sign in sign up
<<
Home , Eskimo kinship, Groom kidnapping, Hawaiian kinship, Hindu reform movements, Iroquois kinship, Sudanese kinship

Rules of

No society gives absolute freedom to its members to select their partners. and are the two main rules that condition marital choice.

Endogamy

It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It is marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious group etc.We have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy, race endogamy and tribal endogamy etc.In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within the caste. has to marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited to the sub caste groups.

Exogamy

It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits marrying within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.

Forms of exogamy

Gotra Exogamy: The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own gotra.

Pravara Exogamy: Those who belong to the same pravara cannot marry among themselves.

Village Exogamy: Many Indian tribes like Naga,Garo,Munda etc have the practice of marrying outside their village.

Pinda Exogamy: Those who belong to the same panda or sapinda( common parentage) cannot marry within themselves. Isogamy: It is the marriage between two equals (status)

Anisogamy: It is an asymmetric marriage alliance between two individuals belonging to different social statuses. It is of two forms - Hypergamy and Hypogamy.

Hypergamy: It is the marriage of a woman with a man of higher or superior caste or .

Hypogamy: It is the marriage of high caste man with a low caste woman.

Orthogamy: It is the marriage between selected groups.

Cerogamy: It is two or more men get married to two or more women.

Anuloma marriage: It is a marriage under which a man can marry from his own caste or from those below, but a woman can marry only in her caste or above. Pratiloma marriage: It is a marriage of a woman to a man from a lower caste which is not permitted.

Types Of Hindu

Mythology says that there are eight different types of Hindu marriages. Historical records support this perception, by saying that some of these types of marriages were prevalent in ancient , among the people following . Although not all the eight marriages had a religious sanction, it is said that they were observed among many communities of the people, following Hinduism, in the ancient time. People argue that many of them are still seen among the . In this article, we have discussed about the eight types of Hindu weddings in India.

Eight Types of Hindu Weddings

Brahma marriage According to the marriage, a is eligible to get married, once he has completed his Brahmacharya (student hood). , who search for a bride for their , would consider the family background of the , whom he is going to marry. On the other hand, the bride's would ensure that the boy has acquired knowledge of the . This is how a Brahma marriage was arranged. There was no system of . Among the eight types of marriage, brahma marriage holds a supreme position.

Daiva Marriage In this type of marriage, the girl's family waits for a particular time, to get her married. If they do not find a suitable groom for their , then they would marry her off to places, where are conducted. In this case, the girl is generally married to a priest, who conducts sacrifices. According to the sastras, Daiva marriage is considered inferior to Brahma marriage, because it is considered degrading for the womanhood.

Arsha Marriage Arsha marriage is the one, wherein the girl is married to the sages or rishis. References from dharmasastras tell us that in arsha marriage, the bride is given in exchange of two cows, received from the groom. The girl is generally married to an old sage. The cows, which were taken in exchange of the bride, shows that even the groom do not have any remarkable qualities. According to sastras, noble marriages had no monetary or business transactions. Therefore, these kind of marriages were not considered noble.

Prajapatya Marriage Monetary transactions and Kanyadaan are not parts of Prajapatya marriage, unlike the Brahma marriage, where these two forms an important and basic part. Unlike the Brahma marriage, here, the bride's father goes in search for a groom for his daughter. The Brahma type is considered better than prajapatya, because in the former, the groom's family goes out to seek a suitable bride for their son. Gandharva Marriage Gandharva marriage is similar to love marriage. In this case, the bride and the groom get married secretly, without the knowledge of their parents. It is not considered a right kind of marriage, as it is done without the consent of the parents. This marriage reminds us of the love affair of the mythological characters - Sakuntala and Dushyanta.

Asura Marriage In the Asura marriage, the groom is not at all suitable for the bride. Although the groom is not suitable for the bride, he willingly gives as much wealth as he can afford, to the bride's parents and relatives. Therefore, the system of marriage is more or less like buying a product, which makes it undesirable in the present time.

Rakshasa Marriage According to Rakshasa marriage, the groom fights battles with the bride's family, overcomes them, carries her away and then persuades her to marry him. This is not considered as the righteous way to woo a girl for marriage, because forcible methods are used by the groom to tie the wedding knot.

Paishacha Marriage Paishacha marriage is the eighth and last type of . It is considered as the inferior type of marriage, because the girl's wish is not considered, even if she is not willing to marry the person chosen for her. In fact, she is forced to marry. Moreover, the bride's family is also not given anything in cash or kind. Literally, the girl is seized against her wish. Men would marry a woman, whom he had seduced while she was asleep, intoxicated or insane. This kind of marriage was later on prohibited.

Muslim Marriage

In the Muslim community marriage is universal for it discourages celibacy. Muslims call their marriage Nikah. Marriage is regarded not as a religious sacrament but as a secular bond. The bridegroom makes a proposal to the bride just before the wedding ceremony in the presence of two witnesses and a maulavi or kazi.The proposal is called ijab and its acceptance is called qubul.

It is necessary that both the proposal and its acceptance must take place at the same meeting to make it a sahi Nikah.It is a matter of tradition among the Muslims to have marriage among equals. Though there is no legal prohibition to contract marriage with a person of low status, such marriages are looked down upon.

The run-away marriages called kifa when the run away with boys and marry them on their own choice are not recognized. Marrying idolaters and slaves is also not approved. There is also provision of preferential system in mate selection. The parallel and cross cousins are allowed to get married. Marriage that is held contrary to the Islamic rules is called batil or invalid marriage.Meher or dower is a practice associated with Muslim marriage. It is a sum of money or other property which a is entitled to get from her in consideration of the marriage.

Muta is a special type of marriage for pleasure which is for a specified period only.Iddat is the period of seclusion for three menstrual periods for a woman after the death /divorce by her husband to ascertain whether she is pregnant or not. Only after this period she can remarry.

Muslim marriage can be dissolved in the following ways:

Divorce as per the Muslim law but without the intervention of the court: They are of two types- Kula where divorce is initiated at the instance of the wife and Mubarat where initiative may come either from the wife or from the husband.

Talaq represents one of the ways according to which a Muslim husband can give divorce to his wife as per the Muslim law by repeating the dismissal formula thrice. The talaq may be affected either orally by making some pronouncements or in writing by presenting talaqnama.

Divorce as recognized by Shariah Act 1937 provides for three forms of divorce:Illa,Zihar and Lian.There is also provision of divorce as per the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act 1939.

Tribal Marriage

• Marriage by exchange. • Marriage by capture is where a man forcibly marries a woman. • Marriage by intrusion is where a woman forcibly marries a man. • Marriage by probation allow a man to stay at woman place for weeks together after which if they decide to get married. • Marriage by purchase or giving b ride price. A man is required to give an agreed amount of cash/kind to the parents of the bride as price which usually varies according to the physical beauty and utility of the bride. • Marriage by service is where the man serves at his father-in-law's house before marriage. • Marriage by trial. • Marriage by mutual consent. • Marriage by elopement.

Family

"" redirects here. For the daytime soap opera, see Families (TV series).

"" redirects here. For the film, see Immediate Family (film).

For other uses, see Family (disambiguation).

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve the article or discuss these issues on the talk page. It needs additional references or sources for verification. Tagged since November 2008.

Its neutrality or factuality may be compromised by weasel words. Tagged since November 2008.

Close relationships

Types of relationships

Boyfriend · Bromance · Casual · Cicisbeo · · · Courtesan · Domestic partnership · Family · Friendship · Girlfriend · Husband · · Marriage · Mistress (lover) · · Non-monogamy · Pederasty · Polyamory · · · Romantic friendship · Same-sex relationship · Significant other · Soulmate · Widowhood · Wife

Major relationship events

Mating · Courtship · Bonding · Divorce · Infidelity · Relationship breakup · Romance · Separation · Wedding

Feelings and emotions

Affinity · Attachment · Compersion · Intimacy · Jealousy · Limerence · Love · Passion · Platonic love · Polyamory · Psychology of sexual monogamy

Family denotes a group of people or animals (many species form the equivalent of a human family wherein the adults care for the young) affiliated by , or co- residence. Although the concept of consanguinity originally referred to relations by "blood", anthropologists have argued that one must understand the idea of "blood" metaphorically and that many societies understand family through other concepts rather than through genetic distance.

One of the primary functions of the family is to produce and reproduce persons—biologically and socially. Thus, one's experience of one's family shifts over time. From the perspective of children, the family is a family of orientation: the family serves to locate children socially and plays a major role in their enculturation and socialization. From the point of view of the (s), the family is a family of procreation, the goal of which is to produce and enculturate and socialize children. However, producing children is not the only function of the family; in societies with a sexual division of labor, marriage, and the resulting relationship between two people, is necessary for the formation of an economically productive .

A includes only the husband, the wife, and unmarried children who are not of age. The most common form of this family is regularly referred to in sociology as a .

A consanguineal family consists of a parent and his or her children, and other people.

A matrilocal family consists of a and her children. Generally, these children are her biological offspring, although of children is a practice in nearly every society. This kind of family is common where women have the resources to rear their children by themselves, or where men are more mobile than women.

History of the family

Main article:

The diverse data coming from ethnography, history, law and social statistics, establish that the human family is an institution and not a biological fact founded on the natural relationship of consanguinity.

Early scholars of family history applied Darwin's biological theory of evolution in their theory of evolution of family systems. American anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan published Ancient Society in 1877 based on his theory of the three stages of human progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization. Morgan's book was the "inspiration for Friedrich Engels' book" The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State published in 1884. Engels expanded Morgan's hypothesis that economical factors caused the transformation of primitive community into a class-divided society. Engels' theory of resource control, and later that of Karl Marx, was used to explain the cause and effect of change in family structure and function. The popularity of this theory was largely unmatched until the 1980s, when other sociological theories, most notably structural functionalism, gained acceptance.

Main article: Kinship terminology

Archaeologist Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881) performed the first survey of kinship terminologies in use around the world. Though much of his work is now considered dated, he argued that kinship terminologies reflect different sets of distinctions. For example, most kinship terminologies distinguish between sexes (the difference between a and a ) and between generations (the difference between a and a parent). Moreover, he argued, kinship terminologies distinguish between relatives by blood and marriage (although recently some anthropologists have argued that many societies define kinship in terms other than "blood").

Morgan made a distinction between kinship systems that use classificatory terminology and those that use descriptive terminology. Morgan's distinction is widely misunderstood, even by contemporary anthropologists. Classificatory systems are generally and erroneously understood to be those that "class together" with a single term relatives who actually do not have the same type of relationship to ego. (What defines "same type of relationship" under such definitions seems to be genealogical relationship. This is more than a bit problematic given that any genealogical description, no matter how standardized, employs words originating in a folk understanding of kinship.) What Morgan's terminology actually differentiates are those (classificatory) kinship systems that do not distinguish lineal and collateral relationships and those (descriptive) kinship systems which do. Morgan, a lawyer, came to make this distinction in an effort to understand Seneca practices. A Seneca man's effects were inherited by his ' children rather than by his own children.

Morgan identified six basic patterns of kinship terminologies:

Hawaiian: only distinguishes relatives based upon sex and generation.

Sudanese: no two relatives share the same term.

Eskimo: in addition to distinguishing relatives based upon sex and generation, also distinguishes between lineal relatives and collateral relatives.

Iroquois: in addition to sex and generation, also distinguishes between of opposite sexes in the parental generation.

Crow: a matrilineal system with some features of an system, but with a "skewing" feature in which generation is "frozen" for some relatives.

Omaha: like a Crow system but patrilineal. Western kinship

See also: chart

Most Western societies employ terminology. This kinship terminology commonly occurs in societies based on conjugal (or nuclear) families, where nuclear families have a degree of relative mobility.

Members of the nuclear family (or immediate family) use descriptive kinship terms:

Mother: a female parent

Father: a male parent

Son: a male child of the parent(s)

Daughter: a female child of the parent(s)

Brother: a male child of the same parent(s)

Sister: a female child of the same parent(s)

Grandfather: father of a father or mother

Grandmother: mother of a mother or father

Such systems generally assume that the mother's husband has also served as the biological father. In some families, a woman may have children with more than one man or a man may have children with more than one woman. The system refers to a child who shares only one parent with another child as a "half-brother" or "half-sister." For children who do not share biological or adoptive parents in common, English-speakers use the term "stepbrother" or "stepsister" to refer to their new relationship with each other when one of their biological parents marries one of the other child's biological parents.

Any person (other than the biological parent of a child) who marries the parent of that child becomes the "stepparent" of the child, either the "" or "." The same terms generally apply to children adopted into a family as to children born into the family.

Typically, societies with conjugal families also favor ; thus upon marriage a person separates from the nuclear family of their childhood (family of orientation) and forms a new nuclear family (family of procreation). However, in the western society the single parent family has been growing more accepted and has begun to truly make an impact on culture. The majority of single parent families are more commonly single mother families than single father. These families face many difficult issues besides the fact that they have to raise their children on their own, but also have to deal with issues related to low income. Many single parents struggle with low incomes and find it hard to cope with other issues that they face including rent, child care, and other necessities required in maintaining a healthy and safe home.

Members of the nuclear families of members of one's own (former) nuclear family may class as lineal or as collateral. Kin who regard them as lineal refer to them in terms that build on the terms used within the nuclear family:

An infant, his mother, his maternal grandmother, and his great-grandmother.

Grandfather: a parent's father

Grandmother: a parent's mother

Grandson: a child's son

Granddaughter: a child's daughter

For collateral relatives, more classificatory terms come into play, terms that do not build on the terms used within the nuclear family:

Uncle: father's brother, mother's brother, father's/mother's sister's husband

Aunt: father's sister, mother's sister, father's/mother's brother's wife

Nephew: sister's son, brother's son, wife's brother's son, wife's sister's son, husband's brother's son, husband's sister's son

Niece: sister's daughter, brother's daughter, wife's brother's daughter, wife's sister's daughter, husband's brother's daughter, husband's sister's daughter

When additional generations intervene (in other words, when one's collateral relatives belong to the same generation as one's or grandchildren), the prefixes "great- " or "grand-" modifies these terms. And as with grandparents and grandchildren, as more generations intervene the prefix becomes "great grand", adding an additional "great" for each additional generation. Most collateral relatives have never had membership of the nuclear family of the members of one's own nuclear family.

Cousin: the most classificatory term; the children of or . One can further distinguish cousins by degrees of collaterality and by generation. Two persons of the same generation who share a grandparent count as "first cousins" (one degree of collaterality); if they share a great-grandparent they count as "second cousins" (two degrees of collaterality) and so on. If two persons share an , one as a grandchild and the other as a great-grandchild of that individual, then the two descendants class as "first cousins once removed" (removed by one generation); if the shared ancestor figures as the grandparent of one individual and the great-great-grandparent of the other, the individuals class as "first cousins twice removed" (removed by two generations), and so on. Similarly, if the shared ancestor figures as the great-grandparent of one person and the great-great- grandparent of the other, the individuals class as "second cousins once removed". Hence the phrase "third cousin once removed upwards".

Cousins of an older generation (in other words, one's parents' first cousins), though technically first cousins once removed, often get classified with "aunts" and "uncles".

Similarly, a person may refer to close friends of one's parents as "" or "", or may refer to close friends as "brother" or "sister", using the practice of .

English-speakers mark relationships by marriage (except for wife/husband) with the tag "- in-law". The mother and father of one's become one's mother-in-law and father-in- law; the female spouse of one's child becomes one's daughter-in-law and the male spouse of one's child becomes one's son-in-law. The term "Sister-in-law" refers to three essentially different relationships, either the wife of one's , or the sister of one's spouse, or, in some uses, the wife of one's spouse's sibling. "Brother-in-law" expresses a similar ambiguity. No special terms exist for the rest of one's spouse's family.

The terms "half-brother" and "half-sister" indicate siblings who share only one biological or adoptive parent.

Economic functions

Anthropologists have often supposed that the family in a traditional society forms the primary economic unit. This economic role has gradually diminished in modern times, and in societies like the United States it has become much smaller — except in certain sectors such as agriculture and in a few upper class families. In China the family as an economic unit still plays a strong role in the countryside. However, the relations between the economic role of the family, its socio-economic mode of production and cultural values remain highly complex.

Political functions

Extended middle-class Midwestern U.S. family of Danish/German extractionOn the other hand family structures or its internal relationships may affect both state and religious institutions. J.F. del Giorgio in The Oldest Europeans points out that the high status of women among the descendants of the post-glacial Paleolithic European population was coherent with the fierce love of freedom of pre-Indo-European tribes. He that the extraordinary respect for women in those families meant that children raised in such atmospheres tended to distrust strong, authoritarian leaders. According to del Giorgio, European democracies have their roots in those ancient .

Family in the West

Family Types

Family arrangements in the United States have become more diverse with no particular household arrangement representing half of the United States population.The different types of families occur in a wide variety of settings, and their specific functions and meanings depend largely on their relationship to other social institutions. Sociologists have a special interest in the function and status of these forms in stratified (especially capitalist) societies.

The term "nuclear family" is commonly used, especially in the United States and Europe, to refer to conjugal families. Sociologists distinguish between conjugal families (relatively independent of the kindreds of the parents and of other families in general) and nuclear families (which maintain relatively close ties with their kindreds).

The term "" is also common, especially in the United States and Europe. This term has two distinct meanings. First, it serves as a synonym of "consanguinal family". Second, in societies dominated by the conjugal family, it refers to kindred (an egocentric network of relatives that extends beyond the domestic group) who do not belong to the conjugal family.

These types refer to ideal or normative structures found in particular societies. Any society will exhibit some variation in the actual composition and conception of families. Much sociological, historical and anthropological research dedicates itself to the understanding of this variation, and of changes in the family form over time. Thus, some speak of the bourgeois family, a family structure arising out of 16th-century and 17th-century European , in which the family centers on a marriage between a man and woman, with strictly-defined gender-roles. The man typically has responsibility for income and support, the woman for home and family matters.

According to the work of scholars Max Weber, Alan Macfarlane, Steven Ozment, Jack Goody and Peter Laslett, the huge transformation that led to modern marriage in Western democracies was "fueled by the religio-cultural value system provided by elements of , early , Roman Catholic canon law and the Protestant Reformation".

In contemporary Europe and the United States, people in academic, political and civil sectors have called attention to single-father-headed households, and families headed by same-sex couples, although academics point out that these forms exist in other societies. Also the term blended family or describes families with mixed parents: one or both parents remarried, bringing children of the former family into the new family.

Sociologists views of the family

This section needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009)

Contemporary society generally views family as a haven from the world, supplying absolute fulfillment. The family is considered to encourage "intimacy, love and trust where individuals may escape the competition of dehumanizing forces in modern society from the rough and tumble industrialized world, and as a place where warmth, tenderness and understanding can be expected from a loving mother, and protection from the world can be expected from the father. However, the idea of protection is declining as civil society faces less internal conflict combined with increased civil rights and protection from the state. To many, the ideal of personal or family fulfillment has replaced protection as the major role of the family. The family now supplies what is “vitally needed but missing from other social arrangements”.

Social conservatives often express concern over a purported decay of the family and see this as a sign of the crumbling of contemporary society. They feel that the family structures of the past were superior to those today and believe that families were more stable and happier at a time when they did not have to contend with problems such as illegitimate children and divorce. Others dispute this theory, claiming “there is no golden age of the family gleaming at us in the far back historical past”.

Oedipal Family Model and Facism

The model, common in the western societies, of the family triangle, husband-wife-children isolated from the outside, is also called oedipal model of the family, and it is a form of patriarchal-family.

Many philosophers and psychiatrists analyzed such model. One of the most prominent of such studies, is Anti-Œdipus by Deleuze and Guattari (1972). Michel Foucault, in its renowned preface, remarked how the primary focus of this study is the fight against contemporary fascism.

“ And not only historical fascism, the fascism of Hitler and Mussolini but also the fascism in us all, in our heads and in our everyday behavior, the fascism that causes us to love power, to desire the very thing that dominates and exploits us. ”

In the family, they argue, the young develop in a perverse relationship, wherein they learn to love the same person that beats and oppresses them. The family therefore constitutes the first cell of the fascist society, as they will carry this attitude of love for oppressive figures in their adult life. Kindship and family forms have often been considered as impacting the social relations in the society as a whole, and therefore been described as the first cell or the building social unit of the structure of a society. torment their . Deleuze and Guattari, in their analysis of the dynamics at work within a family, "track down all varieties of fascism, from the enormous ones that surround and crush us to the petty ones that constitute the tyrannical bitterness of our everyday lives". As Deleuze, Guattari and Foucault, also other philosophers and psychiatrists like Laing and Reich, have explained that the patriarchal-family conceived in the West tradition, serves the purpose of perpetuating a propertarian and authoritarian society. The child grows according to the Oedipal model, which is typical of the structure of capitalist societies, and he becomes in turn owner of submissive children and protector of the woman.

Some argue the family institution conflicts with human nature and human primitive desires, and that one of its core functions is performing a suppression of instincts, a repression of desire commencing with the earliest age of the child. As the young undergoes physical and psychic repression from someone they develop love for, they develop a loving attitude towards authority figures. They will bring such attitude in their adult life, when they will desire social repression and will form docile subjects for society.

Michel Foucault, in his systematic study of sexuality, argued that rather than being merely repressed, the desires of the individual are efficiently mobilized and used, to control the individual, alter interpersonal relationships and control the masses. Foucault believed organized , through moral prohibitions, and economic powers, through advertising, make use of unconscious sex drives. Dominating desire, they dominate individuals.

According to the analysis of Michel Foucault, in the west:

the family organization, precisely to the extent that it was insular and heteromorphous with respect to the other power mechanisms, was used to support the great "maneuvers" employed for the Malthusian control of the birthrate, for the populationist incitements, for the medicalization of sex and the psychiatrization of its nongenital forms.

—Michel Foucault , The History of Sexuality vol I, chap. IV, . Method, rule 3, p.99

Civil rights movements

The Family Equality Council envisions a future where all families, regardless of creation or composition, will be able to live in communities that recognize, respect, protect, and celebrate them. The organization envisions a world that celebrates a diversity of family constellations and respects individuals for supporting one another and sustaining loving families. Inbreeding

A study performed by scientists from Iceland found that mating with a relative (incest) can significantly increase the number of children in a family. A lot of societies consider inbreeding unacceptable. Scientists warn that inbreeding may raise the chances of a child getting two copies of disease-causing recessive genes and in such a way it may lead to genetic disorders and higher infant mortality.

Scientists found that couples formed of relatives had more children and grandchildren than unrelated couples. The study revealed that when a husband and wife were third cousins, they had an average of 4.0 children and 9.2 grandchildren. If a woman was in relationship with her eight cousin, then the number of children declined, showing an average of 3.3 children and 7.3 grandchildren .

Size

Natalism is the that human reproduction is the basis for individual existence, and therefore promotes having large families.

Many , e.g., Judaism, encourage their followers to procreate and have many children.

In recent times, however, there has been an increasing amount of family planning and a following decrease in total fertility rate in many parts of the world, in part due to concerns of overpopulation.

Many countries with population decline offer incentives for people to have large families as a means of national efforts to reverse declining populations.

Universality

There is no human society in which some form of the family does not appear.Malinowski writes the typical family a group consisting of mother, father and their progeny is found in all communities,savage,barbarians and civilized. The irresistible sex need, the urge for reproduction and the common economic needs have contributed to this universality. Emotional Basis

The family is grounded in emotions and sentiments. It is based on our impulses of mating, procreation, maternal devotion, fraternal love and parental care. It is built upon sentiments of love, affection, sympathy, cooperation and friendship.

Limited Size

The family is smaller in size. As a primary group its size is necessarily limited. It is a smallest social unit.

Formative Influence

The family welds an environment which surrounds trains and educates the child. It shapes the personality and moulds the character of its members. It emotionally conditions the child.

Nuclear Position in Social Structure

The family is the nucleus of all other social organizations. The whole social structure is built of family units.

Responsibility of Members

The members of the family has certain responsibilities, duties and obligations.Maclver points out that in times of crisis men may work and fight and die for their country but they toil for their families all their lives.

Social Regulation

The family is guarded both by social taboos and by legal regulations. The society takes precaution to safeguard this organization from any possible breakdown. Types and forms of the family

Classification

On the basis of marriage

• Polygamous or polygynous family

• Polyandrous family

• Monogamous family

On the basis of the nature of residence • Family of

• Family of

• Family of changing residence

On the basis of ancestry or descent

• Matrilineal family

• Patrilineal family

On the basis of size or structure and the depth of generations

• Nuclear or the single unit family

• Joint family

On the basis of the nature of relations among the family members

• The conjugal family which consists of adult members among there exists sex relationship.

• Consanguine family which consists of members among whom there exists blood relationship- brother and sister, father and son etc.

Kinship

Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin, through either biological, cultural, or historical descent. In the kinship system includes people related both by descent and marriage, while usage in biology includes descent and mating. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called "affinity" in contrast to "descent" (also called "consanguinity"), although the two may overlap in marriages among those of common descent. Family relations as sociocultural lead back to (see mythology, religion), animals that were in the area or natural phenomena (as in origin stories).

Kinship is one of the most basic principles for organizing individuals into social groups, roles, categories, and genealogy. Family relations can be represented concretely (mother, brother, grandfather) or abstractly after degrees of relationship. A relationship may have relative purchase (e.g., father is one regarding a child), or reflect an absolute (e.g., status difference between a mother and a childless woman). Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession. Many codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian .

History of kinship studies One of the founders of the anthropological relationship research was Lewis Henry Morgan, in his Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1871). Members of a society may use kinship terms without all being biologically related, a fact already evident in Morgan's the use of the term affinity within his concept of the "system of kinship". The most lasting of Morgan's contributions was his discovery of the difference between descriptive and , which situates broad kinship classes on the basis of imputing abstract social patterns of relationships having little or no overall relation to genetic closeness but do reflect cognition about kinship, social distinctions as they affect linguistic usages in kinship terminology, and strongly relate, if only by approximation, to patterns of marriage.. The major patterns of kinship systems which Lewis Henry Morgan identified through kinship terminology in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family are:

Iroquois kinship (also known as "bifurcate merging")

Crow kinship (an expansion of bifurcate merging)

Omaha kinship (also an expansion of bifurcate merging)

Dravidian kinship (the classical type of classificatory kinship, with bifurcate merging but totally distinct from Iroquois). Most Australian Aboriginal kinship is also classificatory.

Eskimo kinship (also referred to as "lineal kinship")

Hawaiian kinship (also referred to as the "generational system")

Sudanese kinship (also referred to as the "descriptive system").

The six types (Crow, Eskimo, Hawaiian, Iroquois, Omaha, Sudanese) that are not fully classificatory (Dravidian, Australian) are those identified by Murdock (1949) prior to Lounsbury's (1964) rediscovery of the linguistic principles of classificatory kin terms.

"Kinship system" as systemic pattern

The concept of “system of kinship” tended to dominate anthropological studies of kinship in the early 20th century. Kinship systems as defined in anthropological texts and ethnographies were seen as constituted by patterns of behavior and attitudes in relation to the differences in terminology, listed above, for referring to relationships as well as for addressing others. Many anthropologists went so far as to see, in these patterns of kinship, strong relations between kinship categories and patterns of marriage, including forms of marriage, restrictions on marriage, and cultural concepts of the boundaries of incest. A great deal of inference was necessarily involved in such constructions as to “systems” of kinship, and attempts to construct systemic patterns and reconstruct kinship evolutionary histories on these bases were largely invalidated in later work. However, Dwight Read, a widely published anthropologist, later argued that the way in which kinship categories are defined by individual researchers are substantially inconsistent. This occurs when working within a systemic cultural model that can be elicited in fieldwork, but also allowing considerable individual variability in details, such as when they are recorded through relative products. For example, the English term uncle carries connotations other than "brother of a parent" depending on the writer.

