (Agnew and Anderson, 1992).
The water system in Israel is characterized by the "short-term syndrome," which ignores long-term needs in the decision making process (Arlosoroff,
1996; Gvirtzman, 2002; Zaslavsky, 2002). The State Review Committee of the
Knesset from 2000 presented several approaches, all of which indicated inadequate water resources management (Zaslavsky, 2002).
Shiffler (1995) referred to the high priority of the agriculture sector amongst Jordanian decision makers. He notes that Jordanian farmers are heavily 13 subsidized for independent food production, which makes the real price of the water in the area difficult to determine. Allan and Mallat (1995) pointed out that large quantities of water are allocated to the agriculture sector despite the aridity of the region.
According to Allan (1995), the Palestinian commonly attributes water scarcity to Israeli control of water resources. Palestinian water experts estimate that the existing domestic water supply in the West Bank falls short by over 50 percent of total demand. This fact, he continues, illustrates challenges that
Palestinian decision makers will face in managing their water resource differently if and when control is in their hands.
1.3.2 General Physiography of the Dead Sea
The Dead Sea (DS) basin covers a total area of approximately 40,000 sq/km
(Figure 1.1). Its closed watershed, which extends to a total area of 40,650 sq/km, is shared by Israel, Jordan and the PA. The lake extends from 35º30’00 to
35º34’05 east and 30º 58’01 to 31º46’01 north and its total area is 898 sq/km
(Niemi et al, 1997; the DSP’s WP1 internal Palestinian report, 2004; Middle
East Water Data Banks Project, 1998; Raz, 1993).
The DS is the hyper-saline terminal lake of the Jordan Rift Valley; its water is the most saline in the world’s water bodies, with over 330 g/l dissolved ions (Zak, 1997). Its water surface lies approximately 416.1 m below mean
Mediterranean Sea level (in 2004; Lipchin et al, 2004). 14
Annual evaporation in the DS area ranges from 2070 mm/year in Jericho
(situated North West of the DS) to 4200 mm/year in Sdom (situated South West of the DS). Actual evaporation from the surface of the Dead Sea ranges between
1,300-1,600 mm/yr and depends on several climatic variables (e.g. wind speed, relative humidity, temperature) and surface water temperature and water salinity. The average annual precipitation ranges from 166 mm in the northern part pf the Dead Sea (Jericho) to 47 mm in the south (Sdom) (Israeli
Meteorology Service, 2004). Temperatures vary from an annual average of 17˚C in the Western side of the Basin to 24˚C along the salting lakes coastal area. In the western part of the study area, the dry hot season starts in April and lasts for
6-7 months up to mid October whereas in the arid eastern part of the study area the dry hot season lasts for 10-11 months from February to mid November
(Dead Sea Project’s Web Site, 2005). The fault escarpment of the rift rise steeply to the east and to the west of the lake, forming an egregious asymmetric graben in its general structure, morphological structure and its bathymetrical structure, with the major boundary fault in the east (Bowman, 1997). In the north and south the valley stretches gently upward along the Jordan River Valley and along the Wadi Arava, respectively (Lipchin et al, 2004). The scarps on the west mark the abrupt drop of 300-500 m from the Judean Desert plateau to the DS’s shores and the wadis draining the Judean Hills present slopes up to 350 m high.
On the east, the plateaus of the mountains of Moab are considerably higher with
15
Figure 1.2: Aerial image of the Dead Sea
Source: Middle East Water Data Banks Project, 1998
16 heights of 900-1000 m; these heights gradually increase toward the south to
1736 m (Hall, 1997).
Nowadays, the DS consists of two basins: the deep northern basin and the shallow southern basin, separated by the Lisan Peninsula (Figure 1.2). “The
Lisan Peninsula sticks out from the east shore and points northward into the basin” (Niemi et al, 1997, pg 3). The land cover is usually occupied by bare rocks and small amount of arid vegetation. In populated areas, fruit trees, agriculture fields and dates plantations are found.
1.3.3 Geological Development of the DS Basin
The DS is situated in the lowest part of the Syrian-African Rift Valley which was formed in Miocene times when the Arabian plate gradually moved northeastward from Africa (Raz, 1993). The history of the DS Valley water bodies is interlaced with the geological evolution of the area. Until about three million years ago (Pliocene Epoch) “Sdom Bay” was connected with the
Mediterranean Sea, as the terrestrial sill of Zevulun and the Jezreel Valleys was below sea level. Thus the DS Valley was repeatedly inundated by water from the
Mediterranean Sea (Niemi, 1997; Raz, 1993), but later in time the Dead Sea valley became isolated. Henceforth, the water bodies in the valley reformed into lakes and their salinity level and composition changed as a result of the local climatological conditions and the topography of the area (Raz, 1993; Bein et al,
2004). Lake Lisan, the precursor of the Dead Sea, was formed in the Late
Pleistocene, which had a maximum level of -180 meters below sea level and extended for 220 km from the Sea of Galilee in the north to 30 km south of the 17
DS. The modern DS evolved in the early Holocene Epoch after a dramatic decline of Lake Lisan’s water level (Gavrieli et al, 2002; Niemi, 1997).
1.3.4 Economic Activities Around The Dead Sea
The special chemical composition of the DS (Figure 1.4) has attracted significant industrial activity both in Israel (mainly by the DS Works) and
Jordan (mainly by the Arab Potash Company); both companies extract minerals
(Mainly Carnallitic brine and Halite) and salts from the area (Gavrieli et al,
2002; Bein et al, 2004; the DSW web site, 2004; Abu Farish et al, 1999).
The above-mentioned unique physical characteristics of the DS, in addition to the health benefits of the mineral-rich water (figure 1.3) and the historical sites in its locality have made it a popular site for local and international tourism
(Wolf, 1995; Lipchin et al, 2004; Abu Farish et al, 1999).
There are 18 hotels along the DS shoreline as well as tens of guesthouse units in the nearby Israeli communities. Its special status was highlighted recently by its nomination as a world heritage site of UNESCO (Bein et al, 2004; Bromberg,
2004).
Intensive agriculture activity is also found in all three riparian entities of the DS. Tens types of conventional crops are grown for export over an area of approximately 54,000 dunams. Amongst these, dates and bananas are the most common, grown on one third of the area.
18
Figure 1.3:
The Dead Sea's Water Composition (in %)
0.18
1.6 5 13.2
Cl 11.4 K Na 2.32 66.3 Mg Br SO4 Ca
Source: Raz, 1993
1.3.5 Recent Fluctuations of the Dead Sea Water Level
The water level of the DS has drastically declined in the last few decades from -
399 m in 1976 to -416 m at present (in 2004; Figure 1.4).
This decline is primarily due to water diversion systems constructed by Israel,
Syria and Jordan in the drainage basin of the lake.
This decline was accompanied by dramatic changes in the local landscape in all three political entities of the basin (Becker et al, 2004; Gavrieli et al, 2004; Bein et al, 2004). As a result, some of the current activities associated with tourism and industry in the DS are not sustainable in the long-term.
19
Figure 1.4: Water level of the Dead Sea in the last two decades
Water Level (meters) of the Dead Sea
-390
-395
-400
-405 Meters
-410
-415
-420 Oct-76 Oct-77 Oct-78 Oct-79 Oct-80 Oct-81 Oct-82 Oct-83 Oct-84 Oct-85 Oct-86 Oct-87 Oct-88 Oct-89 Oct-90 Oct-91 Oct-92 Oct-93 Oct-94 Oct-95 Oct-96 Oct-97 Oct-98 Oct-99 Oct-00 Oct-01 Oct-02 Oct-03 Date
Source: Lipchin et al, 2004
1.3.6 Dead Sea Lake Level Fluctuations in the Past
However, the aforesaid decline is not considered a new phenomenon since fluctuations in water level have been documented throughout history. Evidence of the drying-up of its southern basin was mentioned in the book of Genesis
(14/3) and by the historian Flavius Josephus (“Antiquities of the Jews”), who lived ca 2000 years ago. Some morphological indicators were cited by Klein
(1986) as evidence for past fluctuations of the water level. For example, a strip of aragonite found in the Qumran Cave’s assembly room serves as evidence of a 20 rise in the water level (-330 m) of the DS in the period 37 BC to 4 BC. Salt- encrusted dead trees were found along the shores at various depths in the water, indicating fluctuations of the water level. These findings were used to reconstruct the fluctuations of the lake. (Figure 1.5) (Middle East Water Data
Banks Project, 1998).
Newly exposed land due to the recent water level decline enabled archaeological finds, such as three stone anchors near Ein Gedi and thousands of bronze coins near Ein Feshcha (Israel Antiquity Authority, 2005)). These discoveries are also used to determine historical fluctuations of the water level.
Figure 1.5: Estimated and measured fluctuations in the water level of the Dead Sea since 110 BC
Source: Middle East Water Data Banks Project, 1998 (modified from Klein, 1986)
21
1.3.7 Rainfall and Dead Sea Level since the Availability of Meteorological Data
In a more recent study mentioned in the Middle East Water Data Banks Project
(1998), it was found that the water level of the DS corresponded to wet and dry
years in the DS watershed (Figure 1.6), as recorded by meteorological stations in
Jerusalem since 1850 (Middle East Water Data Banks Project, 1998). The water
level of the DS gradually increased (1882-1895) during a wet period, while dry
phases caused the water level to decline (1930-1936; 1954-1963) (Klein, 1981;
Klein, 1986; Middle East Water Data Banks Project, 1998).
Figure 1.6: Trends in the water level of the Dead Sea and rainfall in
J
e
r
u
s
a
l
e
m
Source: Middle East Water Data Banks Project, 1998 (modified from Klein, 1986)
22
1.3.8 Anthropogenic Impact
The former fluctuations of the water level can be linked to climatological changes (Klein et al, 1986; Middle East Water Data Banks Project, 1998), but the current decline is caused by the increasing level of anthropogenic interference. In 1964, two crucial developments occurred that would affect the future water level of the DS. The first was the completion of the Israeli National
Water Carrier, which construction had begun in 1958. Water is pumped from
Lake Kinneret towards the Coastal Plain, thus diverting water that originally flowed through the lower Jordan River to the DS. The second was the establishment of evaporation ponds in the western part of the southern basin operated by the DSW under Israeli jurisdiction (Figure 1.2).
The water level of the DS began to decline during the 1970s and by the end of the decade, very little water remained in the Lynch Strait (Figure 1.2). In
1976/7 the deep northern basin, which its water level stood at -399.6 meters, was separated from the shallow southern basin containing two-thirds and one- third of the total water body, respectively (Raz, 1993). The shallow water in the strait
(-400 m), along with the presence of the industrial debris, caused the formation of salt corals which blocked the water flow from the northern basin to the southern basin. The DSW has subsequently excavated a ditch to renew the water flow from the northern basin to the evaporation ponds.
The deep northern basin has a rectangular structure and its deepest point lies at -730 meters below mean sea level between Wadi Nar and Wadi Hasa
(Figure 1.7) (Raz, 1993; Gavrieli, 2002). The shallow southern basin is 23 comprised of several evaporation ponds (Figure 1.2). Here the lake bottom is currently rising 20 cm/yr due to the sedimentation of salt (Bein et al, 2004). The
APC in the Jordanian half was initiated and established in 1982/3, followed by an additional decline of the water level (Middle East Water Data Banks Project,
1998; Bein et al, 2004). The total area of the evaporation ponds in both Israel and Jordan stands at approximately 260 sq/km, having a water level at -403 meters and a water depth of only a few meters (Raz, 1993; Hall, 1997).
Currently, the water level decline is approximately one meter a year, comprising a yearly deficit of 650-700 Million Cubic Meters (MCM) (Bein et al, 2004;
Gavrieli et al, 2002).
1.3.8.1 Water Diversion
Anthropogenic impact in the DS is primarily due to water diversions in the upper part of the Jordan basin by Israel and Jordan for agriculture and in the southern part of the DS itself for industrial activities by both Israel and Jordan.
The natural water flow from the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) to the DS through the lower Jordan River has declined sharply in the last few decades due to human-made water diversion systems (Niemi et al, 1997; Becker et al, 2004;
Bein et al; Lipchin et al, 2004). Among these, the following are most notable:
(1) the Israel National Water Carrier that pumps water from Lake Kinneret to supply water for primarily agriculture but also for domestic use to most parts of
24
Figure 1.7: Batimetric Map of the Dead Sea Northern Basin
Source: Gertman and Hecht, 2002 25
Table 1.2: Water balance of the DS in the first half of the 20th century (estimated) and today
First half of the Today 20th century *Input sources (MCM/Year) (MCM/Year) The Jordan River 1100-1300 50-170 Direct flows from the west 100-170 100-170 (Kane, Samar and Zukim springs) Direct flows from the east 150-250 80-150 (the Arnun, Zered etc.) Direct rainfall 70-90 45-60 Unrecognized 100-200 ~100 groundwater Groundwater as a result of 1-meter - 50-400 water-level decline
Total input 1520-2010 425-1050
Output sources 1500-2000 815-1300 Water surface (1.5-2 evaporation (1.25-2 Meters/Year, Meters/Year,1000 650 Sq/Km) Sq/Km) Industrial-related evaporation - ~250 (Israel and Jordan) Total output 1500-2000 1065-1550 Source: the Geological Institute of Israel; modified from Bein et al, 2004.
* The figures in the above table are estimates and do not include the input from floods.
26 the country, as the Degania Dam at the southern outlet of Lake Kinneret blocks the natural water flow of the Jordan to the DS;
(2) the diversion of water from the Yarmukh, the main tributary of the Jordan
River, south of the Sea of Galilee, by Syria and Jordan; and (3) the damming of some of the side wadis that originally flowed to the DS.
According to available records (Bein et al, 2004), the total flow into the
DS (input) during the first half of the 20th century was estimated to have been between 1500 and 2000 MCM per year (table 1.2). Today the total amount of water reaching the DS is less than 1000 MCM per year.
1.3.8.2 Loss of Water through Industrial Evaporation Ponds Used for Obtaining Dead Sea Minerals
The DSW in Israel and the APC in Jordan are the main water consumers in the region. Both companies derive water from the following sources: a. Saline wells (amounted to 23 and 8 MCM/yr by the DSW and the
APC, respectively); this water is derived primarily for washing and scrubbing purposes (Consumption Survey, 2000-2003). b. The DS itself (amounted to 250 and 100 MCM/yr by the DSW and the
APC, respectively; this water is derived as part of the mineral extraction process and is basically used as a raw material (Raz, 1993).
The DSW derives water also from reservoirs that capture runoff water
(amounted to maximum 5.4 MCM/yr); this water is also derived primarily for 27
washing and scrubbing purposes (Consumption Survey, 2000-2003; DSP’s
Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
Most of the above mentioned water derived from wells and rain fed reservoirs is
discharged into the evaporation ponds as industrial wastewaters. Approximately
200-250 MCM/yr of the seawater used in the aforesaid process of mineral’
extraction evaporate, constituting a staggering 30% of the aforesaid annual DS’s
water deficit (Bein et al, 2004).
1.3.8.3 Loss of Water through Wells Water Pumping
Current discharges of the local springs situated in the locality of the western
shores of the DS (e.g. Kane and Samar springs) are expected to be reduced as a
result of pumping activities in the Herodion-Jerusalem group of wells situated
along the western replenishment zone of the DS (Flexer et al, 2002).
Figure 1.8:
Present water losses due to anthropogenic interferences 13%
54% 33%
Water Diversion Industrial Evaporation Agriculture use
Source: Bein et al, 2004; DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005; Raz, 1993
28
Additionally, massive pumping of water from the Hatzeva group in Wadi Arava,
have dramatically reduced the total groundwater influx into the DS (Gvirtzman
et al, 2002).
1.3.8.4 Water Use By Agriculture in the DS area
Finally, an increase in water use by agriculture in the DS region can be added to
the factors that account for the current water deficit of the lake. Approximately
100 MCM/yr are consumed by the agriculture sector in the area in all three
investigated study areas, comprising nearly 50% of the total water use in the
region, though only 13% of the water losses consequent to recent anthropogenic
interferences (Figure 1.8).
1.4 Relevance of this thesis
Serious changes in the local landscape have occurred near the Dead Sea, resulting from the recent water level decline (Becker et al, 2004; Bein et al, 2004):
1. The formation of sinkholes in both Jordan and Israel began in the late
1980’s, but has recently become more serious. More than 1000 sinkholes were formed as salt in the soil of the newly exposed land is dissolved by rain and runoff water. Underground cavities are formed as a result, leading to collapse of the soil surface. Some of the sinkholes are formed, being field with groundwater and are therefore often partially invisible until a further decline of the water level reveals them. Other sinkholes are formed under buildings and infrastructure on land. This has serious consequences for present settlement in the basin and for future development planning and expansion as well as for the economy of the region: 29
2. The bottom of the evaporation ponds of the Dead Sea Works have so far risen by 7.5 meters, due to the aforesaid salt accumulation. The projected rise in water level threatens the future existence of the hotels at the Ein-Bokek tourism site, forcing the DSW to construct embankments to protect the hotels from being flooded. In Jordan, every year US$ 280,000 are being spent by the hotels on shore stabilization related projects
(Frumkin et al, 2002; Becker et al, 2004).
3. Water and drainage pipes have been exposed and communication cables have been ruptured in Wadi Arugot near road 90 in Israel.
Consequently, the local regional councils had to invest millions of dollars to repair the infrastructure of the pipes and cables (Becker et al, 2004;
Bein et al, 2004).
4. The Ein-Gedi date plantation was damaged so badly that it had to be abandoned. Current estimation suggests losses of US$ 3 million due to losses of export crops (Becker et al, 2004; Bein et al, 2004). Furthermore, rough estimations regarding projected losses for the overall economy for the next 60 years suggest an “additional US$ 24 million annually, using a
3% discount rate” (Becker et al, 2004, page 5). The above-mentioned damage to the Ein-Gedi date plantation, amounting to 12 million NIS, was followed recently by forced plans of relocating the fields to Wadi Rahaf
(Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Ein-
Gedi, 2005). 30
It is important to note that the water level decline is a result of activities that occur far from the lake (water diversion), in the lake itself (industrial evaporation), and in the vicinity of the DS (local water management). Therefore, a comprehensive approach to understanding and attempting to halt the decline of the DS must include an analysis of the water use patterns and polices governing the activities around the lake. Understanding these patterns is extremely important, because human activity around the Dead Sea accounts for a staggering 46% of total water losses in the Dead Sea basin (Bein et al, 2004; DSP’s Overall Data Integration
Report, 2005; Raz, 1993).
At present, the general picture of the water balance around the DS (Figure
1.9) is fairly endurable.
Figure 1.9:
Water Availability and Consumption Around the Dead Sea
160 140 120 100 MCM/yr 80 Available 60 Consumed 40 20 0 Israel Jordan Jericho
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
Nonetheless, a broader examination should be made in relation to future
projections of supply and demand. Thus, regional master plans must take into 31 account increased pressure on local water resources for the various economic activities around the lake as well as population growth (Appendix 4). Regional master plans of the Israeli shore indicate massive tourist development, which is highly dependent on the extraction of water from local wells.
Moreover, the annual water quotum (granted by the Israel Water
Commission) of the Dead Sea Works, the major water consumer in the area, was increased recently by 157 percent in comparison with previous years (the IWC,
2003). Furthermore, an additional 1,000 dunams south of the lake are expected to be used for agriculture and the water demand of the agricultural sector in the area is estimated to increase by 14 percent (Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and
Agriculture Department in the TRC, 2004).
On the Jordanian side of the lake, water for domestic and tourism purposes in the near future is expected to increase by 200 percent and 600 percent, respectively, due to population growth and new hotels planned for the Dead
Sea's northeastern shore (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005). More concerning are a series of planned projects that are to transfer no less than 91 percent of the amount currently being used by the Jordanians in the vicinity of the lake (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
In the District of Jericho (PA), the most heavily populated Palestinian area in the lake's vicinity, demand for water is expected to double by 2020 due to high levels of population growth (3.5 percent, Haddad and Mizyed, 1996)
(DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005). 32
Other issues, such as water extraction permits and leakages, which at a
first glance seem to be unrelated to local water balance inventory, should not be
overlooked when examining potential changes in current local supply levels.
Between 1965 and 1995, for example, a reduction of 30 meters was recorded in
the water level of the Tamar wells. Between 1980 and 1995, an additional 30
meters of water from the “Amiaz” wells (both operated by the DSW) was
blended into a fossil aquifer system (Artzi, 1999; Arad and Michaeli, 1994). In
light of the aforementioned rise in the Dead Sea Works’ annual water quota, this
process of well-water mining is not only uncontrolled, but in fact enjoys the
support of the Israeli Water Commission. At the same time, industrial
wastewater is hardly used, rendering further depletion of other resources
inevitable.
Some 35 percent of water losses in the Jordanian and Palestinians areas
near the lake are caused by the evaporation of water stored in open tankers used
by the local farmers, leakages and over-irrigation of crops. This is cause for
concern, since as noted above, the pressure on local water resources is expected
to increase (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
Keller et al (1998) recognize a three-phase pattern that illustrates human treatment of river basin resources: the initial phase is characterized by exploitation, followed by the conservation stage and concluding with augmentation projects, usually from other basins. 33
In using the aforementioned model, it appears that the water system around the lake is nearing the end of the first phase. Demand levels will soon reach supply capabilities, thus disturbing the delicate water balance.
Projected stress stems from both active policies, such as damming the eastern wadis of the Dead Sea and from negligence, such as high water losses from leakages and the underutilization of WW. While it appears that the system can sustain current demands on its water sources, (figure 1.9) it is likely to face serious difficulties in the foreseeable future in meeting demands without further harm to local resources.
If water supplies begin to dwindle (and the ongoing large-scale projects in
Jordan appear to be well underway), new management practices will need to be implemented. In other words, a renewed Water Quantity Management approach may be required in all three political entities in order to alleviate pressure from local water resources.
Methods adopted by arid countries around the world to cope with water scarcity should serve as models for alternative practices that can encourage industries to reuse the wastewater generated within their premises and dissuade farmers from over-irrigating. At the same time, the introduction of new water sources for increasing water availability is also necessary. If the appropriate steps are taken, the projected levels of supply and demand of water around the
DS may be at the very least be balanced.
34
1.5 Main Objectives and Hypothesis for the MA Research
This thesis attempts to present for the first time a comprehensive water budget for the entire arid region of the Dead Sea. The study also aims at identifying the desirable levels of water supply at which the economic activities in the DS area will continue to function at their current capacity, while allowing room for further development and minimizing the deterioration of local resources. Finally, this study seeks to address potential alternative practices concerning local water use and supply patterns within the context of the Water Balance scheme.
Within this framework, the study seeks to test the hypothesis that the proper application of a Water Budget analysis for the DS can serve as an efficient tool for decision makers in the development of a long-term water balance strategy 35
2. Research Design
2.1 Research Subject
This thesis is carried out in the framework of a European Union funded project,
whose aims are to synthesize and assess existing physical and socio-economic
data and to assess options for a better future for the DS.
The primary postulation of this thesis is that humans have altered the
natural water balance and diminished local water resources through the different
economic activities around the DS. The different water use patterns from local
sources need to be examined in depth in the framework of the Water Budget
scheme.
2.2 Research Questions
As mentioned in section 1.3, the primary objective of this thesis is to identify the
necessary steps towards the development of a long-term water balance strategy in
the region. This will be explored through the following question:
1. What is the source of the water used around the Dead Sea in Israel,
Jordan and the District of Jericho?
2. What is the amount and quality of water used examined according
to the following sectors: agricultural, domestic, tourism and
industrial? 36
3. What types of agricultural crops are produced, what type of
irrigation systems are used, and what is the respective water use
per dunam?
4. What is the amount of wastewater generated and how is it
subsequently treated? How much and what quality of wastewater
reaches the Dead Sea?
5. What is the overall impact of water use by Israeli, Palestinian and
Jordanian activity in the Dead Sea?
6. Are there any alternatives to the current water use practices in the
three study areas that will result in adequate water management,
which may help to maintain the natural balance of the local water
sources?
2.3 Study Area
The total area of the project region is 4,600 sq/km, divided into three domains
(Figure 2.1): (1) the AIES (Arava Institute for Environmental Studies) domain, situated west of the Dead Sea and south of the West Bank; (2) the ARIJ
(Applied Research Institute Jerusalem) domain, also situated west of the Dead
Sea but inside the West Bank; (3) the ECO (Environmental Consultant Office) domain, situated east of the Dead Sea (Figure 2.1).
The Palestinian area investigated in this thesis is the city of Jericho and its surroundings, the only PA town in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. Any description denoted as the “Israeli study area” within this chapter refers also to the entire
Jericho’s district. 37
The Israeli study area lies along the following coordinates (according to the Israeli new coordinate system, 36N): 230000 to 247000 west to east (Y coordinates) and 540000 to 640000 south to north (X coordinates). The extent of the Israeli study area is shown in Figure 2.1. Its borders correspond with the two administrative boundaries of the two regional authorities that lie on the Dead Sea coast: the Tamar Regional Council (TRC) and the Megilot Regional Council
(MRC). The TRC lies within pre-1967 Israel, whereas MRC is located in the
West Bank. The highest elevation in the Israeli study area occurs at Beit Ummar, near Hebron, 1099 meters above sea level. The highest point in the entire study area lies near the South-eastern side of the basin along the highlands around Al
Tafila (1,605 m). The lowest elevation in the entire study area is of course the present surface of the DS at -412 meters. The hillslopes range from 0 to 64 degrees but are less than 9˚ in half of the study area. However the slopes are steep in the vicinity of the Dead Sea (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report,
2005).
The Jordanian study area extends from the eastern shores of the DS towards the highlands in the east up to 200 meters above sea level. The area extends from (using the UTM-36N coordinate system) 352312 in the north (Y coordinate) to 3432201 in the south (X coordinate). Elevations along the eastern highlands range from 1100 meters above sea level in the area of Karak (southern study area) to 800 meters above sea level in the area of Madaba (northern study area). The average slopes in the Jordanian study area range from 8.7% to 10.1%, going from a maximum elevation of only 200 m above sea level to the shore of 38 the Dead Sea, at -416 m below sea level (the DSP’s WP1 Jordanian internal report, 2004).
2.4 Social Economy of the Study Area
All three political entities have employment in the spheres of light and heavy industrial activities, as well as traditional and modern agriculture (mainly in terms of irrigation methods), and of course tourism.
The population in the Israeli study area is the lowest among the three riparian countries in the area of the DS. The Israeli population was composed in
2004 of 1,756 individuals (874 and 882 in TRC and MRC, respectively), living in 686 households (317 and 369 in TRC and MRC, respectively). The majority of these people reside in either a kibbutz or a moshav settlement whose primary economic activities are agriculture and tourism (rural lodging). Most of the employees at the DSW and the hotels come from outside the study area, for example Arad and Dimona (Lipchin et al, 2004).
The Jordanian study area had a population in 2004 of approximately
46,000 individuals, including a rural farming community estimated at 45,000 people. The population varies between small villages, Bedouin settlements, and towns. Additionally, 300 workers live on the premises of the APC.
