Review
Click here for more articles from the symposium doi: 10.1111/joim.12047 Circulating tumour cells: insights into tumour heterogeneity
D. F. Hayes & C. Paoletti
From the Breast Oncology Program, University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Abstract. Hayes DF, Paoletti C (University of targeted (e.g. endocrine or anti-human epithelial Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann growth receptor type 2 (HER2) agents) and nontar- Arbor, MI, USA). Circulating tumour cells: geted therapies (e.g. chemotherapy). Ideally, insights into tumour heterogeneity. (Review). tumour heterogeneity would be monitored over J Intern Med 2013; 274: 137–143. time, especially in relation to therapeutic strate- gies. However, biopsies of metastases require inva- Tumour heterogeneity is a major barrier to cure sive and costly procedures, and biopsies of breast cancer. It can exist between patients with multiple metastases, or serially over time, are different intrinsic subtypes of breast cancer or impractical. Circulating tumour cells (CTCs) rep- within an individual patient with breast cancer. In resent a potential surrogate for tissue-based can- the latter case, heterogeneity has been observed cer and therefore might provide the opportunity to between different metastatic sites, between meta- monitor serial changes in tumour biology. Recent static sites and the original primary tumour, and advances have enabled accurate and reliable quan- even within a single tumour at either a metastatic tification and molecular characterization of CTCs or a primary site. Tumour heterogeneity is a with regard to a number of important biomarkers function of two separate, although linked, pro- including oestrogen receptor alpha and HER2. cesses. First, genetic instability is a hallmark of Preliminary data have demonstrated that expres- malignancy, and results in ‘fixed’ genetic changes sion of these markers between CTCs in individual that are almost certainly carried forward through patients with metastatic breast cancer reflects the progression of the cancer over time, with increas- heterogeneity of the underlying tumours. Future ingly complex additional genetic changes in new studies are designed to determine the clinical metastases as they arise. The second type of utility of these novel technologies in either research heterogeneity is due to differential but ‘plastic’ or routine clinical settings. expression of various genes important in the biol- ogy and response to various therapies. Together, Keywords: circulating tumor cells, tumor heteroge- these processes result in highly variable cancers neity. with differential response, and resistance, to both
anism of resistance to systemic therapy [5]. In the Introduction: tumour heterogeneity late 1970s and 1980s, Goldie and Coldman as well The concept of tumour heterogeneity in breast as Norton (with his colleague Simon) generated cancer has been recognized for decades [1], and mathematical models in which they proposed that interpatient tumour heterogeneity is well estab- genetic instability would result in accumulation of lished. Malignancies that originate in the breast mutations and subsequent resistance to chemo- epithelium have been divided into at least five therapy during uncontrolled cellular proliferation categories, in addition to the classical histopatho- associated with tumour growth [6, 7]. Skipper and logical subtypes, based on gene array expression colleagues used rodent models to demonstrate that patterns: luminal A and B, human epithelial early tumour transplants were more sensitive to growth receptor type 2 (HER2), basal-like and the cytotoxic effects of chemotherapy than tumour claudin-low [2]. These five subtypes exhibit funda- grafts that were allowed to grow for longer periods mental biological and untreated characteristics, of time before treatment was initiated [8]. These and treatment is directed by their relative content studies were the basis for subsequent prospective of oestrogen receptor alpha (ERa) and HER2 [3, 4]. randomized clinical trials that established that adjuvant systemic therapy substantially reduces Of particular relevance, intrapatient heterogeneity mortality compared with delayed therapy after has recently received renewed interest as a mech- establishing the presence of metastases [9, 10].