Conflicting theories of the mid 20th century

In trying to resolve the problems of dubious inferences about kinship "systems", George P. Murdock (1949, Social Structure) compiled kinship data to test a theory about universals in human kinship in the way that terminologies were influenced by the behavioral similarities or social differences among pairs of kin, proceeding on the view that the psychological ordering of kinship systems radiates out from ego and the nuclear family to different forms of extended family. Lévi-Strauss (1949, Les Structures Elementaires), on the other hand, also looked for global patterns to kinship, but viewed the “elementary” forms of kinship as lying in the ways that families were connected by marriage in different fundamental forms resembling those of modes of exchange: symmetric and direct, reciprocal delay, or generalized exchange.

Kinship networks and social process

A more flexible view of kinship was formulated in British . Among the attempts to break out of universalizing assumptions and theories about kinship, Radcliffe- Brown (1922, The Andaman Islands; 1930, The social organization of Australian tribes) was the first to assert that kinship relations are best thought of as concrete networks of relationships among individuals. He then described these relationships, however, as typified by interlocking interpersonal roles. Malinowski (1922, Argonauts of the Western Pacific) described patterns of events with concrete individuals as participants stressing the relative stability of institutions and communities, but without insisting on abstract systems or models of kinship. Gluckman (1955, The judicial process among the Barotse of Northern Rhodesia) balanced the emphasis on stability of institutions against processes of change and conflict, inferred through detailed analysis of instances of social interaction to infer rules and assumptions. John Barnes, Victor Turner, and others, affiliated with Gluckman’s Manchester school of anthropology, described patterns of actual network relations in communities and fluid situations in urban or migratory context, as with the work of J. Clyde Mitchell (1965, Social Networks in Urban Situations). Yet, all these approaches clung to a view of stable functionalism, with kinship as one of the central stable institutions.

Recognition of fluidity in kinship meanings and relations

Building on Lévi-Strauss’s (1949) notions of kinship as caught up with the fluid languages of exchange, Edmund Leach (1961, Pul Eliya) argued that kinship was a flexible idiom that had something of the grammar of a language, both in the uses of terms for kin but also in the fluidities of language, meaning, and networks. His field studies devastated the ideas of structural-functional stability of kinship groups as corporations with charters that lasted long beyond the lifetimes of individuals, which had been the orthodoxy of British Social Anthropology. This sparked debates over whether kinship could be resolved into specific organized sets of rules and components of meaning, or whether kinship meanings were more fluid, symbolic, and independent of grounding in supposedly determinate relations among individuals or groups, such as those of descent or prescriptions for marriage. Work on symbolic kinship by David M. Schneider in his (1984, A Critique of The Study of Kinship) reinforced this view. In response to Schneider's 1984 work on Symbolic Kinship, Janet Carsten re-developed the idea of "relatedness" from her initial ideas, looking at what was socialized and biological, from her studies with the Malays (1995, The substance of kinship and the heat of the hearth; feeding, personhood and relatedness among the Malays in Pulau Langkawi, American Ethnologist). She uses the idea of relatedness to move away from a pre-constructed analytic opposition which exists in anthropological thought between the biological and the social. Carsten argued that relatedness should be described in terms of indigenous statements and practices, some of which fall outside what anthropologists have conventionally understood as kinship (Cultures of Relatedness, 2000). This kind of approach – recognizing relatedness in its concrete and variable cultural forms – exemplifies the ways that anthropologists have grappled with the fundamental importance of kinship in human society without imprisoning the fluidity in behavior, beliefs, and meanings in assumptions about fixed patterns and systems.

Biological relationships

Ideas about kinship do not necessarily assume any biological relationship between individuals, rather just close associations. Malinowski, in his ethnographic study of sexual behaviour on the Trobriand Islands noted that the Trobrianders did not believe pregnancy to be the result of sexual intercourse between the man and the woman, and they denied that there was any physiological relationship between father and child. Nevertheless, while paternity was unknown in the "full biological sense", for a woman to have a child without having a husband was considered socially undesirable. Fatherhood was therefore recognised as a social role; the woman's husband is the "man whose role and duty it is to take the child in his arms and to help her in nursing and bringing it up"; "Thus, though the natives are ignorant of any physiological need for a male in the constitution of the family, they regard him as indispensable socially". As social and biological concepts of parenthood are not necessarily coterminous, the terms "pater" and "genitor" have been used in anthropology to distinguish between the man who is socially recognised as father (pater) and the man who is believed to be the physiological parent (genitor); similarly the terms "mater" and "genitrix" have been used to distinguish between the woman socially recognised as mother (mater) and the woman believed to be the physiological parent (genitrix). Such a distinction is useful when the individual who is considered the legal parent of the child is not the individual who is believed to be the child's biological parent. For example, in his ethnography of the Nuer, Evans-Pritchard notes that if a widow, following the death of her husband, chooses to live with a lover outside of her deceased husband's kin group, that lover is only considered genitor of any subsequent children the widow has, and her deceased husband continues to be considered the pater. As a result, the lover has no legal control over the children, who may be taken away from him by the kin of the pater when they choose. The terms "pater" and "genitor" have also been used to help describe the relationship between children and their parents in the context of divorce in Britain. Following the divorce and remarriage of their parents, children find themselves using the term "mother" or "father" in relation to more than one individual, and the pater or mater who is legally responsible for the child's care, and whose family name the child uses, may not be the genitor or genitrix of the child, with whom a separate parent- child relationship may be maintained through arrangements such as visitation rights or joint custody.

It is important to note that the terms "genitor" or "genetrix" do not necessarily imply actual biological relationships based on consanguinity, but rather refer to the socially held belief that the individual is physically related to the child, derived from culturally held ideas about how biology works. So, for example, the Ifaugao may believe that an illegitimate child might have more than one physical father, and so nominate more than one genitor. J.A. Barnes therefore argued that it was necessary to make a further distinction between genitor and genitrix (the supposed biological mother and father of the child), and the actual genetic father and mother of the child.

Descent and the family

Descent, like family systems, is one of the major concepts of anthropology. Cultures worldwide possess a wide range of systems of tracing kinship and descent. Anthropologists break these down into simple concepts about what is thought to be common among many different cultures.

Descent groups A descent group is a social group whose members claim common ancestry. A unilineal society is one in which the descent of an individual is reckoned either from the mother's or the father's line of descent. With matrilineal descent individuals belong to their mother's descent group. Matrilineal descent includes the mother's brother, who in some societies may pass along inheritance to the sister's children or succession to a sister's son. With patrilineal descent, individuals belong to their father's descent group. Societies with the system, are typically uniliineal, while the Iroquois proper are specifically matrilineal.

In a society which reckons descent bilaterally (bilineal), descent is reckoned through both father and mother, without unilineal descent groups. Societies with the Eskimo kinship system, like the Eskimo proper, are typically bilateral. The egocentrid kindred group is also typical of bilateral societies.

Some societies reckon descent patrilineally for some purposes, and matrilineally for others. This arrangement is sometimes called double descent. For instance, certain property and titles may be inherited through the male line, and others through the female line.

Societies can also consider descent to be ambilineal (such as ) where offspring determine their through the matrilineal line or the patrilineal line.

Lineages, , phratries, moieties, and matrimonial sides

A lineage is a descent group that can demonstrate their common descent from a known apical ancestor. Unilineal lineages can be matrilineal or patrilineal, depending on whether they are traced through or fathers, respectively. Whether matrilineal or patrilineal descent is considered most significant differs from culture to culture.

A is a descent group that claims common descent from an apical ancestor (but often cannot demonstrate it, or "stipulated descent"). If a clan's apical ancestor is nonhuman, it is called a . Examples of clans are found in the Chechen, Chinese, Irish, Japanese, Polish, Scottish, Tlingit, and Somali societies. In the case of the Polish clan, any notion of common ancestry was lost long ago. A phratry is a descent group containing at least two clans which have a supposed common ancestor.

If a society is divided into exactly two descent groups, each is called a , after the French word for half. If the two halves are each obliged to marry out, and into the other, these are called matrimonial moieties. Houseman and White (1998b, bibliography) have discovered numerous societies where kinship network analysis shows that two halves marry one another, similar to a matrimonial moieties, except that the two halves—which they call matrimonial sides -- are neither named nor descent groups, although the egocentric kinship terms may be consistent with the pattern of sidedness, whereas the sidedness is culturally evident but imperfect.

The word deme is used to describe an endogamous local population that does not have unilineal descent. Thus, a deme is a local endogamous community without internal segmentation into clans.

Nuclear family

The Western model of a nuclear family consists of a couple and its children. The nuclear family is ego-centered and impermanent, while descent groups are permanent (lasting beyond the lifespans of individual constituents) and reckoned according to a single ancestor.

Kinship calculation is any systemic method for reckoning kin relations. Kinship terminologies are native taxonomies, not developed by anthropologists.

Beanpole family is a term used to describe expansions of the number of living generations within a family unit, but each generation has relatively few members in it.

Legal ramifications

Kinship and descent have a number of legal ramifications, which vary widely between legal and social structures. Next of Kin traditionally and in common usage refers to the person closest related to you by blood, such as a parent or your children.

In legal terms, for example in intestacy, it has come to mean the person closest to you, which is generally the spouse if married, followed by the natural children of the deceased.

Whilst someone is alive they may nominate any person close to them to be their next of kin. The next of kin is usually asked for as a contact in case of accident, emergency or sudden death. It does not involve completing any forms or registration in the UK, and may be a friend or carer unrelated to you by blood or marriage.

Most human groups share a taboo against incest; relatives are forbidden from marriage but the rules tend to vary widely when one moves beyond the nuclear family. At common law, the prohibitions are typically phrased in terms of "degrees of consanguinity."

More importantly, kinship and descent enters the legal system by of intestacy, the laws that at common law determine who inherits the estates of the dead in the absence of a will. In civil law countries, the doctrine of legitime plays a similar role, and makes the lineal descendants of the dead person forced heirs. Rules of kinship and descent have important public aspects, especially under monarchies, where they determine the order of succession, the heir apparent and the heir presumptive

A clan is a unilineal descent groups the members of which may claim either partilineal (Patriclan) or matrilineal descent (Matriclan) from a founder, but do not know the genealogical ties with the ancestor\ancestress. A phratry is a grouping of clans which are related by traditions of common descent. Mythical ancestors are thus common in clans and phratries. Totemic clans, in which membership is periodically reinforced by common such as sacred meals, have been of special interest to social anthropologists and sociologists of religion. Where the descent groups of a society are organized into two main divisions, these are known as moieties (halves). The analysis of descent groups is crucial for any anthropological study of pre-industrial society, but in most Western industrial societies the principle of descent is not prominent and descent groups are uncommon. Primary, secondary and tertiary kins

Primary kins Every individual who belong to a nuclear family finds his primary kins within the family. There are 8 primary kins- husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, father-daughter, mother-daughter, younger brother-elder brother, younger sister-elder sister and brother-sister.

Secondary kins

Outside the nuclear family the individual can have 33 types of secondary relatives. For example mother's brother, brother's wife, sister's husband, father's brother.

Tertiary kins

Tertiary kins refer to the secondary kins of our primary kins.For example wife's brother's son, sister's husband's brother and so on. There are 151 types of tertiary kins.

Kinship Usages

Kinship usages or the rules of kinship are significant in understanding kinship system. They serve two main purposes:

• They create groups or special groupings or kin. For example- family extended family, clan etc. • Kinship rules govern the role of relationships among the kins.

Kinship usage provides guidelines for interaction among persons in these social groupings. It defines proper and acceptable role relationships. Thus it acts as a regulator of social life. Some of these relationships are: avoidance, teknonymy, , amitate, couvades and .

Avoidance

It means that two kins normally of opposite sex should avoid each other. In almost all societies avoidance rules prescribe that men and women must maintain certain amount of modesty in speech, dress and gesture in a mixed company. Thus a father-in-law should avoid daughter-in- law. The purdah system in Hindu family in the north illustrates the usage of avoidance.

Teknonymy

According to the usage of this usage a kin is not referred directly but is referred to through another kin. In a traditional Hindu family wife does not directly utter the name of her husband but refers to her husband as the father of so and so.

Avunculate

It refers to the special relationship that persists in some societies between a man and his mother's brother. This usage is found in a matriarchal system in which prominence is given to the maternal uncle in the life of his nephews and nieces. Amitate

The usage of amitate gives special role to the father's sister. Here father's sister is given more respect than the mother. Among Todas the child gets the name not through its parents but through the father's sister. Naming the child is her privilege.

Couvade

The usage of couvades prevalent among the Khasi and the Todas tribes makes the husband to lead the life of an invalid along with his wife whenever she gives birth to a child. He refrains from the active work, takes diet and observes some taboos which are observed by his wife. According to Malinowski the usage of couvade contributes to a strong marital bond between the husband and wife.

Joking relationship

A joking relationship involves a particular combination of friendliness and antagonism between individuals and groups in certain social situations. In these situations one individual or group is allowed to mock or ridicule the other without offence being taken. The usage of the joking relationship permits to tease and make fun of the other.

Things to Remember

• A person referred to as the parent of his or her child indicates the practice of Teknonymy. • Rivers has given the explanation of kinship terms referring to social usages which are antecedent to their use. • The residence rule which gives choice to the newly -weds to live with the parents of either the groom or the bride is known as biolocal. • When both patrilineal and matrilineal rules apply jointly it is called double descent. • Rivers has defined the clan as an exogamous division of tribe. • Social recognition is important in determining consanguineous kinship. • In double descent system one inherits fathers' patrilineal relatives and mother's matrilineal relatives. • Maclver said that kinship creates society and society creates the state. • Weiser stressed that clan is usually associated with totemism. • Levi Strauss has regarded preferential mating as a device for strengthening group solidarity. • Westermarck has written the history of human marriage. • Westermarck has listed various causes of including variety of women. • Murdock has distinguished between the family of orientation and the family of procreation. • Morgan suggested historical evolution of the form of marriage and family. • Tribes such as Mundas and Nagas do not permit marriage between persons from the same village. • According to Westermarck marriage is itself rooted in the family rather than family in marriage. • According to D.N Majumdar the Hindu society presently recognizes only two forms of marriage the Brahma and Asura. • A Tarawad splits into smaller units called Tavazhis. • When one becomes the member of the consanguineal relatives of both father and mother, it is known as . • The rule of residence generally followed in India is patrilocal. • When not mutual, a joking relationship assumes the form of social control. • Where father's sister is given more respect than the mother the relationship is called amitate. • Neolocal rule of residence is generally followed in western countries. • People bond together in groups based on reproduction refers to kinship. • Experimental marriage is known as privileged relationship. • Marriage of one man with a woman and her several sisters are called sororal polygamy. • The marriage of a Hindu is illegal if his or her spouse is alive. This restriction is according to Hindu Marriage Act. • Marriage of a man of high caste with a woman of lower caste is called Anuloma marriage. • Levi Strauss believed that no society was perfectly unilineal. • Radcliff Brown introduced the term lineage group to designate the living members of a group. • Morgan believed the earliest form of kin group to be the clan. • Rivers has listed belief in common descent and possession of a common totem as characterizing a clan. • Murdock has called the clan a compromise kin group. • Radcliffe Brown defines sib as a consanguineous group not sharing a common residence. • Horton and Hunt described the marriage as the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. • A nomenclature of the family function is symbolic of system to reckoning descent.

Introduction to

Every complex society faces the difficult task of placing its members into roles that are necessary for the society to survive. These roles must be filled with as little conflict and confusion as possible. There must be people willing to perform jobs (roles) with little status and those that carry a great deal of prestige. In your community there are people who are doctors, lawyers, and teachers. Others collect trash, direct traffic, and put out fires. Social inequality is a universal phenomenon in all societies. It can exist either in form of a hierarchy of groups or individuals or it may exist without the creation of a hierarchy. In the former case it is called social hierarchy. While in the latter case it is known as social differentiation for in almost all societies men and women are treated unequally. If social inequality manifests itself in the form of a hierarchy involving ranking of groups then it is known as social stratification, thus social stratification is a particular case of the social inequality. Although these roles do not all carry the same prestige, there is very little conflict involved in determining who will perform which one.

Consider roles as a deck of cards. You and I will be dealt numerous role cards in our lifetime. In fact, we are playing several roles at any given time. Right now you have been dealt a student role card to play, but you also have other role cards in your hand, such as friend, son or daughter, basketball player, cheerleader, clerk in a drugstore, etc. Many of your role cards came as a result of your birth, age, or gender. Other cards you have earned, such as honor student or basketball captain. In India, caste is one set of role cards and perhaps the most important one. One’s caste is ascribed; that is, children inherit the status and functions of their parents. At birth Indians are dealt their caste card. This is alien to what many people in the United States believe about the “good society.” Our parents, relatives, teachers, and friends tell us in a thousand ways that what we make of our lives depends on our efforts, and many of us think all societies should play by the same rules, or at least strive to do so. But it is important to remember that there is no society where individual effort is the sole criterion for status.

While caste is a very important set of role cards, Indians, like Americans, also use class (economic) cards. Both caste and class operate at the same time. A person of very low caste such as a sweeper may get a good job that has nothing to do with sweeping and save some money. With this wealth the sweeper may build a fancy house and educate his children who then become doctors, lawyers, and government leaders. This type of role is usually achieved, although some people inherit their wealth.

There is also the possibility of achieving political power in India quite apart from class or caste status. A low caste person might be very good at winning elections and become a member of the central government. Jagjivan Ram, a member of one of the (ex- Untouchable) castes, has held many cabinet posts in his political career. This system of gaining status is based on power. Power is usually achieved status rather than a role that is dealt at birth. People in India participate in the caste game, the class game, and the power game.

In India, castes are ranked, and caste members in a specific geographical area can identify those castes that are above and below them. The ranking of castes is based on purity and pollution, often associated with functions of the human body. Roles associated with the head such as thinking, talking, teaching, and learning are considered pure. Activities associated with waste, feet, and skin are considered polluting. Consequently, at the top of the purity scale were scholars who traditionally taught and presided at religious functions. Untouchables, at the bottom of the scale, cleared away human waste, collected garbage, cut hair, skinned animals, and washed clothes. Because their occupations mainly dealt with human, animal, and societal waste, society believed that contact with an Untouchable was highly polluting. Social stratification is essentially a group phenomena.According to Ogburn and Nimkoff the process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification. Melvin Tumin defines social stratification as an arrangement of any social group or society into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation and psychic gratification. According to Lundberg a stratified society is one marked by inequality by differences among people that are evaluated by them as being lower and higher. Preparing and sharing of food reveals how castes are ranked. Food cooked in oil and prepared by a Brahmin can be accepted and eaten by any caste below it. Food cooked in water can generally be accepted by one’s own caste members or inferior castes. Leftover, uneaten food almost always is taken only by the very low castes. Food that can be eaten raw is the most freely distributed and can be accepted by any caste from any caste. In addition, prasad, blessed food that is left over from religious offerings, is given to anyone regardless of caste.

There is also a range of pure and impure foods. Vegetables and grains are purer than meat and eggs. Fish is the purest of the non-vegetarian foods, followed by chicken, goats, pork, and water buffalo; the most impure is beef. Sweet pastries, fried in deep fat, are among the most widely acceptable foods from any caste. By observing how food is prepared and with whom it is shared, one can begin to determine the ranking on a purity-pollution scale of the caste groups involved.

There are two approaches to the study of stratification:

Conflict Approach under which Karl Marx and Weber's theories come.

Functionalist Approach under which Talcott Parsons and Davis and Moore's fall.

Conflict Theories

According to Karl Marx in all stratified societies there are two major social groups: a ruling class and a subject class. The ruling class derives its power from its ownership and control of the forces of production. The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject class. As a result there is a basic conflict of interest between the two classes. The various institutions of society such as the legal and political system are instruments of ruling class domination and serve to further its interests. Marx believed that western society developed through four main epochs-primitive communism, ancient society, feudal society and capitalist society. Primitive communism is represented by the societies of pre-history and provides the only example of the classless society. From then all societies are divided into two major classes - master and slaves in ancient society, lords and serfs in feudal society and capitalist and wage labourers in capitalist society. Weber sees class in economic terms. He argues that classes develop in market economies in which individuals compete for economic gain. He defines a class as a group of individuals who share a similar position in market economy and by virtue of that fact receive similar economic rewards. Thus a person's class situation is basically his market situation. Those who share a similar class situation also share similar life chances. Their economic position will directly affect their chances of obtaining those things defined as desirable in their society. Weber argues that the major class division is between those who own the forces of production and those who do not. He distinguished the following class grouping in capitalist society:

The propertied upper class The property less white collar workers The petty bourgeoisie The manual working class.

Functionalist Theories

Talcott Parsons believe that order, stability and cooperation in society are based on value consensus that is a general agreement by members of society concerning what is good and worthwhile. Stratification system derives from common values it follows from the existence of values that individuals will be evaluated and therefore placed in some form of rank order. Stratification is the ranking of units in a social system in accordance with the common value system. Those who perform successfully in terms of society's values will be ranked highly and they will be likely to receive a variety of rewards and will be accorded high prestige since they exemplify and personify common values. According to Kingsley Davis and Moore stratification exists in every known human society. All social system shares certain functional prerequisites which must be met if the system is to survive and operate efficiently. One such prerequisite is role allocation and performance. This means that all roles must be filled. They will be filled by those best able to perform them. The necessary training for them is undertaken and that the roles are performed conscientiously. Davis and Moore argue that all societies need some mechanism for insuring effective role allocation and performance. This mechanism is social stratification which they see as a system which attaches unequal rewards and privileges to the positions in society. They concluded that social stratification is a device by which societies insure that the most important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified persons. Forms and functions Social stratification can be classified into four forms - slavery, estates, caste and class. • The slavery system • The estate system • The caste system

The slavery System

It is an extreme form of inequality in which some individuals are owned by others as their property. The slave owner has full control including using violence over the slave.L.T Hobhouse defined slave as a man whom law and custom regard as the property of another. In extreme cases he is wholly without rights. He is in lower condition as compared with freemen. The slaves have no political rights he does not choose his government, he does not attend the public councils. Socially he is despised. He is compelled to work. The slavery system has existed sporadically at many times and places but there are two major examples of slavery - societies of the ancient world based upon slavery (Greek and Roman) and southern states of USA in the 18th and 19th centuries. According to H.J Nieboer the basis of slavery is always economic because with it emerged a kind of aristocracy which lived upon slave labour.

The estate System

The estate system is synonymous with Feudalism. The feudal estates had three important characteristics .In the first place they were legally defined; each estate had a status with legal rights and duties, privileges and obligations. Secondly the estates represented a broad division of labor and were regarded as having definite functions. The nobility were ordained to defend all, the to pray for all and the commons to provide food for all. Thirdly the feudal estates were political groups. An assembly of estates possessed political power. From this point of view the serfs did not constitute an estate until 12th century. This period saw the emergence of third estate -burghers who were a distinctive group within the system. Thus the three estates -clergy, nobility and commoners functioned like three political groups. The Caste System

Caste is closely connected with the and religion, custom and tradition .It is believed to have had a divine origin and sanction. It is deeply rooted social institution in India. There are more than 2800 castes and sub-castes with all their peculiarities. The term caste is derived from the Spanish word caste meaning breed or lineage.

The word caste also signifies race or kind. The Sanskrit word for caste is varna which means colour.The caste stratification of the Indian society had its origin in the chaturvarna system. According to this doctrine the Hindu society was divided into four main varnas - Brahmins, Kashtriyas, and .The Varna system prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly based on division of labour and occupation.

The caste system owns its origin to the Varna system. Ghurye says any attempt to define caste is bound to fail because of the complexity of the phenomenon. According to Risely caste is a collection of families bearing a common name claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.

According to Maclver and Page when status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste. Cooley says that when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary we may call it caste.M.N Srinivas sees caste as a segmentary system. Every caste for him divided into sub castes which are the units of endogamy whose members follow a common occupation, social and life and common culture and whose members are governed by the same authoritative body viz the panchayat.

According to Bailey caste groups are united into a system through two principles of segregation and hierarchy. For Dumont caste is not a form of stratification but as a special form of inequality. The major attributes of caste are the hierarchy, the separation and the division of labour.Weber sees caste as the enhancement and transformation of social distance into religious or strictly a magical principle.

For Adrian Mayer caste hierarchy is not just determined by economic and political factors although these are important.

Main Features of Caste System

Caste system in India

The Indian caste system (English pronunciation: /kæst, kɑːst/) describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis or castes. Within a jāti, there exist exogamous groups known as gotras, the lineage or clan of an individual, although in a handful of sub-castes like Shakadvipi, endogamy within a gotra is permitted and alternative mechanisms of restricting endogamy are used (e.g. banning endogamy within a ). Although generally identified with Hinduism, the caste system was also observed among followers of other religions in the Indian subcontinent, including some groups of Muslims and Christians. The Indian Constitution has outlawed caste-based discrimination, in keeping with the socialist, secular, democratic principles that founded the nation. Caste barriers have mostly broken down in large cities, though they persist in rural areas of the country, where 72% of India's population resides. Nevertheless, the caste system, in various forms, continues to survive in modern India strengthened by a combination of social perceptions and divisive politics.

History

Main article: History of the Indian caste system

There is no universally accepted theory about the origin of the Indian caste system. The Indian classes are similar to the ancient Iranian classes ("pistras"), wherein the priests are Athravans, the warriors are Rathaestha, the merchants are Vastriya, and the artisans are Huiti.

Varna and Jati

Main articles: Varna in Hinduism and Jāti

According to the ancient Hindu scriptures, there are four "varnas." The says varnas are decided based on Guna and . Manusmriti and some other mention four varnas: the Brahmins (teachers, scholars and priests), the (kings and warriors), the Vaishyas (agriculturists and traders), and Shudras (service providers and artisans). This theoretical system postulated Varna categories as ideals and explained away the reality of thousands of endogamous Jātis actually prevailing in the country as being the historical products of intermarriage among the "pure" Varnas - Varna Sankara. All those, including foreigners, tribals and nomads, who did not subscribe to the norms of the Hindu society were contagious and untouchables. Another group excluded from the main society was called Parjanya or Antyaja. This group of former "untouchables" (self described as ) ie downtrodden, was considered either the lower section of Shudras or outside the caste system altogether. Passages from scriptures such as Manusmriti indicate that the varna system was originally non-hereditary.

Several critics of Hinduism state that the caste system is rooted in the varna system mentioned in the ancient Hindu scriptures. However, many groups, such as ISKCON, consider the modern Indian caste system and the varna system as two distinct concepts. Many European scholars from the colonial era regarded the Manusmriti as the "law book" of the Hindus, and thus concluded that the caste system is a part of Hinduism, an assertion that is rejected by many Hindu scholars, who state that it is an anachronistic social practice, not a religious one.

Although many Hindu scriptures contain passages that can be interpreted to sanction the caste system, they also contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of Hinduism. The Vedas place very little importance on the caste system, mentioning caste only once (in the Purush Sukta) out of tens of thousands of verses. B. R. Ambedkar believed that even this is a much later interpolation and gave evidence to support his conclusion. In the Vedic period, there was no prohibition against the Shudras listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite.

In Early Evidence for Caste in South India, George L. Hart stated that "the earliest Tamil texts show the existence of what seems definitely to be caste, but which antedates the Brahmins and the Hindu orthodoxy". He believes that the origins of the caste system can be seen in the "belief system that developed with the agricultural civilization", and was later profoundly influenced by "the Brahmins and the Brahmanical religion". These early Tamil texts also outline the concept of equality. Saint Valluvar has stated "pirapokkum ella uyirkkum", which means "all are equal at birth". Likewise, Saint Auvaiyaar has stated that there are only two castes in the world: those who contribute positively and those who contribute negatively. From these, it can be inferred that the caste system is more of a socio-economic class system.