The Palestinian area has by far the densest population within the DS basin, amounting to 512,000 people. Jericho was inhabited in 2004 by approximately 18,000 people, who lived in 2394 households, which comprised
3.5% of the total population and 5% of the total urban population in the
Palestinian study area. 39
The data compilation and analysis presented in this thesis were carried out as part of the project “The Future of the Dead Sea Basin: Options for a more
Sustainable Water Management”. This project was funded by the INCO DC
(International Cooperation of Developing Countries) of the Research Directorate
General of the European Commission. The Dead Sea Project (DSP) included five partners: (1) the Environmental Planning Department at ARC Seibersdorf,
Austria; (2) the Water Resource Systems Research Laboratory at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; (3) AIES (the Arava Institute for
Environmental Studies, Israel); (4) ARIJ (the Applied Research Institute-
Jerusalem, Palestinian Authority) and (5) ECO (Environmental Consulting
Office, Jordan).
Project meetings were held approximately every four months in the following locations: Kibbutz Ketura (Israel), Amman and Aqaba (Jordan),
Bethlehem (PA) and Brussels (Belgium).
40
Figure 2.1: A Spatial Extent of the Study Area
41
2.5 General information on the “Dead Sea Project”
The overall objective of the project was to establish a scientific basis for more sustainable water management and water-related land management in the DS basin (the DSP’s web site, 2005). Measurable objectives of the project included:
• Development of a GIS-based database that contains harmonized
and comparable physical, economic and social data.
• Establishment of realistic development scenarios until the year
2025.
• Analysis of the current water management system and its driving force.
• Establishment of criteria for essential water requirements for nature.
• Analysis of socially, economically and environmentally sound
alternatives for irrigated agriculture.
The project was divided into seven system synthesis work packages:
Work package 1 (WP1) - Data collection and harmonization
Work package 2 - Scenario development
Work package 3 - System analysis
Work package 4 - Assessment of options
Work package 5 - Synthesis
Work package 6 - Dissemination and participation
Work package 7 - Coordination 42
2.6 Data Collection for the MA Research within the Framework of the “Dead Sea Project”
2.6.1 Data Collection Duration and Period
The data presented in this thesis were collected as part of WP1 and correspond primarily with the activities carried out in TRC and MRC. Work on data collection started on February 1st, 2004 and ended on 30 June 2005. Consistent and homogeneous data on water allocation and consumption in the Israeli study area were obtained for four years covering the period 2000-2003. The 2000-
2003 water consumption surveys were conducted by the IWC. The information presented in this thesis is considered the most up-to-date within the available project database, referring to the years 2000-2003.
2.6.2 Problems Encountered and Solutions
During the aforesaid data collection process, some problems were encountered.
The main constraint with regards to the data collection was the DSW, which is the largest industrial entity in the region. Considering its very large water consumption in terms of industrial DS water evaporation, water use and overall influence in the area, special efforts were made to obtain water consumption- related data. However, it was difficult to attain the desired data, due to the special legal status of the firm as “a state within a state”.
Water-related issues in Israel are handled by various governmental agencies, which caused other bureaucracy-related problems. There was always a considerable waiting period from the time the required formal requests were sent to the official bodies and until their replies were received. An uncooperative 43 attitude was encountered while trying to obtain data from the Megilot Regional
Council (MRC), usually due to the involvement, though indirect, of Palestinian colleagues in the project.
Most of these problems were sooner or later resolved, as the relevant sources responsible for the information were identified and subsequently contacted. Information regarding the water demand of crops in the MRC was eventually acquired, but associated maps were not obtainable. Data on the volume of streams located within the municipality borders of the MRC were available for only one wadi, due to the lack of hydrological gauge stations in the area.
Problems were also encountered in Jordan and the PA, while trying to obtain information. In Jordan there was a reluctance to supply information from official institutions, due to political reasons. A lack of available data sets in general seems to be related to the fact that the study area is relatively unpopulated and does not have major infrastructures. Discrepancies between various data sources and a lack of comprehensive data sets posed constraints in the Jordanian study area.
The Environmental Consulting Office (ECO) in Jordan succeeded to overcome some of these problems. Requests had to be repeated in some cases and different personnel were contacted from the same institute to complete a data set. Some of the institutions often required personal contacts in order to obtain information that had not been previously published. Furthermore, most of the required data was available from multiple sources. Verification of the data was necessary in 44 such cases, as discrepancies were often found. If verification of data was not possible or practical, the judgment of experts in the specific field was requested in order to receive advise which source was to be considered as the most accurate, or whether averages should be used.
The major difficulties encountered in the PA are summarized below. The
PWA was often reluctant to supply water-related data. Furthermore, the obtained data were often inhomogeneous and most of the information was not updated.
The data and information could, therefore, not be included as they were inaccurate or below the project’s standards. Moreover, the complex political situation imposed restrictions, causing a prolonged delay in the acquisition of the required information.
The problems encountered by ARIJ were solved through personal communication with relevant managers and financial officers among the different sectors. In-depth analysis of Ikonos satellite images was very helpful
(See Section 2.14.2.2) and was conducted in relation to the 1997 ARIJ’s database. Information was also attained from AIES (See Section 2.15.1).
The entire process of data collection conducted as part of WP1 relied on fixed outlines given by the Research Directorate General of the European
Commission. During the project meetings the data were transferred between the participants, after being presented and discussed. The data were subsequently uploaded on a private web site of the project, facilitating access by the participants in both tabular format and graphic shape files. 45
2.7 Data collection in the Israeli study area
In general, contact with the associated departments within the relevant governmental agencies mentioned bellow was initiated through phone calls, followed by formal letters sent by emails and faxes. The information was provided through personal meetings, phone calls, emails, and faxes, and was sometimes retrieved from official web sites.
2.7.1 Data collection of water resources and their quality
Information about water resources and their quality in the Israeli study area was obtained from the following sources:
1. Mekorot- the Israeli National Water Company
2. Israeli Water Commission (IWC)
3. Agriculture Departments, MRC
4. Agriculture Departments, TRC
5. Drainage Authority (DA)
6. Agriculture and Water Department at Kibbutz Ein-Gedi
7. Geological Institute of Israel
8. Hydrological Service of Israel (HIS), the Israeli Water
Commission (IWC)
9. Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel
10. Engineering Department, TRC
Data on pumping rates of privately operated wells were attained from the IWC.
Data on pumping rates of wells operated by Mekorot were attained from
Mekorot. Data on water flow of springs were obtained from the IWC, HIS, 46
Agriculture and Water Department in Kibbutz Ein-Gedi and Mekorot. Data on
Surface Water Reservoirs were attained from the DA. Data on Waste Water
(WW) were provided by the Engineering Department, TRC. Data on water supplied from the National Water Carrier (NWC) was provided by Mekorot.
Data on the volumes of stream flow in wadis located within the borders of TRC were attained from measurements conducted by the IWC, using hydrological gauge stations. In wadis where gauge stations were not placed, figures were calculated based on mathematical models. All the figures represent the peak volumes of stream flow at an occurrence rate of one in five years.
Data on the single stream located within the borders of MRC were attained from measurements conducted by the IWC, using gauge stations that measured rain storms. The temporal extent of the data covers the period 1990-2002.
Data on discharge levels of wells were presented in cubic meters (C/M) per hour for the year 2004, while their annual production level was also displayed for 2004. The discharge levels of springs were presented annually, while the period available varied. Information for the David, Shulamit, Gedi and
Arugot springs covers 14 years (1990-2003), as conducted by the IWC. The data were presented in C/M per month and modified into annual averages in order to avoid discrepancies with other data presented in annual form. Information on the discharge levels of the Zukim group of springs was obtained for 6 years of measurements (2002 -1 measurement, 2003-2004- 4 measurements and 2005 -1 measurement), also conducted by the IWC. The original data were given in 47 liters-per-second and modified into annual averages in order to enable comparison with other data.
Similarly, the discharge levels of the Kane and Samar springs, available for one year of measurements (2004-2005), conducted by the IWC, were recalculated from liters-per-second into annual averages. No information was found in the scientific literature on the Komran, Tanur Hamei Zohar and Hamei
Yesha springs.
Information on the capacities of surface water reservoirs was presented annually in million cubic meters (MCM), based on the assumption that at the end of each summer the water is either utilized for local purposes or has evaporated.
Data on the quality of water were presented according to a “water quality index”, provided by the IWC. Thus the level of salinity, defined in milligrams of chloride per liter (mg/cl/l), expresses the quality of the water. All the data mentioned above were provided mainly in tabular format and also through graphic shape files.
2.7.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption in the Israeli study area Data on water allocation and consumption were presented in C/M per year.
2.7.3 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the industrial sector in the Israeli study area
Information on water allocation and consumption within the industrial sector was obtained from data provided by the IWC. This information contained water 48 allocation quotas given to the DSW and the water production levels by the DSW in 2004. In addition, data were obtained from 2000-2003 annual water consumption surveys conducted by the IWC. Furthermore, information was also obtained from the following sources:
1. Agriculture and Water Department in Kibbutz Ein-Gedi
2. Mekorot- the Israeli National Water Company
3. DA
4. Ecology and Infrastructure Department of Rotem Amphert
Data were largely provided in tabular format and the rest through shape files.
2.7.4 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the agricultural sector in the Israeli study area
Data on water allocation and consumption within the agricultural sector were obtained from 2000-2003 annual water consumption surveys conducted by the
IWC.
In addition, data were attained from the following sources:
1. Agriculture and Water Department in Kibbutz Ein-Gedi
2. Mekorot- the Israeli National Water Company
3. DA
4. Agriculture and Water Departments in both MRC and TRC
5. Agriculture Department in AIES
Water demand by crops was calculated per dunam in C/M. The majority of the data were provided in tabular format and the rest through shape files. 49
2.7.4.1 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the tourism sector in the Israeli study area
Data on water allocation and consumption within the tourism sector were collected from 2000-2003 annual water consumption surveys conducted by the
IWC and from the following sources:
1. Agriculture and Water Department in Kibbutz Ein-Gedi
2. Mekorot- the Israeli National Water Company
3. Israeli Bureau of Statistics
In addition, existing data regarding the occupancy rates within the hotels and guesthouses in the study area were verified, so that estimates of future water consumption within this sector would be as accurate as possible. This was deemed necessary in view of the unstable political situation in the area and discrepancies with the occupancy rates given by the Israeli Bureau of Statistics.
This verification was conducted via telephone surveys amongst ten guesthouses in both of the investigated regional councils. The Head of the Hotel’s Union in the DS area was also interviewed.
Data on water allocation and consumption within the hotels were calculated per hotel and presented in C/M. Data on water allocation and consumption within the guesthouses were included within the water allocation and consumption of the domestic sector since these guesthouses are usually built as supplementary units adjacent to existing houses in the settlements. The data were presented in C/M. The bulk of the data was provided in tabular format and the rest through shape files. 50
2.7.4.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the domestic sector in the Israeli study area
Data on water allocation and consumption within the domestic sector were collected from annual water consumption surveys conducted by the IWC in the period 2000-2003, as well as from the following sources:
1. Agriculture and Water Department in Kibbutz Ein-Gedi
2. Mekorot- the Israeli National Water Company
3. Financial Department, TRC
4. Ministry of Interior
Data on water allocation and consumption within the domestic sector were calculated per settlement and displayed in C/M. The major part of the data was provided in tabular format and the rest through shape files.
2.7.4.3 Data collection of the types of agricultural crops produced and the irrigation systems used
Data on the types of crops grown and the irrigation systems used were provided by the Heads of the Agriculture and Water Departments of TRC and MRC during personal meetings. Additional information was provided via phone calls, emails, faxes and the internet.
2.7.4.4 Data collection of the amount of Wastewater (WW) generated, treated and reused
The following sources provided data on wastewater:
1. Department of Engineering, MRC
2. Department of Engineering, TRC 51
3. Tamar Water Association
4. Agriculture and Water Department in Kibbutz Ein-Gedi
5. Ministry of Environment
6. DSW
7. Sewage Administration
Information was also retrieved from 2000-2003 annual water consumption surveys conducted by the IWC.
Data on the amount of WW generated and reused were calculated per wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and presented in C/M. Data on the level of treatment, the amounts of the suspended solids and the levels of organic materials found in the water were presented in Ml/liter. Data were provided in tabular format.
2.7.4.5 Data collection of the population size and number of households within the Israeli study area
Contact was initiated with the relevant departments within the nine settlements located in the Israeli study area, followed by formal letters sent to each of the settlement’s secretariat. Information on the population size and number of households within the Israeli study area was provided through emails and faxes.
Data were provided in tabular format.
2.8 Field trips
Following the aforementioned data collection process, several field trips were executed. 52
2.8.1 Field trip to MRC
A field trip to MRC was conducted for the following purposes:
1. Meeting with a Palestinian colleague from the DSP in which
final coordination regarding the data compilation was arranged.
2. Briefing on how to operate the GPS device, through which X
and Y coordinates will be collected, was given.
3. Due to security issues, the Palestinian colleague could not enter
some parts of the Palestinian study area (located within the
borders of MRC). Therefore, an escort of both the thesis writer
and his supervisor was required.
4. Reference coordinates were collected in Ein-Gedi’s date
plantations and at a few junctions in MRC by a Garmin
GPSMAP 296 Global Positioning System (GPS) device. These
reference coordinates were used by the aforementioned
Palestinian colleague to verify information retrieved through
remote sensing methods (See also 2.14.2.2).
2.8.2 Field trip to TRC
A field trip to TRC was executed as part of the 5th DSP meeting for the following purposes:
1. A meeting was held with local stakeholders to clarify the
purposes of the project. The objectives of this thesis were
reviewed in this meeting and relevant questions were
asked. A discussion ensued on how to increase the level of 53
cooperation between the project’s members and the local
stakeholders in order to provide better information. Finally,
a presentation concerning the engineering-related impacts
subsequent to the water level decline was given by the vice-
manager of the Engineering Department in TRC
2. A bus tour was conducted during which information was
provided by local hydrogeologists, water and agriculture
experts regarding the sinkholes and the future survival of
the hotel-related problems in view of the DS water level
decline.
2.8.3 Field trip to Ein-Bokek tourism site
A field trip to the Ein-Bokek tourist site was carried out. The X and Y coordinates of each hotel were measured using a Garmin GPSMAP 296 Global
Positioning System (GPS) device.
2.9 Literature review
An in-depth literature review was conducted (sections 2.7, 2.11-2.18) providing a general background of the study area, as well as theoretical information essential for this thesis.
2.10 Data analysis and mapping in the Israeli study area
The X and Y coordinates as well as the shape files of the different sites presented in the maps included of this thesis were collected from the following sources: 54
The Survey of Israel - Shape files of the DS and the borders of both MRC and
TRC were provided in ITM-36N coordinate system. 1:50,000 topographic map -
X and Y coordinates of the settlements, guesthouses, the DSW, Periclas, Ein-
Gedi and Rotem Amphert industrial apparatuses, field crops in MRC, proposed date plantations of Ein-Gedi, springs, Rotem Plateau and the WWTP located in
MRC were obtained using ITM-36N coordinate system.
Garmin GPSMAP 296 Global Positioning System (GPS) device - X and Y coordinates of the hotels and Neve-Zohar were noted using ITM-36N coordinate system.
Formal Institutions - X and Y coordinates of the surface water reservoirs in TRC were provided by the DA of TRC; X and Y coordinates of the WWTP located in
TRC were provided by the Department of Engineering, TRC; X and Y coordinates of the production wells were provided by Mekorot and the IWC. All coordinates were provided using ITM-36N coordinate system and UTM-36N coordinate system which was transformed into ITM-36N coordinate system.
Data were analyzed using Excel software. Statistical and tabular data were linked to the spatial data and imported to Arc GIS 8.3 software for visual/spatial representation where necessary. Maps were created using ArcGIS 8.3 based on the information collected in sections 2.7-2.8 and 2.11-2.18.
2.11 Data collection in the Jordanian study area
The following description regarding the data collection conducted by ECO and
ARIJ in the Jordanian and Palestinian study areas, respectively, were obtained 55 from the DSP’s WP1 internal reports published by the three riparian partners at the 4th project meeting.
The required data in the Jordanian study area could be found mainly within governmental institutions, universities and NGOs as well as through various publications. The main governmental agencies that possessed the required data include:
1. Jordan Valley Authority (JVA)
2. Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI)
3. Royal Jordanian Geographic Center
4. Jordanian Ministry of Agriculture
5. Jordan Water Authority (JWA)
6. Jordanian Natural Resources Authority
7. Jordanian Department of Meteorology
8. Jordanian Department of Statistics
Most of these data-holding institutions and organizations required written approval from their respective Ministers for the release of any official information that was not already available to the public in various publications free of charge. Feasibility studies, baseline studies, and technical reports of various projects were the most easily accessible. These contained valuable data, including an evaluation of their validity, as well as conclusions and/or recommendations pertaining to the data.
Regarding the mapping data, various sources were used depending on the availability of maps covering the different subjects. All of the maps and 56 information layers required digitizing and were often found at the required level of accuracy. The statistical and tabular data were linked to the spatial data and imported to ArcView 3.1 software for visual/spatial representation where necessary (the DSP’s WP1 Jordanian internal report, 2004).
2.11.1 Data collection of water resources and their quality in the Jordanian study area
Information on water resources and water quality in the Jordanian study area were obtained through personal communications from the following sources:
1. Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI)
2. Jordan Water Authority, Department of Statistics (JWA)
3. Published map with no scale available
4. ARIJ database
In addition, two ground-truthing field evaluations were carried out for GIS mapping purposes. Information on water course discharge was obtained from the
MWI and the JWA. Data digitized from 1:50,000 maps covered the following wadis: Wadi Wala, Wadi Mujib, Wadi Ibn Hammad (from the MWI), Wadi
Dra'a, Wadi Hasa, Wadi Feifa, Wadi Khneizira and Wadi Karak (from the
JWA). Information on the quality of the rain-captured water was provided by the
JWA. Yearly averages were collected during 1995-1998 and monthly averages from 1999-2002. The data set’s temporal extent extends from 1990-2002, while the temporal resolution covers two months per year, April and October of each year. Information on the discharge levels of springs was obtained from measurements conducted from the 1930’s to the 1980’s. Additional information 57 was retrieved from measurements carried out from the 1980’s to 2002/3. The reason for the sporadic data is that measurements were not made on a regular basis and their frequency varies depending on flow levels.
2.11.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption in the Jordanian study area
Data collection of water allocation and consumption in the Jordanian study area were obtained through the following sources:
1. Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI)
2. Jordan Water Authority, Department of Statistics (JWA)
3. Published map with no scale available
4. ARIJ database
In addition, two ground truthing fields were carried out.
2.11.2.1 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the industrial sector in the Jordanian study area
The Jordanian study area includes four industrial sites. However, data from the
JWA were only available for one of the industrial sites, the APC. It was explained that only the APC uses a considerable amount of water and water allocation data refer to them only. X and Y coordinates of the industrial plants were obtained using a GPS device.
2.11.2.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the agricultural sector in the Jordanian study area
58
Data were obtained from the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature
2.11.2.3 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the tourism sector in the Jordanian study area
Data were obtained from the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.
2.11.2.4 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the domestic sector in the Jordanian study area
Data were not readily available. Hence calculations were based on the per capita water supply figures obtained from the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, along with population data obtained from the Department of Statistics. The figure used by the Ministry of Jordanian Water and Irrigation was 120 liters per capita per day (World Health Organization’s standard for domestic use (Handidu, 1990)) therefore may serve as general indicator concerning the water consumption within urban villages in the study area. X and Y coordinates of the settlements were acquired using a GPS device.
2.12 Data collection of the types of agricultural crops produced and the irrigation systems used in the Jordanian study area
Although data were not available, personnel from the JWA assured the
Jordanian project team that drip irrigation technology is used in the study area.
2.13 Data collection of the amounts of WW generated, treated and reused in the Jordanian study area
59
Data on the total amounts of WW generated, treated and reused were provided by the following sources:
1. MWI
2. JWA
The data were obtained through consultations with JWA personnel, as well as through model estimations conducted by ECO. The data refer to the period
1994-2004 with a monthly temporal resolution presented in C/M. Data on the level of treatment, including a description of the suspended solids and levels of organic materials found in the water, were presented in ppm.
2.14 Data collection of the population size and number of households within the Jordanian study area
Population data were obtained from the Ministry of Water and Irrigation,
Department of Statistics.
2.15 Data collection in the Palestinian study area
2.15.1 Data collection of water resources and their quality in the Palestinian study area
Information on the water resources and their quality in the Palestinian study area were obtained through the following sources:
1. Mekorot- the Israeli National Water Company
2. Palestinian Water Authority (PWA)
3. IWC 60
Information on the pumping rates from private wells and their quality was obtained through the PWA for the year 2002. Information on the pumping rates from wells operated by Mekorot and their quality was provided by AIES.
Information on the volume of springs was obtained from the ARIJ database.
Data were obtained for the years 1997-2004. Information on annual volume of streams was estimated based on surface hydrological models, in view of the lack of hydrological gauge stations. Information concerning the water quality of the streams was not found.
Information on the water quality was attained from the following sources:
• ARIJ database collected through Charged Device Modeling
(CDM) for the years 1970-2002
• Water Sector Strategic Planning Study (Rishmawi, 2004)
• Ikonos satellite images from 2004
• Interactive mapping site of the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem; data from 2001
2.15.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption in the Palestinian study area
2.15.2.1 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the industrial sector in the Palestinian study area
Information was obtained through a third party currently conducting joint research with the PWA as well as through interviews with the industrial plants.
Data were presented in C/M. 61
2.15.2.2 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the agricultural sector in the Palestinian study area
Information on agricultural cropping patterns and their spatial distribution were obtained from the analysis of Ikonos satellite images, acquired from the image database of the GIS and Remote Sensing Unit of ARIJ. This helped produce a
Corine level 2 land use map. Reliable estimations of the levels of water consumption per crop were based on the above-mentioned images.
2.15.2.3 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the tourism sector in the Palestinian study area
Information was obtained through interviews with hotel managers and financial officers
2.15.2.4 Data collection of water allocation and consumption within the domestic sector in the Palestinian study area
Interviews conducted in 2004 with municipal, rural and council engineers provided the information, as well as from the Palestinian Center for Bureau of
Statistics (PCBS). The latter information refers to 1997. In general, water consumption within the domestic sector was calculated based on the total amount of water supplied to the sector by Mekorot and the PWA, as well as from private-owned wells and rainwater harvesting minus the unaccounted for water. 62
2.16 Data collection of the types of agricultural crops produced and the irrigation systems used in the Palestinian study area
Information on agricultural crops produced was obtained from the analysis of
Ikonos satellite images, acquired from the image database of the GIS and
Remote Sensing Unit of ARIJ. Information on the irrigation systems used was attained via personal communication with the Head of the Palestinian team in the DSP.
2.17 Data collection of the amounts of Wastewater generated, treated and reused in the Palestinian study area
Wastewater data were provided by the Water and Environment Research Unit of
ARIJ, based on measurements conducted in 2004. Data on the total amounts of
WW generated, treated and reused within the industrial sector were provided by the Water and Environment Research Unit of the ARIJ database from 1997. This information was acquired by interviewing managers of the industrial plants in
2004.
2.18 Data collection of the population size and number of households within the Palestinian study area
Socio-economic data were obtained on a local level from the PCBS. Data refer to the year 1997.
63
3. Water Resources Management in the Regional Councils
near the Dead Sea: Israel
This chapter presents a compilation and analysis of recent data about water resources and their management in the Israeli Regional Councils situated near the Dead Sea. The annual capacity of the water sources stands at approximately
170 MCM. The amount of water used in the entire study area on the Israeli side of the Dead Sea amounted to 58 MCM in 2003. Ninety percents of the water used originated inside the study area, either from local water resources or through wastewater (WW) reuse. The remaining 10% of water comes from outside the study area, either from the National Water Carrier or through WW reuse which was imported, though the latter figure is expected to grow gradually in the foreseeable future, a process outlined below.
3.1 Hydrogeology of the study area: Israel
A compilation of recent data is presented here regarding the distribution of production wells, their levels of discharge and their utilizations in the entire study area. Presently, there are 76 production wells (Tables 3.1-3.2, Figure 3.1) within the borders of the study area. They supply an average of 58% (Figures
3.4-3.5, 2003) of the total amount (37 MCM in 2003) of water allocated annually to the industrial, agricultural, tourism and domestic sectors. Of the 76 wells, 72 are located within the borders of the Tamar Regional Council (TRC),
64
Figure 3.1
Source: Mekorot, the National Water Company; the IWC
65
Table 3.1: Production wells supplying water in the Tamar Regional Council (not including the ones operated by the Dead Sea Works (appendix 1))
Discharge Annual production Name of the well Depth(m) Level of Salinity (/mg/l) Quality (m³/hr) (MCM, 2004) Neot hakikar 1 71.3 1100 Saline 40 0.099
Brackish 60 0.1765 1000 82.5 בNeot hakikar 1
Neot hakikar 2 62.3 800 Brackish 100 0.7555
Brackish 30 0.1805 800 57.8 אNeot hakikar 3
Neot hakikar 20 90 1000 Brackish 60 0.222
Neot hakikar 21 107.3 400 Brackish 110 0.6375
Neot hakikar 22 110 600 Brackish 20 0.049
Neot hakikar 23 21 600 Brackish 40 0.131
Neot hakikar 24 20.5 600 Brackish 20 0.0625
Neot hakikar 25 110 700 Brackish 150 0.74
Neot hakikar 26 138.8 800 Brackish 120 0.5615
Neot hakikar 27 165 1100 Saline 120 0.595
Neot Isuf Maaianot 0 1000 Brackish - 0.0775
Ein Bokek Isuf Maaianot 0 500 Brackish - 0.245
Neot hakikar 4 24.1 1000 Brackish 20 0.1515
Saline 154 0.6915 1070 91 גNeot hakikar 1
Neot hakikar 7 26.8 886 Brackish 40 0.2435
Neot hakikar 8 21 1400 Saline 20 0.081
Kikar sdom3 81.7 1770 Saline 60 0.2725
Maktesh Katan 1 214 220 Fresh 60 0.221
Maktesh Katan 3 709 730 Brackish 90 0.285
Brackish 130 0.943 770 760 אMaktesh Katan 4
Brackish 120 0.612 440 412 אMaktesh Katan 5
Maktesh Katan 6 656 600 Brackish 120 0.785
The Mediterranean Sea 22,900*
The DS 224,900*
Total 8.8185
Source: Mekorot, the National Water Company; the IWC; * Yechieli and Arad, 1997 66
with 48 of them operated by the Dead Sea Works (DSW) (Figure 3.1; appendix
1) through a renewable license1 issued by the Israeli Water Commission (IWC).
The remaining 4 wells (Table 3.2) are located within the borders of Megilot
Regional Council (MRC), all operated by Mekorot.
Table 3.2: wells supplying water in the Megilot Regional Council
Dischar Annual Name of the Level of Salinity Depth(m) Quality ge production Drilling (mg/l) (m³/hr) (MCM, 2004)
Mizpe 493 Drinking 332 1.8 Jericho2 Less than 400 Mizpe 450 Drinking 294 1.9 Jericho5 Less than 400 Mizpe 417.5 Drinking 50 0.25 Jericho6 Less than 400 Jericho2 601 Less than 400 Drinking 226 0.7 4.65 Total
Source: Mekorot, the National Water Company
The water used by all sectors in the study area is obtained primarily from
wells (Figures 3.3-3.4). Therefore, understanding the workings and dominant
properties of the study area’s groundwater aquifers is vital for the discussion
presented below. Although numerous researchers have developed theories
regarding the total capacity of the groundwater sources and their properties,
there is a significant amount of information that remains vague. Therefore, the
1 The license is valid for one year at a time, during which the Water Commissioner may accept or deny requests for independent operation and production of water (Pers. Comm., Licensing, Apparatuses and Operating Director of the IWC, 2005).