ª 2013 The Association for the Publication of the Journal of Internal Medicine 137 D. F. Hayes & C. Paoletti Review: Circulating tumour cells: Insights into tumour heterogeneity
Intrapatient heterogeneity also takes several forms. cancers (now defined by expression of ERa-positive Studies conducted in the 1980s demonstrated that cancers) often results in a series of prolonged metastases may have different ERa expression episodes of response and palliation, each punctu- patterns to the original primary cancers from ated by subsequent progression, but then response which they arose [11]. These findings have been to the next treatment. Unfortunately, as with confirmed and extended to other biomarkers, in chemotherapy, ultimately almost all patients particular HER2 [12]. Early findings suggested that develop resistance to endocrine therapy resulting this heterogeneity might be a function of treatment in death due to their disease [20]. pressure [13]; however, subsequent investigations proved that differences in tumour biomarker The 3rd millennium has ushered in an era of targeted expression patterns can occur in the absence of therapy for cancer in general. Breast cancer repre- any intervening treatment, between different sents the paradigm of this approach, coupling our metastases diagnosed simultaneously and even understanding of at least two major ‘driving’ targets, within the same excised primary or metastatic ERa and HER2, with an astonishing array of specific tumour [11, 12, 14–17]. therapies directed towards them. The recently reported success of adding an mTOR inhibitor, These findings have several important implications everolimus, to endocrine therapy promises even for diagnosis and treatment of patients with breast better outcomes [18], and several other pathways cancer. First, interpatient tumour heterogeneity and the agents that target them are now under may account for the remarkable differences in the investigation. Nonetheless, the adverse effects of risk of a breast cancer recurring in the absence of tumour heterogeneity will remain a critical issue for any systemic therapy (prognosis). Secondly, the use of these therapies in a systematic manner. tumour heterogeneity almost certainly accounts for the problematic issue of resistance to systemic Mechanisms of tumour heterogeneity therapies of all types, including chemotherapy and treatments directed against a molecular target In a landmark paper published about 30 years ago, such as ERa, HER2 and the mammalian target of Fidler and Hart first demonstrated emergence of rapamycin (mTOR) [18]. Although adjuvant sys- intratumour heterogeneity in murine models [21]. temic treatment is now well established for chemo- More recent studies, using next-generation genomic therapy as well as for endocrine and anti-HER2 technologies, have provided insight into the over- agents, at least 15% of patients with early-stage whelming genetic diversity between different breast disease still experience distant metastases, result- cancers [22–24] and between primary and meta- ing in death in almost all these cases. static tumours in the same patient [25]. Demonstra- tion in a patient with renal cell cancer of the It is clear that lack of expression of these targets evolution of genetic heterogeneity between and (i.e. ERa, HER2 and mTOR) renders patients highly amongst different metastatic tumours has con- unlikely to respond to the specific therapies firmed that accumulation of mutations and other directed towards them. For example, patients with genetic variations (amplifications and deletions) ERa-negative primary breast cancers do not benefit results in increasingly complex, although still viable, from adjuvant tamoxifen [9]. However, whereas clones that ultimately lead to mortality [5]. Indeed, some of the patients who do express these targets this cumulative complexity has been implicated as seem to have intrinsic de novo resistance to at least one mechanism of resistance to aromatase systemic therapies, many initially show sensitivity inhibition in ERa-positive breast cancer [24]. but gain ‘acquired resistance’ over time during treatment. The use of serial single-agent chemo- Genetic heterogeneity due to chromosomal insta- therapies to treat patients with metastatic disease bility is a relatively fixed phenomenon. In other is widespread, providing reasonably high chances words, once a clone has a genetic variation, this of response and benefit but subsequent emergence variation is likely to remain constant throughout the of resistance to one agent with retained sensitivity evolution of that clone, even as it acquires further to the next, until finally the entire tumour appears genetic variations. Although it is possible that a to be refractory to all types of treatment [19]. mutation might be eliminated by back mutation (i.e. Likewise, it was established more than 40 years reversion to wild type), this appears to occur rarely, ago that administration of serial endocrine thera- and a mutation to a cellular lethal event, eliminating pies to patients with hormone-dependent breast the clone altogether, is more likely.