Caste and social status

Traditionally, although the political power lay with the Kshatriyas, historians portrayed that the Brahmins as custodians and interpreters of enjoyed much prestige and many advantages.

Fa Hien, a Buddhist pilgrim from China, visited India around 400 AD. "Only the lot of the Chandals he found unenviable; outcastes by reason of their degrading work as disposers of dead, they were universally shunned... But no other section of the population were notably disadvantaged, no other caste distinctions attracted comment from the Chinese pilgrim, and no oppressive caste 'system' drew forth his surprised censure.". In this period kings of Sudra and Brahmin origin were as common as those of varna and caste system was not wholly prohibitive and repressive. The castes did not constitute a rigid description of the occupation or the social status of a group. Since British society was divided by class, the British attempted to equate the Indian caste system to their own social class system. They saw caste as an indicator of occupation, social standing, and intellectual ability. Intentionally or unintentionally, the caste system became more rigid during the British Raj, when the British started to enumerate castes during the ten year census and codified the system under their rule.

The Dalits, or the people outside the varna system, had the lowest social status. The Dalits, earlier referred to as "untouchables" by some, worked in what were seen as unhealthy, unpleasant or polluting jobs. In the past, the Dalits suffered from social segregation and restrictions, in addition to extreme poverty. They were not allowed temple with others, nor water from the same sources. Persons of higher castes would not interact with them. If somehow a member of a higher caste came into physical or social contact with an untouchable, the member of the higher caste was defiled, and had to bathe thoroughly to purge him or herself of the impurity. Social discrimination developed even among the Dalits. Sub-castes among Dalits, like dhobi, nai etc., would not interact with lower-order Bhangis, who were described as "outcasts even among outcastes".

Sociologists have commented on the historical advantages offered by a rigid social structure, such as the caste system, and its lack of usefulness in the modern world. Historically, the caste system offered several advantages to the population of the Indian subcontinent. While Caste is nowadays seen by instances that render it anachronistic, in its original form, the caste system served as an important instrument of order in a society where mutual consent rather than compulsion ruled; where the ritual rights as well as the economic obligations of members of one caste or sub-caste were strictly circumscribed in relation to those of any other caste or sub-caste; where one was born into one's caste and retained one's station in society for life; where merit was inherited, where equality existed within the caste, but inter-caste relations were unequal and hierarchical. A well-defined system of mutual interdependence through a division of labour created security within a community. In addition, the division of labour on the basis of ethnicity allowed immigrants and foreigners to quickly integrate into their own caste niches. The caste system played an influential role in shaping economic activities. The caste system functioned much like medieval European guilds, ensuring the division of labour, providing for the training of apprentices and, in some cases, allowing manufacturers to achieve narrow specialisation. For instance, in certain regions, producing each variety of cloth was the speciality of a particular sub-caste. Also, philosophers argue that the majority of people would be comfortable in stratified endogamous groups, and have been in ancient times. Caste mobility

Some scholars believe that the relative ranking of other castes was fluid or differed from one place to another prior to the arrival of the British. Sociologists such as Bernard Buber and Marriott McKim describe how the perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, empirical and contextual stratification. Other sociologists such as Y.B Damle have applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the . According to these scholars, groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes.

Flexibility in caste laws permitted very low-caste religious clerics such as to compose the , which became a central work of Hindu scripture.

According to some psychologists, mobility across broad caste lines may have been "minimal", though sub-castes (jatis) may change their social status over the generations by fission, re-location, and adoption of new rituals.

Sociologist M. N. Srinivas has also debated the question of rigidity in Caste. In an ethnographic study of the Coorgs of , he observed considerable flexibility and mobility in their caste hierarchies. He asserts that the caste system is far from a rigid system in which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time. Movement has always been possible, and especially in the middle regions of the hierarchy. It was always possible for groups born into a lower caste to "rise to a higher position by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism" i.e adopt the customs of the higher castes. While theoretically "forbidden", the process was not uncommon in practice. The concept of sanskritization, or the adoption of upper-caste norms by the lower castes, addressed the actual complexity and fluidity of caste relations.

Historical examples of mobility in the Indian Caste System among Hindus have been researched. There is also precedent of certain families within the temples of the Sri Vaishnava sect in South India elevating their caste.

The fact that many of the dynasties were of obscure origin suggests some social mobility: a person of any caste, having once acquired political power, could also acquire a genealogy connecting him with the traditional lineages and conferring Kshatriya status. A number of new castes, such as the Kayasthas (scribes) and Khatris (traders), are mentioned in the sources of this period. According to the Brahmanic sources, they originated from intercaste marriages, but this is clearly an attempt at rationalizing their rank in the hierarchy. Many of these new castes played a major role in society. The hierarchy of castes did not have a uniform distribution throughout the country. Khatri appears to be unquestionably a Prakritised form of the Sanskrit Kshatriya.

Reforms

There have been challenges to the caste system from the time of Buddha, and from the time of Mahavira (Jaina founder) and (still earlier) of Gosāla Maskarin (Ājīvika founder).

Opposition to the system of varṇa ('caste') is regularly asserted already in the Upaniṣad-s (of early mediaeval date); and is a constant feature of Cīna-ācāra tantrism (Chinese-derived movement in Asom, and also of mediaeval date). The Nātha system (likewise mediaeval) founded by Matsya- Nātha and by Go-rakṣa Nātha, and spread throughout India, has likewise been in consistent opposition to the system of varṇa.

Many period saints rejected the caste discriminations and accepted all castes, including untouchables, into their fold. During the British Raj, this sentiment gathered steam, and many Hindu reform movements such as and renounced caste-based discrimination. The inclusion of so-called untouchables into the mainstream was argued for by many social reformers (see Historical criticism, below). called them "Harijans" (children of ) although that term is now considered patronizing and the term Dalit ("downtrodden") is the more commonly used. Gandhi's contribution toward the emancipation of the untouchables is still debated, especially in the commentary of his contemporary Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an untouchable himself, who frequently saw Gandhi's activities as detrimental to the cause of upliftment of his people.

The practice of untouchability was formally outlawed by the Constitution of India in 1950, and has declined significantly since then. K. R. Narayanan, who became the President of India in 1997, and K. G. Balakrishnan (the present Chief Justice of India) have belonged to castes formerly considered untouchable.

British rule The fluidity of the caste system was affected by the arrival of the British. Prior to that, the relative ranking of castes differed from one place to another. The castes did not constitute a rigid description of the occupation or the social status of a group. Since the British society was divided by class, the British attempted to equate the Indian caste system to the class system. They saw caste as an indicator of occupation, social standing, and intellectual ability. During the initial days of the British East India Company's rule, caste privileges and customs were encouraged, but the British law courts disagreed with the discrimination against the lower castes. However, British policies of divide and rule as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the 10 year census contributed towards the hardening of caste identities.

During the period of British rule, India saw the rebellions of several lower castes, mainly tribals that revolted against British rule. These were:

Halba rebellion (1774-79)

Bhopalpatnam Struggle (1795)

Bhil rebellion (1822–1857)

Paralkot rebellion (1825)

Tarapur rebellion (1842-54)

Maria rebellion (1842-63)

First Freedom Struggle (1856-57)

Bhil rebellion, begun by Tantya Tope in Banswara (1858)

Koi revolt (1859)

Gond rebellion, begun by Ramji Gond in Adilabad (1860)

Muria rebellion (1876)

Rani rebellion (1878-82)

Bhumkal (1910)

Modern status of the caste system

**NFHS Survey estimated only Hindu OBC population. Total OBC population derived by assuming Muslim OBC population in same proportion as Hindu OBC population) The massive 2006 Indian anti-reservation protestsIn some rural areas and small towns, the caste system is still very rigid. Caste is also a factor in the (see in India).

The has officially documented castes and subcastes, primarily to determine those deserving reservation (positive discrimination in education and jobs) through the census. The Indian reservation system, though limited in scope, relies entirely on quotas. The Government lists consist of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes:

Scheduled castes (SC)

Scheduled castes generally consist of former "untouchables" (the term "Dalit" is now preferred). The present population is 16% of the total population of India (around 160 million). For example, the Delhi state has 49 castes listed as SC.

Scheduled tribes (ST)

Scheduled tribes generally consist of tribal groups. The present population is 7% of the total population of India i.e. around 70 million.

Other Backward Classes (OBC)

The Mandal Commission covered more than 3000 castes under OBC Category and stated that OBCs form around 52% (which includes casts like Jat ( )) of the Indian population. However, the National Sample Survey puts the figure at 32%. There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBCs in India. It is generally estimated to be sizable, but many believe that it is lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission or the National Sample Survey.

Main article: 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests

The caste-based reservations in India have led to widespread protests, with many complaining of reverse discrimination against the forward castes (the castes that do not qualify for the reservation). The 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests are one major example. Many view negative treatment (or hatred) of forward castes as socially divisive and just as wrong.

Caste system among non-Hindus

Main articles: Caste system among South Asian Muslims and Caste system among Indian Christians In some parts of India, the Christians are stratified by sect, location, and the castes of their predecessors, usually in reference to upper class Syrian Malabar Nasranis who were bestowed caste-like status. Presently in India, more than 70% of Christians are Dalits, but the higher caste Christians (30% by estimates) control 90% of the 's administrative jobs.

Units of social stratification, termed as "castes" by many, have developed among Muslims in some parts of South Asia. Sources indicate that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of close contact with Hindu culture and Hindu converts to . The Sachar Committee's report commissioned by the government of India and released in 2006, documents the continued stratification in Muslim society.

Among Muslims, those who are referred to as Ashrafs are presumed to have a superior status derived from their foreign Arab ancestry, while the Ajlafs are assumed to be converts from Hinduism, and have a lower status. In addition, there is also the Arzal caste among Muslims, who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables. In the Bengal region of India, some Muslims also stratify their society according to 'Quoms'. While many scholars have asserted that the Muslim Castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus, some like Ambedkar argued otherwise, writing that the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society".

The nastik Buddhists too have a caste system. In Sri Lanka, the Rodis have always been despised and they might have been out-casted by the Lankan Buddhists due to the absence of "" (non-violence), which heavily depends on. The writer Raghavan notes: "That a form of worship in which human offerings formed the essential ritual would have been anathema to the Buddhist way of life goes without saying; and it needs no stretch of imagination that any class of people in whom the prevailed or survived even in an attenuated form would have been pronounced by the sangha (i.e. the Buddhist clergy) as exiles from the social order." Savarkar too believed that the status of the backward castes (e.g. Chamar) that performed non-violence only worsened. When Ywan Chwang traveled to South India after the period of the Chalukyan Empire, he noticed that the caste system had existed among the Buddhists and Jains.

The Jains too have castes in places such as . For example, in the village of Bundela, there are several "jaats" (groups) amongst the Jains. A person of one "jaat" cannot intermingle with a Jain or another "jaat". They also cannot eat with the members of other "jaats". The Sikh criticized the hierarchy in the caste system. Where some castes were perceived by people as being better or higher than others (e.g. Brahmins being higher than others) they preached all sections of society were valuable and merit and hard-work were essential aspects of life. In Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, out of 140 seats, twenty are reserved for low caste Sikhs. However, the quota system has attracted much criticism due to the lack of meritocracy, where merit is considered the single most important component of winning a seat.

Caste-related violence

Main article: Caste-related violence in India

Independent India has witnessed considerable amount of violence and hate crimes motivated by caste. Ranvir Sena, a caste-supremacist fringe paramilitary group based in Bihar, has committed violent acts against Dalits and other members of the scheduled caste community. Phoolan , who belonged to Mallah lower-caste, was mistreated and raped by upper-caste Thakurs at a young age. She then became a bandit and carried out violent robberies against upper-caste people. In 1981, her gang massacred twenty-two Thakurs, most of whom were not involved in her kidnapping or . Phoolan Devi went on to become a politician and Member of Parliament.

Over the years, various incidents of violence against Dalits, such as Kherlanji Massacre have been reported from many parts of India. At the same time, many violent protests by Dalits, such as the 2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra, have been reported as well.

Caste politics

Main article: Caste politics in India

Mahatma Gandhi, B. R. Ambedkar and had radically different approaches to caste especially over constitutional politics and the status of "untouchables". Until the mid-1970s, the politics of independent India was largely dominated by economic issues and questions of corruption. But since 1980s, caste has emerged as a major issue in the politics of India.

The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to "identify the socially or educationally backward", and to consider the question of seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination. In 1980, the commission's report affirmed the affirmative action practice under Indian law whereby members of lower castes were given exclusive access to a certain portion of government jobs and slots in public universities. When V. P. Singh Government tried to implement the recommendations of Mandal Commission in 1989, massive protests were held in the country. Many alleged that the politicians were trying to cash in on caste-based reservations for purely pragmatic electoral purposes.

Many political parties in India have openly indulged in caste-based votebank politics. Parties such as Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Samajwadi Party and the Janata Dal claim that they are representing the backward castes, and rely primarily on OBC support, often in alliance with Dalit and Muslim support to win the elections. Remarkably, what is called a landmark election in the 's biggest state of , the Bahujan Samaj Party was able to garner majority in the State assembly Elections with the support of the brahmin community.

Criticism

There have been many criticisms of the caste system, both within and outside India. Criticism of the Caste system in Hindu society came both from the Hindu fold and from without.

Historical criticism

Gautama Buddha and Mahavira, the founders of Buddhism and respectively, were perhaps against any kind of caste structure. Further, rejection of caste may have developed before these religions within Hinduism. Many bhakti period saints such as Nanak, , Caitanya, , Eknath, and rejected all caste-based discrimination and accepted disciples from all the castes. Many Hindu reformers such as believe that there is no place for the caste system in Hinduism. The 15th century saint also accepted all castes, including untouchables, into his fold. Most of these saints subscribed to the Bhakti movements in Hinduism during the medieval period that rejected casteism. Nandanar, a low-caste Hindu cleric, also rejected casteism and accepted Dalits.

Some other movements in Hinduism have also welcomed lower-castes into their fold, the earliest being the Bhakti movements of the medieval period. Early Dalit politics involved many Hindu reform movements which arose primarily as a reaction to the advent of Christian in India and their attempts to convert Dalits to Christianity, who were attracted to the prospect of escaping the caste system. In the 19th Century, the Brahmo Samaj under Raja , actively campaigned against untouchability and Casteism. The Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayanand also renounced discrimination against Dalits. Sri Paramahamsa and his greatest disciple Swami Vivekananda who founded the that participated in the emancipation of Dalits. Upper caste Hindus, such as Mannathu Padmanabhan also participated in movements to abolish Untouchability against Dalits, opening his family temple for Dalits to worship. Narayana , a pious Hindu and an authority on the Vedas, also criticized casteism and campaigned for the rights of lower-caste Hindus within the context of Hinduism.

The first "upper-caste" temple to openly welcome Dalits into their fold was the Laxminarayan Temple in Wardha in the year 1928 (the move was spearheaded by reformer Jamnalal Bajaj).

The caste system has also been criticized by many Indian social reformers. Some reformers, such as and Iyothee Thass argued that the lower caste people were the original inhabitants of India, and were conquered in the ancient past by "Brahmin invaders." Mahatma Gandhi coined the term "Harijan", a euphemistic word for untouchable, literally meaning Sons of God. B. R. Ambedkar, born in Hindu Dalit community, was a heavy critic of the caste system. He pioneered the Dalit Buddhist movement in India, and asked his followers to leave Hinduism, and convert to Buddhism.India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, based on his own relationship with Dalit reformer Ambedkar, also spread information about the dire need to eradicate untouchability for the benefit of the Dalit community. Another example was the Temple Entry Proclamation issued by the last Maharaja of Travancore in the Indian state of in the year 1936. The Maharaja proclaimed that "outcastes should not be denied the consolations and the solace of the Hindu ". Even today, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple that first welcomed Dalits in the state of Kerala is revered by the Dalit Hindu community.

Contemporary criticism

Kancha Ilaiah, a Buddhist and professor at Osmania University is known for his polemical attacks on Hindus and the caste system and is considered an anti-Hindu by his critics. Similarly, radicals such as Udit Raj, also a Buddhist, who have attacked Hindus in polemical speeches, have achieved some popularity among evangelical Christian groups such as the Dalit Freedom Network in their criticism of Hindism. The website Dalitstan (presently taken down), once banned by the Indian government, is an example of anti-Brahmin and anti- Hindu rhetoric by Dalit extremists, allegedly supported by Christian missions. Many Hindus point out that the caste system is related to the Indian society, and not Hinduism (as is evident by presence of caste among Indian Christians and Muslims). Hindu Nationalist organizations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh have actively criticized the caste system.

Some activists consider that the caste system is a form of racial discrimination. The participants of the United Nations Conference Against Racism in Durban, South Africa in March 2001, condemned discrimination due to the caste system, and tried to pass a resolution declaring that caste as a basis for the segregation and oppression of peoples in terms of their descent and occupation is a form of apartheid. However, no formal resolution was passed to that effect.

India's treatment of Dalits has been described by some authors as "India's hidden apartheid". Critics of the accusations point out the substantial improvements in the rights of Dalits (former "Untouchables") enshrined in the Constitution of India (primarily written by a Dalit, Ambedkar), which is the principal object of article 17 in the Constitution as implemented by the Protection of Civil rights Act, 1955 and the fact that India has had a Dalit, K.R. Narayanan, for a president, as well as the disappearance of the practise in urban public life.

According to William A. Haviland, however:

Although India's national constitution of 1950 sought to abolish cast discrimination and the practice of untouchability, the caste system remains deeply entrenched in Hindu culture and is still widespread throughout southern Asia, especially in rural India. In what has been called India's "hidden apartheid", entire villages in many Indian states remain completely segregated by caste. Representing about 15 percent of India's population—or some 160 million people—the widely scatter Dalits endure near complete social isolation, humiliation, and discrimination based exclusively on their birth status. Even a Dalit's shadow is believed to pollute the upper classes. They may not cross the line dividing their part of the village from that occupied by higher castes, drink water from public wells, or visit the same temples as the higher castes. Dalit children are still often made to sit in the back of classrooms. However, such allegations of apartheid are regarded by academic sociologists as a political epithet, since apartheid implies state sponsored discrimination, and no such thing exists in India. The Constitution of India places special emphasis on outlawing caste discrimination, especially the practice of untouchability. In addition, the Indian penal code inflicts severe punishments on those who discriminate on the basis of caste. Anti-dalit prejudice and discrimination is a social malaise that exists primarily in rural areas, where small societies can track the caste lineage of individuals and discriminate accordingly. Sociologists Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman, Angela Bodino, while being critical of casteism, conclude that modern India does not practice any "apartheid" since there is no state sanctioned discrimination. They write that Casteism in India is presently "not apartheid. In fact, untouchables, as well as tribal people and members of the lowest castes in India benefit from broad affirmative action programmes and are enjoying greater political power."

Caste and race

Allegations that caste amounts to race were addressed and rejected by B.R. Ambedkar, an advocate for Dalit rights and critic of untouchability. He wrote that

"The Brahmin of Punjab is racially of the same stock as the Chamar (Dalit) of Punjab. The Caste system does not demarcate racial division. Caste system is a social division of people of the same race",

Such allegations have also been rejected by many sociologists such as Andre Béteille, who writes that treating caste as a form of racism is "politically mischievous" and worse, "scientifically nonsensical" since there is no discernible difference in the racial characteristics between Brahmins and Scheduled Castes. He writes that "Every social group cannot be regarded as a race simply because we want to protect it against prejudice and discrimination".

The Indian government also rejects the claims of equivalency between Caste and Racial discrimination, pointing out that the caste issues as essentially intra-racial and intra- cultural. Indian Attorney General Soli Sorabjee insisted that "he only reason India wants caste discrimination kept off the agenda is that it will distract participants from the main topic: racism. Caste discrimination in India is undeniable but caste and race are entirely distinct". Many scholars dispute the claim that casteism is akin to racism. The view of the caste system as "static and unchanging" has been disputed. Sociologists describe how the perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, empirical and contextual stratification. Others have applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the caste system in India. According to these scholars, groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes.

Sociologist M. N. Srinivas has also debated the question of rigidity in Caste. For details see sanskritization.

Pakistani-American sociologist Ayesha Jalal also rejects these allegations. In her book, "Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia", she writes that "As for Hinduism, the hierarchical principles of the Brahmanical social order have always been contested from within Hindu society, suggesting that equality has been and continues to be both valued and practiced."

In India, some observers felt that the caste system must be viewed as a system of exploitation of poor low-ranking groups by more prosperous high-ranking groups. In many parts of India, land is largely held by high-ranking property owners of the dominant castes that economically exploit low-ranking landless labourers and poor artisans, all the while degrading them with ritual emphases on their so-called god-given inferior status.

Matt Cherry, claims that karma underpins the caste system, and the caste system traditionally determines the position and role of every member of Hindu society. Caste determines an individual's place in society, the work he or she may carry out, and who he or she may marry and meet. According to him, Hindus believe that the karma of previous life will determine the caste an individual will be (re)born into.

According to Stanford University scholar Oman Jain, there is no caste system currently in place in India.

On 29 March 2007, the Supreme Court of India, as an interim measure, stayed the law providing for 27 percent reservation for Other Backward Classes in educational institutions like IITs and IIMs. This was done in response to a public interest litigation — Ashoka Kumar Thakur vs. Union of India. The Court held that the 1931 census could not be a determinative factor for identifying the OBCs for the purpose of providing reservation. The court also observed, "Reservation cannot be permanent and appear to perpetuate backwardness". Genetic analysis

There have been several studies examining caste members as discrete populations, examining the hypothesis that their ancestors have different origins. A 2002-03 study by T. Kivisild et al. concluded that the "Indian tribal and caste populations derive largely from the same genetic heritage of Pleistocene southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the Holocene." Studies point to the various Indian caste groups having similar genetic origins and having negligible genetic input from outside south Asia. However, a 2001 genetic study, led by Michael Bamshad of the University of Utah, found that the affinity of Indians to Europeans is proportionate to caste rank, the upper castes being most similar to Europeans. The researchers believe that the Indo-Aryans entered India from the Northwest and may have established a caste system, in which they placed themselves primarily in higher castes." Because the Indian samples for this study were taken from a single geographical area, it remains to be investigated whether its findings can be safely generalized.

An earlier 1995 study by Joanna L. Mountain et al. of Stanford University had concluded that there was "no clear separation into three genetically distinct groups along caste lines", although "an inferred tree revealed some clustering according to caste affiliation". A 2006 study by Ismail Thanseem et al. of Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (India) concluded that the "lower caste groups might have originated with the hierarchical divisions that arose within the tribal groups with the spread of Neolithic agriculturalists, much earlier than the arrival of Aryan speakers", and "the Indo-Europeans established themselves as upper castes among this already developed caste-like class structure within the tribes." The study indicated that the Indian caste system may have its roots much before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans; a rudimentary version of the caste system may have emerged with the shift towards cultivation and settlements, and the divisions may have become more well- defined and intensified with the arrival of Indo-Aryans.

A 2006 genetic study by the National Institute of Biologicals in India, testing a sample of men from 32 tribal and 45 caste groups, concluded that the Indians have acquired very few genes from Indo-European speakers. More recent studies have also debunked the British claims that so-called "Aryans" and "Dravidians" have a "racial divide". A study conducted by the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in 2009 (in collaboration with Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health and the Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT) analyzed half a million genetic markers across the genomes of 132 individuals from 25 ethnic groups from 13 states in India across multiple caste groups. The study establishes, based on the impossibility of identifying any genetic indicators across caste lines, that castes in South Asia grew out of traditional tribal organizations during the formation of Indian society, and was not the product of any "Aryan Invasion" and "subjugation" of Dravidian people.

Sanskritization

Prof M.N Srinivas introduced the term sanskritization to Indian Sociology. The term refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to adopt upper caste practices and beliefs to acquire higher status. It indicates a process of cultural mobility that is taking place in the traditional social system of India.M.N Srinivas in his study of the Coorg in Karnataka found that lower castes in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy adopted some customs and practices of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own which were considered to be impure by the higher castes.

For example they gave up meat eating, drinking liquor and animal to their deities. They imitiated Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By this they could claim higher positions in the hierarchy of castes within a generation. The reference group in this process is not always Brahmins but may be the dominant caste of the locality.Sanskritization has occurred usually in groups who have enjoyed political and economic power but were not ranked high in ritual ranking. According to Yogendra Singh the process of sanskritization is an endogenous source of social change .Mackim Marriot observes that sanskritic rites are often added on to non- sanskritic rites without replacing them. Harold Gould writes, often the motive force behind sanskritisation is not of cultural imitation per se but an expression of challenge and revolt against the socioeconomic deprivations.

Class System

The class system is universal phenomenon denoting a category or group of persons having a definite status in society which permanently determines their relation to other groups. The social classes are de facto groups (not legally or religiously defined and sanctioned) they are relatively open not closed.

Their basis is indisputably economic but they are more than economic groups. They are characteristic groups of the industrial societies which have developed since 17th century. The relative importance and definition of membership in a particular class differs greatly over time and between societies, particularly in societies that have a legal differentiation of groups of people by birth or occupation.

In the well-known example of socioeconomic class, many scholars view societies as stratifying into a hierarchical system based on occupation,economic status, wealth, or income.According to Ogburn and Nimkoff a social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially the same social status in a given society.

Marx defined class in terms of the extent to which an individual or social group has control over the means of production.In Marxist terms a class is a group of people defined by their relationship to the means of production.Classes are seen to have their origin in the division of the social product into a necessary product and a surplus product.

Marxists explain history in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who actually produce the goods or services in society (and also developments in technology and the like). In the Marxist view of capitalism this is a conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage workers (proletariat).

Class antagonism is rooted in the situation that control over social production necessarily entails control over the class which produces goods -in capitalism this is the exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie. Marx saw class categories as defined by continuing historical processes. Classes, in Marxism, are not static entities, but are regenerated daily through the productive process.

Marxism views classes as human social relationships which change over time, with historical commonality created through shared productive processes.

A 17th-century farm labourer who worked for day wages shares a similar relationship to production as an average office worker of the 21st century. In this example it is the shared structure of wage labour that makes both of these individuals "working class.

"Maclver and Page defines social class as any portion of the community marked off from the rest by social status.Max Weber suggest that social classes are aggregates of individuals who have the same opportunities of acquiring goods, the same exhibited standard of living. He formulated a three component theory of stratification with social, status and party classes (or politics) as conceptually distinct elements.

• Social class is based on economic relationship to the market (owner, renter, employee, etc.) • Status class has to do with non-economic qualities such as education, honour and prestige • Party class refers to factors having to do with affiliations in the political domain

According to Weber a more complex division of labour made the class more heterogeneous.In contrast to simple income--property hierarchies, and to structural class schemes like Weber's or Marx's, there are theories of class based on other distinctions, such as culture or educational attainment.

At times, social class can be related to elitism and those in the higher class are usually known as the "social elite".

For example, Bourdieu seems to have a notion of high and low classes comparable to that of Marxism, insofar as their conditions are defined by different habitus, which is in turn defined by different objectively classifiable conditions of existence.

In fact, one of the principal distinctions Bourdieu makes is a distinction between bourgeoisie taste and the working class taste.Social class is a segment of society with all the members of all ages and both the sexes who share the same general status.Maclver says whenever social intercourse is limited by the consideration of social status by distinctions between higher and lower there exists a social class.

Characteristics of Social Class

A social class is essentially a status group. Class is related to status. Different statuses arise in a society as people do different things, engage in different activities and pursue different vocations. Status in the case of class system is achieved and not ascribed. Birth is not the criterion of status. Achievements of an individual mostly decide his status.