67 conclusions reached regarding the implications of groundwater use in the region should be reviewed with some reservations.
Mazor (1997) defined an aquifer as “a permeable rock body that contains water in all its cavities and can sustain wells or springs. All parts of an aquifer are hydraulically interconnected. Thus, adjacent wells or springs that tap groundwater with a similar composition, age and temperature are likely to tap the same aquifer, whereas adjacent wells or springs that significantly differ in the properties of their water belong to different aquifers”. This definition identifies two types of aquifers: rechargeable and non-rechargeable. In the former, groundwater flows through the aquifer, and may indicate a rechargeable system, while in the latter, the groundwater remains motionless and may indicate a static system (Mazor, 1997).
Because of the similarity of their chemical composition, Mazor (1997) grouped the majority of the production wells located in TRC together, terming them the “Kikar- Noit Water Group”. Samples taken in the Kikar-Noit group indicate it as an independent system, bearing different properties than those of the DS’s water (Table 3.1). Mazor and Mero (1969) suggested that some of the
68
Figure 3.2: Replenishment zones of the Dead Sea’s western watershed
groundwater within this group of wells contains saline water that was captured in the Late Pleistocene. It is believed that this water originated from the intrusion of seawater through Esderlon Valley during antiquity, around the time of the formation of Lake Lisan (Mazor, 1997; Goldschmidt et al, 1967). 69
The composition of this water has altered during history, bearing over time properties of both seawater and minerals from rocks in the region. Previous measurements made in the Gulf of Suez demonstrated the plausibility of interaction between seawater and aquifer rocks (Mazor, 1997).
The overhead and underground watersheds correlate but are not identical. The former regime depends on the amount of rainfall, which changes with altitude and vary from 700 mm/yr near Ramallah to 400 mm/yr near Hebron.
Most of the region is influenced by the rainshadow effect and is therefore characterized by arid conditions (70 mm/yr on average), despite the short distance from the western watershed (Arad, 1964). As mentioned above, there are numerous sources of water adjacent to the DS, but they differ in their salinity levels as well as in their chemical composition (DSW, 1994; Yechieli and Arad,
1997).
Arad and Michaeli (1964) estimated the total amount of groundwater flowing to the DS to be about 100 MCM/Yr (Figure 3.2). The Eastern Mountain
Basin of the DS covers an area of about 3,080 sq/km and includes the eastern part of the Mountain Belt and the steep western escarpment of the Jordan Rift
Valley (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
The active hydrological system along the western basin of the DS is divided into two groups of aquifers (Gvirtzman, 2002; Yechieli and Arad, 1997):
The upper is called the Judea Group aquifer strata, made of limestone and
Dolomite (maximum thickness of 500 meters); the lower is the Kurnub Group aquifer strata, made of sandstones (maximum thickness of 400 meters). The 70 water in both the Kurnub and Judea groups vary between brackish (See index in table 3.5, from 630-730 mg/l in the Tamar wells to 500 in Ein Bokek, respectively) to saline (from 1500-2000 mg/l in Amiaz and Ye’elim wells to
9577 in Zohar, respectively). In some wells, the salinity levels can reach extremely high levels of salinity of tens of thousands of ml/l in both groups.
The active hydrogeological system in the western watershed of the DS bears more resemblance to the Judea group than the Kurnub group (Yechieli and
Arad, 1997). Since evaporation is rather high (3100 mm/yr), recharge takes place primarily in the replenishment zones, situated in the Red mountains (250 mm/yr, east of the Arava Wadi) and the Negev mountains (100 mm/yr, west of the Arava Wadi) (Gvirtzman, 2002).
The water flows through local streams towards the DS, partly penetrating the aquifer beneath the washout fans (Shiftan and Miro, 1980; Shiftan, 1958).
However, massive pumping of water from the Hatzeva group in Wadi Arava, have dramatically reduced the total groundwater influx into the DS (Gvirtzman et al, 2002). The hydraulic division between the Judea and Kurnub groups becomes less coherent towards its southern section due to a reduction in the thickness of the chalky layer dividing the groups. Due to past geological activity in the area, this hydraulic division is partial only (DSW, 1994; Rosenthal et al,
1981). Hence, it is assumed that the lower aquifer is fed by water seeping from the upper aquifer, creating one aquifer (Gvirtzman, 2002; Naor et al, 1987).
However, the hydraulic connections between the aforesaid groups are not clearly 71 understood by researchers and remain disputed mainly due to the lithologic variability (Yechieli and Arad, 1997).
Researchers assume the region of Mount Sinai helps replenish the water drained to the DS. The maximum groundwater level of the sandstone aquifer in
Mount Sinai is 200 meters. The groundwater flows to the Suez Bay, Eilat Bay and to the Negev. Some of water from the Negev flows toward the Arava Basin, where it then splits, with some flows toward Eilat Bay, south of the Pharan geological rift, and some towards the DS, north of the Pharan geological rift.
However, while this system carries rechargeable characteristics, other dominant parameters in the region, such as low levels of precipitation and high levels of evaporation, limit its potential.
Moreover, flooding, a major source of recharge for these aquifers occurs only 2-3 days annually (Gvirtzman, 2002). While Issar (1985) and Issar et al
(1980) maintain that there are over 200 Billions Cubic Meters (BCM) stored in fossil aquifers since ancient times dating to the Ice Age, this number remains disputed (Gvirtzman et al, 2002).
In addition to the groundwater systems mentioned above, the Arava groundwater system is another system being drained partially to the DS. Since the amount of rainfall in the Arava is fairly low (20 mm/yr) and levels of evaporation are rather high (3600 mm/yr), the recharge is mainly linked to precipitation occurring in the Red mountains (250 mm/yr, east of the Arava
Wadi) and the Negev mountains (100 mm/yr, west of the Arava wadi)
(Gvirtzman, 2002). Some of this water flows through local streams towards the 72
DS, with some penetrating the aquifer beneath the washout fans (Shiftan and
Miro, 1980; Shiftan, 1958). However, because of the massive pumping of water from the Hatzeva group in Wadi Arava, the amount of water that reaches the DS has been reduced dramatically (Gvirtzman et al, 2002).
3.2 Current usages of wells
Figure 3.3 and figure 3.5 show the importance of wells in TRC as the main source from
Figure 3.3:
Water consumption by Sector (Tamar Regional Council, 2003)
100%
80%
60% 6.2 1.8 40% 25 National Water Carrier 0.5 Freshwater (Springs) 20% Surface water reservoirs 0% Wastewaters reuse Domestic Agriculture Industry Tourism Wells
Source: 2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC
which water is being derived. Results show that 40% of the water being supplied to the Domestic sector is obtained from wells, with the number reaching almost
60% in the Industrial sector, more than 80% in the Agricultural sector and 73 almost 100% in the Tourism sector (the distribution within each of the sectors will be presented later on in chapters 4.1-4.4).
Due to the high dependency on groundwater (Figures 3.5-3.7), understanding the potential of production from both fossil and rechargeable aquifers is necessary in order to better estimate their current condition and availability.
Figure 3.4:
Water consumption by sector (Megilot Regional Council, 2003)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20% Springs 0% Imported WW Agriculture Domestic Wells
Source: 2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC
The annual potential production of water from fossil aquifers in the Negev that will meet current needs (rendering to necessary to overcome high levels of salinity, high concentration of iron and sulfur) stands at 50 MCM (Issar, 2001).
The annual potential of production from the Arava system stands at 40 MCM, with 28 MCM estimated to be drained underground to the DS (Adar et al, 1992; 74
Shiftan and Miro, 1980; Shiftan, 1958). Seventy percent of this water is
considered low quality, seeping from the fossil Negev aquifer.
Figure 3.5:
Water allocation by source (Tamar Regional Council, 2003)
0.3% 5.5, 11% 1, 2%
Wells 10, 20% National Water Carrier Fresh water (SWR) Wastewaters reuse 33.5, 67% Frseh water (Springs)
Source: 2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC
Table 3.3: Water allocation and production of the Dead Sea Works (C/M, 1999-2004)
Year Allocation Production 1999 22,600 24,354
2000 22,600 22,215 2001 22,600 22,816 2002 22,600 25,150 2003 22,600 21,235
2004 35,500 No data Average 23,154
Source: the IWC 75
Nevertheless, the DSW currently holds a license which enables it to derive more than 23 MCM annually (Table 3.3, 1999-2003; appendix 1), extracted from 48 wells. A large amount of the water is obtained from fossil aquifers (Artzi, 1999). The water level in these aquifers has been dramatically reduced due to excessive pumping by the DSW that exceeds the recharging capacity. The extraction of groundwater exceeds that of the DS itself and stands at more than one meter a year. Between the years 1965-1995, for example, a reduction of 30 meters was noted in the water level of Tamar wells, and 30 meters in “Amiaz” wells (Figure 3.1, part of the wells operated by the DSW) between 1980 and 1995. Arad and Michaeli (1964) pointed out that these reductions indicate that the water is derived from a non rechargeable aquifer.
Because the salinity levels of this fossil water are fairly high, its extraction was proved efficient for domestic usage (after a desalination process) and industrial usage (such as cleaning and scrubbing, partially without desalination) (Gvirtzman, 2002). However, it is assumed that the process of over-pumping leads to higher salinization of the fossil water, because the water is mixed with ancient groundwater brines. However, not enough studies have been conducted on this issue to make conclusive judgments (Artzi, 1999; Naor et al, 1991).
While the deterioration mentioned above can be associated with excessive pumping by the DSW and its industrial extensions (see next chapter), the implications of the continuous emergence of new sinkholes also play a role. 76
The presence of the evaporation ponds along the southern basin and their impermeable structure due to massive stratification of salts in the bed of the ponds has caused major diversions in the flow of groundwater. Since the interface (the boundary between the relatively sweet groundwater and the DS’s water) regime beneath the evaporation ponds has been deactivated, preventing a mixture between the two, this water is being diverted northward, where the bottom layers are more permeable and the interface is more activated.
Figure 3.6:
Water allocation by source (Megilot Regional Council, 2003) Total: 7.4 MCM 0.4%
48%
51.5% Wells Imported WW Springs
Source: 2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC
This process, followed by higher water level in the ponds, leads to an increase in sinkholes in the northwestern segment of this pond (Bein et al, 2004;
Yechieli et al, 2004).
While in TRC there are over 70 active production wells, only 4 wells supply water for MRC (Table 3.2; figure 3.1; figure 3.6). All 70 of the wells 77 belong to the Judea Group aquifer strata. However, it is important to note that, while the maximum depth in the southern group (within TRC) is 500 meters, in the northern group (within MRC) maximum depth stands at 850 meters.
Moreover, while in the southern group there is uncertainty regarding the inner formation of the aquifer, according to Flexer et al (2002), within the northern group, a clear division between two sub-aquifers was found during drillings adjacent to the investigated wells. All of the wells hold freshwater, and flow regime is from west to east (Table 3.2; table 3.5).
Figure 3.7:
Trends in water consumption by water resource (Megilot Regional Council, 2000-2003)
8 7 6 5 Wells
MCM 4 Imported WW 3 Fresh water 2 (Reservoirs) 1 Fresh water 0 (Springs) General 2000 2001 2002 2003 Years
Source: 2000-2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC
However, in the vicinity of the Mizpe Jericho group, freshwater flows only in the upper aquifer due to the presence of steady brines in the lower aquifer
(Flexer et al, 2002). According to Flexer et al (2002), geochemical 78 measurements showed that the Mizpe Jericho and the Zukim group of springs bear similar properties. Additionally, it was found that a reduction in Zukim spring’s outlet follows the extraction of water from the Mizpe Jericho Group.
3.3 Discharge levels of springs
The data in this subchapter illustrates the springs’ levels of discharge and their functions in the entire study area.
Numerous springs exist along the western shore of the DS (Table 3.4,
Figure 3.8) and their annual capacity stands at 107 MCM. In general, the discharge levels of these springs decrease as they continue southward, significantly differing in their levels of salinity. Recently, new springs have sprouted along land newly exposed from the DS’s water level decline. The water properties of these springs are similar to that of the DS’s water (Bein et al,
2004). Although springs supply an average of only 3% of the water allocated in the study area (Figure 3.4-3.5), they have been serving both humans and wildlife since Biblical times (e.g. Samuel A, 23/29; Song of Songs, A, 13-14, approximately 1000 BC) they serve different functions for unique flora and fauna (e.g. Kane and Samar), the bottling factory (Kibbutz Ein Gedi) and recreational health spas (e.g. Hamei-Yesha). Bentor (1961) suggested that one third of the salts in DS’s water originated from the Jordan River, and two third from hyper-saline springs.
79
Table 3.4: springs along the western shore of the Dead Sea
Total amount Annual eventually Name of Level of Annual anthropogenic Current status discharge reaching the spring salinity (cl/l) exploitation (MCM) (MCM) the DS (MCM- estimated) Nature Reserve Komran No data No data No data No data
Nature Reserve Tanur 3500 No data No data No data
Nature Reserve Zukim 1380-1800 67 No data 67
Nature Reserve; Kibbutz Mizpe-Shalem’s source of Kane 800 13 0.5 13 water
Nature Reserve Samar 150-250 24 No data 24
Nature Reserve; Kibbutz Ein- Gedi’s; Field School’s; Youth David hostel’s; and guest house’s 77.5 1.17 0.55 0.62 source of water
Bottling factory; Nature Reserve; Kibbutz Ein-Gedi’s, Field School’s, Youth hostel’s Shulamit 113.8 0.26 0.06 0.2 and guest house’s source of water
Nature Reserve; Kibbutz Ein- Gedi’s, Field School’s, Youth Arugot hostel’s and guest house’s 108.6 1.14 0.55 0.59 source of water
Bottling factory; Nature Reserve; Kibbutz Ein-Gedi’s, Ein-Gedi Field School’s, Youth hostel’s 80.7 0.45 0.06 0.39 and guest house’s source of water
Noit* Production well 1000 No data 0.127 No data Ein-Bokek* Production well 500 No data 0.228 No data Hamei- Spa 34,464-79,400 - - - Zohar
Hamei- 106,900- Spa - - - Yesha 134,000 Total - - 107.02 1.7 105.8
Source: the IWC; Mazor et al (1969, 1972, 1973); Kroitoru et al (1989); * Was not included under “Total” since these group of springs serves as production wells; therefore it was annexed under “Wells” chapter (3.2).
80
Table 3.5 Salinity index (according to the Israeli Water Commission’s classification)
Level of salinity (Mg/l) Category
<50 Fresh
50-400 Fresh
400-1000 Brackish
>1000 Saline
Source: the IWC
In other words, springs along the shore may be historically responsible for the process of salt feeding. Mazor’s (1997) observations have proved that these springs play a major role in the recycling process of DS water.
Two parameters must be presented for the present discussion: the level of salinity (index in table 3.5), which usually determines the level and type of human exploitation and whether the springs were categorized as rechargeable or non rechargeable. The latter parameter may indicate whether human exploitation is sustainable or not.
81
Figure3.8:
Source: 2000-2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC 82
3.4 Current usages of springs
In general, the springs in the study area can be categorized into four groups according to their functions (Table 3.4):
1. The Coastal Springs Reserves (including Komran, Tanur, Zukim, Kane and
Samar). This group is comprised of brackish and saline water (800-3500 mg/l, except for Samar which is comprised of freshwater, tables: 3.4-3.5). High levels of discharge (13-67 MCM/yr) were recorded here in comparison with the other three groups. Shecnai et al (1983) pointed out in a hydrological survey an oscillation regime of salinity, indicating a perennial recharge-ability. Starinsky
(1974) favored the theory that saline springs along the shores of the DS carry independent properties due to differences found in the water composition within the same springs.
Yet, as a whole the saline springs are connected to the DS water system.
Also, according to mineral composition patterns, he suggested that the mixture between the saline springs’ water and the DS’s water takes place close to the
DS, containing small percentage of DS’s water. Mazor (1969, 1980) supports a different theory which claims that the salinity developed after the springs mixed with local aquifers. Therefore, the variety of water compositions developed from combination of water and different mineral compositions (Mazor, 1997).
Locational and compositional circumstances somewhat minimize
(approximately 0.03 MCM/yr are derived for the domestic sector in Kibbutz
Mizpe Shalem and the Nature Reserve facilities
(Bein et al, 2004)) the level of exploitation of the local springs within this group:
83
Figure 3.9:
Source: the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel’s Red Book 84
i. Its high salinity levels make it less useful for anthropogenic uses such as
water extraction.
ii. Its current function as a nature reserve, enabling special preservation
regulations (e.g. inaccessible paths within the borders of the Reserve and
its demarcation as a pesticide- free zone). Contributing to its special status
are the 162 species of plants, 152 species of birds (110 migrators) and 30
mammals (some are endemics to the region and considered protected)
(Figure 3.9) noted in the vicinity of Komran, Tanur, Zukim, Kane and
Samar springs, which serve as a resting point for the migratory birds on
their way to and from Africa (Bromberg, 2004; Bein et al, 2004). iii. Its location between Israel and the PA, is considered geopolitically
sensitive, prevents development in the region.
However, although negative impact by humans was not noted around the
springs, their surroundings face serious changes due to the DS’s water level
decline (Bein et al, 2004; Feritz, 2002):
a. The introduction of new saline water-tolerant species that
becomes dominant at the expense of less tolerant species.
Also, salinization of the water reduces potential
inhabitation. Consequently, the local ecosystem will
gradually change.
b. The water level decline in the DS results in salinization of
local groundwater. As a result, water production from the
Samar spring came to a halt while growing numbers of 85
sinkholes and the desiccation of local flora are being
recorded (Bein et al, 2004).
2. Ein-Gedi group (including Ein-Gedi, Arugot, David and Shulamit
springs). This group is comprised of freshwater (77.5-113.8 mg/l, tables:
3.4-3.5). Medium levels of discharges (3.5 MCM/yr) were noted
compared to the other three groups. These rechargeable springs acquire
their water from runoff permeation and groundwater flowing through
mountain sediments (Bein et al, 2004).
Figure 3.10:
Source: 2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC
86
Figure 3.11:
Distribution of water usages obtained from Ein-Gedi group of springs
35%
55%
10% Agriculture Industry Domestic
Source: 2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC
Kroitoru et al (1985, 1992), Yechieli and Arad (1997) and Mazor and
Kroitoru (1990) supported the theory that these freshwater springs (e.g. David,
Arugot, and Shulamit in table 3.4) acquire their water from underground streams in the Judean Mountains through karstic (fossil) flows. This observation stems from large amounts of rainfall on the mountains (550 mm/yr) as opposed to the fairly small amounts in the Judean Desert (100 mm/yr).
Unlike the previous group (The Coastal Spring Reserve) which is somewhat safe from local human exploitation and whose deterioration is associated primarily with the DS’s water level decline, this group is heavily exploited by several sources adjacent to Kibbutz Ein Gedi (Figure 3.10). At present, the water derived from this group (Figure 3.9) is distributed as follows 87
(Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Ein-Gedi,
2005): a. Water from all four springs is used at the local guesthouse, youth
hostel and field school, accounting for 55% of the total amount of
water derived from this group. b. Water is directed from all four springs (Ein-Gedi, Arugot, David
and Shulamit) to Ein Gedi’s agriculture fields (which grow dates,
mangos and spices; further detailed in chapter 4.2.1), accounting
for 35% of the total water derived from this group. c. The remaining 10% of Ein-Gedi and Shulamit spring water is used
by the local bottling factory.
A total of 30% on average of the total groups’ annual capacity is being exploited by man, leaving 1.8 MCM of the annual water flow within this group for natural needs (i.e. allocation to the local ecosystem) (Figure 3.8).The disturbing condition of the Ein Gedi Nature Reserve (e.g. some of the reserve’s flora is dry; water flow in the streams is minor) alongside the flourishing
Botanical Garden located in the kibbutz has spurred media attention as a consequence of growing public awareness of the problematic water allocation system of the kibbutz. As a result, members of Kibbutz Ein Gedi, which is considered as a self producer (will be detiled in chapter 4.2) and a part of the
National Park Authority, have decided that less water should be allocated to kibbutz needs in order to boost the natural environment. 88
The famed Botanical Gardens located on the Kibbutz are also contributing to this pressure. These gardens host non arid-tolerant crops that require relatively large amounts of water. During the data collection stage of this thesis, the Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Ein-Gedi refused to provide this author with the exact amount of water allocated to the Botanical
Garden.
3. Production wells (including Noit and Ein Bokek springs). This group is comprised of springs but was classified under “Wells” by the IWC since these two springs actually serve as a drainage point of several rechargeable springs, enabling an ongoing extraction of water in TRC. This group is comprised of brackish water (500-1000 mg/l, table 3.5) and their annual levels of production
(0.0775-0.245 MCM, table 3.1) may attest to their capacity.
4. Thermo minerals (including Hamei-Zohar and Hamei-Yesha). This group is comprised of extremely hyper saline water (34,464-134,000 mg/l, for comparison see also table 3.1). Information regarding the levels of discharge is unknown but will not be considered here due to their function as recreation sites.
According to measurements published in Mazor et al (1969), the water in these springs is comprised of a mixture of the DS’s water (considered the main contributor of salts and minerals- main contributor that what?) and the Kikar-
Noit Water Group’s water (which accounts for the high temperatures of this water), with the latter becoming more dominant as it flows southward. Their special properties have made these two springs popular recreational sites. 89
Hitherto, their functioning has not been affected as a result of the DS’s water level decline.
3.5 Wastewater reuse
Data on current and future generations of WW as well as their current and future levels of reuse are presented in this subchapter for the entire study area.
In general, WW contains 99.8% water and 0.2% solids, also called sludge (Gvirtzman et al, 2002).
According to Gvirtzman et al (2002), treated WW falls into one of three levels:
“Primary”- contains solid residue and therefore does not meet standards for reuse.
“Secondary”- also involves biological treatment; the process uses oxidation ponds or anaerobic pans. In more advanced methods of treatment, activated sludge (Chemical-biological treatment) is used. The TWW is then classified as
“TWW for limited use of agriculture”. According to the Ministry of Health,
“TWW for limited use of agriculture” can be reused through drip irrigation systems that maintain a safe distance between the water and the fruit if the crop is not designated for eating purposes (e.g. cotton and fodder) or designated for eating purposes though expected to be processed (e.g. sunflower seeds before roasting or fruits that are cooked before ingestion). 90
“Tertiary”- also involves filtering, seasonal stocking, purification and chlorination. Following this level of treatment the TWW is classified ”TWW for unlimited use of agriculture.”
An additional method of treatment in use classifies the TWW according to its level of turbidity. According to Gvirtzman et al (2002) and the Ministry of
Environment (2004), turbidity is expressed according to the amount of suspended solids in the water, measured in milligram per liter (mg/l); the levels of organic materials in the water, expressed through Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD) and indicates the amount of oxygen needed to oxidize the organic material. According to the Ministry of Environment (2005), the secondary treatment causes the suspended solids reach 20 mg/l and the BOD 30 mg/l.
These two values are usually expressed as 20/30.
According to the Ministry of Environment of Israel (2005), 98% of WW was collected through sewerage in the year 2004. The rest flowed to local cesspools or have not been collected at all. Eighty percent of the collected WW was treated, reaching levels of 20/30 or higher; 60% of this TWW was reused for agricultural purposes. According to Lomborg (2001), this figure is fairly high, placing Israel among Japan and Persian Gulf countries, as countries making the greatest use of their WW generated within the domestic sector.
91
Figure 3.12: Waste water treatment plants and wastewater reservoir in the Israeli study area
Source: Department of Engineering, TRC; Pers.Comm., Head of the Ein Tamar Water Association, 2005; Department of Water and Agriculture, Ein-Gedi
92
Figure 3.13:
Generation of wastewaters in the Tamar Regional Council Total: 1 MCM In 2003
4% 9%
87% Ein bokek Ein gedi Kikar sdom
Source: Department of Engineering, TRC
3.5.1 Current generation and usages
Figure 3.13-3.14 illustrate the current generation of TWW within the borders of the study area totaled in 1.15 MCM in the year 2003. Most of the reused WW was generated in TRC (1 MCM in 2003) and the rest in MRC (0.1 MCM in
2003).
Tables 3.6-3.7 illustrate the levels and generators of the TWW in TRC and MRC respectively. There are currently three WWTP (Figure 3.12) in TRC.
Eighty-seven percent of the total WW in TRC in 2003 was treated in the Ein-
Bokek WWTP, the largest in this council. This WWTP treats WW generated in the following sources (Table 3.6):
93
Figure 3.14:
Current generation of wastewater in MRC Total: 0.1 MCM
18% 14% 7% Vered Jericho
14% Beit-Ha'arava Almog 47% Kalia Mizpe-Shalem
Source: Department of Engineering, MRC
The hotels situated in Ein-Bokek, which generate an average of more than 92% of the total WW being treated in this plant.
The rest were generated by the Neve-Zohar community and public facilities found along TRC. A total amount of 0.1 MCM of WW was treated to a tertiary level (comprising approximately 11% of the total WW treated in this plant,
Table 3.6) and reused for the irrigation of gardens within the borders of the council. The remaining 0.8 MCM were treated to a secondary level and flowed to evaporation pond number 5 without being reused.
The second largest WWTP in TRC is situated in Ein-Gedi, in the vicinity of the Kibbutz. Nine percent of the total WW generated in TRC in 2003 was treated in this plant.
94
Table 3.6: Current generation of wastewater and their generators in the Tamar Regional Council, 2003
Existing annual Name of the generation Generators Level of treatment WWTP (MCM) Mainly Secondary/ Hotels, public facilities and Ein-Bokek 0.92 Partially Tertiary Neve-Zohar (20/20) The local bottling factory, local guest-house, Nature Reserve, Ein-Gedi 0.1 Secondary (20/30) local field school, local hostel and the Kibbutz Kikar-Sdom, Neot-Hakikar, Ein- Kikar-Sdom 0.04 Secondary (20/30) Tamar 1.06 (92% of the total WW Total generated in the Israeli study area) Source: Department of Engineering, TRC
Table 3.7: Current generation of wastewater and their generators in the Megilot Regional Council, 2003
Existing annual Level of Method of WW producer Status generation treatment treatment (MCM) Vered Jericho 0.013 Primary Cesspool Not in use Beit-Ha'arava 0.007 Primary Cesspool Not in use Precipitation and Almog 0.013 Secondary Not in use Oxidation ponds Precipitation and Kalia 0.044 Secondary Not in use ventilation ponds Precipitation and Mizpe-Shalem 0.017 Primary Not in use Oxidation ponds 0.094 (8% of the total WW Total generated in the Israeli study area) Source: the IWC; Department of Water and Agriculture, MRC 95
According to the Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Ein-Gedi
(2005), the WW was treated up to a secondary level and reused for the irrigation of the date plantations adjacent to the Kibbutz. However, approximately 50% of the WW treated in Ein-Gedi WWTP during the winter flowed freely to adjacent wadis without being reused, due to relatively low demand (compared to that in the summer).