138 ª 2013 The Association for the Publication of the Journal of Internal Medicine Journal of Internal Medicine, 2013, 274; 137–143 D. F. Hayes & C. Paoletti Review: Circulating tumour cells: Insights into tumour heterogeneity
However, in addition to fixed tumour heterogeneity, ‘liquid’ real-time biopsy. CTCs were first identified ‘plastic’ heterogeneity must also be considered. In postmortem by Ashworth nearly 150 years ago this case, for a variety of reasons, expression of a [30]. However, until recently, accurate and reliable driving protein pathway is not under control of a methods of isolating, quantifying and genotyping fixed constitutive mechanism, but rather is subject or phenotyping CTCs were not available. Over the to environmental stresses resulting in up- or last decade, a number of strategies to isolate CTCs downregulation. Such regulation may be due to from the billions of erythrocytes and millions of interpathway cross-talk. For example, it has been leucocytes present in a single blood sample have demonstrated in several preclinical studies that been investigated [31]. These approaches are based apparently ERa-positive, ‘HER2-negative’ cancers on the physical differences between cancer and can in fact upregulate HER2 in the presence of normal haematopoietic cells, such as size or anti-oestrogenic agents [26–29]. Thus, to guide expression of either epithelial-specific or relatively treatment strategies, clinical scientists and care- cancer-specific molecules, such as epithelial cell givers will need to be able to monitor both the adhesion molecule (EpCAM) or HER2. emergence of fixed heterogeneity within a patient and treatment-related plastic tumour variability. Of these, the most widely used commercially available assay is the CellSearch system (Veridex, LLC, Raritan, NJ, USA). The CellSearch system is Clinical implications of tumour heterogeneity: potential role of a highly automated assay based on an anti-EpCAM circulating tumour cells immunomagnetic capture step followed by fluores- The phenomenon of emerging variable tumour cent images that capture nucleated (DAPI-positive), heterogeneity must be taken into consideration as cytokeratin-positive CD45-negative events that are therapeutic trials of new targeted therapies are designated as CTCs (Fig. 1). It has recently been being planned. It is highly probable that each new demonstrated in several studies in patients with targeted therapy introduced in the clinic will metastatic breast, colorectal and prostate cancer, induce transient, short-term benefit to which the as well as in the adjuvant breast cancer setting, tumour will ultimately become resistant. Although that those who have elevated baseline CTC levels, such responses represent steps forward, they are determined using CellSearch , have worse prog- unlikely to result in substantial gains in overall nosis than those with normal levels [31–33]. survival or increases in cure rates. However, as these studies are plagued by obstacles By implication, using the tissue collected from a to all diagnostic approaches, sensitivity and spec- patient’s primary cancer to predict the best treat- ificity, only approximately 50% of patients with ment many years later, after several prior therapies, metastatic breast cancer have elevated CTC levels is unlikely to provide reliable information. Likewise, at baseline (defined as 5 CTCs/7.5 mL whole monitoring accumulated genetic or plastic changes blood), and in the adjuvant setting, only approxi- in cancers, as the patient is treated, might guide mately 10–25% have 1 CTC/7.5–23 mL whole selection of the next therapy, or even addition of a blood [31, 33, 34]. Furthermore, even if CTC levels subsequent therapy, whilst maintaining the treat- are elevated using these definitions, very few ment on which the cancer has already progressed. patients have more than 10 CTCs/7.5 mL whole Ideally, these concerns would be resolved by per- blood, which severely limits the ability to further forming a biopsy of the metastases at each critical characterize the CTC in any meaningful manner. clinical stage. A biopsy to establish the diagnosis This lack of sensitivity may be due to both techni- and determine whether the predictive biomarkers of cal and biological factors. In any assay, repeated metastases remain concordant, or have changed, handling and washing of a specimen will result in compared with the primary cancer, is now fairly well loss of analyte. Moreover, because the CellSearch established as the standard of care. However, most system is based on EpCAM expression, cancers metastases are localized in internal organs (liver, that do not express this marker (estimated at about lung and bone), and therefore, biopsies are invasive, 20%), or individual cells within tumours that do inconvenient and costly, and multiple biopsies are not express EpCAM, may not be captured [35]. logistically difficult if not impossible. Similarly, specificity may be a technical or biolog- In this regard, detection and characterization of ical issue. An assay that increases sensitivity is circulating tumour cells (CTCs) might serve as a more prone to capturing nonmalignant cells,
ª 2013 The Association for the Publication of the Journal of Internal Medicine 139 Journal of Internal Medicine, 2013, 274; 137–143 D. F. Hayes & C. Paoletti Review: Circulating tumour cells: Insights into tumour heterogeneity
Immunomagnetic separation using CellSearch® system
-Aspirate plasma -Aspirate fluid and un-labelled cells -Add permeabilization reagents, -Add EpCAM ferrofluid -Remove magnets fluorescent Abs and DAPI - Magnetic incubation -Re-suspend target cells in buffer -Magnetic incubation and wash -Wash cells with buffer and use a magnetic -Add fixative and transfer to field to separate bound cells during aspiration MagNest
CTC counts and bio-characterization
I) AP D + Composite CK CK-FITC DAPI CD45 APC 4th channel for additional ( (Cytokeratins)(Nucleus) (Leukocytes) phenotyping-PE