Class is almost universal phenomenon. It occurs in all the modern complex societies of the world. Each social class has its own status in the society. Status is associated with prestige. The relative position of the class in the social set up arises from the degree of prestige attached to the status. A social class is relatively a stable group.

A social class is distinguished from other classes by its customary modes of behaviour.This is often referred to as the life-styles of a particular class. It includes mode of dress, kind of living the means of recreation and cultural products one is able to enjoy, the relationship between parent and children. Life-styles reflect the specialty in preferences, tastes and values of a class.

Social classes are open- groups. They represent an open social system. An open class system is one in which vertical social mobility is possible. The basis of social classes is mostly economic but they are not mere economic groups or divisions. Subjective criteria such as class- consciousness, class solidarity and class identification on the on hand and the objective criteria such as wealth, property, income, education and occupation on the other hand are equally important in the class system.

Class system is associated with class consciousness. It is a sentiment that characterizes the relations of men towards the members of their own and other classes. It consists in the realization of a similarity of attitude and behavior with members of other classes.

Sociologists have given three-fold classification of classes which consists of - upper class, middle class and lower class.Sorokin has spoken of three major types of class stratification -they are economic, political and occupational classes. Lloyd Warner shows how class distinctions contribute to social stability.

Veblen analyzed the consumption pattern of the rich class by the concept of conspicuous consumption. Warner has classified classes into six types- upper-upper class, upper-middle class, upper-lower class, lower-upper class, the lower middle class and lower class. Anthony Giddens's three class model is the upper, middle and lower (working) class.

Jajmani system

William H Wiser introduced the term Jajmani system in the vocabulary of Indian sociology through his book The Hindu Jajmani system where he described in detail how different caste group interact with each other in the production and exchange of goods and services. In different parts of India different terms are used to describe this economic interaction among the castes for example in Maharashtra the term Balutadar is used.

However in sociological literature jajmani system has come to be accepted as a general term to describe the economic interaction between the castes at the village level. This system is also a ritual system concerned with the aspects of purity and pollution as with economic aspects. It functions so that the highest caste remains pure while the lowest castes absorb pollution from them.

Villages are composed of number of jatis each having its occupational speciality.Jajmani system is essentially an agriculture based system of production and distribution of goods and services. Through jajmani relations these occupational jatis get linked with the land owning dominant caste. The jajmani system operates around the families belonging to the land owning dominant caste the numbers of which are called jajmans.

The land owning caste occupy a privileged position in the jajmani relations. The interaction between occupational castes and the land owning castes take place within the framework of non- reciprocal and asymmetrical type of relations. The land owning castes maintain a paternalistic attitude of superiority towards their occupational castes that are called Kamins in North India. The term Kamin means one who works for somebody or serves him.

In terms of Karl Polanyi's classification of exchange system -Jajmani exchange can be termed as redistributive system of exchange. The Functionalist view of jajmani system regards it as the basis of self-sufficiency, unity, harmony and stability in the village community.

However the Marxist scholars hold a very different opinion. They regard the jajmani system as essentially exploitative, characterized by a latent conflict of interest which could not crystallize due to the prevalent social setup. Thus if in future the conditions of the lower caste improve an open conflict between the lower and upper caste is inevitable.

Oscar Lewis who studied Rampur village near Delhi and Biedelmn has been critical of the Jajmani system which they regard as exploitative. According to them the members of occupational jatis are largely landless labourers and have no resources to wage a struggle against the dominant caste out of the compulsion of the need for survival.

They succumb to all injustice perpetuated by the landowning dominant caste who enjoy both economic and political power. Scholars like Berreman, Harold Gould and Pauline Kolenda etc accept that there is an element of truth in both the functionalist and Marxist views of the jajmani system. They believe that consensus and harmony as well as conflict and exploitation are prevalent in the village society.

According to Dumont jajmani system makes use of hereditary personal relationships to express the division of labour.This system is a ritual expression rather than just an economic arrangement.S.C Dube refers to the system as corresponding to the presentation and counter presentation by which castes as a whole are bound together in a village which is more or less universal in nature. Leach believes that the system maintains and regulates the division of labour and economic interdependence of castes.

Definitions & Things to Remember

Peculium: An institution in the estate system where a sum of money or some property was given to a slave by his master.

Cartel: A group of industrialists who together monopolize or gain complete control over the market. Differential mobilization: A process takes place when the changes that caste has and undergoing carries it beyond the traditional ascriptive definition.

Dahrendorf held that the differential distribution of authority leads to class formation and class conflict. Hiller observed that when a class system becomes closed to vertical mobility, it becomes a caste. Marx was the first one to introduce the concept of alienation into sociological theory. Srinivas termed independence among castes as vertical unity. It was Hutton who pointed out that the exclusivity and range of the caste panchayat led to an arrangement in which the members of the caste ceased to be members of the community as a whole. Aristotle classified the society into three strata- guardians, auxiliaries and workers. Max Weber characterized caste as a closed status group. Davis and Moore stressed that stratification served to ensure effective role allocation and performance. Senart advocated the religious theory of the origin of caste. Parsons held that society would rank highly and reward those who perform successfully in terms of society's values. According to Tawney in estate system inequality is not primarily economic but judicial. Nesfield gave the concept of occupational theory of caste. Marx categorized India under the Asiatic Mode of Production. Pelham stated that the higher the class one belongs the lessen is the pretence because there is less to pretend to.This is chief reason why our manners are better than other persons. Proudhon stated property is theft. Durkheim advocated a form of guild socialism. Utilitarianism is a theoretical outlook associated with the name of J Benthem. what is and industrial sociology? And what is its scope, also narrate value of industrial sociology in India. Answer: Industrial sociology (also known as sociology of industrial relations or sociology of work) is the study of the interaction of people within industry it includes the study of boss-subordinate, inter-departmental, and management trade-union relationships´.Moreover, on a macrosociological scale, it is the study of the impact of industrialization on whole societies. Insustrial sociology is a field of applied sociology, and has grown mainly out of interests in such issues as productivity, motivation,and unionization. Socialagy is astudy of the human race that deals with social releationships and the effect of external factors like geographical location,education levels, types of the jobs and industrial does and so on, SCOPE: Industrial sociology attempts to fuse the concept of sociology with the social relationship that exit in the work organization and includes those economic organizations whose sole aim in the provision of goods and services. It took quite some time after the birth of sociology for the sub-specialization of industrial sociology to define involved in the economic organization and the effect of the growth, and spread of industry, on the change of social structure. Value of industrial sociology in India India experienced industrial revolution nearly a century after the west. 1) Knowledge of the labour class: problem of urbanization the labour class has its peculiar status,role and problems. in urban society these must be understood and solved. This requires knowledge of industrial society. 2) labour welfare: labour welfare and labour legislation requires and understanding of the condition of the industry and labour. The present day industrial society requires labour welfare, which presupposes scientific knowledge in this area. 3) Problems of urbanization: Urbanization is the process in which the number of people living in cities increases compared with the number of people living in rural areas. A country is considered to be urbanized when over 50% of its population lives in urban places. Because of urbanization in india started creating problems of houses, over-crowding, high cost of living, unsanitary living conditions and slums. 4) Solution of the problems of industrialization: industrialization is closely connected to urban problems. The study of industrial society is a necessary prelude to the solution of the problems of industrialization. 5) Division of labour: when one observes the present changes in society, the re-valuation and re- organization of the division of labour is necessary for harmony between different classes. in India division of labour has been rationally based upon cast. 6) Help in family re-organization: industrial sociology particularly studies urban and industrial families. It requires into causes of their disorganization and suggests remedies. Therefore in India industrial sociology may help in preventing further disorganization of urban and industrial families. 7) Economic progress: in India today, one hears slogans about removing poverty throughout the land. This requires industrial progress even more than progress in the field of agriculture. 8) Social welfare: the modern state is a welfare state. The poor and the degraded, since these section are unable to realize their welfare. The social welfare requires direction from industrial sociology. 9) Development of labour organization: a remedy to industrial dispute is the development of industrial organization. In India labour unions are more involved in playing political games than labour welfare. 10) Help in rationalization: being backward, from the scientific and industrial viewpoint, India lags in rationalization of its industries. with the progress of education among capitalization employers and the intervention by the government, efforts are now being made for more and more rationalization in industries. this helped by industrial sociology. 11) Aid to pragmatic industrial policy: it has been a commonly held precept that when some private companies fail to solve their internal dispute, one of the remedies is the nationalization of the sick industries. 12) Aid to industrial management: success in the industry depends upon industrial management . Efficiency of industrial management depends upon the practice of scientific laws of industrial management. Therefore industrial mangers require training in industrial sociology. This is particularly relevant today in India. 13) Solution of the problems of automation: with the setting up of the large-scale industries in India, automation is increasing. This has increased unemployment; through on the other hand it has increased profit of the industries. 14) Betterment of employer-employee relationship: industrial peace and progress depends upon harmonious relationships between the employer and the employee. 15)use in labour legislation:

Write short notes: Employment Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. In a commercial setting, the employer conceives of a productive activity, generally with the intention of creating profits, and the employee contributes labour to the enterprise, usually in return for payment of wages. Employment is the entire service of an individual performed for some kind of wage, under any type of contract. The law presumes that a worker’s services are employment unless the employer can prove that the worker’s services are exempt. Employment data represent the number of workers on the payroll during the pay period including the 12th day of the month. The pay period varies in length from employer to employer; for most employers, it is a 7-day period but not necessarily a calendar week. An employer who pays on more than one basis (such as weekly for production employees and semimonthly for office employees) reports the sum of the number of workers on each type of payroll for the period. Any service, unless specifically excluded, performed for compensation under a contract of hire whether the contract is express or implied, written or oral, and without regard to whether the service is performed on a part-time, full time or casual basis. Contract work This is work that is done for a specific period of time and a contract is drawn between the employer and the worker. The contract work does not include benefits Contract work could be the career 'make over' that you're looking for without completely cutting your ties with the corporate world. Contract work means that you can enjoy the best of both worlds. By being your own boss while still working on projects on-site - or having the choice of working from home. Contract work has proven to be a viable career option for many, but before leaving our life as an employee behind, there are a number of issues to be taken onboard and thought through carefully. Firstly, it's important to assess our skills to determine whether they are transferable to a career as an independent contractor. Secondly, thoroughly analyze the market demand for the type of service we plan to offer - think also about supply and demand in that market. Highly competitive markets can make it harder to gain a foot hold and win business in the early stages. In the final analysis, effective networking and your track record and proven expertise in the field are major factors in establishing our consulting career. Some popular areas for independent contractors include: • programming • web development • web design • graphic design • management consulting • marketing consulting Maladjusted workers: Workers with nervous temperaments tend to get maladjusted because normalcy of personality is an essential condition of proper adjustment. Maladjusted of the worker can either be mild or serious. And their symptoms Jealousy Self-pity Cheerless bearing Lack of co-operation Fault finding Strong emotions Conflict with colleagues Abnormal desire to attract attention. A worker with this problem is jealous of the other workers over very minor issues and at times believes that he himself is a victim of others enmity. he does not cooperate with others and is constantly engaged in finding fault with the management and with his colleague. In attaining his own interests he plays no attention to the propriety or impropriety of means, and fights with others to gain advantage. He wants to attract the attention of other persons towards himself, and is not bothered about the propriety of the means he adopts for this purpose. Palekar tribunal The central government had appointed two tribunals under the provisions of the working journalists and other newspaper employees and miscellaneous provisions act 1955. The function of the tribunals was to recommend rates of the wages in respect of working journalists and non journalists newspaper employees in Feb. 1979 headed by D.G palekar retired judge of the supreme court. The tribunals submitted their recommendations to the government on 13 august 1980. The government had accepted the recommendations of the tribunal except those relating to the dearness allowance. The government published a formula with minor modifications and order to this effect. The government after giving the opportunities to everyone concerned to present their opinion finally modified the dearness allowances formula recommended by the tribunals. Orders notifying the revised rates of the dearness allowances were published in the gazette of Indian extraordinary of 20 July 1981.

What is recruitment? What are the major channels through which the recruitment to industries in India is done in modern days? Answer: Recruitment refers to the process of finding possible candidates for a job or function. It may be undertaken by an employment agency or a member of staff at the business or organisation looking for recruits. Either way it may involve advertising, commonly in the recruitment section of a newspaper or in a newspaper dedicated to job adverts.

Employment agencies will often advertise jobs in their windows. Posts can also be advertised at a job centre if they are targeting the unemployed. Recruitment is an activity in which the organization attempts to identify and attract candidates to meet the requirements of anticipated or actual job openings Recruitment is the process whereby a firm attracts or finds capable individuals to apply for employment. Of course, the objective is to find these applicants at the lowest possible cost. This process begins when new recruits are sought, and ends when applicants have submitted application forms or resumes. The result is a pool of job-seekers from which the firms can then the select the most qualified. Smart companies recruit employees they can retain, and retention depends on getting the right people in the right job in the first place. So, while getting large pool applicants is important, getting the right type of applicant is even more important. Methods of workers recruitments The recruitment to industry in India today is made through certain well- defines channels. The recruitment in these days is quite systematic thought it is still not wholly scientific. Today the industrialists is quite alive to the problems of recruitments and tries to adopt a systematic and scientific industrialist is quite alive to the problems of recruitment and tries to adopt a systematic and scientific approach to this problem. Following are the channels of recruitments employed today in India Employee Referrals Another common recruitment methodology is the employee referral. To fill job vacancies, present employees refer jobseekers to the HR department as potential employees. There are some clear advantages to using employee referrals. First, there is a good chance that a firm's current employees know others in the same line of work. Further, if the recruits are acquainted with the referring employee, there is also a good chance that the recruits already know something about the firm. In many cases, the present employee also takes an active interest in helping the new employee become successful. Finally, this method of recruitment is quick and inexpensive. Conversely, the disadvantages of employee referrals include inbreeding, nepotism, and maintaining the "old boys network". Also, firms using this methodology may tend to maintain the racial, religious, or sex features of the current group of employees. Job Posting One of the most common means of filling open positions within a firm is by using internal job postings. Job postings have all of the advantages of internal recruitment, discussed above. Further, job postings help employees feel they have some control over their future in the organization, insofar as they can decide when to apply for job openings (and which ones). By permitting employees to choose which jobs to apply for, the employer avoids being put into the awkward position of promoting an employee into a job they never wanted. Here are some guidelines for job postings:

1. procedure should be clearly explained to all employees • procedure must be consistent to avoid employee suspicion 2. job specifications must be clear • results in fewer and better applicants 3. must be specific with respect to the length of time the positions will be open 4. application procedure must be made clear • ensure that applicants get adequate feedback once a selection is made o reasons for nonacceptance o suggested remedial measures o information concerning possible future openings o assistance in the posting process EXTERNAL RECRUITMENT The opposite of internal recruitment is external recruitment. The most obvious advantage of external recruitment is the availability of a greater pool of applicants. Thus, only those applicants who have the exact qualifications will apply and be selected. This has consequences for the organization's training budget. Whereas external recruits will require orientation upon being hired, they will not require any extra training (assuming they were selected for their capabilities). External recruits also bring new ideas and external contacts to the firm hiring them. Also, if political infighting over a promotion might be a possibility, then external recruitment is one way of eliminating that occurrence. Finally, with external recruitment, a firm does not have to worry about the Peter Principle. INTERNAL RECRUITMENT. There is nothing inherently better about either internal or external recruitment. However, there are some advantages to internal recruitment. First, internal recruitment may lead to increased morale for employees; the organization is perceived to reward good performance or loyalty. Often, one promotion leads to another vacant position and this chain effect contributes further to increased morale. Another advantage to the firm is that Human Resource data is immediately available for any employee recruited internally.

Further, the employee's work habits are known and previous performance appraisals are on record. Similarly, an internal recruit will be familiar with the firm. This employee will be familiar with the firm's products, clients, organizational policies, and corporate culture. Therefore, the firm might be able to save money insofar as orientation sessions for such an employee may not be necessary. Whereas the firm saves money by eliminating orientation sessions for employees recruited internally, other training costs may go up. If company policies mandate internal recruitment, then employees promoted from within may not have all the requisite skills required for the job. In such cases, employees will have to be trained for their new jobs. This can be a costly process. It becomes even more costly if the chain-effect of successive internal promotions requires a series of training sessions to be implemented. A succession of internal recruitments may, in fact, result in the Peter Principle ("In a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence." -- The Peter Principle by Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull, 1969). This can be avoided by initially promoting internal recruits on a temporary basis. Demotions for incompetence can have a demoralizing effect on the organization. To avoid such disappointments, the temporary appointment ("acting manager") serves to give the internal employee an opportunity to show their worth. However, it also provides the employer with an opportunity to replace that employee with a more qualified individual if necessary.

Another unintended negative consequence of internal recruitment might be organizational politics. This may occur when more than one employee aspires to the job vacancy. Those not getting the promotion will be disappointed and may be unwilling to grant the new job-holder the authority required to do the job. Further, the unsuccessful applicants' coworkers may also resent the successful candidate and demonstrate that resentment through less than satisfactory work output Internet Recruiting Finding well-qualified applicants quickly at the lowest possible cost is a primary goal for recruiters. Recent trends indicate that, if you're looking for a job in the technical field or to fill a technical job, you need consider using the Internet. The same may well be true for nontechnical jobs in the near future. Advantages A majority of firms that have actually used the Internet for recruiting consider the Internet more cost-effective than most recruitment methods. Other advantages include: • access to more people and a broader selection of applicants • the ability to target the type of people needed • access to people with a technical background who know computers • convenience • quicker response and turnaround • ease of use • disadvantages Disadvantages Using the Internet to recruit poses a dilemma with respect to attracting the 'passive job seeker' -- the person who is not actively searching on the Internet, but may nonetheless be interested in openings in your organization.. To find these passive job seekers, companies might consider setting up their own Web sites which welcome applicants.

An increased volume of applicants may also become a problem if Internet recruiting is used. An organization must ensure that it uses an adequate tracking mechanism to deal with this increased volume. A further disadvantage is that not everyone has access to or uses the Internet

In India, trade unions doest a not enjoy a healthy situations for various reasons. Can you illustrate the major obstacles in trade unions? Answer: sufficient time has elapsed since the founding of trade unions in India. But unlike western countries, the Indian trade unions have not made the expected progress. They suffer from a number of lacunas. They have trade unions have not made the expected progress. They have not developed on proper growth of trade unions. in India industries all these conditions are not fully met. There are various types of obstacles in the development of Indian labour unions. Chiefly this fall into two categories internal and external difficulties. The internal difficulties are related to labor and the external difficulties pertain to industrialists, intermediaries and official laws. Following discussion will make the nature of these two types of difficulties clear. Internal obstacles Indian labour has certain traits peculiar to it. Some of these traits have proved to be obstacles in the way of growth of labour unions. Mainly following traits of labour prove to be hindrances in the way of labour unions development and growth. a) Majority of Indian labour is illiterate: For any organization it is vitally important its members are educated or not. The educated members are an asset and the illiterate members a liability to the organizations. Education broadens the outlook of the individuals. An educated person understands what is beneficial and what is harmful to him. because of illiterate members • not able to read or write

• ignorant: uneducated in the fundamentals of a given art or branch of learning; lacking knowledge of a specific field; "she is ignorant of quantum mechanics"; "he is musically illiterate" • lacking culture, especially in language and literature • a person unable to read b) migratory compulsions: the majority of Indian labour hails from rural areas. The families of the most of them reside in villages. Under these circumstance workers do not reside permanently in cities. As and when they get leave or holidays they go to their and children. Thus they are unable to visit participate regularly in the confabulations and discussions of trade unions. c) Heterogeneous character from the above discussion it is plain that Indian labour has a tendency to migrate form place to place. In every big industrial center one can find workers coming from almost all regions of India. These workers are of very heterogeneous character. They differ inter se in regard to language, religion and habits of food and dress. On the account of wide heterogeneity of the workers a sense of unity cannot easily take root among them. on account of wide heterogeneity of the workers a sense of unity cannot easily take root among them. But for the success of trade unions the trait of unity is of paramount importance. Any workers even to day practice unsociability. Thus it is plain that the heterogeneous character of Indian labor proves to be stumbling block in the progress and development of the Indian trade union movement. d) Low economic standards: The economies conditions of Indian labour are not good. The average Indian workers earnings are too low that he can bearly meet the expenses of this family with his wages. On account of low wages he is usually in debt on account of their poverty, the workers are unable to take active part in trade union activity. e) Mutual strike: in India there are numerous independent functioning trade unions. Each of these trade unions is under the influences of one or the other political party. The political parties are usually at cross purposes and pursing contradictory policies. The political parties misuse trade unions to further their own political ends. This tendency foments dissensions and the strike among trade unions. The mutual strike among trade unions weakens them. f) Lack of able leadership: the majority of Indian workers is illiterate and ignorant. None of these illiterate workers father the courage to take up the leadership of trade union. Besides not processing courage these persons lack the ability and capacity for leadership. Under these circumstances outsiders are usually the leaders of Indian trade unions. An unemployment problem the problem of is greeting worse every day, the workers have to toil hard in order to find a job. Once person finds job he is most reluctant to leave it. This is so because finding an alternative job is both uncertain and hazardous. Average Indian workers under the impression that by joining trade unions he is putting his job in danger External obstacles Beside internal Impediments there are certain external obstacles which impede and the growth of trade unionism in India. The more important of these obstacles are concerned with role of intermediaries , recruitments of workers, the industrialists management boards and labour and industrial laws. give out advantage and disadvantages of broken recruitment Answer: advantages of broker recruitments Following are the main advantage if recruitments Easy availability of workers There are times when workers are not easily available. in certain industries average workers repelled by them and do not want to work under those conditions at any cost whatever. the industrialist are unable to find sufficient workers for running of their industries. Under circumstances are unable to find sufficient workers for running of their industries. under the circumstances where workers are not easy to come by the industrialists feel constrains to rely upon brokers for the recruitment. These brokers go around places to persuade, entices and entangle workers. They bring workers to the industries under many pretexts and gradually gain such hold over them that the workers can ill afforded to defy them. in India the coal-mines and tea-gardens are the two industries where brokers do the recruitments of workers almost exclusively. Facility in industrial management The brokers in industries know everything about workers. They are well informed about their background, their adaptability and above all their problems regarding work. Therefore they are able to give to the employers from time to time a correct assessment about them. Based on this assessment they are able to take advance action to rectify the genuine problems of the workers and also check the building up of frustration in workers. Thus the brokers play a useful role in keeping the wheels of industry moving by aiding in successful management of the problems of workers. The brokers are useful to the employers in another way. They know everything about the activities of the workers and are able to give advance information about strike, sabotage etc. Lessening of employer’s responsibility as it is clear from the above discussion the brokers perform many functions of the employers. The overseeing of workers problems, maintenance of their attendances record and settlement of intra-factional rivalries of workers are some of the tasks, which the brokers competently look after. In some places the brokers impart general training to workers. On account of all these factors the responsibility of the employers in much reduced. Disadvantages of broker recruitment: It is fact that a large section of workers recruited to industry in India through the via media of brokers. There are certain advantage of recruitment of workers through brokers, bit f we view the overall situation we should find that the system of recruitment through brokers is very defective. On account of its glaring lacunas this system has always been subject to criticism. Some of the defects of this system are Exploitation of workers: The majority of industrial workers in India are illiterate and poor. Moreover India is a populous country and the supply of workers for jobs far exceeds the demand under these circumstances it is rather difficult to find any suitable job. Taking advantage of this situation and brokers exploit the workers and charge commission for getting them jobs..

Sometimes the workers are forced to make regular monthly payments to brokers. The brokers also charge money for condoning inefficient work, granting leave and for recommending promotions. Thus brokers exploit the workers in every possible way. Recruitment of incompetent workers: it is quite apparent form the above discussion that the real criterion of recruitment of workers by brokers is commission graft or bribe. As can be easily appreciated, payment or commission manes that preference in recruitment will be given to those who are able to give the maximum bribe. Under these conditions the necessary conditions of getting employment is not efficiently of work but ability to pay. Thus in broker- recruitment system many an income tenet worker gets entry into industry. Increase in industrial conflicts: The brokers as a rule in extremely hard hearted. In order to remain in the good books of industrialists they give exaggerated or false accounts about the activities of workers.

Their game is not one –sided; it is dual. They not only report against workers and employers in dark about real situation and try to exploit both to their personal advantage.

Thus while acting as go between or contact man between workers and employers they normally are instrumental in increasing of industrial conflicts. Non availability of permanent workers: By employing various forms of enticement, percussion etc, and brokers bring innocent persons form far off villages and primitive tribal belts to cities for industrial jobs.

These innocents persons are unable to adjust with the urban climate and the complexities of urban life terrify them. Therefore they do not like to stay in the cities for any length of time and rush back to their villages at the first available opportunity. Thus the recruitment by brokers fails to get the industrialists permanents workers. The transient labour as can be well appreciated is great liability.