Nevertheless, according to the regulations in Israel, WW must be treated to the level of 10/10 before it flows to a wadi. Therefore, the aforesaid WW that flow freely to adjacent wadis does not meet the standards and may contaminate the local groundwater system.
The third plant is located in Kikar-Sdom in which the remaining 4% of the WW generated in TRC was treated in 2003. The WW treated in this plant is generated by Kikar Sdom, Neot-Hakikar and Ein-Tamar communities and is being reused for the irrigation of Kikar-Sdom’s date plantations.
Figure 3.3 illustrates the percentages of reused WW from the total water consumed in each of the investigated sectors. Less than 20% of the total water consumed by the domestic sector was TWW. In 2003, TWW comprised approximately only 2% of the total water consumed by the agriculture sector in
TRC. Although the industrial sector consumes the largest amounts of water in
TRC, generating relatively large amounts of industrial WW, the sector does not reuse any WW (this issue will be discussed broadly in chapter 4.1). No WW is reused within the tourism sector in TRC, either. Irrigation with TWW can be done with tertiary-level WW. Thus, the municipality irrigates public gardens 96
with the minor amount of TWW which was treated up to a tertiary level (Table
3.6) (Pers. Comm., Senior Engineer for sewage-related projects in TRC, 2005).
Figure 3.15 displays the TWW usages in TRC in 2003. While 60% of the
total WW treated in the country is being reused for irrigation purposes, only
21% of the total WW treated within TRC in 2003 was allocated for the this
purpose, with the remaining 79% were flowing to nearby Evaporation Pond
number 5. This may be explained by the fact that most of the WW that flowed to
the DS was treated in Ein-Bokek, the largest WWTP, located next to
Evaporation Pond number 5, inconveniently far from Kikar Sdom’s agriculture
fields.
Figure 3.15:
Current usages of treated wastewater in the Tamar Regional Council (2003)
11% 10%
Agrigulture (Dates, vegetables, other crops) Irrigation of gardens 79%
Flowing to the DS
Source: Department of Engineering, TRC; Department of Water and Agriculture, Ein-Gedi
97
Table 3.7 displays the current generation of WW by communities in the
MRC in 2003. The results clearly show that none the WW generated in MRC in
2003 was reused. According to the Licensing, Apparatuses and Operating
Director in the IWC (2005), some of the WW generated in Vered-Jericho,
Kibbutz Kalia and Kibbutz Mizpe-Shalem flowed freely to Wadi Prat and the
DS (appendix 2). Most of the WW either seeped into the ground or discharged into adjacent wadis. According to aforementioned standards (10/10) concerning
WW discharging into wadis, the three villages mentioned above do not meet the standards and their WW may contaminate the local groundwater system.
In order to meet the water demand of the agricultural sector in MRC, 3.4
MCM of TWW on average, generated in the east Jerusalem, were supplied to four out of the five villages located within MRC between the years 2000 and
2003 (Table 3.8). Some 15,000 CM of this WW, were treated to a secondary level (20/30), are transferred daily through pipes to Og 1 WW Reservoir (Figure
3.12) whose total capacity stands at 1.4 MCM (Ministry of Environment, 2004).
Vered-Jericho, which has no agriculture fields, is the only village located in
MRC that does not derive water from this reservoir (Pers. Comm., Head of the
Water and Agriculture Department in Vered-Jericho, 2005).
98
Table 3.8: Annual allocation of treated wastewater stored in Og 1 wastewater Reservoir (in MCM, 2000-2003, numbers are rounded)
Consumer 2000 2001 2002 2003 Vered Jericho 0 0 0 0 Beit-Ha'arava 0.53 0.59 0.68 0.69 Almog 0.85 0.9 0.92 0.76 Kalia 0.88 1.35 1 1.13 Mizpe-Shalem 0.75 0.78 0.77 0.86 Total 3.01 3.62 3.37 3.44 Source: the IWC; Department of Agriculture, MRC
3.5.2 Future generation and usages
The future generation of WW in TRC in the year 2020 is mapped out in table
3.9. The forecast presented below is based on the existing generation, outlined
above (Table 3.6), as well as on values presented in master and general outline
plans of development in the area.
In order to provide an assessment that will present as realistic scenario as
possible, tourism was estimated to be the dominant sector in the region’s future
generation of WW. Calculations were based on occupancy rates taken from the
Israeli Bureau of Statistics (IBS) in the year 2003 (IBS, 2003).
However, because of the categorization of this sector in this thesis differs from
the one presented in the formal statistics taken from the IBS (2003) (e.g.
guesthouses in both TRC and MRC were categorized as “guesthouses along the
DS’s shores” and not according to regional councils as don in this thesis) and the
fact that the records from 2003 revealed relatively low occupancy rates due to
the Intifada, an additional telephone interviews with the Head of the Hotels 99
Corporation (2004) as well as with several managers of local guesthouses (2004)
were conducted in order to obtain records as relevant as possible.
Three new sources (Table 3.9, Figure 3.16) are expected to increase the
amount of WW currently generated in the area: new hotel rooms and guesthouse
units expected to be built, natural human growth rates and expected emigration.
The Sewage Department in the IWC has set a WW generator- coefficient
(appendix 2) in order to forecast the estimated amount of WW to be generated in
the future.
Table 3.9: Future generation of wastewater and their generators in the Tamar Regional Council, 2020 (MCM)
Future annual generation Name of Future annual (based on 70% and 48% the generation (full Level of treatment occupancy rates in the hotel Generators WWTP potential) rooms and hostels respectively) Existing sources (Table 3.6), 500 new residents in Neve-Zohar, 800 new guest-house units, Mainly Ein 3.72 3.23 2150 new hotel rooms Secondary/Partially Bokek and additional area of Tertiary tourism aimed to generate 1.4 MCM annually Existing contributors (See table 3.6) and Ein Gedi 0.29 0.29 future development of Secondary the area based on the local master plan Existing contributors (See table 3.6) and Kikar- 0.17 0.17 future development of Secondary Sdom the area based on the local master plan Total 4.18 3.73 Source: Department of Engineering, TRC; Department of Water and Agriculture, Kibbutz Ein-Gedi
This coefficient varies between the different sectors; according to the
head of the Sewage Department in the IWC (2005), the coefficient used in the 100 domestic sector stands at 0.7. The figure used by national planners in Israel concerning annual water use per capita stands at 100 CM. (appendix 3). Thus, it is estimated that 70 CM of WW will be generated per capita per year.
According to Gvirtzman et al (2002), 73 CM of WW per capita are being generated anually in rural areas in Israel. Hence, the expected annual generation per capita of WW stands at 72 CM.
Therefore, 500 new residents in Neve-Zohar are expected to generate
36,000 CM of WW annually. Regarding the future generation of WW by new guesthouse units, current master plans (appendix 4) indicate that 91 CM per capita of WW is to be
Figure 3.16:
The expected increment of wastewater generation in the Tamar Regional Council (until 2020, in MCM) Total: 3.69 MCM
0.17, 5% 0.29, 8%
Ein Bokek
Ein Gedi
Kikar sdom 3.23, 87%
Source: the IWC; Department of Engineering in TRC, 2003
101 generated annually, considering the fact that people consume more water on their vacations.
According to annual occupancy rates of 48% (rounded, appendix 5) in local guesthouses and hostels, while taking into consideration three guests per visit on average (according to telephone interview with managers of local guesthouses, 2004), 65,700 CM of WW are expected to be generated by additional guesthouse units in TRC by 2020. Nowadays, an average of 0.85
CM of WW is being generated in each hotel room in the Ein-Bokek complex.
However, it is important to note that this figure also comprises other parts of the hotels generating WW (swimming pools, kitchens etc). Still, this value was found reliable and is being taken into consideration in master plans (appendix 4).
Additionally, the annual average in the local hotels is one guest per room
(appendix 4). Thus, 3,623 new hotel rooms, with occupancy rates of 70% annually are expected to generate 787,000 CM of WW annually. In total, the future generation of WW in Ein-Bokek WWTP is expected to increase threefold.
According to the Department of Engineering in TRC, current levels of
WW treatment in the Ein-Gedi WWTP (Tables 3.6, 3.9; Figure 3.16) are expected to increase threefold following an expected increase in local tourism.
The Current generation of WW treated in Kikar-Sdom WWTP (Tables
3.6, 3.9; Figure 3.16) is expected to increase fourfold by 2020 mainly due to population growth in the area (chapter 4.4). The additional TWW is expected to be utilized for irrigation of date plantations in Kikar Sdom fields, with present figures not expected to substantially change. 102
3.6 Surface water reservoirs
In this subchapter, surface water reservoirs (SWR) and their current and future
usages were charted for the whole study area.
3.6.1 Total capacity
Table 3.10 and Figure 3.17 display the SWR in TRC in 2003. All five SWRs are
manmade and contain freshwater; their annual capacity stands at 8.5 MCM in
potential (i.e. during years of severe droughts these SWR may be empty). There
are currently no SWR in MRC.
Table 3.10: Surface water reservoirs in the Tamar Regional Council, 2003
Total capacity (in MCM) Name of the Reservoir Quality Status (in parenthesis: being utilized) Neot Tamar Freshwater 0.05 (0) Not in use Zin Freshwater 2.4 (2.4) Used by the Dead Sea Works Heimar Freshwater 3 (3) Used by the Dead Sea Works Rahaf Freshwater 1 (0) Not in use Ashalim Freshwater 2 (0) Not in use 8.45 (5.4) Total Total utilization: 64%
Source: the Drainage Authority, TRC
103
Figure 3.17:
Source: Pers. Comm., Head of the Drainage Authority in TRC, 2004-2005 104
It is important to note that, excepting Neot Tamar which was originally
constructed to store flood water, other SWRs are defined as such due to their
potential to store water and their current function as SWR, though they were
originally constructed by the DSW either for quarries (Rahaf and Ashalim,
Figure 3.17) or embankments (Heimar, Zin and Ashalim) aimed to prevent the
evaporation ponds from being flooded by water flow in the western wadis.
Table 3.11: Volumes of streams in the Tamar Regional Council and the estimated reduction of their influx to the Dead Sea following the construction of the surface water reservoirs (in MCM)
Annual volume of streams Total amount reaching Basin area Wadi (statistically can be the DS (sq/km) applied every 5 years, in MCM) (estimated in MCM) Kedem 12 0.03 0.03 David 18 0.05 0.05 Arugot 232 2.6 2.6 Hever 174 1.8 1.8 Asael 10 0.04 0.04 Mishmar 20 0.07 0.07 Miphlat 8 0.03 0.03 Ze'elim 249 2.2 2.2 Mesada 26 0.05 0.05 Rahaf 77 0.4 0 Mor 10 0.02 0.02 Yeélim 52 0.19 0.19 Parsa 8 0.01 0.01 Bokek 20 0.04 0.04 Zohar 36 0.08 0.08 Heimar 410 2.4 0 Ashalim 97 0.2 0 Zin 1400 7 4.6 Amaziahu 127 0.2 0.2 Idan 179 0.25 0.25 Total 17.66 12.26
Source: the Drainage Authority, TRC
105
Table 3.11 displays the volumes of streams and the estimated reduction of their influx to the DS following the construction of the SWR in TRC
3.6.2 Current and future usages
Information regarding the volume of streams flowing to the DS within MRC was available for Wadi Darga only; its average annual flow stands at 0.1 MCM.
Water flows in wadis are calculated by placing sensors in a diagonally order across the streams at varying depths in several gauge stations. This is done in order to avoid the deviation of results which may be caused due to the different levels of friction measured at different depths (Gvirtzman et al, 2002).
In wadis where gauge stations are not placed, figures are calculated based on mathematical models, though presented in a similar way. The model-based data represents a 20% probability of the stream reaching its peak in volume, so a match between these model-related figures and the actual volume’s peak occurs once every five years; the aforesaid model-related figures are considered to be the most reliable among the attainable records (Pers. Comm., Head of the
Drainage Authority in TRC, 2005).
The figures displayed in table 3.11, referring to the total amount of water reaching the DS, reflect the maximum impact of the SWR on the volume of water reaching the DS through these streams. These estimations were calculated based on hypothetical conditions in which the SWR becomes empty by the beginning of the winter, being refilled and emptied again by the following winter due to human utilization. 106
The constructions of the SWR, illustrated in Figure 3.17, were followed by changes in the landscape, including the channeling of Wadi Ashalim southwards and the aforesaid construction of embankments (Gal, 1998; Pers.
Comm., Head of the Drainage Authority in TRC, 2005). Bein et al (2004) noted that following these constructions, the natural drainage of floods along the western slopes adjacent to the DSW stopped and the flora in Wadi Zin Marsh changed dramatically.
According to the Head of the Drainage Authority in TRC (2005) and the
Water Consumption Survey of the IWC (2003), the water stored in Heimar and
Rahaf SWRs is utilized by the DSW according to the company’s needs. While
Heimar was constructed by the DSW as an embankment in order to prevent the evaporation ponds from being flooded by water flows in the western wadis, the
Rahaf SWR was initially constructed, along with Ashalim SWR, for quarrying purposes.
The other three SWRs (Figure 3.17), Neot-Tamar, Zin and Ashalim, are not connected by pipes to the DSW, and therefore the stored water either evaporates or seeps into the ground. The Neot Tamar SWR was constructed by the Jewish
National Fund and designed for irrigation purposes. 107
4. Supply and demand of water in the Study Area: Israel
Information is presented concerning water use in the four investigated sectors:
industry, agriculture, domestic and tourism. The environmental impact of current
water usages on the study area is evaluated as well.
The average water consumption by the above sectors in the TRC and the
MRC between the years 2000 and 2003 is shown in figures 4.1 and 4.3,
respectively. Figure 3.5 indicates the water consumption by sources in the TRC,
2003. Water is being supplied by the following bodies: the Dead Sea Works,
Kibbutz Ein Gedi and Mekorot. Further information is detailed below.
4.1 Supply and demand of water in the Industrial sector
Figure 4.2 indicates the 2003 water consumption of the industrial sector in the
study area.
In 2003, 41 MCM of water were consumed by the industrial sector, thus
constituting 81% of the total water consumption recorded in the TRC that year
(Figure 3.3).
Figure 4.4 illustrates the water consumption within the four investigated
sectors in the TRC between the years 2000 and 2003. The main conclusion to be
drawn from these figures is the predominance of the industrial sector as the
leading water consumer in comparison to the other three. This finding indicates
a deviation from national water consumption patterns, in which the agricultural
sector is the primary water consumer. In other words, in the DS Basin
sustainable water management must begin with a close examination of water 108 supply and demand patterns in the industrial sector, specifically that of the
DSW.
Figure 4.1:
Average water consumption by sector, Tamar Regional Council (2000-2003) Total: 54 MCM
3% 2% 14%
Industry Agriculture 81% Tourism Domestic
Source: 2000-2003 Water Consumption Surveys, the IWC
Several industrial facilities are located in the vicinity of the DS, all within the borders of the TRC (Figure 4.2). These can be categorized into two groups: The heavy industries deal largely with mineral extraction and use hyper-saline water.
This water is derived primarily from local wells and is used mainly for scrubbing and washing purposes (Table 3.1; Figure 3.1; appendix 1). The second group comprises the light industries, including the Ein-Gedi bottling factory. As noted in the previous chapter, this factory derives freshwater from the Shulamit and Ein-Gedi springs (Table 3.4; figure 3.10). Also included in this category is the ‘Dayagey Tamar’, a fish farm which derives brackish water from local 109
Figure 4.2:
Source: 2000-2003 Water Consumption Surveys, the IWC
110
wells (Figure 4.2). Of the categories mentioned above, two enterprises are
defined by the IWC as independent water producers (the DSW and Kibbutz Ein-
Gedi, figure 4.5) and the rest are supplied by Mekorot, which derives its water
chiefly from wells (approximately 60%) or the National Water Carrier (NWC,
approximately 30%).
Figure 4.3:
Average water consumption by sector*, Megilot Regional Council (2000-2003) Total: 7 MCM/yr
2%
98% Agriculture Domestic
* The tourism sector (guesthouse units) is included in the domestic sector. No industry exists in the Megilot Regional Council. Source: 2000-2003 Water Consumption Surveys, the IWC
Figures 4.5-4.6 illustrate the distribution of water consumption by its sources
and by its consumers respectively within the industrial sector in TRC in 2003.
111
Figure 4.4:
Water consumption within the four investigated sectors in the Tamar Regional Council (2000-2003) 60.000
50.000
40.000
30.000 MCM 20.000 General 10.000 Industry Agriculture 0.000 Tourism 2000 2001 2002 2003 Years Domestic
Source: 2000-2003 Water Consumption Surveys, the IWC
The findings indicate that groundwater is the main source from which water is extracted for industrial use. The DSW is the largest water consumer in the industrial sector, accounting for 65% of total water consumption recorded for
2003. The DSW independently derived approximately 21 MCM of water from wells situated in the vicinity of the Works, constituting 94% of the annual quota allocated by the IWC in 2003 (Figure 4.2; table 3.3). This quota is in fact specified in the renewable license issued by the Drilling Committee of the IWC, which is comprised of both members and observers.
112
Figure 4.5:
Distribution of water consumption by source within the industrial sector, Tamar Regional Council 2003 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% Freshwater 50% (springs) 40% 30% Surface water 20% reservoirs 10% 0% National Water a Carrier ine edi G hert abur Works p E. m rom ey Tamar Ta' DS. A Wells m DS. B ag PMA. Eenergy ote Day R
Source: 2000-2003 IWC Water Consumption Surveys
Figure 4.6:
Distribution of water consumption* by consumer within the industrial sector, TRC 2003 (figures are rounded)
DS. Works 3% Rotem Amphert DS. Bromine 31% Dayagey Tamar E.Gedi 65% PMA. Eenergy Ta'abura
* The DSW utilizes approximately 250 MCM of DS water as part of its mineral extraction process. Source: 2003 IWC Water Consumption Survey 113
The license is valid for one year at a time, during which the Water
Commissioner may accept or deny requests for independent operation and production of water (Pers. Comm., Licensing, Apparatuses and Operating
Director of the IWC, 2005). As mentioned in the previous chapter, the DSW also utilize approximately 5.4 MCM/yr of water stored in Heimar and Zin’s SWR adjacent to the plants, which accounts for approximately 20% of its total water consumption which stood at roughly 27 MCM in 2003 (Table 3.11; figure 4.5).
The WW generated by the Works consists mainly of industrial WW which is not reused. Sanitarian WW comprises an insignificant amount of the total WW generated by the works and reused for irrigation of the Works’ gardens. The finding concerning the lack of industrial WW reuse is disturbing in light of the fairly high WW generator- coefficient used by the IWC for the industrial sector of 0.7 (see chapter 3.5.2, appendix 2). In other words, the annual potential of
WW reuse within the DSW stands at 70% of the 27 MCM (19 MCM) of water used by it in 2003.
Table 3.3 displays the ratio between water allocation and consumption of the DSW. The results indicate that in three of the five years for which full records were obtainable, the DSW has exceeded the quota granted it by the
IWC. At the same time, it should be noted that the annual allocation was increased in 2004 by 157% (from 22.6 to 35.5 MCM) in comparison to previous years. 114
Rotem Amphert is the second largest industrial water consumer in the area, accounting for 20% of the total amount of water consumed within the industrial sector (Figure 4.6). This plant is situated in Rotem Plateau Complex
(Figure 4.2) whose water supplied by Mekorot and derived from the NWC.
Approximately 80% of the water consumed by Rotem Amphert in 2003 was obtained from the NWC. The other 20% was supplied by Mekorot from Maktesh
Katan’s wells (Table 3.1) and was comprised of fresh and brackish water. The other 3% was supplied by Mekorot from the NWC to the DS Bromine and to
P.M.A. Energy and Ta’abura (Figures 4.5-4.6).
As noted above, two light industries were represented in the TRC in
2003: Dayagey Tamar and the Ein-Gedi Bottling Factory. The former is no longer in operation and will therefore not be discussed further. The latter enjoys an annual allocation of 0.13 MCM of freshwater from the Ein-Gedi and
Shulamit springs as established by the IWC and the Water and Agriculture
Department of the kibbutz (Figure 3.10; figure 3.8).
4.2 Supply and demand of water in the Agricultural sector
Data on the types of crops grown and their locations are mapped out for the entire study area in this subchapter. The total water demand of these crops and the irrigation methods in use are also presented.
It is important to note, however, that some of the figures presented in this subchapter are estimates since they were provided by local farmers and not from existing records. Estimation is necessary for the following reasons: first, some crops are seasonal; secondly, water demand can be expected to vary under 115
different weather conditions; and finally, the types of crops grown and their
water requirements are likely to vary according to fluctuations in market
demands. Therefore, the figures presented below may serve as indicators only.
4.2.1 Types of crops grown and water demand by crops
The types of crops grown in the study area and their annual water requirements
as recorded in 2003 are presented in tables 4.1-4.2.
Over 8,000 dunams of more than 15 types of crops were grown in the
study area in 2003 in fields adjacent to the Kikar Sdom and Ein Gedi
communities (Figure 4.7; Figure 6.5). Their total water consumption stood at
nearly 14 MCM in 2003.
Table 4.1: Types of crops grown and water demand by crop in the Tamar Regional Council, 2003
Water Total Total Area Demand Type of Demand Demand Type of crop (in dunams- (per dunam/ water (estimated (estimated 1000sq/m) year, (1000 used in C/M) in MCM) C/M)
8% TWW; Dates 600* 2,300 1,380,000 1.38 Brackish
20 Figs 1,200 24,000 0.024 Brackish
Vegetables and fruits Partially (Peppers, Tomatoes, Brackish Aubergines, Sweet 3,550 1,550 5,502,500 5.5025 and Potatoes, Melons, partially Watermelons, Freshwater Mangos) Spices 10 550 5,500 0.0055 Freshwater Total 4,180 6,906,500 6.91 * The figure can be applied only up to 2003. Following the appearance of sinkholes in that year in Ein-Gedi’s date plantations, 70 dunams were abandoned.
Source: Department of Water and Agriculture, TRC; Department of Water and Agriculture, Kibbutz Ein-Gedi. 116
Twenty five percent of the total water used for irrigation of these crops was TWW and the rest was either brackish or freshwater.
However, it is important to note that the percentage of TWW from the total water used for irrigation of crops varies significantly between the two investigated councils, the TRC and the MRC.
While 51% (Figure 3.6) of the total water used by the agriculture sector in the
MRC were TWW imported from outside the study area and stored in the Og 1
TWW reservoir, less than 2% of the water used for agricultural purposes in the
TRC was TWW generated in local WWTPs (Figure 3.5; figure 3.12).
The most common types of crops in the TRC were vegetables and fruits
(row crops) planted in over 3500 dunams, and irrigated with 5.5 MCM of brackish and freshwater in 2003 (Table 4.1).The figure used in Table 4.1 referring to the annual water demand per dunam (1.5 MCM) for row crops is the figure proposed by the head of the Water and Agriculture Department in the
TRC (2004) as the most reliable for representing the average water demand of the all types of row crops grown in the TRC.
Dates are the second largest water consumer among the crops grown in the TRC in 2003, planted over an area of approximately 600 dunams and irrigated with 5.5 MCM of brackish water and a small amount of TWW.
However, at present, this figure of 600 dunams of date plantations referring to
2003 is now inaccurate since subsequently 70 of the 200 dunams of Ein Gedi’s date plantations were abandoned due to the appearance of sinkholes.
117
Figure 4.7:
118
Consequently, a loss of 12 million NIS in 2003 was reported by the
Kibbutz (Bein et al, 2004; Becker et al, 2004).
Figs and spices are also grown in the TRC, planted over an area of 30
dunams and irrigated with a negligible amount of 0.03 MCM/yr of brackish and
freshwater.
Table 4.2: Types of crops grown and water demand by crop in the Megilot Regional Council, 2003
Area Water demand Total demand Total demand (in (per dunam Type of crop (estimated in (estimated in Type of water dunams- /year, 1000 C/M) MCM) 1000sq/m) C/M) 83% TWW; 17% Dates 1,800 2,300 4,140,000 4.14 Freshwater Grapes 660 1,000 660,000 0.66 Freshwater Vegetables and fruits (Peppers, Onion, Pumpkins, 1,550 1,300 1,950,000 1.95 Freshwater Artichokes, Mangos, Melons, Watermelons). Total 3,960 6,750,000 6.75
Source: Department of Water and Agriculture, MRC; internal report, the DS Project Private web site.
Dates were the dominant crop grown in the MRC in 2003, comprising an area of
1,800 dunams. Eighty three percent of the total water used for irrigation of these
date plantations were imported TWW stored in the the Og 1 TWW reservoir
(Table 3.8) and the rest with freshwater. Row crops were the second largest
water consumer among the crops grown in the MRC, comprising an area of 119
1,300 dunams and irrigated with approximately 2 MCM of freshwater. And finally, vineyards in the MRC comprised an area of 600 dunams and were irrigated with approximately 0.65 MCM of freshwater.
4.2.2 Irrigation systems in use
There are two common methods of irrigation in the study area: irrigation with sprinklers and drip irrigation. Since the majority of the crops grown in the study area are seasonal, pre-seasonal preparations are required. The first method is used for cleaning the salts accumulated in the soil as well as for saturating the soil before the first plowing. On average, 50 CM of water are used each time this process is repeated. This water consists of a mixture of brackish, freshwater, and
TWW. Following the planting and during the growing period, the crops are irrigated by drip irrigation systems until harvested (Pers. Comm., Heads of the
Water and Agriculture Departments in TRC and MRC, 2004). Due to the low availability of TWW in the TRC, the 50 CM used in this council consist of brackish and freshwater. Since TWW is an available source of water in the
MRC, the 50 CM in this council consist of TWW and freshwater.
Among the crops grown in the study area, dates are the only type of crop that can be irrigated with TWW due to health regulations (See chapter 3.5).
The initial irrigation process uses sprinklers, though the majority of the water is provided by drip irrigation systems. This method helps to save large amounts of water which would otherwise evaporate under the arid conditions of the study area. 120
According to Lomborg (2001), several countries (e.g. Israel, Spain,
Jordan and India) using drip irrigation systems have been able to reduce their water usage by 30-70%, and nevertheless increase yields by 20-90%. Likewise, according to Arlosoroff (1996), optimization of water irrigation systems in Israel has saved 0.16-1.28 NIS/CM (the original estimation was provided in $US and was converted based on the currency rate from 1996: 1US$=3.2 NIS).
4.3 Supply and demand of water in the Tourism sector
A compilation of data concerning the water consumption and allocation patterns in the tourism sector was conducted in this subchapter for the entire study area.
The tourism sector in the region is comprised of hotels and guesthouses (Figure 4.8). However, while the former are found only on the borders of the TRC, concentrated in the area around Ein-Bokek, the latter are found throughout the entire study area.
Additionally, while records concerning the water consumption of hotels were available, the information specifically on the guesthouses was complicated by the fact that guesthouse units are in fact extensions of the houses in the communities within the study area and are therefore classified along with domestic water demand and supply. However, calculations concerning the water consumption in the guesthouses were made based on the average occupancy rates taken from the Israeli Bureau of Statistics (IBS, 2005). Thus, the figures presented below concerning water consumption in the guesthouses should be taken with some reservations.