What is an industrial dispute, give out the causes and consequences of an industrial disputes. Answer:An industrial dispute refers to any disagreement in industrial relations which may be in the form of a strike and or other forms of industrial action between employers and employees. Industrial disputes are costly and damaging to companies and employees alike. Ideally, an organization’s culture and procedures should seek to avoid or resolve any potential conflict. However, it's not always possible to prevent industrial disputes from arising. Collection of statistics on disputes which involve stoppages of ten working days or more. The statistics are compiled mainly from data obtained from employers on the nature and extent of the dispute. Once all disputes for a month are identified, additional information on the nature and extent of each dispute is obtained through a mail-out/mail-back collection, usually to employers, on the nature and extent of the dispute. Some data, e.g. working days lost in a particular strike, may be imputed. Due to the imputation procedures and the limitations on identification of disputes, the statistics should not be regarded as an exact measure of the extent of industrial disputation. Cause of dispute Usually industrial dispute is due to mental unrest or discount in the workers. This unrest is psychological fact but it also has social political and economics aspects. Briefly the causes of industrial disputes, in India may be classifies as follows Low wags Unsatisfactory working conditions Demand for leave with pay Demand for adequate bonus Non recognition of trade unions Retrenchment due to sophisticated machinery Resistance to misconduct of officers Misconduct of intermediaries statistics relate to the reported main cause of stoppage of work and not necessarily all causes that may have been responsible for the stoppage of work. For these reasons, the statistics do not reflect the relative importance of all causes of disputes as perceived by both employers and employees. The causes are classified from information supplied by employers and according to standards determined by the International Labour Organisation. Disputes are initially classified according to whether a dispute occurred during a process of workplace/enterprise bargaining. A process of workplace/enterprise bargaining refers to the negotiations that take place between an employer and their employees (or their representatives), in reaching an agreement over pay and employment conditions. Disputes not related to a process of workplace/enterprise bargaining include disputes relating to award negotiations and disputes relating to the content or application of an existing agreement (and do not seek to amend or terminate the agreement). Disputes are then further classified according to the main cause of the dispute. The classifications for Enterprise Bargaining (EB) related disputes are Remuneration; Employment conditions and Other EB related. The classifications for Non-Enterprise Bargaining (Non-EB) related disputes are Remuneration; Employment conditions; Health and safety; Job security; Managerial policy; Union issues and Other non-EB related. Consequences of an industrial dispute The important consequences of industrial disputes inj India are the following Unrest As we have already mentioned industrial conflicts and disputes lead to widespread unrest in social life and also distribution of political harmony and peace Economics loss the industrial disputes most obviously injure the economics interest of both employees and employers. This effect is direct and palpable, but indirectly and in a subtle way these also prove economically harmful to nation as a whole. Everyone ultimately is affected. Hardship of workers: The majority of workers in India not earn enough to be able to save for rainy day. They live hands to mouth, existence if not worse. Therefore strikes and lockouts put unbearable burden to them and they are reduced to the levels of beggars Threat to social security and public peace. If industrial disputes spread in an epidemic form they pose to threat to public peace. ECNOMICS DEPRESSION THE INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES MOST OBVISOULY ARE NOIT ONLY HARMFUL TO THE INDUSTRY INVOLVED BUT LEAD TO ALL AROUND ECNOMICS DESPRESSION. ACLOSURE OF ONE INDUSTRY ALEADS TO THE REDUCTION OF DEMAND OF GOODSS OF OTHER INDUSTRIES OR TRADES. FOR EXAMPLE CLOSURE OF TECTILE INDUSTRY WOULD LEAD TO DRASTIC REDUCTION IN THE DEMAND OF COTTON what is an automation? What are the steps involved in process of automation Answer: Automation (ancient Greek: = self dictated) or industrial automation is the use of computers to control industrial machinery and processes, replacing human operators. It is a step beyond mechanization, where human operators are provided with machinery to help them in their jobs. The most visible part of automation can be said to be industrial robotics. ... The implementation of processes by automatic means; the theory, art or technique of making a process more automatic; the investigation, design, development and application of methods for rendering processes automatic, self-moving or self-controlling; the conversion of a procedure, a process or equipment to automatic operation. • the act of implementing the control of equipment with advanced technology; usually involving electronic hardware; "automation replaces human workers by machines" • the condition of being automatically operated or controlled; "automation increases productivity" • equipment used to achieve automatic control or operation; "this factory floor is a showcase for automation and robotic equipment" Advantage of automation Absolute control of speed and position Repeatability of moves Coordinating multiple piece moves Offline editing and simulation Moving pieces in complicated paths Reduced manual handling Repeating moves indefinitely Automatic safety checking Improved efficiency Safe movement of a single piece controlled Steps involved in process of automation Selection of automation machine First of all for automation we have to select these machines, which are self regulated, and the finished or semi-finished product should be passed out or to next machine without the touch of hand. For example there are machines into which you put a coin and coke bottle or ticket pops out. If the product is in semi-finished stage the next machines lifts it all by itself and does the next process on it. The entire product may be finished by a single machine or may require dozen of ,moré for the purpose. Control of quality After the selection of machine the next step is to decide what product is to be manufactured and what form. Once this is determined the machine is accordingly fitted and the product of uniform quality is produced. Use of computer In earlier technology the automatic machines were looked after by men but now even the control and computers do operation of machines. write a synopsis on the impact of industrialization upon various aspects of society Answer: the important consequences of industrialization in India are as follows Urbanization As a consequences of industrialization the population in the cities has gone up Impact on urbanization The process of industrialization increases the urban population. It is an impact of industrialization that there is progressive rise in the population of cities in India The following are some of the important social influence of urbanization Decline of sociality Decline of social control Decline in family control Decline in the influence of religion Change in the institution of marriage Change in institution of family Change in the condition of women Increase of male ratio Commercializes entertainment House shortage Growth of slums z The economics consequences of industrialization The following are the important consequences in the economics field of industrialization in India Growth of capitalization

Vast production of steel cement, jute, sugar ext. with this avst production India was self sufficient and start even export Growth of trade Division of labour and specialization Economics crisis and unemployment Industrial disputes and accidents Problem of workers Spread of socialism and individualism Class conflict Decline of rural industry

Types of Society

Types of societies are categories of social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies; the way that humans use technology to provide needs for themselves. Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige or power. Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process of social stratification-the division of members of a society into levels with unequal wealth, prestige or power. Sociologists place societies in three broad categories: pre- industrial, industrial, and postindustrial.

Pre-industrial Societies

In a pre-industrial society, food production; which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor; is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural and feudal.

Hunting and Gathering Societies

The main form of food production in such societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts and usually only form small groups such as Bands and Tribes, however some Hunting and Gathering Societies in areas with abundant resources (such as the Tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdoms. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies. They generally consist of fewer than 60 people and rarely exceed 100. Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement. The ties that bind the tribe are more complicated than those of the bands. Leadership is personal-charismatic-and for special purposes only in tribal society; there are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidation for collective action are not governmental. The family forms the main social unit, with most societal members being related by birth or by marriage. This type of organization requires the family to carry out most social functions; including production and education.

Pastoral Societies

Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists live a normadic life, moving their herds from pasture to another. Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations. Since there are food surpluses, fewer people are needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labor; the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities; becomes more complex. For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry. The production of goods encourages trade.This trade helps to create inequality, as some families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their increased wealth. The passing on of property from generation to another helps to centralize wealth and power. In time, hereditary chieftainships; the typical form of government in pastoral societies; emerge. Horticultural Societies

Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. Some horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to raise crops. The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows them to build semipermanent or permanent villages. The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000.

As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor. Specialized roles that are part of horticultural life, include those of craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts. As in pastoral societies, surplus food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural societies; as a result, hereditary chieftainships are prevalent. Economic and political systems are developed because of settled nature of horticultural life.

Agricultural Societies

Agricultural societies use technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies then led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment.

Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agricultural societies. For example, women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they became more subordinate to men. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract goods from the “lesser” persons of society.

Cleric, knight and Peasant; an example of feudal societies Feudal Societies

From the 9th to 15th centuries, feudalism was a form of society based on ownership of land. Unlike today's farmers, vassals under feudalism were bound to cultivating their lord's land. In exchange for military protection, the lords exploited the peasants into providing food, crops, crafts, homage, and other services to the owner of the land. The caste system of feudalism was often multigenerational; the families of peasants may have cultivated their lord's land for generations.

Between the 14th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged that began to replace feudalism. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in which the means of production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign metals, silks, and spices stimulated great commercial activity in Europe.

Tribal Society

According to Ralph Linton tribe is group of bands occupying a contiguous territory or territories having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous similarities in culture ,frequent contacts and a certain community of interests.Ghurye calls the tribal of India as imperfectly segment of the Hindus.D.N Majumdar defines tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation endogamous with no specialization of functions ruled by tribal officers hereditary or otherwise united in language or dialect recognizing social distance with other tribes. A large section of tribal population depends on agriculture for survival.

The examples of agricultural tribes are: Oraons, Mundas, Bhils, Santhals, Baigas, and Hos etc. The Toda furnish classic example of pastoral economy. Their social and economic organization is built around the buffaloes. They obtain their living through exchange.

In some parts of India the tribal people are engaged in shifting cultivation. It is known by different names- Nagas call it Jhum,Bhuiya call it Dahi and Koman ,Maria of Bastar call it Penda, Khond refer to it as Podu and Saiga call it Bewar.Many subsidiary occupations like handicrafts are undertaken in the various tribal zones. These include basket-making, spinning and weaving. For e.g. Tharu depend upon furniture making, musical instruments, weapons, ropes and mats. The Korw and Agaria are well known iron-smelters producing tools for local use. Characteristics of Tribal Society

The tribe inhabits and remains within definite and common topography.The members of a tribe possess a consciousness of mutual unity. The members of a tribe speak a common language. The members generally marry into their own group but now due to increased contact with outsiders there are instances of tribal marring outside as well.

The tribes believe in ties of blood relationship between its members. They have faith in their having descended from a common, real or mythical, ancestor and hence believe in blood relationships with other members. Tribes follow their own political organization which maintains harmony.

Religion is of great importance in the tribe. The tribal political and social organization is based on religion because they are granted religious sanctity and recognition.

Tribal Practices

• Joking relationships prevails in Matrilineal Hopi, Matrilineal Trobriand Islanders,Oraons and Baigas

• prevail among Marquesans and Todas

• Couvade is practiced mainly in Khasi,Toda,Ho and Oraon

• Teknonymy in Khasis

• Ultimogeniture in Khasis

• Uxorilocal in Garos

• Matrilineal societies are present among Moplahs,Hopi,Nayars

• practices tribes are -Todas,Ladaki Botas and Nayars

• Polygamy is found among Eskimo tribes,Crows of North America

• Levirate marriages are found in Ahirs in Haryana,Kodagus of Mysore and Jats and Gujars of UP Profiles of some of the selected Indian tribes

Bhils

• Constitute the largest tribal group in India. • Found mainly in Madhya Pradesh (Jhabua,Dhar,Kahnwa) and east Gujarat.

• Martial race; primarily agriculturalist.

• Badwas are witch finder,Pujaro are priests and Kotwal are drummers,Tadni is village headman.

• Generally endogamous

• Practice polygamy also.

Gonds

• Second largest tribal group in India.

• Dravidian background

• Found mainly in Madhya Pradesh

• Some of the tribal groups are Bastai,Marias,Murias,Prajas,Bhatras

• Dependent mainly on agriculture, cattle rearing second main occupation.

• Divided into exogamous or clans.

• Speak Gondi dialect.

• Lineage is traced through male lines.

Santhals

• Third largest tribal group in India believed to be of Pre-Aryan origin.

• Mainly in Santhal Paraganas of Bihar,West Bengal etc.

• Speak Santhali language.

• Naik is the village priest,Gorait is the messenger,Jogmanjhi is the headmentribal council is Parganait.

• Singlonga or Sun God is the main deity.

Todas

• Found mainly in Nilgiri Hills of South India. • Classic example of polyandry.

• Call themselves Tora

• Badaga,Kota,Kurumbaand Irula tribes

• The word Toda is derived from Tundra, name of sacred tree of Topdas.

• Divided into two moieties called Taratharal and Teivaloil.These are endogamous units.All the sacred herd and cattle are owned by Tartharal thus they occupy a higher status.

• The clans are divided into families locally known as Kudupeli.

• Fraternal polyandry found.

• Divorce freely allowed.

• Todas have classificatory type of kinship calling many relatives or friends by some designation.

• Females have low status.

• People are governed by council of five elders called as Naim.Three members of this council come from Tarthar clans,two from Teivali clans and one from Badagas.

• Two of the main deities are Teikirizi and On.

Chenchu

• Mainly found in on the river .

• They are mostly settled cultivators and very much influenced by neighboring plains people.

• They speak dialect of Dravidian origin.

• Now they have started living in semi-permanent huts.

• They are divided into exogamous clans and have animal .

• Divorce is common.

• Chenchus have traditional leader Peddamanshi.

• Bhaivov and Garelamaisama are popular local deities.

Khasis • One of the matriarchial tribes of world.

• Have a rich economy influenced by industrialization and urbanization.

• They are mainly in Jaintia hills of Assam.

• Divided into four main sub-groups- Khynrian,Pnar,War and Bhoi.

• They speak a dialect that belongs to the Mon- Khmer branch of Austric family.

• Each of the sub-tribes is divided into a number of clans known as Kurs.

• Marriage within the clan is prohibited.

• Khasis are characterized by matrilineal descent.

• The clan is further sub-divided into sub class known as kpoh (composed of descendents of one grandmother.

Phases of Human Development

Agrarian Society

The invention of plough marked the beginning of agrarian societies 6000 years back. According to Collins dictionary of Sociology Agrarian society refer to any form of society especially so traditional societies primarily based on agricultural and craft production rather than industrial production.

Wallace and Wallace describe agrarian societies as employing animal drawn ploughs to cultivate the land. The mode of production of the agrarian society that is cultivation distinguishes it from the hunter-gatherer society which produces none of its food. The theories of Redfield and Tonnies are considered important.

Robert Redfield talks about folk-urban continuum and little tradition and great tradition as his paramount focus in rural studies.Tonnies on the other hand discuss concepts of Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft. characteristics of Agricultural societies

Cultivation of land through the plough as this invention enabled the people to make a great leap forward in food production. It increased the productivity of land through the use of animals and bringing to the surface the nutrients of the soil.

Combining irrigation techniques with the use of the plough increased the productivity and the crop yield. It also brought fallow land under cultivation. The size of the agricultural societies increased as it lessened the burden of large number of people who engaged themselves in other activities. Agricultural societies lead to the establishment of more elaborate political institutions like formalized government bureaucracy assisted by the legal system.

It also leads to the evolution of distinct social classes -those who own the land and those who work on the other's land. Land is the major source of wealth and is individually owned. This creates major difference between the social strata. Agricultural societies provide the basis for the establishment of economic institutions.

Trade becomes more elaborate and money is medium of exchange. It also demands the maintenance of records of transaction, crop harvest, taxation, governmental rules and regulations. Religion becomes separate institution with elaborate rituals and traditions. The agricultural societies support the emergence of arts and cultural artifacts due to surplus food production people tend to divert their attention to other recreational activities. There is far more complex social structure.

According to Ian Robertson the number of statuses multiplies, population size increases, cities appear, new institutions emerge, social classes arise, political and economic inequality becomes inbuilt into the social structure and culture becomes much more diversified and heterogeneous.

Industrial Society

The Industrial mode of production began some 250 years ago in Britain and from there it spread to the entire world. In the simplest sense an industrial society is a social system whose mode of production focuses primarily on finished goods manufactured with the aid of machinery.

According to Wallace and Wallace in industrial societies the largest portion of the labour force is involved in mechanized production of goods and services. The term 'industrial societies' originated from Saint Simon who chose it to reflect the emerging central role of manufacturing industry in the 18th century Europe in contrast with previous pre-industrial and agrarian society.

Post-Industrial Society

The concept of Post-Industrial society was first formulated in 1962 by D. Bell, and subsequently elaborated in his seminal work 'Coming of Post Industrial Society' (1974) It describes the economic and social changes in the late twentieth century.

According to Bell in modern societies theoretical knowledge forms the 'axial principle of society and is the source of innovation and policy formulation. In economy this is reflected in the decline of goods production and manufacturing as the main form of economic activity, to be replaced by services.

With regard to the class structure, the new axial principle fosters the supremacy of professional and technical occupations which constitute a new class, in all spheres economic, political and social decision making is influenced by new intellectual technologies and the new intellectual class.

Other writers have also commented on the growing power of technocrats in economic and political life. G.K. Galbraith ( 1967) believes that power in the United states economy and therefore in American society as a whole lies in the hands of a technical bureaucracy of the techno-structure of large corporations, A Jouraine (1969) suggests similar technocratic control of French economic and political life.

Race

The term 'race' is often used loosely to indicate groups of men differing in appearance; language or colour. To some race means a nationality or all of humanity. Some even define race as the group which is mixed in nearly all aspects but socially designated as different.

Race is scientifically defined as a group of people possessing the same biological inheritance, identified on the basis of external physical characteristics. Thus shape of head, color of the hair, eyes, skin etc are some of the physical characteristics which are taken into account in determining race.

Race is a biological concept but in course of time the members of a particular race develop a kind of consciousness. This race consciousness becomes a sociological phenomenon and it has an impact on social relations.

The earliest classification of race was suggested by Huxley in 1870 who gave four principle types of classifications:

• Negroid • Australoid • Xanthochroid • Melanochroid

According to Maclver and Page the term race when properly used refers to a biological category. It refers to human states that owe their differences from one another specially their physiological differences to a remote separation of ancestry.

Franz Boas defined race as a scientific concept applies only to the biological groupings of human types. Horton and Hunt defined race as a group of people somewhat different from other groups in a combination of inherited physical characteristics.

Ralph Linton, an American anthropologist made a three-fold classification in The Study of Man. According to him the subdivision of Homo sapiens are breeds, races and stocks. Today breeds are encountered rather infrequently in some small primitive tribes or in some isolated mountains, though variants exist in such a group. A race consists of a number of breeds which share certain physical characteristics. The individuals constituting a race will have fewer characteristics in common than those making up a breed. A stock includes a number of races and of course its members will share even fewer characteristics. Major races in the world:

Usually mankind is divided into three major racial stocks-the Caucasoid, the Mongoloid and the Negroid.

Determinants of Race:

Physical traits are examined to determine the race but sometimes it becomes difficult to tell whether the differences of traits are hereditary or environmental. Attributes such as weight, color of skin can be greatly modified by the environment. So the determinants can be definite as well as indefinite.

Definite: stature, structure of head, structure of nose, blood group, length of hands and feet and perimeter of chest.

Indefinite: Color of skin, texture and color of the hair and structure and color of the eyes.

Races in India

Sir Herbert Risley classified the Indian population into seven racial types. The three fundamental races are - Dravidian, Mongoloid and Indo-Aryan. Four secondary races- Cytho-Dravidian, Aryo-Dravidian, Mongolo-Dravidian and Pre-Dravidian.

Though one of the major racial stocks the Negroid was not present in Risley's classification, J.H Hutton is of the view that Negrito races were the original occupants of India. The latest classification of the Indian people is made by Hutton, Guha and Majumdar.Guha lists six main races with nine subtypes:

1. The negrito 2. The Proto-Australoid 3. The Mongoloid- Palaeo -Mongoloids,Tibeto-Mongoloids 4. The Mediterranean- Palaeo-Mediterranean,Mediterranean,Oriental 5. The Western Brachycephalis- Alpiniod,Dinaric,Armenoid 6. The Nordic

Guha has summed up his conclusions as regards the racial composition of tribal India in 1952.

1. The Kadar,the Irula and the Paniyan of South Indian with frizzly hair have an undoubted Negrito strain. 2. The tribes of Middle India belong to the Proto-Australoid group 3. The Brachycephalic Mongoloids of North Eastern India with typical features of the face and eye. 4. A slightly different Mongoloid type with medium stature, high head and medium nose living in Brahmaputra valley.

Majumdar expresses fundamental disagreement with the support of an ancient negrito-strain theory. There is no evidence in support of a Negrito racial stock in India.

Culture and Race

Differences in physical characteristics among people belonging to different races are often confused with differences in culture and behaviour.When the term race is used it combines a set of unrelated features such as physical characteristics,language,religion,cultural traditions and behavior patterns which differentiate a given people from others.

Furthermore there is invariably an implicit value judgment in this sense of the term. Some races are regarded as being naturally and inherently superior to the others. This is a wrong view. There is no necessary connection between race, language, culture and nationality. Racial features are largely determined by genetic and biological factors whereas culture and languages are learnt, acquired and transmitted through training and education. Race prejudice is based on false and irrational premise.

Economic Development

Economic development is the development of economic wealth of countries or regions for the well-being of their inhabitants. Public policy generally aims at continuous and sustained economic growth and expansion of national economies so that developing countries become developed countries. The economic development process supposes that legal and institutional adjustments are made to give incentives for innovation and for investments so as to develop an efficient production and distribution system for goods and service.

Economic System of Simple Societies

Herbert Spencer has defined simple society as one which forms a simple working whole unsubjected to any other and of which the parts cooperate for certain public ends. Simple societies have low division of labour.The occupational differentiation being limited primarily to birth, sex and age. These societies have no specialized economic organization.

The productive skills are simple and productivity is low therefore these societies cannot sustain large population size. Most of the adult members are engaged in food gathering activities.

There is little or no surplus so the social inequalities are not significant and economic interaction takes place within egalitarian frame-work.

The production system is simple but exchange of goods and services assume a complex form. The forms of exchange are reciprocal and redistributive type. Some of the simple societies inhabiting regions having abundant food and other resources indulge in conspicuous consumption.

The members lack high degree of achievement motivation as there is neither any intense preoccupation on generation and accumulation of economic surplus.Infact most economic activities emphasize on giving rather than storing or accumulation. Private ownership of means of production is non-existent.

There is no clear separation between domestic economy and community economy as they overlap to varying degrees. The economic system is dominated by sacred consisting of - religious ideas.

The innovation is rare and change is slow. The customary practices and norms regulate production and exchange of goods and services.

Some Forms of Simple Economic Exchange

Barter system: It is direct form of exchange whether in return for services or goods.

Silent trade: It was an exchange system where the exchanging parties do not know each other personally.

Jajmani system: It is system of economic and social relationship existing between various castes in villages. The patron is known as jajman and the service castes are known as kamin.It is still prevalent in villages.

Ceremonial exchange: It is a type of social system in which goods are given to relatives and friends on various social occasions. The main idea is to establish cordial relations between the various social groups.

Potlatch: This term means gift. It is meant as a public distribution of goods made to establish certain claims of the giver and the recipients. It is based on the principle of reciprocity. Through this system the host declares his status to others.

Multicentric economy: It is an economy using several media of exchange.

Kula: According to Malinowski it is a ceremonial exchange participated by the inhabitants of a closed circle of Trobriand Island. It has no practical or commercial value. The system of exchange is regulated in a kind of ring with two directional movements. In clockwise direction,the red shell necklaces called Soulava circulate and in anticlockwise circulation the white arm shells known as Mwali circulate among the members of the Kula.Objects given and taken in Kula are never subjected any bargaining. Economic System of Complex Societies

The complex societies have high degree of division of labor and consequently structural differentiation. Thus economic activity constitutes a specialized activity taking place in special institution framework and distinguishable from other types of social activity e.g. factories, banks and markets are some of the distinct economic activities.

High division of labor implies advanced skills which help in high productivity. The economic organization can easily sustain a large population.

Complex societies due to their high productivity generate huge surplus. They can support conspicuous consumption. Market exchange is the pivotal form of exchange and money is the universal medium of exchange.

The members of the complex societies have high achievement motivation and the economic behavior is characterized by an intense preoccupation with generation and accumulation of surplus.

There exist a clear distinction between domestic economy and community economy. The domestic units are the units of consumption and supply the manpower to the community economy. The production of goods and services takes place in the larger units which form part of the community economy.

These societies are characterized by the high level of scientific and technological advancements. Economic activity is perceived in secular terms and is based on practical rationality.

High degree of specialization, rapidity of change, predominance of practical and excessive mechanization of production leads to a state of anomie in society and alienate the worker from the product of his labour.

Market Economy

Market or Free economy is characterized by a system in which the allocation of resources is determined by supply and demand in the market. Both the production and distribution is determined by the market forces to ensure competition and efficiency .It has an effect on the traditional families as a result of monetisation and market economy the different members of the family contribute to the family income and increased the avenues for social mobility. Their is rapid growth of industries in which the employee-employer relations are based on contractual relations.

Work has become the commodity which is exchanged for wages. Expansion of markets has increased the volume of trade and commerce facilitating the integration of the country. Growth of economy leads to occupational diversification and increasing specialization of occupations which in turn has created a demand for educational institutions to provide specialized training.

Due to industrialization and expansion of market economy in urban areas leads to consumption oriented life-style. Market economy governed by supply and demand is inherently unstable. This leads to anomie which is characteristic of urban life. Inflation also poses constant threat to instability in the urban markets.

Planned Economy

A planned economy is an economic system in which decisions about the production, allocation and consumption of goods and services is planned ahead of time, in either a centralized or decentralized fashion. Since most known planned economies rely on plans implemented by the way of command, they have become widely known as command economies.

The government takes the initiative and set the goals and targets to be followed by the market forces. The state intervention is limited to formulation of plan and adoption of indirect controls. The private sector becomes partner in the formulation of a plan and responsible for its implementation.

Features of Planned Economy

Target settings for different sectors of economy that determine the supply. It is a type of economy in which some central authority makes a wide range of decisions pertaining to production and wages. The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state (which, in turn, may be decided by the people through a democratic process). Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern.

For example, many modern societies fail to develop certain medicines and vaccines which are seen by medical companies as being unprofitable, but by social activists as being necessary for public health. The state can begin building a heavy industry at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing. Second, a planned economy can maximize the continuous utilization of all available resources. This means that planned economies do not suffer from a buisness cycle.

Under a planned economy, neither unemployment nor idle production facilities should exist beyond minimal levels, and the economy should develop in a stable manner, unimpeded by inflation or recession. A planned economy can serve social rather than individual ends: under such a system, rewards, whether wages or perquisites, are to be distributed according to the social value of the service performed. A planned economy eliminates the dependence of production on individual profit motives, which may not in themselves provide for all society's needs.

Social Determinants of Economic Development

Economic development implies two things: Economic growth which leads to increase in production and generation of income and equitable distribution of this income among the population to improve the quality of life. Although economic development does not necessarily imply industrialization there is no historical precedent for substantial increase in percapita income without diversion of both capital and labour from agriculture. Economic development is synonymous with industrialization.

Economic development is very much influenced by various social factors. Nation states are created with common language and culture. Economic development of any country hinges on the efficient employment of factors of production such as labour, land, capital and organization. There is commercialization of production with monetization of economy. The employment of factors of production is conditioned by cultural and social factors.

The people must have the required ability, experience and knowledge to make the best use of the facilities that are made available. There is decline of the proportion of the working population engaged in agriculture. The technology plays very important role when appropriate social conditions are present. There is trend towards urbanization of society with growth of scientific knowledge.

A new value system emerges which emphasis individual initiative and responsibility and enables the individual to function without any control. The exclusiveness of clan, kin or caste breaks down and provides norms of behavior suited to the secondary group type of relationship characteristic of an industrial society. There is widespread spread of education. The social stratification emerges based on achievement criteria and permitting occupational mobility. Concept of property

Property refers to the rights that the owner of the object has in relation to others who are not owners of the object. Property rights are backed by the state and enforced through its legal institutions. According to Morris Ginsberg property may be described as the set of rights and obligations which define the relations between individuals or groups in respect of their control over material things or persons treated as things.

Kingsley Davis defines property as consisting of rights and duties of one person or group as against all other persons and groups with respect to some scarce good. It is thus exclusive for it sets off what is mine from what is thine but it is also social being rooted in custom and protected by law.

Man, Nature and Social Production

Man according to Marx is a creative being .He with his labor acts upon the nature and tries to change it. Man can never get satisfied with the existing conditions and always look out for a change. Work provides the most important and vital means for man to fulfill his basic needs, his individuality and humanity. Man uses his labor which is the essence of human being.

In the process of acting upon nature with the help of his labor and transforming it for his benefit man gets satisfaction. At this stage his work becomes a fully satisfying activity, encompassing both himself and the community of fellow human beings. Work through an individual activity becomes a social activity as well. In the process of acting upon nature man gets involved in interaction process with other human beings and gradually society moves towards the stage of complexity. In the process man engages himself in social production.

All type of relationships and institutions emerge in society in this process with the economic process as infrastructure and other sub systems including culture, religion etc as super structure. According to Marx without culture there can be no production possible. The mode of production includes the social relations of production which are relations of domination and subordination into which human beings are either born or enter involuntarily. Class is an economic as well as cultural formation. Thus human beings are also in the process of social production which is a very wide concept including almost all the subsystems of society, culture, religion, economic production etc.

The interaction between man and nature produce significant consequences as in his social production man is in constant touch with the nature.Maclver writes that the revelation of the manner in which the environment mold itself and modified by the life of the group is one of the achievements of the social sciences. The relationship between physical environment and social phenomena has been of particular interest for sociologists leading to development of ecological school stimulated by investigation of R.E Park and E.W Burgess at the University of Chicago.

Indian Type of Market Economy

• Planning Commission advocates the continuance and effectiveness of Public sector and people participation.

• Some of the industries and sectors are open to private sector giving greater autonomy.

• Economic reforms pushed the nation from the planned economy to market economy.

• New Economic Policy came up in 1991.

• There is disinvestment of the PSUs, liberalization, privatization and globalization.

• Still India is not full market oriented economy as some key sectors are still with Govt.

• Planning in India derives its objectives from Directive Principles of State Policy.

Main Features of Indian Planning

• Indian model between capitalist and socialist.

• Indian is the mixed economy where the emphasis is on macro-economic planning.

• Democratic socialism

• Social gain as the main criterion rather private profit. • India is signatory of WTO and also has some commitment with some regional groups like European Union, ASEAN,APEC ,SAPTA etc.

Theoretical Concepts

Karl Marx

Karl Marx has distinguished between different types of societies on basis of economic system. These are primitive communism, ancient slave production, feudalism and capitalism, socialism and communism. A man is both the producer and product of society.

Marx's analysis of history is based on his distinction between the means/forces of production literally those things, such as land, natural resources, and technology, that are necessary for the production of material goods, and the relations of production in other words, the social and technical relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production. Together these comprise the mode of production.

Marx observed that within any given society the mode of production changes, and that European societies had progressed from a feudal mode of production to a capitalist mode of production. Marx did not understand classes as purely subjective. He sought to define classes in terms of objective criteria, such as their access to resources.For Marx, different classes have divergent interests, which is another source of social disruption and conflict.

Marx was especially concerned with how people relate to that most fundamental resource of all, their own labour power.Marx wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation. For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour - one's capacity to transform the world - is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss.

Marx described this loss in terms of commodity fetchism, in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behavior merely adapt. This disguises the fact that the exchange and circulation of commodities really are the product and reflection of social relationships among people.

Under capitalism, social relationships of production, such as among workers or between workers and capitalists, are mediated through commodities, including labor, that are bought and sold on the market.According to Marx, a capitalist mode of production developed in Europe when labor itself became a commodity - when peasants became free to sell their own labor-power, and needed to do so because they no longer possessed their own land or tools necessary to produce. People sell their labor-power when they accept compensation in return for whatever work they do in a given period of time (in other words, they are not selling the product of their labor, but their capacity to work). In return for selling their labor power they receive money, which allows them to survive. Those who must sell their labor power to live are "proletariat. The person who buys the labor power, generally someone who does own the land and technology to produce, is a "capitalist" or "bourgeoise. The capitalist mode of production is capable of tremendous growth because the capitalist can, and has an incentive to, reinvest profits in new technologies. Marx considered the capitalist class to be the most revolutionary in history, because it constantly revolutionized the means of production.

Max Weber

Max Weber formulated a three component theory of social stratification with social clas,status class and party class (or political class) as conceptually distinct elements.Social class is based on economically determined relationship to the market (owner, employee etc.). Status class is based on non-economical qualities like honour, prestige and religion. Party class refers to affiliations in the political domain. All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances".According to Weber there are two sources of power.One is derived from constellation of interests that develop in a free market and the other is from an established system of authority that allocates the right to command and the duty to obey.

Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim sees division of labour in terms of social process.He has tried to determine the social consequences of the division of labour in the modern societies.He has made a fundamental difference between pre-industrial and industrial societies and also made difference between two types of solidarity- mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity.Mechanical solidarity prevails in simple folk societies where division of labour is restricted to family,village or small region.

Here individuals do not differ much from one other and follow the same set of norms,beliefs etc.Organic solidarity holds the moden societies together with a bond.Here societies are large and people are engaged in variety of economic activities.They hold different values and socialize their children in varying patterns.The conditions of the modern society compel division of labour to reach the extreme level.This extreme form of division of labour leads to feeling of individualism or anomie.

Anomie according to Durkheim refers to a state of normlessness in both the society and the individual.It is a social condition characterised by the breakdown of norms governing social interaction.People feel detached from their fellows having little commitment to shared norms people lack social guidelines for personal conduct.They are inclined to pursue their private interests without regard for the interests of society as a whole.

Karl Polyani

According to economist Karl Polanyi, the three principles of exchange are market principle, redistribution, and reciprocity. The market principle describes the buying and selling of goods and services based on the laws of supply and demand (things cost more the scarcer they are and the more people want them), and often involves bargaining. It is associated with industrial societies and involves a complex division of labor and central government.

In redistribution, products move from the local level to a hierarchical center, are reorganized, and sent back down to the local level. Redistribution is the main form of exchange in chiefdoms and some industrial states, and works with the market system. Polyani identifies reciprocity of three kinds: generalized, balanced, or negative. Generalized reciprocity involves an exchange between closely related people in which the giver expects nothing concrete or immediate in return.

It is not necessarily classified as altruism, but resembles sharing by social contract. Generalized reciprocity is demonstrated by most egalitarian forager groups including the !Kung people, who do not say thank you upon receiving gifts because it is expected that at a later time, the act of goodwill will be reciprocated. It is also shown in most cases between parents and children.

Another form of reciprocity is balanced reciprocity, in which the social distance between giver and recipient increases relative to generalized reciprocity. It involves an exchange outside the immediate family, and the giver expects something in return in the future, but not immediately. If there is no reciprocation, the relationship between the two parties will be strained.

The third kind of reciprocity is negative reciprocity, which is an exchange relationship in which parties do not trust each other and are strangers. The giving must be reciprocated immediately and there is very little communication, if any, between groups. Each group is trying to maximize its economic benefit, but eventually friendly relationships between the groups may develop.

An example of negative reciprocity is the Mbuti Pygmy foragers of Africa, who exchange with villagers in neighboring groups in silent trade in which they place the items for exchange on the ground, then hide at a distance and wait for the other group to make an offer of their goods. Bartering may continue back and forth, but no direct contact is made between groups. Potlatching among the Kwakitul of Washington and British Columbia can be classified in the category of redistribution.

Things to remember

• R.K Merton coined the concept of the Bureaucratic Personality.

• W.Rostow identified stages or the categories within which all societies could be placed economically.

• Berger and Luckmann hold that there is a reciprocal interdependence of individuals and society in creating social reality.

• Karl Marx and Frederich Engels have put forward materialist variant of the evolutionary theory.

• Parsons has given the theory of leisure class. He has given Functional Imperatives comprising of adaptation, goal attainment, integration and latency.

• Weber has given the concept of booty capitalism meaning a system in which wealth was acquired by the financing of wars in the expectation of booty.

• Seeman isolated the concept of alienation into powerlessness, meaninglessness, isolation and self-estrangement.

• Lenin has said that state is a special repressive force of the proletariate by the bourgeoisie of millions of workers by handful of rich.

• Weber wrote the book- The Economy and Society.

• Veblen gave the concept of conspicuous consumption.

• Karl Marx wrote the book -First Indian War of Independence.

• Simmel wrote the book-the philosophy of money in 1900.

• Karl Polyani gave the concepts of embedded economy and the principles of exchange.

• Max Weber in his concept of protestant ethic wrote that it was the decisive factor in the emergence of modern capitalism.

• According to Emile Durkheim division of labour in modern society is the principal source of social cohesion or social solidarity.

• Mitchell remarked that both material rewards and prestige are accorded differentially so that both integrative and functions are served.

• Lambert and Hoselitz commented that the sum spent on marriage and death ceremonies in India could have increased investment by more 50%.

• Hobhouse observed that property is to be conceived in terms of the control of men over things.

• According to Mckee economic activity is closely involved in the distribution of status and prestige.

Rural - Urban Continuum

Some sociologists have used the concept of rural-urban continuum to stress the idea that there are no sharp breaking points to be found in the degree or quantity of rural urban differences. Robert Redfield has given the concept of rural -urban continuum on the basis of his study of Mexican peasants of Tepoztlain.The rapid process of urbanization through the establishment of industries, urban traits and facilities have decreased the differences between villages and cities.

There are some sociologists whose treat rural-urban as dichotomous categories have differentiated the two at various levels including occupational differences, environmental differences, differences in the sizes of communities, differences in the density of population, differences in social mobility and direction of migration, differences in social stratification and in the systems of social interaction. A third view regarding rural and urban communities has been given by Pocock who believe that both village and city are elements of the same civilization and hence neither rural urban dichotomy, nor continuum is meaningful. M.S.A. Rao points out in the Indian context that although both village and town formed part of the same civilization characterized by institution of kinship and caste system in pre-British India, there were certain specific institutional forms and organizational ways distinguishing social and cultural life in towns form that in village.

Thus, according to Rao, Rural Urban continuum makes more sense.

Ghurye believes that urbanization is migration of people from village to city and the impact it has on the migrants and their families.

Maclver remarks that though the communities are normally divided into rural and urban the line of demarcation is not always clear between these two types of communities. There is no sharp demarcation to tell where the city ends and country begins. Every village possesses some elements of the city and every city carries some features of the village.

R.K Mukherjee prefers the continuum model by talking of the degree of urbanization as a useful conceptual tool for understanding rural-urban relations.

P.A Sorokin and Zimmerman in 'Principles of Rural-Urban sociology have stated that the factors distinguishing rural from urban communities include occupation, size and density of population as well as mobility, differentiation and stratification.

Urban Sociological Theories

• The classical theories of urban sociology are divided from the works of European sociologists like KarlMarx, Tonnies, George Simmel, Max Weber and those of American namely Park Burgess, Lowis Wirth and Redfield. • The reflections of the earlier sociologists throw light on the anti-urban feelings. The great city, metropolis a paradigm of an inhuman, debasing social environment for Tonnies.Simmel felt that the money economy of the cities destroyed the social life. • Weber and Wirth explained how mass urbanization nullified opportunities or political participation. Charles Booth and Rowntree wrote the sociography of life in the cities. • Marx and Engels condemned the consequences of urbanization under capitalism. They viewed the concentration and misery of the mass of workers in the new urban agglomerations as a necessary stage in the creation of a revolutionary force. For them pauperization and material degradation was one aspect of urbanization but equally important was the destruction of the social nexus of the traditional community and its replacement by the utilitarian world of the city. Both for theory and practice communism depended on urbanism. • Mumford in his book 'The city in history' sees cities as enlarging all dimensions of life as the scattered as the scattered activities of society are brought together so releasing the energies of mankind in a tremendous explosion of . The city has augmented capabilities for participation and widened the basis of personal experience. • In the writings of Neo-Marxists like Mills, Marcuse, Fromm there is a consensus that conditions of capitalist urbanization are mutilative of the personality, inhibitive of community formation, destructive of social engagement or involvement and conducive to apathy, alienation and anomie. Class consciousness is inhibited and diverted in mass movements, unreason and not reason typifies social response. • Sociologists from Tonnies to Wirth developed counter-theory to Marxism for the explication of social change led to acceptance of a fundamental cleavage between rural and urban, tradition and modernism which was in sharp opposition to any variant on Marxist theories of developement.The urban is accepted as a frame of reference and the urban society as a specific mode of social organization becomes the object of scientific study. • Tonnies in his book Community and Society explained the impact of the market economy on traditional forms of social association; the implications of urbanization and the development of the state for the conduct of social life and the mechanisms of social solidarity in an individualized society. The distinction he draws between the two forms of human association, gemeniscaft and gesellschaft has become the basis for a succession of typologies of which the best known are the pattern variables formulated by Parsons and folk-urban typology drawn by Redfield and Wirth. • George Simmel presents social interaction in terms of abstract categories. The study of society could only proceed by means of logical analysis of the forms of association. The forms are cognitive categories.Simmel belonged to the neo-Kantian tradition which frankly denies the possibility of the study of the natural or the social world without selection and ordering by the observer.Simmel was trying to expound on three themes; first the consequences of a money economy for social relationships. Second the significance of numbers for social life and lastly the scope for the maintenance of independence and individuality against the sovereign powers of society. • Max Weber in his 'The City' has defined the city on the basis of political and administrative conception. To constitute a full urban community a settlement must display a relative predominance of trade- commercial relations with the settlement as a whole displaying the following features: - fortification - market - a court of its own and at least partially autonomous law - a related form of association - partial autonomy and voting rights. Weber rejects cities governed by religious groups or where the authority is enforced on personal rather than universalistic basis. He recounts a process in which the development of the rational- legal institutions that characterize the modern city enabled the individual to be free from the traditional groups and therefore develop his individuality. He emphasizes the closure, autonomy and separateness of the urban community and stressed that the historical peculiarities of the medieval city were due to the location of the city with in the total medieval political and social organization.

Urban Growth and Urbanization

Urbanization is the movement of population from rural to urban areas and the resulting increasing proportion of a population that resides in urban rather than rural places. It is derived from the Latin 'Urbs' a term used by the Romans to a city. Urban sociology is the sociology of urban living; of people in groups and social relationship in urban social circumstances and situation.

Thompson Warren has defined it as the movement of people from communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities generally larger whose activities are primarily centered in government, trade, manufacture or allied interests. Urbanization is a two- way process because it involves not only movement from village to cities and change from agricultural occupation to business, trade, service and profession but it also involves change in the migrants attitudes, beliefs, values and behavior patterns.

The process of urbanization is rapid all over the world. The facilities like education, healthcare system, employment avenues, civic facilities and social welfare are reasons attracting people to urban areas. The census of India defines some criteria for urbanization. These are:

• Population is more than 5000 • The density is over 400 persons per sq.km • 75% of the male population engages in non-agricultural occupations. • Cities are urban areas with population more than one lakh. • Metropolises are cities with population of more than one million.

Urbanism

Urbanism is a way of life. It reflects an organization of society in terms of a complex division of labour, high levels of technology, high mobility, interdependence of its members in fulfilling economic functions and impersonality in social relations. Louis Wirth has given four characteristics of urbanism

• Transiency: An urban inhabitant's relation with others last only for a short time; he tends to forget his old acquaintances and develop relations with new people. Since he is not much attached to his neighbors members of the social groups, he does not mind leaving them. • Superficiality: An urban person has the limited number of persons with whom he interacts and his relations with them are impersonal and formal. People meet each other in highly segmental roles. They are dependent on more people for the satisfaction of their life needs. • Anonymity: Urbanities do not know each other intimately. Personal mutual acquaintance between the inhabitants which ordinarily is found in a neighborhood is lacking. • Individualism: People give more importance to their own vested interests.

Town

The town is intermediate between rural and urban communities. It is too large for all inhabitants to be acquainted with one another, yet small enough for informal relationships to predominate. Social behavior more closely resembles the rural than the metropolitan city pattern. Towns are places with population of 5,000 and more. Three conditions of a place being classified as a town are: • The population is more than 5,000. • The density is not less than 400 sq.km. • Not less than 75% of the adult male population is engaged in non -agricultural activities.

City

Cities become possible when an agricultural surplus develops together with improved means of transportation and tend to be located at breaks in transportation. The most significant current developments in city structure are the metropolitan area including the suburb which accounts for current population growth.

The city pulls people from various corners towards its nucleus. The rural people faced with various economic problems are attracted by the city and start moving towards the cities. The city provides ample opportunities for personal advancement. It is the centre of brisk economic, commercial, artistic, literary, political, educational, technological, scientific and other activities.

Cities are not only the controlling centers of their societies but also the source of innovation and change. They act as the source of new ideas for production, the pace -setters for consumption, guardians of culture and conservers of order in society. Consensus and continuity in a society are maintained from the city centres.Urban culture has become the legitimation for control.

Walter Christaller explained the location of urban cities in terms of their functions as service centres.The basic assumption was that a given rural area supports an urban centre which in turn serves the surrounding countryside. There are smaller towns for smaller areas and bigger cities for larger regions. This concept permitted Christaller to build up an integrated system of cities according to their size.

His views conceiving a city as a central place within a rural area was elaborated by Edward L.Ullman with considerable modifications. He admits the vulnerability of the scheme for larger places. In highly industrialized areas the central place schemes is generally distorted by industrial concentration in response to resources and transportation that it may be said to have little significance as an explanation for urban location and distribution.

Hyot in his sector theory talked about the growth of cities taking place in sectors and these sectors extend from the centre to periphery.

The concentric zone theory given by Park and Burgess suggested that modern cities consisted of a series of concentric zones. There are five such zones

• Central business district • Zone in transition • Zone of working population • Residential zone • Commuter's zone

Gans and Lewis through compositional theory hold that the composition of a city's population differs from that of a small town in terms of factors such as class, education, ethnicity and marital status.

Multiple Nuclie theory given by Harris and Ullman discuss that there is not one centre but several centers for the city. Each of the centers tend to specialize in a particular kind of activity- retailing, wholesaling, finance, recreation, education,government.Several centers may have existed from the beginning of the city or many have developed later in a division from one centre.

According to Castells to understand cities and urbanism one has to understand the process by which spatial forms are created and transformed. The architecture of cities expresses the struggles and conflicts between different groups in society. City is not only a distinct location but also as an integral part of processes of collective consumption.

Features of Urban Society i. The urban society is heterogeneous known for its diversity and complexity. ii. It is dominated by secondary relations. iii. Formal means of social control such as law, legislation, police, and court are needed in addition to the informal means for regulating the behavior of the people. iv. The urban society is mobile and open. It provides more chances for social mobility. The status is achieved than ascribed. v. Occupations are more specialized. There is widespread division of labor and specialization opportunities for pursuing occupations are numerous. vi. Family is said to be unstable. More than the family individual is given importance. Joint families are comparatively less in number. vii. People are more class -conscious and progressive .They welcome changes. They are exposed to the modern developments in the fields of science and technology. viii. Urban community is a complex multigroup society. ix. The urban community replaced consensus by dissensus.The social organization is atomistic and illdefined.It is characterized by disorganization, mental illness and anomie. x. Mass education is widespread in the city increasing democratization of the organizations and institutions demand formal education.

Features of Industrial City • A large sprawling open city housing a large percent of the population of the society. Relatively low segregation; few outward symbols, segregation based on race. Good transportation and communication.

• A manufacturing, finance and coordinating centre of an industrial society.

• A fluid class structure with an elite of businessmen, professionals and scientists.

• A large middle class with technologically related jobs.

• Wealth by salaries, fees, investment.High status of business activity. Unionization at a national level. Specialization of production and marketing .Large service sector, fixed price.

• Time important and regular work schedule.

• Standardization of process and quality.

• Formal public opinion with a bureaucracy based on technical criteria.

• A weak religious institution separate from other institutions dominated by the middle class. Standardization of marked by the disappearance of magic.

• Technical and secular education for the masses.

Urban Ecological Processes

It means whereby spatial distribution of people and activities change. They include:

• Centralization clustering of economic and service functions.

• Concentration tendency of people and activities to cluster together.

• Decentralization flight of people and activities from the centre of the city.

• Invasion entrance of new kind of people or activity into an area.

• Segregation concentration of a certain type of people or activities within a particular area.

• Succession completed replacement of one kind of people or activity by another.

Impact of Automation on Society

• It speeds up the developmental processes of the society. • It increases production.

• Brings further technological changes like information technology.

• Extreme industrialization

• Replacement of human labor with machines.

• Increase in profit margins

• Distance reduction through technological advancements in the field of communication network.

• Makes life dependent on latest gizmos and equipments.

Disadvantages

• Norms and values take backseat.

• Turns human beings into alienated beings.

• Social distance between the people within a society and diminishing impact on the primary relations.

• Increase in problem of unemployment.

• Increasing gap between rich and poor will lead to social inequalities.

• Will affect the relations of people within the society.

Environment

When physical, chemical and biological projects of the different components of environment: air, water, soil, noise change to the detriment of living of humans it may be said that environment has been affected. Many developing countries are placing more and more reliance on industrialization. It is not only a mechanical but also a social process. Therefore it affects the environment physically as well as socio-culturally.

All aspects of pollution are directly or indirectly related to human health and well being. The excessive growth and rush of people from villages to urban areas resulting in over crowding of cities. Rapid urbanization and industrialization have led to an increase in environmental pollutant load that poses serious public health problem.

It also affects the socio-cultural environment with the close ties of groups coming under pressure. Traditional ties are replaced with new work based ones. Religion becomes secular. Thus industrialization affects the social fabric making the society more materialistic. Terms • First urban revolution: The historical emergence of cities and urbanism.

• Urbanism: The pattern of behaviour, relationships and modes of thought characteristic of urban life.

• Sociological city: A relatively large dense permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous persons.

• Geographic city: The continuously built-up area in and around the legal city.

• Legal city: A municipal corporation occupying a defined geographical area subject to a legal control of the state.

• Second urban revolution: The historical transformation of a city accomplished by the industrial revolution which turned the city into an industrial centre.

• Metropolis: The legal city together with the built up area surrounding it.

• Third urban revolution: The urbanization of the entire world population but sometimes specifically used to include the special form of city emerging in the developing nations and the growth of megalopolitan forms of super cities.

• Suburbanization: The growth of a ring of relatively small communities around the central city and the movement of urban population to them. Contemporarily associated with urban sprawl and deterioration of the central city.

• Suburb: A community on the urban fringe. These are of two types- residential and satellite

• Ghetto: An urban ethnic or racial community often confused with slum. A ghetto may also be a slum.

• Slum: An urban residential area characterized by over crowding and sub-standard way of living.

• Urban concentration: It is the tendency of people and activities to cluster together.

• Urban decentralization: When people go away from the centre of the city.

• Metropolitan Fringe: It is on the outskirts of many industrial cities which are meant for commuter housing. Distinctive life-styles prevail between middle class commuters and old working class.

• Primate city: An urban form now emerging in developing nations where one city dominates the entire society. • Gentrification: Renovation of decaying urban areas for occupancy by middle or upper class residents. • Talcott Parsons universalistic -achievement pattern variable is central to the industrial society.

• Touraine described the Post Industrial Society as technocratic society.

• Maclver emphasized that urban life has fostered the individualization of women.

• Spengler has described cities as sinks of civilization.

• E.E Muntz has classified cities on the basis of their principal activities.

• Ullman has defined the city as a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals.

• Redfield has remarked that urban groups have a reputation for namelessness.

• Christaller is associated with the central place theory.

• Burgess put forward the concentric zone hypothesis on a diagrammatic study of Chicago.

• The town encourages associative individualism.

• Commuter's zone is also called bedroom community.

• Hyat has emphasized the importance of transportation routes in the expansion of a city.

• The compositional theory is based on rural-urban differences.

• The culture of poverty refers to slums.

• Migrants from rural to urban areas adjust more smoothly to city life it they maintain kinship ties.

• Oscar Lewis has given the concept of culture of poverty.

• Wirth has remarked that urbanism is a way of life whereas urbanization is a process.

• Maclver says that cities grow wherever a society or a group within it gains control over resources greater than are necessary for the mere sustenance of life.

• Robert Redfield has given four characteristics of little community. These are- distinctiveness, smallness, homogeneity and self-sufficiency.

• Ravenstein has developed the theory of step-migration. • Marx perceived the petty bourgeois to be a transitional class.

• Weber believed greater bureaucratization would lead to greater alienation.

• Singer and Marriot hold the social structure of civilization to operate at the levels of peasants and industrialists.

Social Change

The term social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in human interactions and interrelations. Society is a web of social relationships and hence social change means change in the system of social relationships. These are understood in terms of social processes and social interactions and social organization.Auguste Comte the father of Sociology has posed two problems- the question of social statics and the question of social dynamics, what is and how it changes. The sociologists not only outline the structure of the society but also seek to know its causes also. According to Morris Ginsberg social change is a change in the social structure.

Evolutionary Theories

Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies gradually change from simple beginnings into even more complex forms. Early sociologists beginning with Auguste Comte believed that human societies evolve in a unilinear way- that is in one line of development.

According to them social change meant progress toward something better. They saw change as positive and beneficial. To them the evolutionary process implied that societies would necessarily reach new and higher levels of civilization.

L.H Morgan believed that there were three basic stages in the process: savagery, barbarism and civilization.Auguste Comte's ideas relating to the three stages in the development of human thought and also of society namely-the theological, the metaphysical and the positive in a way represent the three basic stages of social change. This evolutionary view of social change was highly influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of Organic Evolution. Those who were fascinated by this theory applied it to the human society and argued that societies must have evolved from the simple and primitive to that of too complex and advanced such as the western society.

Herbert Spencer a British sociologist carried this analogy to its extremity. He argued that society itself is an organism. He even applied Darwin's principle of the survival of the fittest to human societies. He said that society has been gradually progressing towards a better state. He argued that it has evolved from military society to the industrial society. He claimed that western races, classes or societies had survived and evolved because they were better adapted to face the conditions of life.

This view known as social Darwinism got widespread popularity in the late 19th century. It survived even during the first phase of the 20th century. Emile Durkheim identified the cause of societal evolution as a society's increasing moral density.Durkheim viewed societies as changing in the direction of greater differentiation, interdependence and formal control under the pressure of increasing moral density. He advocated that societies have evolved from a relatively undifferentiated social structure with minimum of division of labor and with a kind of solidarity called mechanical solidarity to a more differentiated social structure with maximum division of labor giving rise to a kind of solidarity called organic solidarity. Cyclical theories:

Cyclical theories of social change focus on the rise and fall of civilizations attempting to discover and account for these patterns of growth and decay.Spengler, Toynbee and Sorokin can be regarded as the champions of this theory.Spengler pointed out that the fate of civilizations was a matter of destiny.

Each civilization is like a biological organism and has a similar life-cycle, birth, maturity, old- age and death. After making a study of eight major civilizations including the west he said that the modern western society is in the last stage i.e. old age. He concluded that the western societies were entering a period of decay as evidenced by wars, conflicts and social breakdown that heralded their doom.

Toynbee

Arnold Toynbee's famous book 'A study of History' (1946) focus on the key concepts of challenge and response. Every society faces challenges at first, challenges posed by the environment and later challenges from internal and external enemies. The nature of responses determines the society's fate. The achievements of a civilization consist of its successful responses to the challenges; if cannot mount an effective response it dies. He does not believe that all civilizations will inevitably decay.

He has pointed out that history is a series of cycles of decay and growth. But each new civilization is able to learn from the mistakes and to borrow from cultures of others. It is therefore possible for each new cycle to offer higher level of achievement.

Sorokin

Pitirin Sorokin in his book Social and Culture Dynamics - 1938 has offered another explanation of social change. Instead of viewing civilization into the terms of development and decline he proposed that they alternate of fluctuate between two cultural extremes: the sensate and the ideational.

The sensate culture stresses those things which can be perceived directly by the senses. It is practical, hedonistic, sensual and materialistic. Ideational culture emphasizes those things which can be perceived only by the mind. It is abstract, religious concerned with faith and ultimate truth. It is the opposite of the sensate culture. Both represent pure types of culture. Hence no society ever fully conforms to either type.

As the culture of a society develops towards one pure type, it is countered by the opposing cultural force. Cultural development is then reversed moving towards the opposite type of culture. Too much emphasis on one type of culture leads to a reaction towards the other. Societies contain both these impulses in varying degrees and the tension between them creates long-term instability. Between these types lies a third type 'idealistic' culture. This is a desirable blend of other two but no society ever seems to have achieved it as a stable condition.

Functionalist or Dynamic Theories

In the middle decades of the 20th century a number of American sociologists shifted their attention from social dynamics to social static or from social change to social stability.Talcott Parsons stressed the importance of cultural patterns in controlling the stability of a society. According to him society has the ability to absorb disruptive forces while maintaining overall stability.

Change is not as something that disturbs the social equilibrium but as something that alters the state of equilibrium so that a qualitatively new equilibrium results. He has stated that changes may arise from two sources. They may come from outside the society through contact with other societies. They may also come from inside the society through adjustment that must be made to resolve strains within the system. Parsons speaks of two processes that are at work in social change.

In simple societies institutions are undifferentiated that is a single institution serves many functions. The family performs reproductive, educational, socializing, economic, recreational and other functions. A process of differentiation takes place when the society becomes more and more complex. Different institutions such as school, factory may take over some of the functions of a family. The new institutions must be linked together in a proper way by the process of integration. New norms must be established in order to govern the relationship between the school and the home. Further bridging institutions such as law courts must resolve conflicts between other components in the system.

Conflict Theories

Whereas the equilibrium theories emphasize the stabilizing processes at work in social systems the so-called conflict theories highlight the forces producing instability, struggle and social disorganization. According to Ralf Dahrendorf the conflict theories assume that - every society is subjected at every moment to change, hence social change is ubiquitous. Every society experiences at every moment social conflict, hence social conflict is ubiquitous. Every element in society contributes to change.

Every society rests on constraint of some of its members by others. The most famous and influential of the conflict theories is the one put forward by Karl Marx who along with Engel wrote in Communist Manifesto 'all history is the history of class conflict.' Individuals and groups with opposing interests are bound to be at conflict. Since the two major social classes the rich and poor or capitalists and the proletariat have mutually hostile interests they are at conflict.