121
Figure 4.8:
Source: Departments of Tourism in TRC and MRC 122
The total amount of water consumed by the tourism sector in the TRC in 2003 stood at 1.9 MCM (Figure 4.1). This amount reflects only 3% of the total water consumption of the council for that year. As illustrated in figure 3.9, all the water consumed in this sector in 2003 was derived from local wells.
Approximately 5% of the total water used by this sector that year was TWW used for irrigation of gardens (Figure 3.14) originating in the Ein-Bokek
WWTP.
4.3.1 Water consumption within the hotels
A total number of 15 hotels, consisting of nearly 4,000 rooms were noted in
2003 in the entire study area (Figure 4.8). The water consumption levels in the hotels between the years 1999 and 2003 are illustrated in figure 4.9. In 2003, 5% of the total amount of water used by this sector was reused for irrigation of gardens in the hotels and public areas within the borders of the TRC. This 5% falls under the domestic sector, since its allocation was determined by the TRC (Figure 3.5). The levels of water consumption per hotel room as presented in Chapter 3.5, stands at 1.5
CM per day. As mentioned, this figure was calculated by sanitation planners so the total water consumption of each hotel was divided by its number of rooms and therefore should serve as estimation only.
123
Figure 4.9:
Water consumption in the Ein Bokek Hotels (2000-2003)
2.5
2
1.5
MCM 1
0.5
0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Year
Source: 2000-2003 Water Consumption Survey, the IWC
Figure 4.10 illustrates the number of visitors in the DS hotels situated in Ein
Bokek tourism site.
It can be seen that the domestic tourism was dominant during the last decade of the last century and the first years of the 21st.
However, during the second half of the nineties, there was a sharp increase in local tourism, followed by moderate growth in international tourism. This growth can be explained by the peace process between Israel and the PA and
Israel and Jordan that was accelerated during that period. The period was characterized by economic growth in the region, reflected in the increasing number of tourists in the region as a whole. Accordingly, the year 2000 can be seen as a major crossroad in which domestic tourism rose dramatically and the international tourism returned to levels marked in the beginning of the nineties. 124
Figure 4.10:
Number of visitors in the Dead Sea hotels (1991-2003) International Tourism Domestic Tourism 1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
(In thousands) 600 Number of visitors Number 400
200
0 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Year
Source: Department of Tourism, TRC, 2004
This may be explained by the fact that the second Intifada broke out in 2000 and the fact that the DS region was considered by the Israelis as relatively safe due to its geographical location.
4.3.2 Water consumption within the guesthouses
More than 400 rooms in 15 guesthouses, hostels and field schools were noted in the study area in 2003 (Figure 4.8). Again, the figure presented below is estimated and should serve an indicator only. 125
As mentioned in Chapter 3.5, the annual water consumption in Israel is
100 CM per capita. However, the prevailing opinion among decision makers
(e.g. appendix 2; Pers. Comm., Vice President of the Sewage Administration,
2005) regarding the water consumption in the tourism sector is that this figure should be multiplied by approximately 125% since people tend to over-consume water on their vacations. However, since the occupancy rate of the hostels in the region in 2003 was approximately 45% (appendix 4) and the average visitors per unit stands at 3 (telephone survey of guesthouses managers, 2005), the annual water consumption for the guesthouses in the region is estimated at approximately 67,500 CM.
4.4 Supply and demand of water in the Domestic sector
Information concerning supply and demand patterns in the domestic sector is presented in this subchapter for the entire study area. This is the last of the four sectors reviewed in this chapter and its water demand is considered the lowest of the four.
4.4.1 Total population in the study area and water demand by
household
Figure 4.11 illustrates the distribution of communities, population size, and number of households within the study area. A total of 1,756 people reside in
686 households in 9 communities in the study area (telephone survey, 2004).
126
Figure 4.11:
Source: The Secretariat of the Settlements 127
Two communities which are included in the municipal borders of the TRC, Har-
Amsa and Ein-Hatzeva, were not included in the Dead Sea Project since their water management is disconnected from the TRC and relevant records were absent from the investigated IWC’s reports and also since they are situated outside of the DS water basin.
A total amount of 1.2 MCM of water was consumed by the domestic sector in
2003 (Figures 3.3-3.4). The water supplied mainly by Mekorot and Kibbbutz Ein
Gedi. The former was derived primarily from wells, though small amount was derived from Zukim group of springs (Figure 3.4). The latter was derived from
Ein Gedi group of springs (Figure 3.8; figure 3.10).
4.4.2 Future water demand
Currently, 4-5 and 2-3 families immigrant into the Tamar Regional Council and
Megilot Regional Council, respectively per year. Since the average Jewish family in Israel is comprised of approximately 3 family members (Israeli Bureau of Statistics, 2005), it is estimated that by 2010 approximately 770 new residents will immigrant into the entire study area. The annual water consumption per capita stands at approximately 100 CM (Arlosorof, 1996). Thus, the future water demand will increase by approximately 0.07 MCM/yr. Thus, water demand of the domestic sector in the entire study area by 2010 will stand at roughly 1.6
MCM/yr.
128
5. The Monetary Value of Water in the Study Area: Israel
The monetary value of water in the various parts of the study area is presented in
this chapter. Information about the various water prices will enable a better
understanding of the economic dimensions of the different types of water, such
as freshwater and wastewater, as used in the investigated sectors. It is important
to evaluate whether the relative contribution of water to overall costs plays an
important role in the economic status of sectors in the area. Moreover, the
economic aspects of both the current and proposed water-related practices are
presented in relation to the price of water. Prices are given in New Israeli
Shekels (NIS), while at the time of calculations, one US dollar was equivalent to
approximately 4.53 NIS.
5.1 Water pricing in the industrial sector
Figure 4.5 illustrates the distribution of water consumption by source within the
industrial sector in the TRC in 2003. Figure 4.6 illustrates the distribution of
water consumption by consumer within the industrial sector in the Tamar
Regional Council1 (TRC) in 2003.
As noted previously, industrial activity is found only on the borders of
the TRC within the two regional council of the study area. Water for industrial
purposes is derived primarily from two sources: local wells and the National
Water Carrier (NWC) (Figure 4.5). Further, only 1 of the 24 wells operated by
1 The “Ahava” factory, located in Kibbutz Mitzpe-Shalem, Megilot Regional Council, was not included since it uses water only for garden irrigation within its premises.
129
Mekorot in TRC in 2003 contains freshwater (Maktesh Katan 1, table 3.1; see the salinity level index in table 3.5) while the rest, like the wells operated by the
Dead Sea Works (DSW), contain brackish and saline water. The water delivered through the NWC and supplied to the industrial facilities in the Rotem Plateau
(Figure 4.2) is characterized by relatively low levels of chlorides (200 mg/l,
Mekorot web site, 2005) and is classified as freshwater (See also table 3.5).
As discussed in Chapter 4, the DSW is the major water consumer in the study area (Figure 4.6). It derives 80% of its water from wells containing brackish and saline water and the other 20% from Surface Water Reservoirs
(SWRs), containing freshwater (Figure 4.5).
Rotem Apmphert is the second largest water consumer in the region
(Figure 4.5), deriving its water primarily from the NWC (Figure 4.6), a freshwater source, and from local wells, containing mainly brackish and saline water.
Table 5.1 displays the water production prices as charged by the State of
Israel in 2004. These prices pertain to both Mekorot (governmental company) and other private sources that possess the technology required for extracting water (e.g. the DSW and Kibbutz Ein Gedi). The latter are required to pay additional costs for the annual license enabling them to extract water. The total cost stands at 1500 NIS for the license and additional 128 NIC for each extraction apparatus. If the extracted water is either brackish or saline, the 130
private producer is not charged regardless of the future usage2 (Table 5.1) (Pers.
Comm., Head of the Production and License Department in the IWC, 2005).
Table 5.1: Water prices per cubic meter (CM) as charged* by the State of Israel in 2004
Industry Agriculture Tourism Domestic Source and category**/ Sector (NIS/CM) (NIS/CM) (NIS/CM) (NIC/CM) Freshwater (extracted from “non- 0.78 0.66 0.78 0.78 coastal aquifers” sources) Freshwater (extracted from 0.64 0.15 0.64 0.64 “surface water” sources) Brackish water (from all sources) No charge No charge No charge No charge Saline water (from all sources) No charge No charge No charge No charge
*In 2005, an increase of 0.15 NIS was noted for the agricultural and domestic sectors and 0.2 NIS for the industrial sector **See also tables: 3.1-3.5 Source: the IWC
Table 5.2 displays the relevant water prices charged by Mekorot in the
four investigated sectors within the study area in 2004. Since the production of
water by the bottling factory in Ein-Gedi is executed by the Kibbutz, its
applicable charges stand at 0.64 NIS/CM. Since other industries in the region
derive their water from the NWC (Dayagey Tamar is not pertinent to the current
discussion since, as mentioned earlier, it was recently closed), applicable
charges for them stand at 1.995 NIS/CM (Water tariff of Local Authorities in
Israel, 2005).
2 It is important to note that this regulation dates from 1998 and is likely to be updated in the near future (Pers. Comm., Head of the Production and License Department in the IWC, 2005).
131
Table 5.2: Water prices as charged by Mekorot within the four investigated sectors in the study area, 2004
Initial cost Discount* Final cost Sector/Price (NIS/C/M) (NIS/C/M) (NIS/C/M)
Industrial 1.995 0%-25% 1.695-1.995
Agricultural 1.252 25% 0.94
Domestic 2.05 - 2.05+levy
Tourism 2.621 - 2.621
*As stated by the IWC Source: the IWC
Table 5.3: Water prices as charged by Kibbutz Ein-Gedi within the four investigated sectors in the study area, 2004
Prices for other customers Sector Prices for Ein-Gedi (NIS/C/M) (NIS/ C/M)
Agricultural 0.8 - Domestic 1.5 4.632 Tourism 1.5 -
Source: Department of Water and Agriculture, Ein-Gedi; Financial Department, TRC
Finally, the discount given to the industrial sector as indicated in Table 5.2
varies according to the salinity level of the water, so that the higher the salinity,
the higher the discount. 132
5.2 Water pricing in the agricultural sector
After the foundation of the State of Israel, the prevailing opinion among policy makers was that the Jewish population should be evenly distributed throughout the country, and the establishment of agricultural communities was regarded as an efficient means by which self-sufficiency in food production could be achieved. Accordingly, annual water quotas were established by the Israeli
Water Commission (IWC) for these communities (State Comptroller report,
2001).
The local water management system was initially developed following the “1959 Water Law” (Goldman, 1996). According to this law, water quotas may be imposed if the region is defined by the appropriate ministry as “poor in water resources.”
Since 8 out of the 9 communities (except Neve-Zohar) situated in the study area fall under this definition as agricultural communities, water quotas were imposed accordingly.
According to the Head of the Water and Agriculture Departments in the
Tamar Regional Council (TRC) and the Megilot Regional Council (MRC), these quotas were 6.8 and 4.7 MCM respectively for the communities in TRC and
MRC in 2003.
Tables 4.1-4.2 indicate the types of crops grown and the water demand by crop in the TRC and the MRC in 2003. As discussed above, the crops grown in the TRC are irrigated mainly with brackish water derived from wells, freshwater derived from the Ein Gedi springs (See Chapter 3.3); and Treated Waste Water 133
(TWW) from all the Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTP) in the TRC (See
Chapter 3.5) is also used for irrigation, though it constitutes only small percentage of the total water used for irrigation in this council.
The charges for the brackish water supplied by Mekorot to the agricultural sector stands at 0.94 NIS/CM (Table 5.2). Since the salinity level of this water is above 700 mg/l (See index in table 3.5), the initial price (1.252
NIS/CM) is reduced by the IWC (Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and
Agriculture Department in TRC, 2005; Water tariff of Local Authorities in
Israel, 2005).
The charges for the freshwater supplied from the Ein-Gedi group of springs stands at 0.15 NIS/CM (Table 5.1) (Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and
Agriculture Department in Kibbutz Ein Gedi, 2005).
The small amount of TWW supplied from the Kikar-Sdom WWTP to the farmers in Kikar Sdom and from the Ein Gedi WWTP to the Kibbutz farmers is free of charge (Table 4.2; Figure 3.11). The TWW allocation-related policy is fully determined by the local authority, i.e the TRC in accordance with a governmental regulation stipulating by the Ministry Of Environment (Pers.
Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in the TRC, 2005).
As noted, approximately half of the water supplied to the agricultural sector in the MRC was TWW originating in the Og 1 TWW reservoir (Figure
3.6; table 3.8). As mentioned earlier, the charges for TWW in 2005 stood at 0.65
NIS/CM for the first 50% of the water supplied annually and 0.5 NIS/CM for the remainder. 134
The other half of the water used for irrigation in the MRC was freshwater, priced at a rate of 1.25 NIS/CM (Table 5.2) (Water tariff of Local
Authorities in Israel, 2005).
5.3 Water pricing in the Tourism sector
Figure 4.4 displays the water consumption within the investigated sectors in the
Tamar Regional Council. Approximately 95% of the water consumed by the hotels was derived from local wells and supplied by Mekorot. The water charges for hotels in 2005 stood at 2.6 NIS/CM regardless of the amount consumed. The rest of the water was supplied from the Ein-Bokek Waste Water Treatment Plant
(WWTP) at costs of 0.65 NIS/CM for 50% of the water allocated yearly and 0.5
NIS/CM for the remainder (Water tariff of Local Authorities in Israel, 2005).
Tables 5.4-5.5 present the water charges for guesthouses in the Tamar
Regional Council (TRC) and Megilot Regional Council. The guesthouse units are in fact extensions of the houses in the communities within the study area and are therefore classified together with domestic water demand and supply. Each of the communities within the TRC and MRC has an independent Water Union, which buys the water from Mekorot at a price of 2.05 NIS/CM. Additional charges for the water are determined by each Water Union. These charges are intended to cover water infrastructure-related costs, such as maintenance of the apparatuses and sewerage-related costs. Although the latter
135
Table 5.4: Water prices among the guesthouses in the Tamar Regional Council
Settlement/Hostel/ Water allocation status Prices in NIS per C/M Resort “Water prices for 2.05+changeable Neot Hakikar customers of Mekorot” levy “Water prices for 2.05+changeable Ein Tamar customers of Mekorot” levy “Water prices for 2.05+changeable Neve-Zohar customers of Mekorot” levy Water prices for Ein Gedi Youth Hostel 1.5 Ein-Gedi Water prices for Ein Gedi Resort 1.5 Ein-Gedi Water prices for Ein Gedi Guesthouse 1.5 Ein-Gedi Ein Gedi field school’s Water prices for 4.63 Youth Hostel Ein-Gedi's costumers The water prices as Mesada Youth Hostel stated by the Union of 4.63 Local Authorities The water prices as Kfar Hanokdim stated by the Union of 4.63 Bedouin resort Local Authorities Source: Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in TRC, 2005; Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Kibbutz Ein-Gedi, 2005; Water tariff of Local Authorities in Israel, 2005
Table 5.5 Water prices among the guesthouses in Megilot Regional Council
Prices in NIS Settlement/Youth hostel Water allocation status per C/M “Water prices for customers of 2.05+ Vered Jericho Mekorot” changeable levy “Water prices for customers of 2.05+changeable Almog Resort Village Mekorot” levy “Water prices for customers of 2.05+changeable Kalya Guesthouse Mekorot” levy Mezokei Dragot Youth “Water prices for customers of 2.05+changeable Hostel Mekorot” levy
Source: Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in MRC, 2005; Water tariff of Local Authorities in Israel, 2005
136 falls under the responsibility of the regional councils, these are actually charges paid by the communities to cover sewerage-related costs (Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in TRC, 2005).
The prices for water paid by Kibbutz Ein Gedi (Table 5.3) are only the actual production costs. The prices paid by the guesthouse situated in the Kibbutz are determined by the Union of Local Authorities (Water tariff of Local Authorities in Israel, 2005). The price of water for guesthouse-based tourism varies according to the supplier (Tables 5.4-5.5). The lowest water price is charged by
Kibbutz Ein-Gedi and the highest is charged for Mekorot and Ein-Gedi's customers.
5.4 Water pricing in the Domestic sector
Forty percent of the water consumed in 2003 by the domestic sector in the
Tamar Regional Council (TRC) was supplied by Mekorot from local wells containing mainly brackish water (Figures 3.3-3.4). Eighty percent of the water consumed by the domestic sector in the Megilot Regional Council (MRC) was supplied by Mekorot from local wells containing freshwater. The remainder of the water in both regional councils was supplied by Kibbutz Ein Gedi (in the
TRC) and by Mekorot (in the MRC) from freshwater springs. A small amount of treated wastewater was supplied by the TRC for the irrigation of public and hotel gardens.
The price of water for Mekorot’ customers stands at 2.05 NIS/CM (Table
5.2). Additional charges are variable and are determined by the communities’ 137 water departments according to their individual needs (Water tariff of Local
Authorities in Israel, 2005; Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture
Department in TRC, 2005). Water expenditures at Kibbutz Ein-Gedi are much lower and stand at 1.5 NIS/CM (Table 5.3) (Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Ein Gedi, 2005).
Each of the communities within the Tamar Regional Council and
Megilot Regional Council has an independent water union which buys the water from Mekorot. Additional levies are determined by these unions and charged accordingly. These levies are intended to cover water infrastructure-related costs, such as maintenance of the apparatuses and sewerage-related costs.
However, the discharge process is the responsibility of the regional councils
(Pers. Comm., Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in TRC, 2005).
138
6. Water Resources Management in the Regional Councils near
the Dead Sea: Jordan
This chapter presents a summary and analysis of recent data concerning water
resources and their management in the Jordanian Regional Councils situated
near the DS. The annual capacity of the water sources stands at 146 MCM. The
amount of water used in the entire study area on the Jordanian side of the Dead
Sea amounted to 69 MCM in 2003. All of the water utilized originated inside the
study area, either from groundwater sources (springs and wells) or from flood
captured water.
Most of the water resources are accessed with the authorization of the
government and for which charges apply, although some water resources are
accessed without formal authorization. Two authorities are in charge of water
resources in the Jordanian Regional Councils situated near the DS. The
groundwater resources and the Treated WW (TWW) are controlled by the Water
Authority of Jordan (WAJ), while the surface water resources are controlled by
the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report,
2005).
6.1 Hydrogeology of the study area: Jordan
Since nearly 30% of the water supplied to all sectors of the study area originated
from groundwater sources, understanding the workings and the dominant
properties of the study area’s groundwater aquifer is vital for the discussion
presented below. 139
The active hydrological system along the eastern basin of the DS is divided into two aquifer systems: the Lower Sandstone Aquifer system is composed of sandstone and sandy shale and is considered a non-renewable aquifer (See definition in section 3.1). The lowermost group in the lower aquifer is the Rum (Disi) Group, also composed of sandstone. The water stored in this aquifer bears properties similar to those found in other groundwater systems within the borders of Jordan and flows through local groundwater streams towards the DS.
The average natural discharge from the lower sandstone aquifer system east of the DS stands at approximately 90 MCM/yr, of mostly thermal mineralized water.
At present, the level of pumping from this aquifer is estimated at 143
MCM/yr, while approximately 125 MCM/yr originate from the Disi Group.
Since this aquifer is non-renewable, these pumping levels will result in full depletion of this aquifer within 50 years (the WCA infoNET web site, 2005). It is assumed that with the right technology, this water could be pumped, desalinated, and used by all sectors (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report,
2005.)
The second aquifer system, the Upper Limestone System, consists of limestone and is considered renewable aquifer. Its annual recharge capacity is estimated at 57 MCM. 140
The natural discharge of water stored in this aquifer through springs stands at 2-3 MCM/yr; the estimated amount of water naturally discharged into the DS’s water is 3-4 MCM/yr (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
In general, water becomes relatively more saline toward the north (it varies between 750-1250 mg/l) and relatively sweeter toward the south (500 mg/l) (See the salinity level index in table 3.5).
6.2 Groundwater Resources
Table 6.1 shows the water resources in the study area. As mentioned, the annual level of recharge in the upper aquifer west of the DS is 57 MCM.
According to the 1995 annual report conducted by the Water Authority Jordan,
Table 6.1: Water resources in the study area: Jordan (in MCM)
Source Amount Groundwater 24 Surface Water 42 Imported 0 TWW 1.9 Untreated WW 0 Total 67.9
Non-renewable 1
Total 68.9
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
141
90 MCM were derived from 327 wells in the DS basin, supplying the domestic and agricultural sectors (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
This over-pumping recorded in the last few years has resulted in a gradual depletion of this important renewable aquifer (Middle East Water Data Banks
Project, 1998; DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
A total amount of 5 MCM/yr was derived from 27 wells located within the borders of the study area in 2003 (Figure 6.2); most of these are located south of the DS.
6.3 Surface water Resources
This group of water resources is comprised of the springs found in the study area and the total estimated amount of water flows in the wadis within the study area
(Figures 6.1-6.2).
The discharge levels of springs and wadis that flow along the eastern shore of the DS are estimated at 265 MCM/yr. The higher flow levels were noted in Wadi Mujib (63 MCM/yr), Wadi Zarka (30.6 MCM/yr) and Wadi Hasa
(23 MCM/yr) (Figure 6.1) (Raz, 1993; DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report,
2005).
6.3.1 Springs
Numerous springs, comprised mainly of brackish water, exist along the study area (Figure 6.2). At present, 15 MCM/yr of water from these springs can be utilized primarily for agricultural purposes. 142
6.3.2 Water dams, surface water reservoirs, and desalination plant
A total amount of 42 MCM/yr of flood water is harvested through two water dams: the Wadi Mujib Dam, whose current capacity is 35 MCM/yr and the Wadi
Hassa Dam, whose current capacity is 8 MCM/yr (Figure 6.1). At present, all of the water stored in these reservoirs is utilized for agriculture.
According to existing plans, the aforementioned amount of water stored by dams is expected to increase in the near future, when the construction of new water-harvesting projects is completed. Upon the completion of these projects,
Wadi Mujib Dam’s capacity will increase to 42 MCM/yr. Additionally, a new dam in Wadi Walla is expected to harvest an estimated 5 MCM/yr sometime in the near future.
Thus, by 2010, 55 MCM/yr of water are expected to be harvested in by
Surface Water Reservoirs (SWR) and dams in the study area (Figure 6.1).
In addition to these water harvesting projects, 55 MCM/yr of brackish water derived from three large springs located northeast of the DS (Figure 6.1) are expected to be desalinated in the near future when the Zara Ma’in Water
Project is completed (Figure 6.1). This water is expected to be supplied for various purposes, both outside and inside of the study area. With regard to the former, approximately 70% of this water will be supplied to the city of Amman as well as to the Balqa and Madaba governorates. With regard to the latter, approximately 25% will be allocated to the Potash industries situated in the southern basin of the DS and roughly 5% to hotels along the DS.
143
Figure 6.1: Water-related infrastructures in the Jordanian study area
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
144
Figure 6.2
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
145
6.3.3 Wastewater generated, treated and reused
There are no Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTP) in the study area.
However, 1.9 MCM/yr of WW is treated in the Al-Karak and Madaba WWTPs located to the east of the study area and eventually flows to the DS. Although the quality of this Treated Waste Water (TWW) is low and does not meet the standards required for agricultural purposes, effluents from the Madaba WWTP are utilized for the irrigation of unconventional crops. This utilization will be discussed later.
Approximately 1.6 MCM/yr and 0.7 MCM/yr, respectively, of WW are generated by the villages and the hotels located within the Jordanian study area.
This WW is either discharged untreated into cesspits, filtering into the aquifer, or discharged into wadis which flow to the DS.
Information on the WW generated by the industrial plants situated in the
Jordanian study area was not obtainable.
6.4 Supply And Demand of Water In the Study Area: Jordan
This chapter presents a summary and analysis of recent data on the supply and demand of water in the investigated Regional Councils in Jordan. Estimations of future water use in all sectors were based on the aforementioned water-related projects that are currently under construction, as well as on future plans. All of the information presented in this chapter was obtained from the DSP’s Overall
Data Integration Report (2005) unless otherwise stated. 146
Figure 6.3 illustrates the water consumption in the entire study area by sector. As seen, unlike the situation in the investigated Regional Councils in
Israel, in which most of the water was consumed by the industrial sector, thereby deviating from national water consumption patterns, the highest levels of water demand in the investigated Regional Councils in Jordan are recorded in the agriculture sector, thus according with national water use patterns. This point will be further detailed.
It is important to note that approximately 35% of the water derived from wells and springs in the Jordanian study area is lost before reaching the actual consumer. This high percentage of water losses is caused by evaporation of water stored in open tankers used by the local farmers, leakages and over irrigation of the crops grown (DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
Figure 6.3:
Water consumption by sector in the study area, Jordan Total: 69 MCM
12% 1% 3%
Agricultural 84% Industrial Tourism Domestic
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005 147
Table 6.2 illustrates the authorized (77%) and the unauthorized (23%)
amount of water derived from the different sources. While the former is priced
by the appropriate ministries, the latter is not reflected in the pricing system.
Table 6.2: Water use in the study area by formal accessed sources and informally accessed sources (in MCM)
formal informally Source accessed accessed sources sources Wells 9 1 Springs - 15 TWW 1.9 - SWR 42 - Total (75.3) 52.9 (77%) 16 (23%)
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
6.4.1 Water use in the agricultural sector
A total amount of 57.9 MCM/yr is used by this sector (Table 6.4), accounting
for 84% of the total water used in the entire study area (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.4 illustrates the water sources used for agricultural purposes in
the entire study area.
The results clearly indicate the high utilization of flood water stored in
the SWR in the agricultural sector (Figure 6.1).
A high percentage of the water is derived informally from springs (this
point will be further addressed after the discussion of the monetary value of 148 water in the study area). The other 6% is split between wells and Treated Waste
Water (TWW).
Figure 6.4:
Water use (by source) of the agricultural sector in the Jordanian study area
3% 3%
26%
68% SWR Springs Wells TWW
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
Figure 6.5 illustrates the distribution of agriculture, industry and tourist activities in the study area. The main crops grown, listed in decreasing order are: bananas, grapes, dates, and row crops over an area of approximately 36,000 dunams (For comparison, the total cultivated area in the investigated Regional
Councils in Israel stands at 8000 dunams. See also Tables 4.1-4.2).
It should be noted that the reliability of the data concerning the levels of water consumed by the agricultural sector in the investigated Regional Councils in Jordan was considered somewhat problematic at the time of data analysis, since some discrepancies were found between the information obtained through 149
Figure 6.5: Distribution of agriculture, industry and tourist activities in the Jordanian study area and the district of Jericho
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005 150
Remote Sensing analysis and the information obtained from official bodies in
Jordan.