History is the story of conflict between the exploiter and the exploited. This conflict repeats itself off and on until capitalism is overthrown by the workers and a socialist state is created. What is to be stressed here is that Marx and other conflict theorists deem society as basically dynamic and not static. They consider conflict as a normal process. They also believe that the existing conditions in any society contain the seeds of future social changes. Like Karl Marx George Simmel too stressed the importance of conflict in social change.

According to him conflict is a permanent feature of society and not just a temporary event. It is a process that binds people together in interaction. Further conflict encourages people of similar interests to unite together to achieve their objectives. Continuous conflict in this way keeps society dynamic and ever changing.

Factors of Change

Physical Environment: Major changes in the physical environment are very compelling when they happen. The desert wastes of North Africa were once green and well populated. Climates change, soil erodes and lakes gradually turn into swamps and finally plains. A culture is greatly affected by such changes although sometimes they come about so slowly that they are largely unnoticed. Human misuse can bring very rapid changes in physical environment which in turn change the social and cultural life of a people.

Deforestation brings land erosion and reduces rainfall. Much of the wasteland and desert land of the world is a testament to human ignorance and misuse. Environmental destruction has been at least a contributing factor in the fall of most great civilization. Many human groups throughout history have changed their physical environment through migration. In the primitive societies whose members are very directly dependent upon their physical environment migration to a different environment brings major changes in the culture. Civilization makes it easy to transport a culture and practice it in a new and different environment.

Population changes: A population change is itself a social change but also becomes a casual factor in further social and cultural changes. When a thinly settled frontier fills up with people the hospitality pattern fades away, secondary group relations multiply, institutional structures grow more elaborate and many other changes follow.

A stable population may be able to resist change but a rapidly growing population must migrate, improve its productivity or starve. Great historic migrations and conquests of the Huns, Vikings and many others have arisen from the pressure of a growing population upon limited resources. Migration encourages further change for it brings a group into a new environment subjects it to new social contacts and confronts it with new problems. No major population change leaves the culture unchanged.

Isolation and Contact: Societies located at world crossroads have always been centers of change. Since most new traits come through diffusion, those societies in closest contact with other societies are likely to change most rapidly. In ancient times of overland transport, the land bridge connecting Asia, Africa and Europe was the centre of civilizing change. Later sailing vessels shifted the centre to the fringes of the Mediterranean Sea and still later to the north- west coast of Europe. Areas of greatest intercultural contact are the centers of change. War and trade have always brought intercultural contact and today tourism is adding to the contacts between cultures says Greenwood. Conversely isolated areas are centers of stability, conservatism and resistance to change. The most primitive tribes have been those who were the most isolated like the polar Eskimos or the Aranda of Central Australia. explain social research, with its main features as objectives and different stages? Answer: Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. According to Redman and Mary research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge. According to D.Sleshinger and M.Stemson has defined research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, heather that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art. Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques, aims to discover new factory verify a test old facts, analyze their sequence interrelationship and casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilities reliable and valid study of human behavior. According to PV young social research the systematic method of discovering news facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter- relationships, casual explanation and the natural laws which governs them. Prof C.A Mosr defines social research as “systematized investigation to give new knowledge about social phenomena and surveys”. Rummel defined social research as it is devoted to a “study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned with improving his understanding of social orders, groups, institutes and ethics”. Mary Stevenson defined social research as “social research is a systematic methods of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to extend ,correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art. The characteristic features of social research: Social research is scientific approach of adding to the knowledge about society and social phenomenon. Knowledge to be meaningful should have a definite purpose and direction. The growth of knowledge is closely linked to the methods and approaches used in research investigation. Hence the social science research must be guided by certain laid down objectives enumerated below Development knowledge The main object of any research is to add to the knowledge. As we have seen earlier, research is a process to obtain knowledge. Similarly social research is an organized and scientific effort to acquire further knowledge about the problem in question. Thus social science helps us to obtain and add to the knowledge of social phenomena. This one of the important objective of social research. Scientific study of social research: Social research is an attempt to acquire knowledge about the social phenomena. Man being the part of a society, social research studies human being as an individual, human behavior and collects data about various aspects of the social life of man and formulates law in this regards. Once the law is formulated then the scientific study tries to establish the interrelationship between these facts. Thus, the scientific study of social life is the base of the sociological development which is considered as second best objective of social research. Welfare of humanity: The ultimate objective of the social science study if often and always to enhance the welfare of humanity. No scientific research makes only for the sake of study. The welfare of humanity is the most common objective in social science research. Classification of facts: According to Prov P.V.Young, social research aims to clarify facts. The classification of facts plays important role in any scientific research. Social control and prediction: The ultimate object of many research undertaking is to make it possible, to redirect the behavior of particular type of individual under the specified conditions. In social research we generally study of the social phenomena, event and factors that govern and guide them. a) Social research deals with phenomena. It studies the human behavior. b) It discovers new facts and verifies old facts. With the improvement in the technique and changes in the phenomena the researcher has to study the. c) Casual relationship between various human activities can also be studies in social research. For the sake of systematic presentation, the process of research may be classifies under three stages Primary stage Secondary stage Tertiary stage

The primary stage includes

Observation Interest Crystallization, identification and statement of a research problem Formulation of hypothesis

Primary synopsis Conceptual clarity Documentation Preparation of bibliography and Research design

The secondary stage includes

Project planning Project formulation Questionnaire preparation Investigation and data collection Preparation of final synopsis Compilation of data Classification Tabulation and presentation of data Experimentation Analysis Testing of hypothesis and Interpretation The tertiary stage includes Report writing Observation, suggestions and conclusions.

Give the significance of social research also mention the different problems of social research and how they are solved? within the last 20 to 25 years, courses in methods of social research have come to occupy an increasingly important role in sociological curricula. It likely that at present every major university offers such courses. This is because growing significance of social research and also growing job opportunities in this field. The market analysis, the public opinion expert, the investigator of communication and propaganda all are growing facts for governmental and business needs. Knowledge of social research is useful for interpreting and weighing such reports. In this present age, social science are accruing a scientific method of study for this method, research is an important factor. In the last two or three decades, a social research has become an important subject of the curriculum of sociology. In fact almost all the universities, where sociology is taught, social research is a apart of the curriculum of the sociology. Social research has therefore, assumed greater importance. Apart from thus, the social science research is essential for proper understanding the society and proper collection and analysis of social facts. The social research is an effective method. Research laboratory techniques are helping in finding further knowledge, about the subject. Through research only it has been possible to make progress and reach further. It is part of man’s nature. The importance saying goes, necessity is the mother of invention and invention is the result if research. So long as necessity exists the research shall be these social science and particularly sociology has come occupy an importance place for us. In fact, research is an organized effort to acquire new knowledge. It is based on the past experience and past knowledge. The richer the past knowledge, greater the surely of the results. In science sociology is assuming a scientific base, research has become a part of study, it is not an easy task to predict social behavior because of human nature is ever changing. Problems of scientific social research In fact social research deals with social phenomena which are quite different than natural phenomena. Hence there are fundamental difference between research in social science and that of physical or natural science. Let us study main difficulities faced by the researcher in the application so scientific methods in social research. Complexity of social data It is a well known that social science studies the human behavior which depends on several factor such as physical, social, temperamental ,psychological, geographical, biological social cultural etc. because of these factors a researcher is generally confused. It is therefore said that because of this complexity of social fata human beings cannot be put to scientific test.

Problems of concepts: In social science research, one has to face number of problems among which of a) Abstraction b) Faculty reasoning Plays major role in formulating and defining the concepts and laws. Problems in interpreting relationship between cause and effects: In social science research, we generally find interdependent relationship between cause and effect. The cause and effect are one and the same, for example, in underdevelopment countries, the economics development cannot be accelerated due to lack of technical know how and capital cannot be obtained due to underdevelopment of the country. Dynamic nature of social phenomena Man is a social animal and human society undergoes constant change. What is true today may not be useful tomorrow. The techniques used in past may prove useless for present ad future studies. On a account of this dynamic nature of social phenomena our task of analyzing data becomes very much complicated and the interferences drawn may be misleading. Problems of maintaining objectivity The problem of impartiality in part of problem of objectivity. It is generally argued that the social scientific are less objective than natural scientific because their own interest affected by the finding of their studies, hence leading to prejudice and bias. Unpredictability Predictability is one of the most important characteristics of science. In case of physical science, high degree of predictability is possible but it is not so in case of social data. but this statement is also partially true, the social scientist can roughly estimate the behavior of the group. Difficulty in the verification of the inferences: In social research, the events of social science are non repetitive and the social science are ill-equipped with their tools to verify inferences. Difficulty in the use of experimental method. In case of social science research its product being a human being cannot be put to laboratory test. Even if it is done, their responses wouldn’t be natural but subject to the awareness of the artificial condition. Thus social scientist has to watch them in wide world. Difficulty in the use of experimental method. In case of social science research, its product being a human being cannot be put to lab test. Even if it is done, their responses wouldn’t natural but subject to the awareness of the artificial condition. Thus the social scientist has to watch them in the wide world. Incapability of being dealt through empirical method: An empirical method cannot be applied in case of social science research as repeated experiment is not possible ,for example, the problem of unbiased sampling selection of data etc. Problem of inter-disciplinary research Social science being, inter-disciplinary one i.e related with, economics, political science and sociology, we cannot draw water-tight compartments for each other social science. Paucity of funds: In case of social science research, we generally observed that small amount if finance is made available to them, it is not sufficient to conduct research effectively. Less resources: Prof Mitchell has rightly pointed out that social science researcher require less resources in comparing to physical science.

Social Justice

Social Justice is a concept that has fascinated philosophers ever since Plato in The Republic formalized the argument that an ideal state would rest on four wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice.The addition of the word social is to clearly distinguish Social Justice from the concept of Justice as applied in thelaw- state-administered systems, which label behavior as unacceptable and enforce a formal mechanism of control, may produce results that do not match the philosophical definitions of social justice - and from more informal concepts of justice embedded in systems of public policy and morality and which differ from culture to culture and therefore lack universality.

Social justice is also used to refer to the overall fairness of a society in its divisions and distributions of rewards and burdens and, as such, the phrase has been adopted by political parties with a redistributive agenda. Social Justice derives its authority from the codes of morality prevailing in each culture. By gathering together into bands and communities, humans seek to gain strength and to address their vulnerabilities which, in turn, creates the potential to develop into more complex and evolving civilisations. If simple survival is to be transformed into long-term security, something more than co-ordinating the contribution of everyone's skills will be required.

A social organisation will be needed to resolve disputes and offer physical security against attack. The achievement of community aims will depend upon the co- of many functional specializations (such as farmers for food, soldiers for protection and rulers for resource management) and a willingness of community members to sacrifice some personal freedom for the greater good.So, would defining or administering justice become one of these specializations and, as such, be the exclusive responsibility of any one class of citizens? People will not accept the surrender of any of their freedoms unless they perceive real benefits flowing from their decisions.

The key factor is likely to be the emergence of a consensus that the society is working in a fair way, i.e., both that individuals are allowed as much freedom as possible given the role they have within the society and that the rewards compensate adequately for any loss of freedom. Hence, true social justice is attained only through the harmonious co-operative effort of the citizens who, in their own self-interest, accept the current norms of morality as the price of membership in the community.

The next major impetus for the development of the concept came from Christianity.Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) says, "Justice is a certain rectitude of mind whereby a man does what he ought to do in the circumstances confronting him."

As a theologian, Aquinas believed that justice is a form of natural duty owed by one person to another and not enforced by any human-made law. This reflects the Christian view that, before God, all people are equal and must treat each other with respect. Hence, the framework of the argument shifts to require obedience to natural principles of morality to satisfy a duty owed to God, and the outcome of social justice is driven by the tenets of morality embedded in the religion. John Locke (1632-1704), an early theologist Utilitarain argued that people have innate natural goodness and beauty, and so, in the long run, if individuals rationally pursue their private happiness and pleasure, the interests of the society or the general welfare will be looked after fairly. Locke characterised most of Christianity as utilitarian since believers see utility in rewards in the afterlife for their actions on Earth.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) believed that actions are morally right if they are motivated by duty without regard to any personal goal, desire, motive, or self-interest. Kant's moral theory is, therefore, deontological and based on the concept of abject selflessness. In his view, the only relevant feature of moral law is its universalisability.

In the latter part of the twentieth century, the concept of Social Justice has largely been associated with the political philosopher John Rawls (1921-2002) who draws on the utilitarian insights of Bentham and Mill, the social contract ideas of Locke, and the categorical imperative ideas of Kant. His first statement of principle was made in A Theory of Justice (1971) where he proposed that, "Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others."

His views are definitively restated in Political Liberalism (1993), where society is seen, "as a fair system of co-operation over time, from one generation to the next." All societies have a basic structure of social, economic, and political institutions, both formal and informal. In testing how well these elements fit and work together, Rawls based a key test of legitimacy on the theories of social contract.

To determine whether any particular system of collectively enforced social arrangements is legitimate he argued that one must look for agreement by the people who are subject to it. Obviously, not every citizen can be asked to participate in a poll to determine his or her consent to every proposal in which some degree of coercion is involved, so we have to assume that all citizens are reasonable . Rawls constructed an argument for a two-stage process to determine a citizen's hypothetical agreement:

• The citizen agrees to be represented by X for certain purposes; to that extent, X holds these powers as a trustee for the citizen;

• X agrees that a use of enforcement in a particular social context is legitimate; the citizen, therefore, is bound by this decision because it is the function of the trustee to represent the citizen in this way. Equal Opportunity and special opportunity

According to the advocates of equal opportunity all citizens should get equal social and political benefits. On the other hand the proponents of special opportunity demand that protective discrimination policy should be used for certain sections of the society. This policy is meant to provide certain benefits and special opportunities to the weaker sections of the society. This applies to one person representing a small group (e.g. to the organiser of a social event setting a dress code) as equally as it does to national governments which are the ultimate trustees, holding representative powers for the benefit of all citizens within their territorial boundaries, and if those governments fail to provide for the welfare of their citizens according to the principles of justice, they are not legitimate.

To emphasise the general principle that justice should rise from the people and not be dictated by the law-making powers of governments, Rawls asserted that, "There is . . . a general presumption against imposing legal and other restrictions on conduct without sufficient reason.

But this presumption creates no special priority for any particular liberty." This is support for an unranked set of liberties that reasonable citizens in all states should respect and uphold - to some extent, the list proposed by Rawls matches the normative human rights that have international recognition and direct enforcement in some nation states where the citizens need encouragement to act in a more objectively just way.Social Justice as conceived by Rawls is an apolitical philosophical concept The concept of social justice may hold some or all of the following beliefs:

• Historical inequities insofar as they affect current injustices should be corrected until the actual inequities no longer exist or have been perceptively "negated".

• The redistribution of wealth, power and status for the individual, community and societal good.

• It is government's (or those who hold significant power) responsibility to ensure a basic quality of life for all its citizens.

Protective Discrimination

The discriminations suffered by the oppressed sections of the society including SC and STs over great period of time has led to the concept of protective discrimination to safe-guard their interests. The main reason behind protective discrimination is to provide the necessary facilities to the deprived sections and to bring them to the mainstream society. These two classes were placed beyond the bounds of the larger society, the scheduled tribes on account of their isolation in particular ecological riches and the scheduled castes on account of the segregation imposed on them by the rules of pollution.

There are certain clauses in the constitution which aims at providing equality of opportunity to all by prohibiting discrimination and to remove disparities between privileged and underprivileged classes. However the state faced with the dilemma that this would mean that in the society characterized by the distinctions on the basis of caste, religion only who are better positioned than the rest would get all the benefits and the backward and repressed classes will remain sidelined. In order to overcome this, state has the special responsibility of giving equal rights to the communities through protective discrimination. There are many provisions in the constitution:

Art 15 (clause 3) which empowers the state to make any special provision for women and children.

Art 16 (clause 4) serves the same purpose for backward class citizens. There are several other articles which aim to remove disparity between different sections of the society. The constitution attempts to create balance between right to equality and protective discrimination.

Constitutional Safeguards

In India, the National Constitution of 1950 or any other Constitutional document does not define the word 'Minority'. The Constitution only refers to Minorities and speaks of those "based on religion or language". In the Constitution of India, the Preamble (as amended in 1976) declares the State to be "Secular", and this is of special relevance for the Religious Minorities. Equally relevant for them, especially, is the prefatory declaration of the Constitution in its Preamble that all citizens of India are to be secured "liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship and "equality of status and of opportunity." The Constitution of India has provided two types of safe-guards -general and specific to safeguard various interests of the minorities. In the first category are those provisions that are equally enjoyed by both groups. The provisions ensure justice- social, economic and political equality to all. The second category consists of provisions meant specifically for the protection of particular interests of minorities.

• People's right to "equality before the law" and "equal protection of the laws";

• Prohibition of discrimination against citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;

• Authority of State to make "any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens" (besides the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes);

• Citizens' right to "equality of opportunity" in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State - and prohibition in this regard of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

• Authority of State to make "any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State; • People's freedom of conscience and right to freely profess, practice and propagate religion - subject to public order, morality and other Fundamental Rights;

• Authority of State to make law for "regulating or restricting any economic financial, political or other secular activity which may be associated with religious practice", and for "providing for social welfare and reform"; • Authority of State to make laws for "throwing open" of Hindu, Sikh, Jain or Buddhist "religious institutions of a public character to "all classes and sections of the respective communities;

• Sikh community's right of "wearing and carrying of kirpans" ;

• Right of "every religious denomination or any section thereof - subject to public order, morality and health - to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable proposes, "manage its own affairs of religion", and own and acquire movable immovable property and administer it "in accordance with law";

• People's "freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion";

• People's "freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational institutions" wholly maintained, recognized, or aided by the State;

• Right of "any section of the citizens" to conserve its "distinct language, script or culture" • Restriction on denial of admission to any citizen, to any educational institution maintained or aided by the State, "on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them";

• Right of all Religious and Linguistic Minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice; and

• Freedom of Minority-managed educational institutions from discrimination in the matter of receiving aid from the State. Part IV of the Constitution of India, containing non-justifiable Directive Principles of State Policy, includes the following provisions having significant implications for the Minorities:

• Obligation of the State "to endeavor to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities" amongst individuals and groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations;

• Obligation of State to "endeavor to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India";

• Obligation of State "to promote with special care" the educational and economic interests of "the weaker sections of the people" (besides Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes; and

• Obligation of State to "take steps" for "prohibiting the slaughter of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle". Part IV-A of the Constitution, relating to Fundamental Duties, applies in full to all citizens, including those belonging to Minorities and of special relevance for the Minorities are the following provisions in this Part:

• Citizens' duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India "transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; and

• Citizens' duty to "value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture". Some other provisions of the Constitution having special relevance and implications for the Minorities are:

• Official obligation to pay out of the consolidated funds of the States of Kerala and Tamilnadu 46.5 and 13.5 lakh rupees respectively to the local "Dewasom Funds" for the maintenance of Hindu temples and shrines in the territories of the erstwhile State of Travancore-Cochin;

• Special provision relating to the language spoken by a section of the population of any State;

• Provision for facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage;

• Provision for a Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities and his duties; • Special provision with respect to Naga religious or social practices, customary law and procedure, and "administration of civil and criminal justice involving decisions according to Naga customary law."

• Identical special provision for the Mizos

• Provision relating to continuation in force of pre-Constitution laws "until altered or repealed or amended by a competent legislature or other competent authority" Part III of the Constitution gives certain fundamental rights. Some of these rights are common to all the citizens of India including minorities. These rights are enshrined in -

Article 14: This ensures equality before law and equal protection of law.

Article 15: This prohibits discrimination on any ground i.e. religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth.

Article 21: No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except the procedure established by law.

Article 25: This ensures freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practice and propagate religion.

Article 26: This ensures a right to manage religious institutions, religious affairs, subject to public order, morality and health.

Article 29: Gives minorities a right to conserve their language, script or culture.

• It provides for the protection of the interests of minorities by giving them a right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. The State is directed not to discriminate against minorities institutions in granting aid.

Article 350A: Directs the State to provide facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage of education.

Art 164(1): According to this article in states of Bihar, MP and Orissa there shall be a Minister in charge of tribal welfare who may in addition be in charge of the welfare of the scheduled castes and backward classes.

Art 244(1): Regarding administration of scheduled areas and tribal areas - (1) The provisions of the Fifth schedule shall apply to the administration and control of the Scheduled areas and Scheduled tribes in any state other than the state of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. (2) The provisions of the sixth schedule shall apply to the administration of the tribal areas in the state of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. Art 244(A): Formation of an autonomous state comprising certain tribal areas in Assam and creation of local legislature or Council of Ministers or both thereof. Parliament may by law form within the state of Assam an autonomous state comprising (whether wholly or part) all or any of the tribal areas.

Art 275: Provided that there shall be paid out of consolidated fund of India as grants-in-aid of the revenues of a state such capital and recurring sums as may be necessary to enable the state to meet the costs of such schemes of development as may be undertaken by the state with the approval of the Govt of India for the purpose of promoting the welfare of the scheduled tribes in that state or raising the level of administration of the scheduled areas therein to that of the administration of the rest of the areas in that state. Provided further that there shall be paid out of the consolidated fund of India as grant-in-aid of the revenues of the state of Assam sum capital and recurring.

Art 330: Reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House of People. (1)Seats shall be reserved for scheduled castes (2)The scheduled tribes except the scheduled tribes except the scheduled tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam (3)The scheduled tribes in the autonomous districts in Assam.

Art 332: Reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the states. (1)Seats shall be reserved for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes (except the ST's of autonomous districts of Assam) in the Legislative Assembly of every state. (2)Seats shall be reserved also for the autonomous districts in the Legislative Assembly of the state of Assam.

Art 334: Reservation of seats and special representation in Legislative Assemblies and House of People to cease after fifty years.

Art 335: Claims of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to service and posts-The claims of the members of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes shall be taken into consideration consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration in the making of appointments to service and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a state.

Art 338: National Commission for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes

Art 339: Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes.

Art 340: Appointment of a commission by the president to investigate the conditions of backward classes.

Art 341: Power of the President to specify the castes, races or tribes or posts of or groups within castes, races or tribes as scheduled castes.

Art 342: Power of the President to specify the tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within tribes or tribal communities as scheduled tribe.

Art 350(A): Facilities for instruction in mother tongue of a minority group. Art 350(B): Special officer for linguistic minorities.

Types of Justice

Justice is action in accordance with the requirements of some law. Whether these rules are grounded in human consensus or societal norms, they are supposed to ensure that all members of society receive fair treatment. Issues of justice arise in several different spheres and play a significant role in causing, perpetuating, and addressing conflict.

Just institutions tend to instill a sense of stability, well-being, and satisfaction among society members, while perceived injustices can lead to dissatisfaction, rebellion, or revolution. Each of the different spheres expresses the principles of justice in its own way, resulting in different types and concepts of justice: distributive, procedural, retributive, and restorative.

These types of justice have important implications for socio-economic, political, civil, and criminal justice at both the national and international level.

Distributive, or economic justice, is concerned with giving all members of society a "fair share" of the benefits and resources available. However, while everyone might agree that wealth should be distributed fairly, there is much disagreement about what counts as a "fair share." Some possible criteria of distribution are equity, equality, and need.

Procedural, is concerned with making and implementing decisions according to fair processes that ensure "fair treatment." Rules must be impartially followed and consistently applied in order to generate an unbiased decision. Those carrying out the procedures should be neutral, and those directly affected by the decisions should have some voice or representation in the decision- making process.

Retributive appeals to the notion that people deserve to be treated in the same way they treat others. It is a retroactive approach that justifies punishment as a response to past injustice or wrongdoing. The central idea is that the offender has gained unfair advantages through his or her behavior, and that punishment will set this imbalance straight.

However, because there is a tendency to slip from retributive justice to an emphasis on revenge, some suggest that restorative justice processes are more effective. While a retributive justice approach conceives of transgressions as crimes against the state or nation, restorative justice focuses on violations as crimes against individuals. It is concerned with healing victim's wounds, restoring offenders to law-abiding lives, and repairing harm done to interpersonal relationships and the community.

Social Movements Types

Reform Movements Reform movements are organized to carry out reforms in some specific areas. The reformers endeavor to change elements of the system for better. For example: Civil Rights Movement, Women's Liberation Movement, Arya Samaj Movement, Brahmo Samaj Movement etc.

Revolutionary Movements

The revolutionary movements deny that the system will even work. These movements are deeply dissatisfied with the social order and work for radical change. They advocate replacing the entire existing structure. Their objective is the reorganization of society in accordance with their own ideological blueprint. Revolutionary movements generally become violent as they progress. Example: The Protestant Reformation Movement, the Socialist Movement, the Communist Revolution of China.

Reactionary or Revivalist Movement

Some movements are known as reactionary or regressive movements. These aims to reverse the social change .They highlight the importance and greatness of traditional values, ideologies and institutional arrangements. They strongly criticize the fast moving changes of the present.

Resistance Movement

These movements are formed to resist a change that is already taking place in society. These can be directed against social and cultural changes which are already happening in the country.

Utopian Movement

These are attempts to take the society or a section of it towards a state of perfection. These are loosely structured collectivities that envision a radically changed and blissful state, either on a large scale at some time in the future or on a smaller scale in the present. The Utopian ideal and the means of it are often vague, but many utopian movements have quite specific programmes for social change. The Hare Krishna Movement of the seventies, the movement towards the establishment of Ram Rajya and the , the Communists and Socialists pronouncement of a movement towards the classless, casteless society free from all kinds of exploitation etc.

Peasant Movement

Peasant movement is defined by Kathleen Gough as an attempt of a group to effect change in the face of resistance and the peasant are people who are engaged in an agricultural or related production with primitive means who surrender part of their or its equivalent to landlords or to agents of change. The history of peasant movements can be traced to colonial period when repressive economic policies, the new land revenue system, the colonial administrative and judicial system and the ruin of handicrafts leading to the overcrowding of land transformed the agrarian structure and impoverished the peasantry.

In the zamindari system peasants were left to the mercies of the Zamindars who exploited them in form of illegal dues. The British government levied heavy land revenue in the Ryotwari areas. Peasants were forced to borrow money from the moneylenders and they were reduced to the status of tenants at will, share croppers and landless laborers while their lands, crops and cattle passed into the hands to landlords, trader moneylenders and such peasants.

When the peasants could take it no longer they resisted against the oppression and exploitation through uprisings. Peasant Movements occupy an important place in the history of social unrest in India though the aims and objectives of these movements differ in nature and degree from region to region. It is in this sense that these movements also aimed at the unification of the peasants of a region, development of leadership, ideology and a peasant elite.

Through these movements emerged a new power structure and peasant alliance. The genesis of peasant movements rest in the relationship patterns of different social categories existing within the framework of feudal and semi feudal structure of our society. In the post Independence period the nature and objectives of the peasant movement have changed to getting remunerative prices for agricultural produce, to increase agricultural production, to establish parity between prices of agricultural produce and industrial goods and to get minimum wages for the agricultural laborers.

Some of the important peasant uprising:

1770- Sanyasi rebellion 1831- Wahabi uprising 1855- Santhal uprising 1859- Indigo revolt 1890-1900- Punjab Kisan struggle 1917-18- Champaran satyagraha 1921- Moplah rebellion 1928- Bardoli satyagarya 1946- Telangana movement 1957- Naxalbai movement

Women's Movement

The women's movement in India is a rich and vibrant movement which has taken different forms in different parts of the country. Fifty years ago when India became independent, it was widely acknowledged that the battle for freedom had been fought as much by women as by men. One of the methods M K Gandhi chose to undermine the authority of the British was for Indians to defy the law which made it illegal for them to make salt.