Table 6.3: Yearly water requirements by crops as calculated through Remote Sensing analysis in all three study areas compared to the amount actually consumed minus water losses
Total Total Total Water amount amount amount requirements used used used in all three minus minus minus Area study areas losses losses losses Type (in as calculated (10%) in (35%) in (35%) in dunam) through the study the the study Remote area, study area, area, Sensing Israel Jordan Jericho (MCM) (MCM) (MCM) (MCM) Banana 7,700 17.5 - - - Citrus 200 0.3 - - - Fruit Trees/ 17,900 26.3 - - - Unclassified Palm 13,900 13.6 - - - Vegetables 4,900 4.2 - - - Vineyards 9,300 8.9 - - - Wheat, Barley 500 0.3 - - - (14-1.4) (57.9-20.2) (25.6-9) Total 54,400 71.1 66.9 12.6 37.7 16.6
*Water requirements were estimated from Land Use analysis map and the estimated crop water requirements for the Lower Jordan Valley (ARIJ, 2001). Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
In order to determine the relevance of the information presented above
(which is based on the information obtained from official bodies), the following
analysis was undertaken: 151
The reported water losses (from, for example, evaporation and leakages) in all three study areas (Israel, Jordan and Jericho) were reduced from the total amount actually used by the agricultural sectors in all three study areas (Table 6.3).
Since the figure representing the water requirements by crop within all three study areas (71.1 MCM) reflects ideal laboratory conditions and does not take into account the water losses, the aforementioned process of reduction will have a value similar to that provided by the Remote Sensing analysis. Thus, when subtracting 35% (the percentage of water losses in Jordan as reported, 20.2
MCM) of the total amount actually used by this sector in study area- Jordan
(57.9 MCM) from the total amount actually used (57.9 MCM), the total water requirement in the study area- Jordan, stands at 37.7 MCM. Now, combining this figure with those of the other two (Israel and Jericho), the total water requirement by crop in all three study areas stands at 66.9 MCM, which accounts for 94% of the amount initially suggested by the Remote Sensing analysis. Hence, since the calculated value (66.9 MCM) is fairly close to that initially indicated through the Remote Sensing (71.1 MCM), the data concerning the actual water consumption by the agricultural sector in the investigated
Regional Councils in Jordan is considered fairly reliable.
6.4.2 Water use in the Industrial sector
Four mineral and salts-extraction plants are found within the study area. The main one, the Arab Potash Company (APC), is located in the southern basin of the DS adjacent to the evaporation ponds (Figure 6.5). A total amount of 8
MCM/yr derived from local wells is currently consumed by this plant (Figure 152
6.3). In addition, approximately 100 MCM/yr are pumped from the northern basin of the DS. This pumping accounts for approximately 10% of the decline in the DS’s water level (the Israeli DSWs pumps approximately 150 MCM/yr, which accounts for 20% of the DS’s water depletion; see also chapter 1) (Bein et al, 2004; DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005; Raz, 1993).
Table 6.4: Current and future water use in the Jordanian study area
Amount/ Future use Current use sector (2020)
Agricultural* 57.9 57.9
Industrial 8 14-16
Tourism 1 2.5-6
Domestic 2 3
Total 68.9 77.4-82.9
* Estimated
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
Table 6.3 illustrates the current and future water use in the investigated
Regional Councils in Jordan. The water demand of the industrial sector is expected to increase dramatically in the near future, when the construction of the two large water dams, the Zara and the Ma'in Dams are completed (estimated to
2006; figure 6.1). At that point, a fairly significant amount of stored flood water, originally from Wadi Mujib, Wadi Zara and Wadi Ma'in, will be supplied to the 153 potash industries, which are expected to double their water consumption by
2020.
6.4.3 Water use in the Domestic sector
A total number of 46,247 people resided in 6 communities in the study area in
2004 (Figure 6.6). A total amount of 2 MCM/yr is supplied to the domestic sector by the local authorities, accounting for only 3% of the total water budget
(Table 6.4; figure 6.3). The water is derived from local wells containing freshwater (See index in table 3.5; figure 6.2). This figure is expected to increase due to population growth (which stood at 3.94% in 1996; Haddad and Mizyed,
1996), to up to 3 MCM/yr by 2020.
The expected generation of WW in 2020 therefore will be 2.1 MCM/yr
(See the calculation method in Chapter 3.5.2).
6.4.4 Water use in the Tourism sector
Three hotels, with a total of 469 rooms and 900 beds, are located within the study area, specifically along the northeastern shore of the DS (Figure 6.5).
Approximately 1 MCM/yr is currently supplied to these hotels, accounting for only 1% of the total water budget. The water is derived from local wells containing freshwater (Table 6.4; figure 6.3). However, this number is expected to grow exponentially and reach 2.5 and 6 MCM/yr by 2006 and 2020, respectively, upon the completion of the water-harvesting projects mentioned above.
154
Figure 6.6:
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005 155
This estimated increase is due to additional hotels that are to be built along the eastern coast of the DS. The expected generation of WW in 2020 therefore will stand at a maximum 4.2 MCM/yr (See the calculation method in Chapter 3.5.2).
6.5 The Monetary Value of Water In the Study Area: Jordan
A summary of information concerning the charges for water in the different sectors within the entire study area is presented in this chapter. As mentioned in
Chapter 5, understanding the economic value of the water is necessary for comprehending the economic forces driving the activities currently taking place in the study area in all sectors and is vital for comprehending future water- related projects to be constructed on the borders of the investigated Regional
Councils.
All of the information presented in this chapter was obtained from the
DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report (2005) unless otherwise stated. Water prices presented in this chapter were converted from $US to NIS at a rate of 4.53
NIS to 1 $US, so that the calculations are consistent with those cited in Chapters
5 and 7.
As noted above, most of the water resources in the study area are accessed by the authority of the government, which determines the price of water. Water for the domestic and the tourism sectors is supplied by the Water
Authority Jordan (WAJ), while the Jordanian Valley (JVA) is responsible for supplying the agricultural sector. Water for the industrial sector is supplied by both authorities, the WAJ and the JVA. Fees for groundwater are charged by the 156
WAJ and fees for surface water are charged by the JVA (DSP’s Overall Data
Integration Report, 2005).
Table 6.5 displays the charges for of water within the investigated study
area by supplier.
The charges for water supplied to the agricultural sector by the JVA
range from 0.05 NIS/CM to 0.23 NIS/CM. The rates for water supplied through
water networks by the WAJ for the municipal sector range from 1.27 NIS/CM to
5.44 NIS/CM, depending
Table 6.5: Charges for water within the four investigated sectors by supplier (In NIS/CM)
Official price as Sector/Water Official price as charged by the price charged by the JVA WAJ
Domestic - 1.27-5.44 Agricultural 0.05-0.23* - Industrial 1.59** 1.59** Tourism - 1.59**
* The price refers to the water harvested by dams and reused TWW. ** The prices apply to water derived from wells containing brackish water and supplied to the industrial and the tourism sectors
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
157
Table 6.6: Water prices for licensed agricultural wells in the study area
Quantity Price (In MCM) (In NIS/CM) 0-0.15 No charge 0.15-0.2 0.16 >0.2 0.38
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
upon the quantity consumed. The charges for the water supplied by the WAJ to the industrial and the tourism sectors are constant and stand at 1.59 NIS/CM.
Tables 6.6-6.7 list the charges for water derived from licensed and unlicensed wells, respectively. From both type of wells the water is pumped by the appropriate authorities and charges are assessed by the government. Water from licensed wells is fully subsidized for an annual consumption of up to 0.15 MCM
(Table 6.6). The charges associated with both types of wells increase with the amount consumed, though the price is slightly lower for water from licensed wells (Tables 6.6-6.7).
Table 6.7: Water charges for unlicensed agricultural wells in the study area
Quantity Price (In MCM) (In NIS/CM) 0-0.1 0.16 0.1-0.15 0.19 0.15-0.2 0.23 >0.2 0.44
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
158
7. Water Resources Management in the Regional Councils
near the Dead Sea: The district of Jericho (the Palestinian
Authority)
This thesis examines both the Israeli and Jordanian study areas in the framework
of the greater Dead Sea Project (Figure 2.1), but the Palestinian study area is
limited to the district of Jericho. Therefore, conclusions drawn here refer to this
district only.
The total amount of water accessible in the district of Jericho stands at
approximately 66 MCM/yr. Table 7.1 illustrates the water resources accessible
in the district of Jericho. Concerning the six water sources presented below,
water is derived mainly from springs and wells.
Table 7.1: Annual capacity of the water sources and the amount used in the district of Jericho in 2003
Annual use Water Resource Capacity (MCM/yr) (MCM/yr) Groundwater 8 8 Springs 27 17.6 Jordan River (after 30 0 treatment) Untreated WW 1 0 Treated WW 0 0 Rooftop cisterns 0.2 0.2 Total 66.2 25.8
Source: WP1 internal Palestinian report, 2004; DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005; FAO (b), 2005
159
Only a negligible amount of water is derived from rainwater stored in rooftop cisterns. Wastewater is currently neither treated nor reused.
7.1 Hydrogeology of the study area: Jericho district
Since the borders of the Megilot Regional Council in the Israeli study area overlap with the borders of the Palestinian study area (See also figure 2.1), the information presented in section 3.1 concerning the hydrogeology of the Israeli study area can also be applied to the district of Jericho.
7.2 Groundwater Resources in the study area
7.2.1 Wells
Figure 6.2 displays the distribution of wells from which water is derived for use by the different sectors. Nearly 8 MCM/yr are accessible from local wells in the district of Jericho (Table 7.1), which hold both brackish and fresh water (See index in table 3.5). a. Surface water Resources in the study area
These water resources include springs found in the study area and the total estimated amount of water stored in rooftop cisterns within the study area.
7.3.1 Springs
Nearly 27 MCM/yr are accessible from local springs, comprised of brackish and fresh water in Jericho’s district. The dominant spring is Ein-Sultan with an annual discharge of 5.7 MCM (Figure 6.2).
160
7.3.2 Rooftop cisterns
An estimated amount of 0.2 MCM/yr is collected in small rooftop cisterns in the study area. This water is water is collected from rooftops after storm events and is stored in cisterns. This water is not traded and is privately owned. There are no Surface Water Reservoirs in the Palestinian study area.
7.3.3 Wastewater generated, treated and reused
Approximately 1 MCM of WW is generated within the Jericho district.
However, the city is not connected to a sewerage system. The WW is discharged to unlined cesspits, from where it either infiltrates into groundwater or flows into nearby wadis (Figure 6.2). Current levels of WW generation are expected to increase by 300% due to population growth (3.5%, Haddad and Mizyed, 1996) by 2020, expecting to total 3 MCM/yr (DSP’s WP1 internal Palestinian report,
2004).
7.4 Water Use In the Study Area: Jericho District
Nearly 26 MCM of water are consumed yearly in the district of Jericho (Table
7.1). It is important to note that approximately 35% of the water, derived from wells and springs, is lost before reaching the actual consumer (See also chapter
6.41; DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005). This high percentage of water losses is caused by evaporation of water stored in open tankers used by the local farmers, leakages and over irrigation of the crops grown. 161
Figure 7.1 illustrates the agriculture sector’s dominancy of water use in relation to the four investigated sectors in the study area.
7.4.1 Water use in the Agricultural sector
Approximately 25.6 MCM/yr of water are consumed by the agriculture sector
(Figure 6.2; figure 7.1) in Jericho’s district, which hosts most of the agricultural activity in the West Bank. This accounts for approximately 90% of the total water consumed in this region. 17.6 MCM/yr are derived from local springs comprised of mainly freshwater, and approximately 8 MCM from agricultural wells, holding both brackish and fresh water. The main crops grown, in decreasing order are: bananas, grapes, dates and row crops in a total area of more than 10,000 dunams (Figure 6.5).
Figure 7.1:
Water consumption by sector in the Jericho district
Tourism 0.05%
9.5%
Domestic 9.53% Agricultural Industrial 90.4% Domestic Tourism
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
162
The dominancy of the agricultural sector is further highlighted in comparing the above figure of the Jericho agricultural area to the entire Israeli study region, which has only 8000 dunams of cultivated lands.
According to measurements taken by the Dead Sea Project’ Palestinian team based on Remote Sensing analysis, the total annual crop water requirements in the Jericho district, calculated at 13.3 MCM/yr, are significantly lower than the actual amounts of water used for irrigation. Hence water use exceeds agricultural water requirements by nearly 200%.
7.4.2 Water use in the Domestic sector
Nearly 2.5 MCM of water is officially allocated to the domestic sector, which consists of the city of Jericho, villages and refugee camps (Figure 7.1). The above amount is approximately 10% of the water consumed in the entire district.
Five springs situated in the vicinity of Jericho are the main water producers, particularly the Ein-Sultan Spring (Figure 6.2). Additionally, approximately 0.2
MCM/yr is collected in rooftops’ cisterns found throughout the city.
7.4.3 Water use in the Industrial sector
There are two active industries (food and concrete) in the district of Jericho, consuming together only 5,000 CM of water per year. 163
7.4.4 Water use in the Tourism sector
There are ten hotels and resorts in the Jericho district, which use only 13,000
CM/yr. However, according to records, this amount has decreased fourfold in
comparison to peaceful and politically stable periods.
7.5 The Monetary Value of Water In the Study Area: Jericho District
Water in the Palestinian study area is provided by Mekorot, the West Bank
Water Department, the PWA, local municipalities and private owners of wells.
Except for the last source listed, the price of the water supplied by all of these
sources is fixed, while private owners negotiate tariffs with buyers.
Mekorot and the West Bank Water Department sell water either to the
PWA, which, in turn, sells to consumers or directly to the municipality of
Jericho (Table 7.2, DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005).
Table 7.2: Water prices within the four investigated sectors by suppliers in the Palestinian study area
Prices of water Water prices as derived Water prices as Water prices in charged by Sector/ informally charged by the other urban Mekorot and Water price from privately PWA and the villages including the West Bank owned wells Jericho’s the additional Water and springs municipality sewerage levy Department Domestic Negotiated 2.05 4.68 5.6 Agricultural 0.2-0.7 2.05* 4.68* 5.6* Industrial Negotiated 2.05 4.68 5.6 Tourism - 2.05 4.68 5.6
*The tariff is stated although it is assumed that the water in this sector derived from privately owned wells followed by communal quotas
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005 164
The price of water sold by Mekorot and the West Bank Water
Department stands at 2.05 NIS/CM; the PWA and the municipality of Jericho charge 4.0 NIS/CM plus 17% VAT (4.68 NIS/CM). Water collected in rooftop cisterns is not traded and consequently not priced.
It should be noted that in urban villages which are connected to sewerage systems (the cities of Bethlehem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour and Hebron), an additional 20% levy is added to the aforesaid price of water supplied by the municipality totaling 5.6 NIS/CM.
Most of the water sources in the Jericho district from which water is derived for agricultural purposes are privately owned via historical claims to property. Rights to local water sources have been passed down through the generations. A well-rooted communal quota system has been developed based on these rights and water is distributed accordingly. In this case, prices for water are negotiated between the owner and the buyer and range from 0.2 NIS/CM to
0.7 NIS/CM. Water from the Ein Sultan spring, primarily derived for the domestic sector in the district of Jericho, is priced 4.68 NIS/CM.
165
8. Discussion and Conclusions
The water budget analysis conducted in this study indicates a positive water balance (figure 8.1) among the water sources in all three riparian entities of the
DS investigated: Israel, Jordan and the District of Jericho (PA).
Figure 8.1:
Water Availability and Consumption Around the Dead Sea Today and by 2020 (estimated*)
160.0 Available 140.0 120.0 100.0 MCM/yr 80.0 Currently 60.0 Consumed 40.0 20.0 0.0 Consumed by Israel Jordan Jericho 2020 (projected)
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005; WP1 Internal Palestinian Report, 2004 * Consumption levels by 2020 were calculated as follows based on the findings presented below: In Israel, 10 MCM/yr were added to industrial consumption (section 3); 1.6 MCM/yr to agricultural consumption (section 5), after compensating for additional water sources expected to be added to the system, according to regional master plans; and 1.2 MCM/yr to tourism consumption (section 6); in Jordan, 13 MCM/yr were added to the agriculture sector and 4.5 MCM/yr to the tourism and domestic sectors (section 1); and 55 MCM/yr of water to be exported (section 2); In Jericho, 5 MCM/yr were added to the domestic and industrial sectors and 24 MCM/yr to the agriculture consumption (section 1).
However, a broader examination was made in relation to future projections of supply and demand. The main findings produced in this study and presented 166 below by and large indicate water use patterns considered inappropriate to the arid environment of the DS:
Main findings for the Israeli study area:
1. All the industrial activity, most of the tourism activity, and half of the agricultural activity are found in the Tamar Regional Council, whereas the
Megilot Regional Council hosts mainly agricultural activity.
2. Findings indicate that all sectors are highly dependent on the extraction of water from local wells. In the Megilot Regional Council, 51.5% of water in 2003 for all of the different sectors was obtained from wells. A staggering 66% of the water for the different uses in the Tamar Regional Council in 2003 was obtained from wells; the bulk of this amount was derived from fossil aquifers and used by the Dead Sea Works.
3. The annual water quotum (granted by the Israel Water Commission) of the
Dead Sea Works, the major water consumer in the area, was increased recently by 157%, in comparison to previous years. This increase may have to do with the fact that the Dead Sea Works has repeatedly exceeded its allotted quotum within the last several years or with the fact that the Dead Sea Works does not have to pay for its water as a commodity.
4. Currently, only 64% of the floodwater captured in reservoirs belonging to the
Dead Sea Works is being utilized. Likewise, the wastewater generated by the
Works consists mainly of industrial wastewater (WW) and is not reused. 167
5. An additional 1,000 dunams in the vicinity of Kikar Sdom (See also figure
4.7) are expected to be used for agriculture. Thus the water demand of the agricultural sector will increase by 14%.
6. According to regional master plans, approximately 2150 new hotel rooms and
500 guesthouse units are expected to be added in the near future to the 4000 and
15 hotels and guesthouse units already found along the Israeli coast. Following this construction of new hotel rooms and guesthouse units in the study area, water consumption levels in the tourism sector will increase by approximately
66%, from 1.8 MCM/yr at present time to roughly 3 MCM/yr in the near future.
7. Seventy nine percent of the wastewater treated in the Ein Bokek Waste Water
Treatment Plant (comprising 87% of the wastewater generated in the Tamar
Regional Council) is discharged into Pond number 5 without being reused due to lack of appropriate infrastructures.
Main Findings for the Jordanian Study Area:
1. Current levels of water harvesting through dams along the Dead Sea’s eastern side wadis (Wadi Walla and Wadi Mujib. See also figure 6.1) are expected to increase by 31%, from 42 MCM/yr to 55 MCM/yr in the near future, thereby increasing the water available for agricultural purposes.
2. Fifty-five MCM/yr of brackish water to be derived from wells would be desalinated and supplied to several sources upon the completion of Zara Mai’n
Project (See also figure 6.1). The largest amount would be supplied to the city of
Amman and to other urban centers outside the study area. Water will be also 168 allocated to the aforesaid new hotels situated along the Dead Sea and to the mineral extraction industry situated south of the Dead Sea. Thereafter, current levels of water supply to the tourism sector in the study area are expected to increase by a maximum of 600%, and by a maximum of 200% in the industrial sector of the Jordanian study area.
3. High percentage of water losses (35%) were noted in the agriculture sector.
Main Findings for the Palestinian Study Area:
1. In the District of Jericho, demand for water should increase by 100% from approximately 25 MCM/yr to more than 50 MCM/yr by 2020 due to high levels of population growth (3.5%, Haddad and Mizyed, 1996).
2. It was calculated that the total water requirements of the crops grown in the
District of Jericho are lower than the amount of water used for irrigation by approximately 100%. The gap is attributed to the high percentage of water losses
(35%) noted in the agriculture sector.
These findings confirm the fear that the present positive water balance could be compromised unless appropriate measures are undertaken.
According to Agnew and Anderson (1992), attempts to balance supply and demand have normally focused on increasing supplies by exploiting new resources or by regulating surface flows, partially due to greater priority given to economic development. They propose, however, to control demand by: a) improving the water pricing and metering systems; b) strictly enforcing extraction license- related measures; c) limiting irrigation. They further 169 emphasize the need to enhance the flexibility of the water system, especially in arid zones, where uncertainties concerning steady water supply are greater.
Similarly, Bruins (1997) and Bruins and Lithwick (1998) promote a proactive planning method. This method is basically governed by the aforesaid uncertainties manifested primarily in natural and human-made droughts, arising mainly in arid zones. Lithwick et al (1998) assert that the pricing reform mentioned above is vital for any achievement to be made in balancing a stock of water. Yet, he maintains, in order for this step to be fully productive, additional water sources need to be introduced into the system. Roberts (1993) and
Zaslavsky (2002) further highlight the need to develop alternative sources as a means of halting further deterioration of the sources heavily exploited under conditions of water balance deficit.
It is therefore believed that from a regional point of view, solutions can be found in adopting a dual strategy, comprised of preventive steps (e.g. demand control) and the development of alternative supply methods aimed at increasing the water availability in the study area, thereby enhancing the elasticity of the local water system (Roberts, 1993). Demand control can be achieved through economic measures, including the adoption of an adequate pricing system and various institutional measures, including the drafting of appropriate regulations and legislations. Greater elasticity of the system can be achieved through technical measures, namely creation and expansion of infrastructure (Burchi,
1985). 170
On a domain scale, however, solutions must be found that are in accordance with current water use patterns (which are based on national strategies), current and future claims for water, and the general condition of present infrastructure (Lundqvist et al, 1985). A distinction between potable and non-potable water users is further required before decisions are made (Van
Vleck et al, 1987).
In light of the above findings and opinions, the following assumptions are made:
• Within the near future, an additional amount of 10 MCM/yr is expected to
be claimed by the main water consumer in the Israeli study area (Figure
8.2), the DSW--a non-potable user.
• Likewise, an additional 1.6 MCM/yr is expected to be demanded by the
agriculture sector (a non potable user) in the Israeli study area
• Similarly, an additional 1.2 MCM/yr is projected to be consumed by the
tourism sector (a potable user) in the Israeli study area.
• An additional 25 MCM/yr is expected to be demanded by the domestic
sector (a potable user) in the Jericho district.
• By 2020, treated wastewater (TWW) use should triple in the Jericho
district, supplying one-third of the total amount of water used by the
agriculture sector.
• Wastewater is under-utilized in the Jordanian domain (comprising only
3% of the total agricultural sector’s water budget
Adoption of an integrated management framework is therefore recommended for the Israeli and Palestinian study areas. This involves more effective water use 171
through attuned allocations, reduced groundwater overdrafts through conjunctive
management of ground and surface water, and more rigorous water reuse by
means of planned sequencing of uses (Svendsen, 2005; Van Vleck et al, 1987).
In the Jordanian domain, the emphasis should be on improving the poor wastewater-related infrastructure and developing comprehensive water-user programs.
8.1 Recommended Measures Toward a Long-term Water Balance in the Israeli Study Area It is assumed that any step towards a long-term water balance around the lake
must first include the introduction of alternative practices in addition to those
presently in use by the main water consumer in the area, the mineral extraction
industry in the Israeli domain (Figure 8.2).
As mentioned earlier, the DSW obtains its water primarily from local
fossil aquifers consisting of brackish and saline water (currently classified by the
Israeli Water Commission as “free of charge”). The annual potential water
production from fossil aquifers in the Negev that can meet current needs stands
at 50 MCM (Issar, 2001).
However, high levels of salinity and high concentrations of iron and sulfur pose
a problem (Gvirtzman, 2002). The water extracted was deemed suitable for
domestic use (after desalination) and industrial use (Gvirtzman, 2002). Bein et
al (2004) have called attention to the unsustainability inherent in the ongoing
pumping from local groundwater fossil aquifers, particularly by the Dead Sea
Works. Bein explained that depleting a non-rechargeable aquifer could lead to
irreversible consequences for the adjacent groundwater systems. 172
Figure 8.2: Water Consumption By Sector In the Investigated Study Areas
Water consumption by sector in the investigated study areas
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% Agricultural 0% Israeli study Jordanian Palestinian Tourism area study area study area Domestic (District of Jericho) Industrial
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
Yechieli and Arad (1997) noted that extracting water from local groundwater systems will change the hydrological conditions in the region. Pearce et al
(1990) and Farrow (1998) advocate the “Shadow Project” tool, which states that any deterioration of natural resources must be accompanied by a development of alternative sources.
In light of the above findings and opinions, potential solutions should be presented to remedy the manner in which damaging and unsustainable water- management of the Dead Sea Works occurs with impunity.
A potential solution may be the adoption of the in-lieu recharge scheme.
This scheme refers to any condition in which groundwater that is not pumped
(due to the availability of a new water source in the area) is stored and saved for 173
use during dry periods (Van Vleck et al, 1987). The system was used broadly on
a state level in California and was proven viable during the 1977-78 droughts. In
the case of the Dead Sea area, the system could be tested on a local scale. The
water to be stored and saved could serve other potable consumers, such as the
tourism sector, which as indicated is expected to increase its demand by 66% in
the near future. Yet in order for this scheme to be successfully adopted, a
number of economic and institutional measures should first be carried out.
There is broad consensus among economists that demand constitutes the
quantities of a commodity that consumers wish to obtain at optimal prices. Thus,
it is assumed that if prices are relatively higher, the estimated quantities
demanded and hence utilized will be relatively lower (Lithwick et al, 1998).
Given the fact that the water derived by the Dead Sea Works by means of both its self-operated wells and the captured runoff reservoirs are cost free, it would appear that the current water pricing system lacks any preliminary economic incentives to dissuade the Dead Sea Works from over consuming beyond its water quotas or from inefficient utilization of its water sources. At present, the supply costs for the Dead Sea Works are primarily comprised of equipment-maintenance and license-related costs.
In Australia, the dramatic environmental deterioration noted in different parts of the Murray River Basin is attributed to the fact that an extensive number of licenses for the abstraction of water were issued in the 1960s-1970s, when the ecological outcomes arising from such practices were still largely unknown.
When the outcomes were acknowledged, tradable water entitlements were 174
adopted and rationalization of water pricing was carried out (Pigram and
Musgrave, 1998).
Thus, it is believed that pricing the water derived by the DSW will ensure
that the company will consume its water more rationally and utilize its water
sources more efficiently. This expectation is consistent with Lavi et al (2004),
who have pointed out that over-exploitation of natural resources occurs if they are
provided free of charge or if the charges do not reflect the real value of these resources. The economic measure suggested above should be also followed by an
institutional one:
It is suggested that the measure of pricing the water derived by the Dead Sea
Works should be accompanied by additional steps to be taken by the Israel Water
Commission:
a) Determining a “cap” level for use: A stable “cap” at the 2003 level
(approximately 23 MCM/yr) should be indicated. Any further use should be
made conditional upon improvement of water infrastructures systems (which
will be further discussed below).
b) Stricter enforcement: Heavy penalties should be imposed upon the Dead Sea
Works each time it exceeds its quotas
However, these two measures (the economic and the institutional) can, at best,
help to regulate the over-pumping currently executed by the DSW from local
fossil aquifers. In order to ease the pressure on this aquifer, or to make it available for other uses in the future, certain technical measures must be implemented, namely the creation and expansion of infrastructure: 175
A. Expansion of Existing Infrastructure
• Better Utilization of Local Runoff Captured Reservoirs
The potential amount of renewable water to be stored in the runoff captured
reservoirs belonging to the Dead Sea Works, along with those of Neot Tamar,
which was built by the Jewish National Fund, stands at approximately 8.45
MCM/yr. Currently, the floodwater captured in these reservoirs accounts for
20% (5.4 MCM/yr) of the Dead Sea Works’ annual consumption, which stands
at approximately 26 MCM/yr (comprised of both the water pumped from wells
and the water stored in Zin and Heimar reservoirs). However, this amount could
be increased to at least 33% in wet years if two of the reservoirs in the Dead Sea
Works’ possession, the Rahaf and Ashalim and Neot Tamar reservoir, were to be
connected by pipes, thereby reducing levels of pumping from the fossil aquifer.
B. Creation of Infrastructure
• Importing Treated Wastewater (TWW)
In some remote areas, imported water can be used as a viable and preferable
alternative when groundwater level decline needs to be diminished. The
introduction of this new source of water into the area should be viewed in terms
of a broader, multi-sector economic perspective, so other potential users that
may profit from the new source will be recognized (Mather, 1984; Van Vleck et
al, 1987).
It would therefore be advisable to examine the feasibility of supplying WW
generated and treated in the coastal plain to the industrial sector in the Dead 176
Sea area for scrubbing and washing purposes. This WW to be delivered could also be utilized for the irrigation of an additional 1,000 dunams expected to be used for agriculture in the vicinity of the Kikar Sdom agriculture fields (Figure
8.3).
Water transfer on various scales (namely state level and regional level) is commonly used worldwide as a method of alleviating regional water deficits.
Thus, more than 50% of the water supply of the city of Denver comes via inter- basin transfers from watersheds on the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains
(Mather, 1984). Excessive pumping from groundwater sources in Santa Clara
Valley, California has lead to a dramatic decline in water levels. Surface water imported by the State Water Project and later by the Central Valley Project was used as a means of reducing the annual overdraft by nearly 35% (Van Vleck et al, 1987). Water transfer was also used to alleviate regional water deficit in semi-arid Nigeria (Egboka, 1985). The bulk of the potable water supplied to consumers in Israel is transferred from Lake Kineret through the Israeli National
Water Carrier, which reaches as far as the Rotem Plateau (Mekorot, 2006; figure 8.3).
However, water transfer can also precipitate disputes, as it is usually followed by higher levels of water demand due to the increasing levels of supply into the area of need (Mather, 1984). Yet proponents of the water transfer method point out that once the storage and transport systems are in place, the quantity of water that can be delivered is fixed and municipal, industrial or agricultural reforms can be further developed (Mather, 1984). 177
Figure 8.3:
178
Perhaps the most relevant and applicable water transfer project for this study is the East Jerusalem model, specifically the Og 1 TWW reservoir’s WW pipe, which is currently in use. This pipe was laid in order to meet the water demand of the agricultural sector in the Megilot Regional Council. 3.4 MCM/yr of TWW on average, generated in East Jerusalem, are supplied to four of the five villages located within the Megilot Regional Council. Some 15,000 CM of this WW, treated to a secondary level, are transferred daily through pipes to the Og 1 WW
Reservoir situated in the locality of Kibbutz Kalya, whose total capacity stands at 1.4 MCM (Ministry of Environment, 2004). This imported TWW comprises
49% of the total water used by the agriculture sector in the Megilot Regional
Council. These high percentages have encouraged decision makers to construct an additional reservoir, also tailored to the agricultural sector. This reservoir, Og
2, will be constructed sometime in the foreseeable future, storing 1.4 MCM/yr of
TWW also generated in East Jerusalem.
The laying of the proposed pipes should fall within the existing infrastructure of the National Water Carrier, which as noted currently reaches as far as the Rotem Plateau and should extend as far as the Dead Sea Works situated on the Dead Sea shore (Figure 8.3). Additional related methods could emulate the East Jerusalem model.
The method of delivering WW from the Coastal Plain to arid regions is not new to decision makers, and in 2001, 120 MCM of WW generated and treated in the Coastal Plain were transferred to the Negev (Katzir, 2001). 179
Bruins and Lithwick (1998) have pointed out the need to asses the environmental vulnerability of a region at different hierarchic levels (i.e. national, regional, and local) in the context of a preplanned crisis policy. The suggestion provided above concerning the import of TWW would increase the number of renewable water sources available for use by industry and agriculture on a local scale. In so doing, the potential deterioration of renewable wells used by industry and farmers in the Dead Sea area due to water deficit in years of droughts could be prevented.
However, comprehensive feasibility studies must be undertaken in order to determine the economic profitability of the above mentioned model concerning the import of WW into the study area. These studies should contain cost/benefit analyses in order to calculate additional costs, including new infrastructure-related costs and subsequent maintenances-related costs.
Preliminary scenario-mapping in the form of feedback loops concerning the different effects of price increases should also be conducted. In the positive loop, the initial process is followed by positive ramifications (i.e. economic revenues), and in the negative loop, the initial process is followed by negative ramifications
(i.e. economic losses). These two effects are demonstrated below:
Feitelson et al (1996) have pointed out that the increased cost of production will impel the industry to improve its current methods of production, thereby fostering the development of more advanced technologies. This step may eventually lead to a more economical industrial process. 180
Another example of a positive feedback loop can be found in the lower
water-related costs to be paid by farmers in Kikar Sdom agriculture fields if the
pipes are be extended from the Dead Sea Works’ premises to the aforesaid
fields (Figure 8.3). The relatively low cost of TWW originating in the Og 1
TWW reservoir (0.57 NIS/CM on average) reflects the expected reduction in
water-related costs currently paid by most farmers in the Tamar Regional
Council (0.94 NIS/CM) if TWW is to be imported from outside the study area
in a manner similar to that of the Og 1 TWW reservoir, as discussed earlier.
However, negative feedback loops may occur if the government, which
is supposed to be the primary executer of such a project, does not provide
industries (or industries and farmers as demonstrated) with sufficient economic
incentives, in which case the project would either be stalled indefinitely or be
only partially executed. Both scenarios would be followed by severe economic
losses.
The technical measure should also include the introduction of WW-related infrastructure:
• Industrial WW-reuse
In water-deficient areas, ww reuse is considered a measure commonly in use
(Zaslavsky, 2002; Schiller, 1992). Mather (1984) points out that cost is the
primary factor motivating industry to consider using reclaimed water, and adds
that where relatively good quality water is available at a reasonable cost, there is
little incentive to consider renovated water. This view, probably not incidentally,
is consistent with that of the head of the Ecology and Infrastructure Department 181 at Rotem Amphert concerning the lack of industrial ww reuse as an additional water source due to high availability of freshwater supplied to his plant through the National Water Carrier (Pers. Comm, 2005).
The finding concerning the lack of industrial WW reuse is disturbing in light of the fairly high WW generator- coefficient used by the IWC for the industrial sector of 0.7 (see chapter 3.5.2, appendix 2). In other words, the annual potential of WW-reuse within the DSW stands at 70% of the 27 MCM
(19 MCM) of water used by it in 2003.
The Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Sciences, which is sponsored in part by the Environmental Protection Agency in the U.S., has pointed out that in some cases, industrial washing processes may utilize only 50% of the water’s potential to absorb heat, thereby leaving room for reuse (the United Nations
Environment Program’s web site, 2005; the Lenntech Mambrane Technology web site, 2005). In Australia, the Department of the Environment and Heritage
(2005) notes an existing technique in which industrial WW was reused and as a result, water consumption-related costs were reduced by 15 times and a significant reduction in annual sewage discharge-related costs was also recorded.
Such existing techniques should be carefully considered by the mineral- extraction industries along the Dead Sea area as well as encouraged by the appropriate ministries.
If upon closer examination the introduction of such techniques concerning industrial WW reuse is found to be potentially rewarding 182 economically, industries would have an incentive to implement them, thereby utilizing their water resources more efficiently.
The adoption of the aforementioned dual strategy as a step toward a long-term water balance in the Israeli study area should also be implemented in the context of agricultural practices, which account for 14% of the total demand for water in the Israeli study area.
As mentioned earlier, the water use patterns of the agriculture sector in the Israeli study area differ between the two investigated regional councils, thed
Tamar Regional Council and the Megilot Regional Council. In the former, water use patterns were found to be inefficient, while in the latter, water management was found to be sustainable. Since agricultural activity patterns in these regional councils are fairly similar, it was easy to compare them, and thereby identify the necessary steps towards conservation.
The findings reveal that the prices of water for the agriculture sector in the study area range from approximately 0.15 NIS/CM for the freshwater supplied by Kibbutz Ein Gedi to its farmers, to 0.94 NIS/CM for the brackish water supplied by Mekorot to farmers in Kikar Sdom and 1.25 NIS/CM for the freshwater supplied by Mekorot to farmers in the Megilot Regional Council.
Moreover, the TWW supplied to the farmers from the Og 1 TWW reservoir in the Megilot Regional Council is priced at approximately 0.57 NIS/CM on average. The TWW from the Waste Water Treatment Plants in the Tamar
Regional Council and supplied to farmers is free, as the discharge process is the responsibility of the regional councils. 183
The gap between the price for farmers in Ein Gedi and the other farmers in the study area demonstrates the low cost associated with water derived from the
Ein Gedi, which follows from the fact that like the Dead Sea Works, the Kibbutz is an independent producer. It is therefore recommended that the current price for water consumed by the agricultural sector in Kibbutz Ein Gedi be re- examined and perhaps be made equitable to those paid by Kikar Sdom’s farmers. Allan and Mallat (1995) and Lavi et al (2004) have noted that lower water prices encourage waste. Hence, the implementation of the aforesaid recommendation would encourage farmers to utilize the water derived from the
Ein Gedi springs more efficiently.
In parallel to the conservation measure mentioned above concerning a re- evaluation of the current inequitable pricing system found in the agriculture sector, an additional demand control step could be the introduction of arid- tolerant crops.
The most common types of crops in the study area are vegetables and fruits (row crops) planted in over 4800 dunams and irrigated with 5.5 MCM/yr of brackish and freshwater in 2003. Dates are the second largest water consumer among the crops grown in the study area, planted over an area of approximately
2400 dunams and irrigated with 5.5 MCM of brackish water together with a small amount of TWW.
The Middle East Regional Cooperation Grant Program (2005) has pointed out that growing conventional crops under arid conditions such as those of the study area may entail certain constraints. The primary constraint is the low 184 availability of water suitable for agricultural purposes. Other constrains involve soil losses caused by wind and water erosion, vegetation depletion, and the loss of potentially valuable species of plants due to the extreme climatic conditions.
Therefore, these arid regions should host arid-tolerant crops which resist these constraints.
The annual water demand by crops listed above indicates the potential amount of water that could be saved if arid-tolerant crops were to be introduced instead of those currently grown.
While a date palm tree consumes approximately 290 CM/yr, a mature
Marula (producing edible fruits as well as wood and medicinal substances) consumes only 18 CM/yr; a mature Argania tree (from which wood and oil are produced) consumes only 12 CM/yr; and a Pitaya (many- branched sprawling cactus which produces edible fruits) consumes as little as 0.5 CM/yr.
Such crops should be gradually introduced into the study area. This could be accomplished through the planting of experimental fields, in which local farmers would learn the properties of these crops.
However, preliminary evaluations regarding the potential economic advantages of the aforementioned introduction of arid-tolerant crops should be conducted. Whether or not the recommendations provided above concerning the introduction of arid-tolerant crops would prove as economically rewarding, decisions need to be made in the direction of increasing the water availability for agriculture activity. The adoption of an in-lieu recharge scheme in the 185 agriculture sector is therefore recommended in a similar manner to the one presented above in the context of the industrial sector:
• Delivering WW Generated and Treated Inside the Study Area
This could be done by laying a WW-pipe from the Ein Bokek Waste Water
Treatment Plant in which 87% of the WW generated in the Tamar Regional
Council is treated, to the agriculture fields in Kikar Sdom. Currently, 79% of this water is discharged into Pond Number 5 without being reused.
In both regional councils agriculture fields cover an area of approximately 4000 dunams. In both councils, these fields are irrigated with approximately 7 MCM/yr of water. Yet, while in the Megilot Regional Council,
TWW comprises 49% of the total water used by the agriculture sector (expected to increase to 71% following the introduction of the Og 2 TWW reservoir based on the levels of consumption in 2003) this figure is much lower in the Tamar
Regional Council and stands at only 2%. The fairly high percentage noted in the
Megilot Regional Council is attributable to the above-mentioned Og 1 TWW reservoir’s WW pipe.
Indeed, the potential of reusing WW generated in the Tamar Regional
Council is fairly low at present (0.8 MCM/yr), though regional master plans indicate a massive development of the region (See also section 6 of the findings) in the near future which will be followed by growing levels of WW generation.
Thus, the availability of TWW to be used by the agriculture sector in this council is expected to increase to approximately 3.7 MCM/yr by 2020.
According to the aforementioned plans (appendix 4), 1 MCM/yr will be 186 transferred through a 20 km-length pipe from the Ein-Bokek Waste Water
Treatment Plant to irrigate future agriculture fields in Wadi Rahaf (Figure 8.3).
Thus, since as mentioned above 1 MCM/yr will be transferred from the Ein-
Bokek Waste Water Treatment Plant to irrigate future agriculture fields in Wadi
Rahaf and 0.2 MCM/yr are used for irrigation of public and hotels gardens already, 2 MCM/yr of WW could be transferred through the proposed pipe from the Ein Bokek Waste Water Treatment Plant to Kikar Sdom’s agriculture fields.
This amount constitutes one third of the total present water demand of the agriculture fields in Kikar Sdom.
Although the economic profitability of such a project is unknown and will not be analyzed here in depth, the following calculation may illustrate some of the economic fruits of the implementation of this project:
As noted, the annual capacity of the proposed pipe, 2 MCM/yr, is equivalent to one third of the total water presently used in Kikar Sdom’s agriculture fields. Thus, the 2 MCM/yr currently supplied to Kikar Sdom’s fields by Mekorot at a price of 0.94 NIS/CM (totaling approximately 1,880,000 NIS) could be reduced from the farmers’ annual budget since it is assumed that the
TWW will be supplied to the farmers free of charge, as it is done with the TWW originating in the Ein Gedi and Kikar Sdom wastewater treatment plants.
• Construction of TWW Reservoir in Kibbutz Ein Gedi
Another step that could help increase the water availability for the agriculture sector in the area could be the construction of a small reservoir adjacent to 187
Kibbutz Ein-Gedi designed to store the WW treated in Ein Gedi Waste Water
Treatment Plant. Approximately 50% of the WW treated in this plant during the winter flowed freely to adjacent wadis without being reused due to relatively low demand (compared to that of the summer). The WW to be stored in the proposed reservoir could also be utilized for irrigation of the Botanical Gardens, which are currently irrigated with freshwater derived from the Ein Gedi springs.
The head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Ein-Gedi (2005) refused to provide this author with the exact amount of water allocated to the Botanical
Garden.
An inefficient water price system was found for hotel-based tourism, which does not encourage savings. The price of water for the hotels is fixed and stands at 2.6 NIS/CM regardless of the amount consumed. Hence there is no particular incentive for the hotels to conserve water. This fact should arouse concern in light of the future development of this sector as presented earlier.
Following this construction of new hotel rooms and guesthouse units in the study area, water consumption levels in the tourism sector will increase by approximately 66% from 1.8 MCM/yr at present time to roughly 3 MCM/yr in the foreseeable future.
Furthermore, it should be noted that the tourism sector may only utilize potable water obtained from wells, while only a small amount of TWW can be used for irrigation of gardens due to health-code regulations.
Moreover, it should be noted that people consume 25% more water on vacation in comparison to their level of consumption at home (appendix 4). Such 188 facts emphasize the need for proactive plan tailored to the tourism sector whose relative share of the total water budget in the study area will increase from 3% to
5% following the construction of the new hotels and guesthouse units in the region.
In light of these findings, the following conservation measures are recommended for the hotel-based tourism sector:
1. Changing the water pricing system
A progressive pricing system is recommended, such that “the more you use, the more you pay per cubic meter” (Schiffler, 1995) for the 15 hotels situated at the
Ein Bokek tourism site. Since the average daily water consumption per hotel room in the study area is 1.25 CM, this figure could serve as the “cap” price.
Any consumption beyond this “cap” price would be considered over- consumption and would entail higher charges for the additional CMs consumed.
Such a pricing system would encourage water savings.
2. Installing water-saving devices
Arlosoroff (1996) has noted that the installation of water-saving devices in
Israel, California, and elsewhere was followed by a reduction in water-related costs. Arlosoroff estimated the reduction in the water-related costs at 0.32-0.48
NIS/CM (the estimation was originally provided in $US and was converted based on the average currency rate for 1996: 1US$=3.2 NIS).
Among these devices were two volume flushing controls on toilets, regulated shower heads, flow regulators in kitchen and bathroom sink taps, leakage control, and technologies for improving garden and park irrigation. 189
The economic profitability of such methods was demonstrated in a project intended to save water in small hotels in England. The main methods used in this project, which was conducted by the Environmental Agency in
England and Wales (2005), were the installation of water saving devices and better inspection for leakages. The results indicated an average reduction of 25% per day per guest, amounting to a savings of 6.2 NIS/CM (the estimation was originally provided in ₤ (British pound) and was converted based on the currency rate for Oct 15, 2005: 1₤= 8.1 NIS).
Some of these water saving devices are probably present in at least some of the hotels and guesthouses in the study area, as required according to current regulations (e.g. installation of two-volume flushing device is mandatory in new toilets tanks). Nevertheless, it may be assumed that a widespread adoption of the other advanced devices, listed above, and improvement of leakage control would lead to a reduction in water use in the hotels. The adoption of such water saving devices should be made mandatory in order to encourage the hotel managements to conserve water.
Since the goal of saving water in the tourism sector is shared by the hotels and the relevant government ministries, the second suggestion concerning the installation of water-saving techniques should be accompanied by subsidies and other economic incentives to be provided by the government.
Water use in the domestic sector was found to be the lowest among the four investigated sectors in the study area. Yet a comprehensive plan for the 190 installation of water saving devices in local households could also be promoted by the regional councils.
The methods presented above of new adaptive responses for controlling excessive demand and increasing water availability in the Israeli study area echo
Kindler (1985), who holds that there should be more reliance on sequential decision making, experimentation, and learning feedback rather than on inflexible management practices.
8.2 Recommended Measures Toward a Long-term Water Balance in the Jordanian Study area As mentioned earlier, unlike the situation in the investigated regional councils in
Israel, in which most of the water was consumed by the industrial sector, the highest levels of water demand in the Jordanian study area were recorded in the agriculture sector (Figure 8.2). However, the water use patterns in this sector detailed below were found to be inefficient. Thus, it is assumed that the key for a long-term water balance in the Jordanian study area is to be found in the amelioration of these patterns:
a. The indisputably low percentage (3%) of Treated Waste Water (TWW) in the total water budget of the agricultural sector
This low percentage illustrates the inadequacy of alternative water sources, such as WW-related infrastructures in the Jordanian study area.
The low share of WW-reuse in the Jordanian study area is consistent with national patterns of WW-reuse in the agricultural sector in the whole of Jordan, which comprises 12% of the total water budget of this sector (Al Salem, 2005). 191
This source of water amounts to 60% of the total water budget of the corresponding sector in Israel (Ministry of Environment, 2006).
The significance of reuse lies in its ability to provide localized relief to quantitative and qualitative pressures caused by intense human activities on high quality human resources (Khouri, 1992). This low level of WW-reuse can be explained by the fact that reuse policies are mainly adopted on political grounds, rather than on the basis of technical and economic considerations (Allan, 1999).
This assumption is further highlighted in the economic analysis provided by Al
Salem. Al Salem (2005) notes that WW treatment is relatively inexpensive as compared to the development of other water sources in the Jordanian area.
He estimates the costs of WW treatment for agricultural purposes at
1.35-2.7 NIS/CM. He further estimates the adoption of low-water use technology and leakage repairs at 0.22-2.2 NIS/CM and desalination of brackish water at 2-3.1 NIS/CM (The estimations were originally provided in $US and were converted based on the currency rate of $US1= 4.53 NIS).
These prices demonstrate the potential economic benefit obtainable should Jordanian decision makers adopt alternative practices rather than retain the policies now in effect.
According to Khouri (1992), there is increasing potential for reuse in an area, if:
a. Some form of WW reuse is already taking place.
b. Water supply is limited compared to the demand
c. The project area includes large consumers of water. 192
In the last 6 years, the Jordanian Ministry of Agriculture has conducted a project in which TWW is used for irrigation of unconventional crops. Among these are fodder, alfalfa, rye grass, and Sudan grass, which are considered high nitrogen- tolerant crops. The water for this unique project was supplied from the Madaba
Waste Water Treatment Plant, and initial results have demonstrated the economic profitability of this process (the French Regional Mission for Water and Agriculture’s web site, 2005).
Khouri’s findings and the aforementioned project demonstrate the high potential of reusing WW for agricultural purposes, which would reduce the amount of freshwater from the total water budget of the agricultural sector in the study area.
However, in order to increase the levels of WW-reuse in the Jordanian study area, the communities and the hotels situated in the Dead Sea area must first be connected to the sewerage system. Currently, these sources which account for most of the WW generated in the study area are not connected to any sewerage system and the WW either seeped into the ground or discharged into adjacent wadis.
Currently, 3 MCM are used by the domestic and tourism sectors in the
Jordanian study area. This figure is expected to increase to 5.5-9 MCM in the near future due to population growth and new hotels planned for the northeastern shore of the Dead Sea.
Similarly, the amount of WW to be generated is also expected to grow and is estimated at 4-6 MCM/yr by 2020. Therefore, if this amount of water is 193 reused for agricultural purposes, current levels of WW reuse for agricultural purposes will increase by several percent. Although this amount is fairly low and can meet only a small proportion of the water demand in the agricultural sector, the development of WW-related infrastructures would influence practices and policies in Jordan whereby “new” methods would be adopted, thus decreasing reliance on those already in use, such as flood water harvesting and desalination.
b. Growing tendency to rely on wadi flows was noted
Current levels of water harvesting through dams along the Dead Sea’s eastern side wadis (Wadi Walla and Wadi Mujib) are expected to increase by 31%. This tendency further highlights the inadequacy of alternative water source in the
Jordanian study area as mentioned above, and will result in a serious reduction of one of the last legitimate feeding sources of the Dead Sea.
Bein et al (2004) have warned that currently, water inflow from wadis into the Dead Sea has been reduced from volumes ranging from 250 to 420 MCM/yr in the beginning of the 20th century to volumes ranging from 180-320 MCM/yr at the present time. Although these figures apply to both the western and the eastern wadis of the Dead Sea, the reduction in flow is caused mainly by the aforementioned water dams in the Jordanian study area.
c. High percentages of water losses (35%) were noted.
The low charges for water derived officially from both licensed and unlicensed wells (prices ranges from 0 to 0.44 NIS/CM) in the study area are indisputably low, especially as compared to those charged in the investigated regional councils in Israel (0.15-1.25 NIS/CM). These low water prices reflect the high 194 priority of the agriculture sector amongst the Jordanian decision makers, as asserted by Allan and Mallat (1995) and Schiller (1995).
It is assumed that a more appropriate pricing system would serve as a key factor in reducing the high percentage of water losses noted above, as a major part of it is attributed to over-irrigation. Schiffler (1995) noted that half of the irrigation in the Jordan Valley is accomplished by means of a drip irrigation system. Yet the other half is accomplished by means of ‘classic’ irrigation methods, in which water is pumped and stored in open tankers from which large quantities evaporate. However, he maintains, since the farmers in Jordan are considered an influential pressure group, a dramatic increase in water charges is unlikely to occur.
Whether or not such a change in the price of water will occur, it is assumed that other methods could be used in the endeavor to reduce the aforementioned high percentage of water losses. One such method which was implemented successfully in some arid zones of the US was the establishment of comprehensive water-use programs, aimed at increasing control over demand:
In Arizona, an “Active Management Areas Program” was initiated, aimed at reaching a safe yield through short term plans such as registration and adjudication of water rights and the establishment of local augmentation projects
(i.e. captured runoff utilization and ww reuse). Accordingly, old, unlimited pumping rights have been replaced in these areas by a system of limited, quantified and verified rights, based on various criteria, including previous use and the needs of agricultural and municipal services. Guidelines have been 195 established for new users to obtain groundwater withdrawal permits (Roberts,
1984).
Similarly, in several basins situated in arid regions of California, legal action was taken in areas where uncontrolled groundwater withdrawals resulted in severe deterioration of the local groundwater resources. Consequently, formal groundwater management programs were initiated (Van Vleck et al, 1987).
However, unlike the US, in the Jordanian study area, surface water comprises the main water source, as opposed to groundwater, and water sources are often accessed informally. Although the characteristics of the American case may differ from those of the Jordanian, their goal is the same, to increase water efficiency levels. Thus the management programs mentioned above could be emulated in the framework of educational workshops.
Thus, in order to reduce the high percentage of water losses in the
Jordanian study area and to stabilize them at levels similar to those noted in
Israel (10%), it is recommended that workshops be organized in which knowledge and equipment is shared with scholars from Israel. The workshops should host Jordanian and Israeli experts in the field of agriculture from academic institutions, representatives from the appropriate governmental ministries, and farmers from both countries. The workshops should also encourage farmers to participate in experiments from which they would acquire vital experience. 196
In conjunction with the recommended workshops, a renewal of the irrigation system would help to reduce the current level of water losses to 10%, similar to the situation in Israel.
The total water consumption of the agriculture sector in the Jordanian study area stands at 57.9 MCM/yr. Yet the total water requirement, as calculated by Remote Sensing analysis, stands at only 37.7 MCM/yr. Thus, if both measures (the establishment of workshops and the renewal of the irrigation system) are undertaken and water losses are first stabilized at 20%, the total water consumption of the agriculture sector will stand at approximately 45
MCM/yr, thus saving approximately 13 MCM/yr.
d. The main crops grown in the Jordanian study area are bananas and dates, considered non-arid-tolerant crops.
Thus, as suggested earlier in the matter of the Israeli study area, the introduction of arid-tolerant crops into the Jordanian study area is recommended in the framework of either a national or international project.
The possibility of introducing arid-tolerant crops is already being investigated within the framework of a USAID (United States Agency for
International Development) project by researchers from the AIES (Arava
Institute for Environmental Studies) in Israel and in Morocco.
Results from this project will help shed light on the potential of the proposed introduction of arid-tolerant crops into the Jordanian study area. Yet even if the results indicate the general feasibility of such a project, additional economic feasibility studies should be conducted. This is essential in order to 197
demonstrate to both the Jordanian government and to the farmers in the area that
the introduction of arid tolerant crops may be economically advantageous (or at
least comparable to the profitability of crops currently grown), and significantly
reduce the demand for water in the water-scarce study area.
8.3 Recommended Measures Toward a Long-term Water Balance in the Palestinian Study Area
As mentioned earlier, 90% of the water in the Jericho District is consumed by
the agriculture sector and only 9.5% by the domestic sector. (The industry and
the tourism sectors were found to be minor water consumers in the district.) The
high percentage of water consumption by this sector in the district of Jericho
(90%) is due to the fact that it hosts considerable agricultural activity. The
copious springs and the climatic conditions favor the area for agriculture, as
Jericho has a long and well-known history of human settlement, which began ca
10,000 years ago (Elazary, 2003)).
The findings indicate the presence of two major problems to be confronted
in the effort to achieve a long-term water balance in the District of Jericho:
a. A lack of WW-related infrastructure
b. A high percentage of water losses (35%)
In the district of Jericho, as in Jordan, water sources are accessed informally. This phenomenon is limited in the Jordanian study area, but it appears to be more widespread in the Jericho district. Also as in Jordan, the high percentage of water losses can be attributed to over-irrigation permitted by the low price of water.
However, in the Jericho District, where wells are privately owned, with historical 198 claims to property and rights to local water sources having been passed down through the generations, this high percentage is attributed mainly to a large-scale over-irrigation. A well-established communal quota system has been developed based on these historical rights and water is distributed accordingly. This is significant because such a system dramatically shapes the attitudes of residents toward their water sources. Water is regarded as a resource meant primarily for human exploitation.
One example of this attitude is shown in figure 8.4, which illustrates the
Palestinian respondents’ beliefs concerning the utilization of local springs. The data were collected through a comprehensive survey conducted by the Dead Sea
Project in all three political entities. The results indicate a strong belief amongst the respondents that local water resources should be utilized for human purposes.
This belief can be explained by the traditional communal quota system, which legitimizes the approach to the utilization of water sources in the district.
This attitude toward local water sources, characterized by a lack of environmental awareness, is likely to have a negative effect on the chances of developing alternative water sources, such as wastewater reuse. The city of Jericho and adjacent villages and refugee camps, which altogether host over 28,000 people residing in nearly 3800 households, are not connected to a sewerage system.
199
Figure 8.4:
Water from Natural Springs Should be Left Untouched 300
200 Count
100
0 Mis s ing agree disagree don't know strongly agree neutral strongly disagree
Source: DSP’s Overall Data Integration Report, 2005
Approximately 1 MCM/yr of WW is discharged into unlined cesspits, subsequently infiltrating into groundwater or flowing into nearby wadis. By the year 2020, this figure is expected to reach approximately 3 MCM/yr, the increase due to population growth (in 1996, the population growth in the West
Bank stood at 3.5%; Haddad and Mizyed, 1996).
The construction of a Waste Water Treatment Plant in the city of Jericho is planned for the near future. The water in this plant is expected to be treated up 200 to a secondary level, which suits the irrigation of date plantations. By 2020, demand for water should increase by 100%, from approximately 25 MCM/yr to more than 50 MCM/yr by 2020, and treated wastewater levels should triple, supplying one-third of the total amount of water used by the agriculture sector.
In light of the above, it is believed that the adoption of the in-lieu recharge scheme in a manner similar to the one suggested for the industrial and agricultural sectors in the Israeli domain will suit future needs of the local water system. Thus, a substantial amount of freshwater currently used for crop irrigation will be stored and used for the growing needs of the domestic sector.
This amount could be offset by the TWW to be allocated from the new Waste
Water Treatment Plant to be completed soon. This suggestion accords with Bar- el (1995), who maintains that if levels of renovated water in the region are not increased, a correspondingly greater demand on agriculture for drinking water will result.
It was calculated that the total water requirements of the crops grown in the district of Jericho are lower than the amount of water used for irrigation by nearly 100%. The latter figure should be reduced according to the following recommendation: a. Educational information should be provided to the local farmers in
order to reduce over-irrigation, as also proposed for the Jordanian
study area. Workshops sould be organized for the farmers to inform
them about actual crop water requirements and the dangers of over-
exploitation of water resources. 201
It is strongly recommended that such workshops be organized with the cooperation of local authorities to enlist farmers to cooperate with innovative practices. Palestinian Authority officials (for example, representatives from the
Ministry of Agriculture and the municipality of Jericho) should be involved in the renewal of irrigation systems. Subsequently, they should carry such reforms to other areas with similar problems. b. The second recommendation is the renewal of the irrigation system to
reduce the current level of 35% water losses by leakages. This figure
could be reduced to 10%, similar to the situation in Israel. The use of
advanced irrigation systems is widely known in Israel (Lomborg,
2003; Arlosoroff, 1996), and this knowledge and experience might
also be used by the farmers in the Jericho area.
If future water losses in irrigation amount to only 20%, then total agricultural water requirements, theoretically 13.3 MCM/yr in relation to crop water requirements, would be 16 MCM/yr instead of the current water use of 25.6
MCM/yr. Likewise, the 3 MCM/yr of WW to be treated in the aforesaid Waste
Water Treatment Plant in the vicinity of Jericho would add another 18% of water to the agricultural sector.
202
8.4 An Integrative Approach Toward a Long-term Water Balance in the Entire Dead Sea Area
Water management patterns differ between the three riparian entities of the Dead
Sea (Israel, Jordan and the PA). However, they share water management practices in common which reflect short-term water policies without a vision for developing long-term sustainable management of the Dead Sea area.
The Dead Sea is a water-scarce region and local water management practices should be designed with this in mind. Local water resources should be utilized sustainably, and alternative water sources need to be developed in order to reduce the pressure on the former.
The additional value of the proposed conduits to be introduced into the
Israeli study area lies in their ability to provide a reliable level of water delivery and maintain this level throughout repeated periods of drought, thereby enhancing the elasticity of the local system (Figure 8.5).
Indeed, it seems that under current conditions in which agricultural water is subsidized and water-related projects other than WW treatment are advocated by the Jordanian government, despite their relatively low profitability, the water use patterns of the agricultural sector in the Jordanian study area are unlikely to change. However, there is reason to believe that developing a bottom-up strategy may lead to an overall change in the water supply and demand patterns in
Jordan. In other words, the implementation of the recommendations offered in this chapter concerning better utilization of water resources, the introduction of arid-tolerant crops, and the development of WW-related infrastructures in the 203 study area need to occur within the framework of a pilot research project. Thus, successful results will encourage the government to extend the implementation of these methods to other parts of Jordan, and limit non-rewarding results to the study area only.
In the Jericho district, public attitude toward local water sources, characterized by a lack of environmental awareness, is likely to have a negative effect on the chances for the development of alternative water sources.
Figure 8.5:
Water Consumption Around the Dead Sea Today and by 2020 (estimated*), Current and Potential Availability Following the Implementation of The Recommended Measures Potential Availability follow ing the implementation of the recommended 160.0 measures 140.0 Available 120.0 100.0
80.0 Currently Consumed 60.0 40.0
20.0 Consumed by 2020 0.0 (projected) Israel Jordan Jericho
* See notes in figure 8.1. Potential availability levels were calculated as follows based on the findings presented in this chapter: In Israel, 5 MCM/yr (hypothetical estimation based on the total capacity of Og 1 and Og 2 TWW reservoirs in the MRC) were added according to the proposed imported TWW conduit; 2 MCM/yr, according to the proposed TWW conduit inside the study area; 0.1 MCM/yr, according to the proposed Ein-Gedi TWW reservoir; and 0.2 MCM/yr, given the recommended conservation measures in the hotels. In Jordan, 5 MCM/yr were added based on the potential levels of ww-reuse by 2020; 13 and 5 MCM/yr according to the recommendations of educational workshops and renewal of irrigation systems in Jordan and Jericho, respectively.
204
Thus, efforts should be made by Palestinian decision makers to foster long-term practices, specifically improvement of WW-related infrastructure. Innovative short-term practices should also be advocated by the appropriate ministries in order to meet the goal of a long-term water balance in the entire Dead Sea Area.
Whether or not the proposed recommendations aimed at increasing the water availability in the entire Dead Sea area are feasible remains to be seen, but they do reflect the kind of creative search, necessary in order for new water sources to be introduced into the system.
The Water Budget Analysis conducted in this study indicates that in the area of the Dead Sea, an in depth inquiry into the different water use patterns within the realm of the Water Budget scheme, is a productive way for decision makers to develop possible alternatives to the current regional water-related policies.
Economically, technically and politically, the scheme used in this thesis could be replicated in other parts of the Jordan River Basin. However, the specific conditions found in this area should be borne in mind if this scheme is to be used in other shared-basin entities.
This study has taken a step in the direction of defining the required components for a long-term water balance the around the Dead Sea whilst counterbalancing between the physical characteristics of the region and the historical and social features. 205
An additional outcome of this thesis has been the establishment of a comprehensive database from different regional councils (inter and intra- country) which share common natural resources.
Finally, this thesis presents for the first time a comprehensive water budget for the entire Dead Sea region, which is important information for policy development by government agencies, NGO’s and decision makers. An understanding of the current water budget, the potential future needs and the available water resources is vital to develop sustainable water resource management in the Dead Sea region.
206
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Information was also collected from the following web-sites:
ARIJ-Applied Research Institute Jerusalem: The Water Conflicts in the Middle East from a Palestinian Perspective: Retrieved July 19, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.arij.org/pub/wconflct/
Al salem, S. “Overview of the Water and Wastewater Reuse Crises in the Arab World. Retrieved Oct 18, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www2.mre.gov.br/aspa/semiarido/data/saqer_al_salem.htm
IWMI- International Water Management Institute’s Web site: Water Accounting for Integrated Water Management. Retrieved Apr 6, 2006 from the World Wide Web: http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/tools/accounting.htm
The Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Heritage’s Web Site Retrieved July 21, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.deh.gov.au/
The ECHO's Tropical Agriculture’ web site: Retrieved Oct 18, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.echotech.org/network/
The Environment Agency of England and Wales’ web site: Retrieved Oct 15, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/aboutus/?lang=_e
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The FAO’ web site (a): Retrieved Oct 13, 2005 from the World Wide Web: www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/cropwater/banana.stm
The FAO’ web site (b): Retrieved Oct 14, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/005/68495E/68495E0 3.htm
The French Regional Mission for Water and Agriculture’s Web Site: Retrieved August 25, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.mrea-jo.org/index-e.html
The Human Development Report, Human Development Program: Retrieved Oct 1, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.unddp.org/hdro/97.htm The ICL fertilizers’ Web Site: Retrieved November 15, December 12, 2004; Oct 10, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.iclfertilizers.com/sapportal
The Israeli Antiquity Authority’s Web Site Retrieved September 28, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.antiquities.org.il/home_heb.asp
The Israeli Bureau of Statistics’ Web Site: Retrieved March 12, 2004; August 17, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader
The Israeli Ministry of Environment’s Web Site: Retrieved December 15, 2004; July 17, October 4, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.environment.gov.il/bin/en.jsp?enPage=HomePage
The Lenntech Mambrane Technology Web Site: Retrieved July 18, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.lenntech.com/home.htm
The MERC (Middle East Regional Cooperation) Grant Program’s Web Site: Retrieved March 19, Oct 15, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.desertagriculture.org/
The Middle East Water Data Banks Project’s Web Site: Retrieved June 1, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://exact-me.org/
The Palestinian National Information Center’s Web Site: 216
Retrieved August 22, Oct 19, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.pnic.gov.ps/english.html
The United Nations Environment Program’s Web Site: Retrieved August 20, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.undp.org/
The Water Law, Israel: Retrieved September 25, 2005 from the World Wide Web: file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/roee%20elisha/Desktop/masters/thesis/app endixes/appendix%205.1%201959- %E7%E5%F7%20%E4%EE%E9%ED,%20%FA%F9%E9%E8.htm
Transboundary Water Resources, Jordan Basin Retrieved Oct 18, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/mckinney/ce397/Topics/Jordan/Jordan.htm
Zhu, Z., Giordano, M., Cai, X., and Molden. D., (2003) “Yellow River Basin water accounting”, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka Retrieved Apr 18, 2006 from the World Wide Web: www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Assessment/files
Personal Communications (Personal Interviews):
Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in the Tamar Regional Council, Feb 15, Tel-Aviv, 2004. Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in the Megilot Regional Council, Feb 18, Tel-Aviv, 2005.
Personal Communications (Telephone Interviews):
Head of the Agriculture Department in the Arava Institute, Aug, Sep, Oct, 2005. Head of the Drainage Authority in the Tamar Regional Council, Jun, July, Sep, 2005. Head of the Ecology and Infrastructure Department at Rotem Amphert, July, 2005. Head of the Ein-Tamar Water Association, Aug, 2005. Head of the Hotels Corporation, July, 2004. Head of the Sewage Department in the Israeli Water Commission, July, 2005. Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Ein-Gedi, Aug, Sept, Oct, 2005 Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in the Megilot Regional Council, June 15, 2005 217
Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in the Tamar Regional Council, Aug, Sep, Oct, 2005. Head of the Water and Agriculture Department in Vered-Jericho, Aug, 2005. Licensing, apparatuses and operating Director in the Israeli Water Commission, July, Aug, 2005. Sewage- related projects Senior in the Tamar Regional Council, Jun, July, Aug, Sep, 2005
Personal Communications (Telephone Surveys):
Managers of local guesthouses, Aug, 2004. Secretariats of Almog, Beit Ha’arava, Ein Gedi, Ein Tamar, Kalya, Mizpe Shalem, Neot Hakikar, Neve Zohar, Vered Jericho, Feb, 2004.
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Appendix 1: Private wells within the study area, operated by the DSW (2004)
Name Name (continuation) Zin DSW 5 Amiaz 7 DSW Tamar 3 Nahal Heimar DSW 1 Tamar 4 Nahal Heimar DSW 2 Nahal Heimar Admon 1 3 Nahal Heimar 4 אTamar 5 Amiaz 2 Nahal Heimar DSW 5 Tamar 7 DSW Nahal Zohar 4 Tamar 6 Ye'elim 4 DSW DSW Admon 2 Amatzia 1 Tamar 9 Nahal Amazia DSW 2 Nahal Amazia Zin 7 DSW 3 Amiaz 7 DSW Kikar Sdom 4 Ye'elim 2 DSW Kikar Sdom 5 Tamar 10 DSW Kikar Sdom 6 Tamar 8 DSW Kikar Sdom 7 Admon 5 DSW Kikar Sdom 9 Zurim 1 DSW Tamar 5 DSW Amiaz 5 DSW Ein Ofarim 6 Ye'elim 1 DSW Ein Ofarim 7 Admon 4 (אDSW Admon 3 (2 Tamar 12 DSW Admon 6 Tamar 11 אDSW Admon 4 Ye'elim 3 DSW Ein Ofarim 8 Amiaz 6 DSW Ein Ofarim 16 Source: the IWC 219
Appendix 2: Wastewater generation in the Megilot Regional Council in 2003 and wastewater generator- coefficient
צריכת מים של מקדם יצור תורמי שיטת שם התורם, שנת X Y שפכים ביוב טיהור מט"ש 2003, אלמ"ק תעשיה בית תעשיה בית ורד יריחו- ורד אגני 0.55 25 637000 241800 זרימה יריחו חמצון לנחל פרת קבוץ בור בית 0.55 13 בית 635000 247300 רקב הערבה הערבה אגני קבוץ 0.55 25 שקוע 632700 244250 אלמוג אלמוג וחמצון קלי"ה - אגני קבוץ זרימה 0.55 81 שקוע 628330 245050 קלי"ה לים ואיוור המלח מצפה קבוץ אגני שלם- 0.55 32 מצפה שקוע 603600 237500 זרימה שלם וחמצון לים המלח מצפה יריחו - אגני ירושלים 0.55 168 מי שקוע 633200 246600 אוג בנימין ומאגר אג' שת' מעלה אגני ירושלים 0.7 0.65 287 2,328 אדומים שקוע 633200 246600 אוג עיריה ומאגר עלמון אגני ירושלים 0.55 88 (ענתות) שקוע 633200 246600 אוג ישוב ומאגר
Source: the IWC, 2003
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Appendix 3: The figure used by national planners in Israel concerning annual water use per capita
Source: The preparation of water-related master plans in the Local Authorities in Israel, 2003.
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Appendix 4: Tourism-related master plans for the Tamar Regional Council
מלונות עין בוקק דרום
נספח סניטרי
1. כללי
התכנית להלן מיועדת להציג את התאמת הפתרונות הקיימים להולכה וטיפול בשפכים של בתי מלון חדשים העתידים להבנות באזור עין בוקק דרום. התכנית ותאשר את מערכות האיסוף והטיפול הקיימות ותתאר את התאמת המערכות להתפתחות העתידית של האזור בכללותו.
באזור קיים כיום מתקן טיפול בשפכים חדש שהחל את פעולתו לפני מס' חודשים המכון תוכנן לטפל בעומסים גבוהים מהקיים היום והותאם לטיפול גם בעומסים העתידיים עם הרחבה והתאמה נדרשים.
המטרות העיקריות של המערכת החדשה הנן:
א. לוודא טיפול יעיל בשפכים ובביוב הסניטרי, תוך עמידה בדרישות תברואיות וסביבתיות, ב. לאפשר התפתחות טבעית של האזור, ג. לאפשר תוספת של בתי מלון חדשים, ד. לוודא התאמת הקולחים להשבה להשקיה חקלאית.
במסמך הפרשה הטכנית מוצגים המצב הנוכחי של המערכות, נתוני הרקע ואמדן כמויות ואיכויות שפכים עתידיות, והתאמתם למערכת האיסוף והטיפול הקיימים. 2. ריכוז נתוני ה"תורמים" וכמויות שפכים
2.1 נתוני רקע
א. תחום התכנית : - גבול צפוני – מגרש 3.4.1 (מלון גולדן טוליפ), - גבול מזרחי: בריכה מס' 5 (ים המלח), - גבול מערבי: כביש מס' 90 , - גבול דרומי: מגרש פתוח שטרם פותח, ראה תרשים סביבה,
ב. גבהים טופוגרפים: מינוס 390 מ' עד מינוס 355 מ'
2.2 מצב קיים ועתידי
א. מס' חדרים בתכנית זו רוכזו כמויות החדרים של בתי המלון גם של תכניות אחרות הנמצאות בהליכים שונים של אישורים ותכנון. על פי התכניות המפורטות הקיימות ואלה הנמצאות בהליכי אישור, כמות החדרים הבנויים 3,914 עד עתה אושרו בתכנית קודמות 5,322 חדרים, על פי הפילוג מתואר בטבלה מס' 1 בעמוד הבא . בנוסף קיימת תב"ע של אזור חמי זהר הנמצאת בתהליכי אישור הכוללת 840 חדרים. 222
בתכנית זו מבוקשת תוספת של 1,446 חדרים.
בטבלה מס' 1 להלן מוצגים כמויות החדרים הקיימים, המתוכננים והמאושרים. הטבלה מסכמת את הנתונים הידועים לזמן הנוכחי.
טבלה מס' 1: ריכוז מספר החדרים
תוספת חדרים אפשרית על סה"כ חדרים לשלב אזור פי תב"ע קיימת (מותנה קיים פיתוח מלא בתשלום יזמים)הערה 1 עין בוקק 809 3,006 3,815 חמי זהר 599 908 1,507 סה"כ 1,408 3,914
סה"כ חדרים בנויים ואו מאושרים להקמה 5,322
ובתוספת של החדרים בתכנית זו (1,125) ובתכניות אחרות בחמי זהר (840). יש ותכנית של הישוב נווה זהר שיכלול עוד כ – 500 חדרים. סה"כ מס' החדרים יעמוד על כ- 7,787 . חדרים וכן הרחבת היישוב הקיים.
הערה מס' 1: מימוש הקמת החדרים יחייב בדיקת יכולת מכון הטיפול וייתכן ותידרש הרחבתו. ב. כמויות שפכים
על פי הניסיון המצטבר בכל האזור ומדידות שנעשו החל מסוף שנת 2002, התחזיות שהונחו בעבר בקשר לשפיעת השפכים הסגולית גבוהות במקצת וכמות השפכים הסגולית לחדר שחושבה 1.05 מ"ק\יממה ביום שיא. (ביום שיא נמדדו במכון כ- 3,400 מ"ק של שפכים – הוערך כי באותו הזמן היו כ – 3,700 חדרים מאוכלסים) במהלך תקופה של כשנה וחצי נמדדו כ – 4 –5 ימי שיא כנ"ל . אולם כמויות השפכים שנמדדו כוללות את השפכים המוזרמים מהחופים הציבוריים והפעילות המסחרית והרפואית באזור וכן כוללות ככל הנראה גם חדירת תמלחות כתוצאה ממי תהום גבוהים באזור.
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לאור זאת הוערך כי כמות השפכים הסגולית לחדר ביום שיא תקטן בהתאם ותעמוד על 0.76 מ"ק\יממה. אולם אין אפשרות למדוד את כמות המים החודרת למערכת כתוצאה ממי תהום ועל כן הונח כי הספיקה הסגולית לחדר ביום שיא תהיה כ – 0.9 מ"ק\חדר.
טבלה מס' 2 בעמוד הבא להלן מתארת את כמויות השפכים והעומסים האורגניים במצב קיים ועתידי. 224
טבלה מס' 2 ריכוז כמויות ואיכויות שפכים – שלב קיבולת
יחידו כמות שפכים ריכוז צח"ב התורם ת כמות (מ"ק/יום) (ק"ג/יום) ליחידה סה"כ סה"כ ליחידה
בתי מלון (קיימים 5322-3914+1125 ומאושרים) חדרים 2533= 2153 0.28 1,490 0.85
בתי מלון בהליכי אישור בחמי זהר חדרים 1090 0.85 714 0.28 235 תושבי per 0.2 נווה זהר ם 150 30 0.06 9 קיים capita נווה זהר – חדרי תושבי 0.25 ם per 800 160 0.06 48 ארוח עתידי capita נווה זהר – חדרי ארוח חדרים 500 0.27 135 0.08 40 בתי מלון (לתכנית חדרים זו) 1,125 0.85 956 0.28 315 מועצה ומבני נפש ציבור 200 0.1 20 0.01 2
סה"כ כמויות לשלב קיבולת 2,140 6,538
* בנווה זהר ריכוז הצח"ב מחושב לנפש. * נתוני נווה זהר נתקבלו מאת חסון גולדברג , מסמך פרשה טכנית 23.11.03
ג. איכות שפכים
השפכים המוזרמים מבתי המלון כוללים שפכים המוזרמים ממטבחים, שפכי שרותים ומקלחות וכן תמלחות המוזרמות מפעילות הספא והבריכות יוזרמו במערכת האיסוף הקיימת אל מכון הטיפול בשפכים. במוצא המטבחים יותקנו מפרידי שומן.
3.0 מערכות הולכה וטיפול
א. קווי ההולכה: מלונות עין בוקק דרום יזרימו את השפכים אל צינור הולכה גרביטציוני עשוי מ – PVC ובקוטר של 355 מ"מ. הצינור נמצא בתחום התכנית ומשמש כיום את מלון קיסר הנמצא בתחום התכנית. קו הביוב הקיים מזרים את השפכים אל תחנת שאיבה צל הרים ומשם אל מכון הטיהור הקיים. 225
ב. מכון הטיהור
מכון הטיהור האזורי ממוקם צפונית לאזור התיירות,המכון פועל בשיטת בוצה משופעלת באיוור נמשך וכולל גם מערכת השבת קולחים (סינון והכלרה) אל שטחי הגינון באזור. המכון כולל 2 מודולים חדשים ומודול אחד ישן, בכל מודול חדש ניתן לטפל בכ – 1,700 מ"ק של שפכים. ובמודול הישן ניתן לטפל בכ- 800 מ"ק\יום. סה"כ ניתן לטפל במכון בכ- 4,200 מ"ק של שפכים שהם כ – 4,900 חדרים. כיום קיימים פחות מ – 4,000 חדרים בנויים. ( המודול הישן פועל ביעילות של 50%, נדרש שידרוגו לצורך הפעלתו בספיקה של 1,700 מ"ק\יום ואז המכון יוכל לטפל בכ – 5,100 מ"ק שהם כ – 6,000 חדרים). בשטח המכון קיים שטח שיועד לפיתוח עתידי למודולים נוספים.
במצב הנוכחי נמדדו ביום שיא בכניסה למכון הטיפול כ – 3,400 מ"ק\יום. כמויות אלה כאמור כוללות את התמלחות המוזרמות למערכת הטיפול. (סה"כ קיימים 3,914 חדרים).
לאור הנתונים שהוצגו לעיל ניתן להסיק כי:
- במצב הנוכחי מכון הטיפול החדש והישן עונים על הצרכים. גם בימי שיא ניתן לבנות עוד כ – 1,000 חדרים ללא שינוי במכון הטיפול. - על מנת לאפשר הוספת חדרים (ללא צורך בהרחבת המכון) יש למנוע הזרמת תמלחות למכון הטיפול, - במצב שתואר לעיל, כל מודול (1700 מ"ק\יום) מתאים ל – 2,000 חדרים. לפי כך בשלב הקיבולת יידרשו במכון הטיהור 4 מודולים. את המודולים ניתן לבנות בהדרגה בהתאם לקצב הקמת החדרים. - הוצאת היתרי בניה לחדרים תותנה בהרחבת המכון בהתאם.
4.6 ניצול והשבת הקולחים
כיום מקודמים שני מסלולים לשימוש בקולחים:
א. טיפול שלישוני: הפרוייקט מטופל ע"י החל"פ בשילוב המועצה (תכנית הגינון) וכולל הקמת מערכת לטיפול שלישוני שתטפל בכ – 565,000 מ"ק אשר יושבו בהדרגה אל שטחי הגינון הציבוריים ושל בתי המלון. בשלב זה אושר הפרוייקט בועדה מקדמית של נציבות המים, ובימים אלה מושלמת תכנית גינון כללית שתאפשר המשך אישור המימון התקציבי לפרוייקט.
לו"ז משוער להמשך:
- השלמת תכניות גינון (מאי 2004), - אישור נציבות המים (יולי 2004), - תכנון מפורט חודשיים (ספטמבר 2004), - היתרי בניה ואישור ועדת השקעות של נציבות המים - 3 חודשים (דצמבר 2004), - הליך מכרז ובחירת קבלן – חודשיים (פברואר 2005), - הקמה והפעלה 6 חודשים (אוגוסט 2005).
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ב. השבה חקלאית: הפרוייקט מטופל בלעדית ובאחריות נציבות המים וכולל השבה חקלאית של יתרת כמות הקולחים בהיקף של כ – 1 מליון מ"ק\שנה. הוכנה עבודה הנדסית אשר גיבשה חלופות של תכנית לניצול הקולחים. לאחר בחינה של החלופות הומלץ לקדם חלופה של שימוש בקולחים לטובת שטחי חקלאות של קיבוץ עין גדי. הפתרון ההנדסי שהוצג (החלופה הנבחרת) כלל אפשרות של הקמת תחנת שאיבה, צינור סניקה באורך של כ – 20 ק"מ ומאגר קולחים שיבנה סמוך לשטחי ההשקיה של קיבוץ עין גדי. נבדקה אפשרות של שימוש בצינור סניקה קיים (באורך של כ – 10 ק"מ) השייך למפעלי ים המלח (חלופה משודרגת), וזאת כדי להפחית את עלויות ההקמה הנדרשות. נושא זה טרם נדון עם מפעלי ים המלח ולא ברור אם יהיה ניתן ליישמו בשל המגבלות בשימוש בקו זה.
הפרוייקט יובא לשיפוט בנציבות המים לבדיקה הנדסית ולאחר מכון יובא לשיפוט ועדת השקעות של משרד האוצר. אם יאושר, ימומנו השקעות ההקמה בהיקף של 60% ע"י תקציבי מדינה והיתרה תמומן לו"ז להמשך באחריות נציבות המים. ע"י אחרים (יזמים, חל"פ).
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Appendix 5:
Source: the Israeli Bureau of Statistics’ web site, 2005