At the time, salt-making was a monopoly and earned considerable revenues for the British. Gandhi began his campaign by going on a march - the salt march - through many villages, leading finally to the sea, where he and others broke the law by making salt. No woman had been included by Gandhi in his chosen number of marchers. But nationalist women protested, and they forced him to allow them to participate.

The first to join was Sarojini Naidu, who went on to become the first woman President of the Indian National Congress in 1925. Her presence was a signal for hundreds of other women to join, and eventually the salt protest was made successful by the many women who not only made salt, but also sat openly in marketplaces selling, and indeed, buying it. The trajectory of this movement is usually traced from the social reform movements of the 19th century when campaigns for the betterment of the conditions of women's lives were taken up, initially by men.

By the end of the century women had begun to organize themselves and gradually they took up a number of causes such as education, the conditions of women's work and so on. It was in the early part of the 20th century that women's organizations were set up, and many of the women who were active in these later became involved in the freedom movement.

Independence brought many promises and dreams for - the dream of an egalitarian, just, democratic society in which both men and women would have a voice. The reality was, however, somewhat different. For all that had happened was that, despite some improvements in the status of women, patriarchy had simply taken on new and different forms. By the 1960s it was clear that many of the promises of Independence were still unfulfilled.

It was thus that the 1960s and 1970s saw a spate of movements in which women took part: campaigns against rising prices, movements for land rights, peasant movements. Women from different parts of the country came together to form groups both inside and outside political parties. Everywhere, in the different movements that were sweeping the country, women participated in large numbers. Everywhere, their participation resulted in transforming the movements from within. One of the first issues to receive countrywide attention from women's groups was violence against women, specifically in the form of rape, and 'dowry deaths'.

Backward Caste Movement

The Backward castes have been deprived of many social, economic, political and religious privileges. These people provided manual labor and the untouchables occupied the lowest position among the caste hierarchy. They were subjected to extreme form of exploitation. The colonial power accentuated the disparities in the distribution of economic power. The atrocities united the lower castes against the upper castes.

Some of the important backward caste movement which came up was Satyashodak Samaj and Nadar Movement which consolidated the masses along the castelines.E.V Ramaswamy started Self-Respect movement against the Brahmins in South India. The SNDP movement in Kerala was more of a reformist movement. In 1950s there was a widespread desire among the non- Brahmin castes to be categorized as Backward .Subsequently Backward Class commission was set up to look into the conditions and requirements of these classes. Mandal Commission submitted its report in 1980 recommending reservations for backward castes in educational institutions and government offices. However this move resulted in anti- Mandal Commission movement which resulted in large scale violence and many students lost their lives.

Dalit Movement

Dalits are the suppressed people at the lost rung of the cast-based hierarchy. Their inferior occupations and low levels of ascriptive status make them vulnerable for attacks at the hands of upper-caste people. The organizational efforts made by Dalit leadership for uplifting their status are known as Dalit movement. It is a protest against untouchability ,casteism and discrimination faced by the dalits.Dalit movement indicates some trends of protest ideologies which entail the following -withdrawal and self organization, high varna status and extolling of non-Aryan culture's virtues, abandoning of Hinduism and embracing other religions like Buddhism and Islam.

Mahatma Gandhi in 1923 founded the All India Harijan Sevak Sangh to start education and schools for the dalits.Another most important dalit leader Dr.Ambedkar struggled to secure the basic human dignity to the dalits.The Mahad Satyagarh for the right of water led by him was one of the outstanding movements of the dalits to win equal social rights. The role of All India Depressed Classes Association and All India Depressed Classes Federation were the principal organizations which initiated a movement to improve the conditions of the dalits.These organizations aimed at improving their miserable conditions and to spread education among them. They worked to secure rights of admission to school, drawing water from the public wells, entering the temples and to use the roads. Things to Remember:

1.Social change that occurs without being noticed by most members is called latent change.

2.Walter Cannon coined the term Homeostasis.

3.David Glass conducted the first study of inter-generational mobility in England and Wales.

4.To Pitrim Sorokin societies pass through three stages each dominated by a system of truth. The stages are ideational, sensate, idealistic .This theory is the example of cyclical theory.

5.To Herbert Spencer mankind had progressed from small groups to large and from simple to compound and doubly compound or in more general terms from the homogenous to the heterogeneous. This conception is an example of linear theory.

6.Giddings formulated a law of social change .He founded neo-positivist school.

7.Marx and Engels put forward a materialist variant of the evolutionary theory.

8.Herbert Spencer propounded the theory of social evolution.

9.M.N Srinivas wrote the famous book social change in modern India.

11.Goffmann regards total institutions as forcing houses for changing persons. 12.Sorokin has written social and cultural dynamics.

13.The notion of order, change and progress are inherent in the concept of evolution.

14.Maine argued that societies developed from organizational forms where relationships were based on status to those based upon contract.

15.Saint Simon distinguished between three stages of mental activity- The conjectural, unconjectural and positive.

16.Cities and towns came into existence due to development of commerce.

17.Ogburn introduced the concept of cultural lag in his book Social Change.

18.According to Lester F Ward social change can be bought about by means of conscious and systematic effort.

19.David Aberle has classified social movements as transformative, reformative, redemptive and alternative.

20.Stouffer is associated wit h the theory of relative deprivation.

21.According to Toffler technology would bring about a reversal of trend towards mass culture distributed by television.

22.Clark Kerr is the author of convergence theory.

23.Everett Rogers categorized people as innovators, early adopter and larggerds on basis of their response to an innovation.

24.Tonnies proposed that human societies evolve from communities bound together by tradition to those characterized by nonemotional objectivity.

25.Sorokin is associated with the theory of variable recurrence.

26.Dalit Panther Movement emerged among Mahars.

27.Dalit Panther Movement is transformative movement. briefly explain the various primary stages of research process. Research is a source which can be draw upon to make a substantial contribution to the body of the knowledge; research should be followed by some sort of original contribution. The primary stage includes Observation: Research start with observation, which leads to curiosity to learn more about what has been observed. Observation can either be unaided visual observation or guided and controlled observation. Sometimes a casual or associated observation leading to substantial research and a great invention. Deliberate and guided observation can also form the basis for research. While observation leads to research, research results in elaborate observation and convulsions; or even further research observation can either be subjective or objective. These are participant observation, on –participant observation, controlled observation and non controlled observation. Interest: The observation of certain occurrences creates an interest and inquisitiveness in the mind of the researcher to study it further. This is the basis of interest to study the subject matter of observation. It may be self interest or group interest. The interest is the guiding force behind any research.

Crystallization, Crystallization is the process of designing the definite form of Research to be undertaken for the purpose of studying the subject matter. It is the formulation of the research project, a defining its objectives, rationale, scope, methodology, limitations, including financial commitments and sources. It is at this stage that the research project is given a concrete shape and structure, forming a basis of further investigation. Formulation of hypothesis At this stage the hypothesis is formed on the basis of observation. Hypothesis is apart of the scientific method, and has been dealt with in detail in the chapter on “scientific method and hypothesis” Primary synopsis Synopsis is a summary /outline/brief of any subject. It is not a complete subject still formalization of a subject/replica of a subject. It saves time. It will give an idea of time required for presentation of the main subject. Once the subject is decided you can arrange titles likes like main headings, paragraph heading-elaborate the paragraph with important of main issues. Conceptual clarity Any researcher should have in-depth background knowledge of the topic of his study. He can gain such basic knowledge only be an extensive reading of text books, specialized books and publications on the topic in addition to articles and research papers published in journals and periodicals, reports of the past studies, etc. he can also gain knowledge by details discussion with the people concerned and by his own observation. However it is imperative for a researcher to gain a deep knowledge form any reliable source prior to actually plunging himself into a research, so theta he may have clear knowledge of the concepts which would be of value to him in his task. Documentation The documentary sources are important sources of information for a researcher. A document is anything in writing – a record, files or diaries, published or unpublished- which can be extracted and used in research. It is very valuable source of information for research either in management or in social science. it may comprises office files, business and legal papers, biographies, official and unofficial records, letters, proceedings of any courts ,committees, societies, assemblies and parliaments, enactments, constitution, reports of surveys or research of commissions, official statistics, newspapers editorials, special articles, company news, cases or company directors reports etc. documentation is the process of collecting and extracting the documents which relevant research. Documents may be classified into 1) Personal documents 2) Company documents 3) Consultants report and published materials and 4) Public documents

Bibliography At the end of any research report a bibliography is generally added. This is the list of books publication, periodicals, journals, reports, etc which are used by researcher in the connection with the study. It is a description of books, their authorship, editions, publishers, year of publication, place of publication etc. in ordinary circumstance, a researcher reads, and makes notes form, many books and publications at the primary stage of researcher in order to gain conceptual clarity. He prepares a list of such publications are reports then and there, which helps him in the course of his research. Some mistakenly believe that a bibliography is merely a list of publication compiled at the end of report writing like an appendix. On the contrary a bibliography contains and is composed of the details of publications that the researcher has used in connection with his study. These facilities any further reference to the matter either by the researcher himself or anybody who goes through the researcher report. what is questionnaire- mention its characteristics and illustrate a sample questionnaire for any product you can choose Answer: Questionnaire is a method used for collecting data; a set of written questions which calls for responses on the part of the client; may be self-administered or group-administered. Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistically analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the test system as well as information on specific components of the system. If the questionnaire includes demographic questions on the participants, they can be used to correlate performance and satisfaction with the test system among different groups of users. It is important to remember that a questionnaire should be viewed as a multi-stage process beginning with definition of the aspects to be examined and ending with interpretation of the results. Every step needs to be designed carefully because the final results are only as good as the weakest link in the questionnaire process. Although questionnaires may be cheap to administer compared to other data collection methods, they are every bit as expensive in terms of design time and interpretation. The steps required to design and administer a questionnaire include: 1. Defining the Objectives of the survey 2. Determining the Sampling Group 3. Writing the Questionnaire 4. Administering the Questionnaire 5. Interpretation of the Results

This document will concentrate on how to formulate objectives and write the questionnaire. Before these steps are examined in detail, it is good to consider what questionnaires are good at measuring and when it is appropriate to use questionnaires. What can questionnaires measure? Questionnaires are quite flexible in what they can measure, however they are not equally suited to measuring all types of data. We can classify data in two ways, Subjective vs. Objective and Quantitative vs. Qualitative. When a questionnaire is administered, the researchers control over the environment will be somewhat limited. This is why questionnaires are inexpensive to administer. This loss of control means the validity of the results are more reliant on the honesty of the respondent. Consequently, it is more difficult to claim complete objectivity with questionnaire data then with results of a tightly controlled lab test. For example, if a group of participants are asked on a questionnaire how long it took them to learn a particular function on a piece of software, it is likely that they will be biased towards themselves and answer, on average, with a lower than actual time. A more objective usability test of the same function with a similar group of participants may return a significantly higher learning time. More elaborate questionnaire design or administration may provide slightly better objective data, but the cost of such a questionnaire can be much higher and offset their economic advantage. In general, questionnaires are better suited to gathering reliable subjective measures, such as user satisfaction, of the system or interface in question. Questions may be designed to gather either qualitative or quantitative data. By their very nature, quantitative questions are more exact then qualitative. For example, the word "easy" and "difficult" can mean radically different things to different people. Any question must be carefully crafted, but in particular questions that assess a qualitative measure must be phrased to avoid ambiguity. Qualitative questions may also require more thought on the part of the participant and may cause them to become bored with the questionnaire sooner. In general, we can say that questionnaires can measure both qualitative and quantitative data well, but that qualitative questions require more care in design, administration, and interpretation. When to use a questionnaire? There is no all encompassing rule for when to use a questionnaire. The choice will be made based on a variety of factors including the type of information to be gathered and the available resources for the experiment. A questionnaire should be considered in the following circumstances. a. When resources and money are limited. A Questionnaire can be quite inexpensive to administer. Although preparation may be costly, any data collection scheme will have similar preparation expenses. The administration cost per person of a questionnaire can be as low as postage and a few photocopies. Time is also an important resource that questionnaires can maximize. If a questionnaire is self-administering, such as a e-mail questionnaire, potentially several thousand people could respond in a few days. It would be impossible to get a similar number of usability tests completed in the same short time. b. When it is necessary to protect the privacy of the participants. Questionnaires are easy to administer confidentially. Often confidentiality is the necessary to ensure participants will respond honestly if at all. Examples of such cases would include studies that need to ask embarrassing questions about private or personal behavior. c. When corroborating other findings. In studies that have resources to pursue other data collection strategies, questionnaires can be a useful confirmation tools. More costly schemes may turn up interesting trends, but occasionally there will not be resources to run these other tests on large enough participant groups to make the results statistically significant. A follow-up large scale questionnaire may be necessary to corroborate these earlier results Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire • Questions worded simply and clearly, not ambiguous or vague, must be objective • Attractive in appearance (questions spaced out, and neatly arranged) • Write a descriptive title for the questionnaire

• Write an introduction to the questionnaire • Order questions in logical sequence • Keep questionnaire uncluttered and easy to complete • Delicate questions last (especially demographic questions) • Design for easy tabulation • Design to achieve objectives • Define terms • Avoid double negatives (I haven't no money) • Avoid double barreled questions (this AND that) • Avoid loaded questions ("Have you stopped beating your wife?") explain the various measure of central tendency? In statistics, the general level, characteristic, or typical value that is representative of the majority of cases. Among several accepted measures of central tendency employed in data reduction, the most common are the arithmetic mean (simple average), the median, and the mode. FOR EXAMPLE, one measure of central tendency of a group of high school students is the average (mean) age of the students. Central tendency is a term used in some fields of empirical research to refer to what statisticians sometimes call "location". A "measure of central tendency" is either a location parameter or a statistic used to estimate a location parameter. Examples include: #Arithmetic mean, the sum of all data divided by the number of observations in the data set.#Median, the value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set.#Mode, the most frequent value in the data set. Measures of central tendency, or "location", attempt to quantify what we mean when we think of as the "typical" or "average" score in a data set. The concept is extremely important and we encounter it frequently in daily life. For example, we often want to know before purchasing a car its average distance per litre of petrol. Or before accepting a job, you might want to know what a typical salary is for people in that position so you will know whether or not you are going to be paid what you are worth. Or, if you are a smoker, you might often think about how many cigarettes you smoke "on average" per day. Statistics geared toward measuring central tendency all focus on this concept of "typical" or "average." As we will see, we often ask questions in psychological science revolving around how groups differ from each other "on average". Answers to such a question tell us a lot about the phenomenon or process we are studying Arithmetic Mean The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol mm is used for the mean of a population. The symbol MM is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for mm is shown below: m=SXN m S X N where SX S X is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and NN is the number of numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers 1+2+3+6+8=205=4 1 2 3 6 8 20 5 4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from the population. The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below. m=SXN=63431=20.4516 m S X N 634 31 20.4516 Number of touchdown passes 37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23 22 22 22 21 21 21 20 20 19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15 14 14 14 12 12 9 6

Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometic mean), it is by far the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is the arithmetic mean, the geometic mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean. Median The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of a distribution: the same number of scores are above the median as below it. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals 20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile. Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously in the module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in table 2. Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quiz

Student Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset 3 You 3 3 3 John's 3 4 2 Maria's 3 4 2 Shareecia's 3 4 2 Luther's 3 5 1

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and therefore in the upper half of the distribution. Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 22, 44, 77, 1212 is 4+72=5.5 4 7 2 5.5 . mode The mode is the most frequently occuring value. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same (see discussion of continuous variables). Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution. The Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the target response time data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval (650). Grouped frequency distribution

Range Frequency 500-600 3 600-700 6 700-800 5 800-900 5 900-1000 0 1000-1100 1 Trimean The trimean is computed by adding the 25th percentile plus twice the 50th percentile plus the 75th percentile and dividing by four. What follows is an example of how to compute the trimean. The 25th, 50th, and 75th percentile of the dataset "Example 1" are 51, 55, and 63 respectively. Therefore, the trimean is computed as: The trimean is almost as resistant to extreme scores as the median and is less subject to sampling fluctuations than the arithmetic mean in extremely skewed distributions. It is less efficient than the mean for normal distributions. . The trimean is a good measure of central tendency and is probably not used as much as it should be. Trimmed Mean A trimmed mean is calculated by discarding a certain percentage of the lowest and the highest scores and then computing the mean of the remaining scores. For example, a mean trimmed 50% is computed by discarding the lower and higher 25% of the scores and taking the mean of the remaining scores. The median is the mean trimmed 100% and the arithmetic mean is the mean trimmed 0%. A trimmed mean is obviously less susceptible to the effects of extreme scores than is the arithmetic mean. It is therefore less susceptible to sampling fluctuation than the mean for extremely skewed distributions. It is less efficient than the mean for normal distributions. Trimmed means are often used in Olympic scoring to minimize the effects of extreme ratings possibly caused by biased judges.

Introduction to Sociology

Sociology (from Latin: socius, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the study of", from Greek λόγος, lógos, "knowledge" [1]) is the scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture[2]. Areas studied in sociology can range from the analysis of brief contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social interaction. Numerous fields within the discipline concentrate on how and why people are organized in society, either as individuals or as members of associations, groups, and institutions. As an academic discipline, sociology is usually considered a branch of social science.

Sociological research provides educators, planners, lawmakers, administrators, developers, business leaders, and people interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy with rationales for the actions that they take.

Society

The term society is most fundamental to sociology. It is derived from the Latin word socius which means companionship or friendship. Companionship means sociability. According to George Simmel it is this element of sociability which defines the true essence of society. It indicates that man always lives in the company of other people. Man is a social animal said Aristotle centuries ago. Man needs society for his living, working and enjoying life. Society has become an essential condition for human life to continue. We can define society as a group of people who share a common culture, occupy a particular territorial area and feel themselves to constitute a unified and distinct entity. It is the mutual interactions and interrelations of individuals and groups.

Definitions of Society

August Comte the father of sociology saw society as a social organism possessing a harmony of structure and function.Emile Durkheim the founding father of the modern sociology treated society as a reality in its own right. According to Talcott Parsons Society is a total complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of the action in terms of means-end relationship intrinsic or symbolic.G.H Mead conceived society as an exchange of gestures which involves the use of symbols. Morris Ginsberg defines society as a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behavior. Cole sees Society as the complex of organized associations and institutions with a community. According to Maclver and Page society is a system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behavior and liberties. This ever changing complex system which is called society is a web of social relationship

Types of Societies

Writers have classified societies into various categories Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft of Tonnies, mechanical and organic solidarities of Durkheim, status and contract of Maine, and militant and industrial societies of Spencer. All these thinkers have broadly divided society into pre-industrial and post-industrial societies. Sociologists like Comte based their classification of societies on intellectual development. Most of them concede the evolutionary nature of society- one type leading to the other. One more way of dividing societies is that of Marx. His classification of society is based on the institutional framework of society as determined by a group of people who control the means of production. Marx distinguishes five principal types of societies: primitive, Asiatic, ancient, feudal and capitalist.

Following these classifications, sociologists often refer to societies as primitive or modern non- literate or literate. A more recent kind of classification which is also used while distinguishing societies into types is the one between open and closed societies. A closed society is the one which is a traditional and simple society or a totalitarian State tends to resist change, while an open society admits change.

None of these classifications is accurate; for every major type have number of sub-types. One type like the capitalist can be of various kinds like carboniferous type, finance capital, and the modern neo-colonial or multi-national type. Further, it is to be borne in mind that the chief task of a sociologist is not that of identifying societies but finding out whether a particular kind of society has the potential to nurture, defend and survive. Such a study alone can reveal the sociological aspects of societies and thereby facilitating understanding of societies as they are, and, if need be, activate the required changes. In other words, sociology based on values relies on objective analysis of societies. However, in recent years there have been several studies of what are variously called irrigation civilization or hydraulic societies. These studies have been related to the general study of bureaucracy, but little has yet been done in the way of large scale comparative work of various complex organized societies. It is not enough, however, to characterize pre-British India as an irrigation civilization with a centralized bureaucracy and a village system of production. The unity and stability of Indian society depended also upon two other factors, caste and religion. There, the aspect of caste to be emphasized is not so much its rigid hierarchical character and the way in which it divided groups from each other, as its integrating function, closely connected with religion. M.N. Srinivas, in a discussion of Indian social structure, observes that caste guarantees autonomy to a community into relation with numerous other communities all going to form a hierarchy. The importance of such an institution is obvious in a vast country like India which has been the meeting place of many different cultures in the past and which has always had considerable regional diversity. While the autonomy of a sub- caste was preserved it was also brought into relation with others and the hierarchy was also a scale of generally agreed values.

The work of K. Wittfoged suggests that many important similarities can be found, in ancient Egypt, in Byzantium and elsewhere especially in the social functions of the priests and in the elements and caste revealed in detailed regulation of the division of labor. Each human group develops its own social and political structure in terms of its own culture and history. There broad types of social structures may be distinguished. First, the tribal society represented by the social structures of African tribes second, the agrarian social structure represented by the traditional Indian society. And the third, the industrial social structure represented by the industrially advanced countries Europe and U.S.A. Sociologists also speak of yet another type, called post industrial society, which is emerging out of the industrial society.

Community

The term community is one of the most elusive and vague in sociology and is by now largely without specific meaning. At the minimum it refers to a collection of people in a geographical area. Three other elements may also be present in any usage. (1) Communities may be thought of as collections of people with a particular social structure; there are, therefore, collections which are not communities. Such a notion often equates community with rural or pre-industrial society and may, in addition, treat urban or industrial society as positively destructive. (2) A sense of belonging or community spirit. (3) All the daily activities of a community, work and non work, take place within the geographical area, which is self contained. Different accounts of community will contain any or all of these additional elements.

We can list out the characteristics of a community as follows:

1. Territory 2. Close and informal relationships 3. Mutuality 4. Common values and beliefs 5. Organized interaction 6. Strong group feeling 7. Cultural similarity

Talcott Parsons defined community as collectivity the members of which share a common territorial area as their base of operation for daily activities. According to Tonnies community is defined as an organic natural kind of social group whose members are bound together by the sense of belonging, created out of everyday contacts covering the whole range of human activities. He has presented ideal-typical pictures of the forms of social associations contrasting the solidarity nature of the social relations in the community with the large scale and impersonal relations thought to characterize industrializing societies. Kingsley Davis defined it as the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life. For Karl Mannheim community is any circle of people who live together and belong together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest only but a whole set of interests.

Association

Men have diverse needs, desires and interests which demand satisfaction. There are three ways of fulfilling these needs. Firstly they may act independently each in his own way without caring for others. This is unsocial with limitations. Secondly men may seek their ends through conflicts with one another. Finally men may try to fulfill their ends through cooperation and mutual assistance. This cooperation has a reference to association.

When a group or collection of individuals organize themselves expressly for the purpose of pursuing certain of its interests together on a cooperative pursuit an association is said to be born. According to Morris Ginsberg an association is a group of social beings related to one another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an organization with a view to securing a specific end or specific ends. The associations may be found in different fields. No single association can satisfy all the interests of the individual or individuals. Since Man has many interests, he organizes various associations for the purpose of fulfilling varied interests. He may belong to more than one organization.

Main characteristics of Association

Association: An association is formed or created by people. It is a social group. Without people there can be no association. It is an organized group. An unorganized group like crowd or mob cannot be an association.

Common interest: An association is not merely a collection of individuals. It consists of those individuals who have more or less the same interests. Accordingly those who have political interests may join political association and those who have religious interests may join religious associations and so on.

Cooperative spirit: An association is based on the cooperative spirit of its members. People work together to achieve some definite purposes. For example a political party has to work together as a united group on the basis of cooperation in order to fulfill its objective of coming to power.

Organization: Association denotes some kind of organization. An association is known essentially as an organized group. Organization gives stability and proper shape to an association. Organization refers to the way in which the statuses and roles are distributed among the members.

Regulation of relations: Every association has its own ways and means of regulating the relation of its members. Organization depends on this element of regulation. They may assume written or unwritten forms.

Association as agencies: Associations are means or agencies through which their members seek to realize their similar or shared interests. Such social organizations necessarily act not merely through leaders but through officials or representatives as agencies. Associations normally act through agents who are responsible for and to the association.

Durability of association: An association may be permanent or temporary. There are some long standing associations like the state; family, religious associations etc.Some associations may be temporary in nature.

Social Institutions

A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define institutions in the same way as does the person on the street. Lay persons are likely to use the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and many other things as institutions.

Sociologists often reserve the term "institution" to describe normative systems that operate in five basic areas of life, which may be designated as the primary institutions.

(1) In determining Kinship; (2) In providing for the legitimate use of power; (3) In regulating the distribution of goods and services; (4) In transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next; (5) in regulating our relation to the .

In shorthand form, or as concepts, these five basic institutions are called the family, government, economy, education and religion.

The five primary institutions are found among all human groups. They are not always as highly elaborated or as distinct from one another as into the United States, but, in rudimentary form at last, they exist everywhere. Their universality indicates that they are deeply rooted in human nature and that they are essential in the development and maintenance of orders. Sociologists operating in terms of the functionalist model society have provided the clearest explanation of the functions served by social institutions. Apparently there are certain minimum tasks that must be performed in all human groups.

Unless these tasks are performed adequately, the group will cease to exist. An analogy may help to make the point. We might hypothesize that cost accounting department is essential to the operation of a large corporation. A company might procure a superior product and distribute it then at the price which is assigned to it, the company will soon go out of business. Perhaps the only way to avoid this is to have a careful accounting of the cost of each step in the production and distribution process.

Culture

As Homo sapiens, evolved, several biological characteristics particularly favorable to the development of culture appeared in the species. These included erect posture; a favorable brain structure; stereoscopic vision; the structure of the hand, a flexible shoulder; and year round sexual receptivity on the part of the female. None of these biological characteristics alone, of course, accounts for the development of culture. Even in combination, all they guarantee is that human beings would be the most gifted members of the animal kingdom.

The distinctive human way of life that we call culture did not have a single definite beginning in time any more than human beings suddenly appearing on earth. Culture evolved slowly just as some anthropoids gradually took on more human form. Unmistakably, tools existed half a million years ago and might be considerably older. If, for convenience, we say that culture is 500,000 years old, it is still difficult day has appeared very recently.

The concept of culture was rigorously defined by E.B. Taylor in 1860s. According to him culture is the sum total of ideas, beliefs, values, material cultural equipments and non-material aspects which man makes as a member of society. Taylor's theme that culture is a result of human collectivity has been accepted by most anthropologists. Tylarian idea can be discerned in a modern definition of culture - culture is the man-made part of environment (M.J. Herskovits).

From this, it follows that culture and society are separable only at the analytical level: at the actual existential level, they can be understood as the two sides of the same coin. Culture, on one hand, is an outcome of society and, on the other hand, society is able to survive and perpetuate itself because of the existence of culture. Culture is an ally of man in the sense that it enhances man's adaptability to nature. It is because of the adaptive value of culture that Herskovits states that culture is a screen between man and nature. Culture is an instrument by which man exploits the environment and shapes it accordingly.

In showing affection, the Maori rub noses; the Australians rub faces; the Chinese place nose to cheeks; the Westerners kiss; some groups practice spitting on the beloved. Or, consider this; American men are permitted to laugh in public but not to cry; Iroquois men are permitted to do neither in public; Italian men are permitted to do both. Since this is true, physiological factors have little to do with when men laugh and cry and when they do not do either. The variability of the human experience simply cannot be explained by making reference to human biology, or to the climate and geography. Instead, we must consider culture as the fabric of human society.

Culture can be conceived as a continuous, cumulative reservoir containing both material and non-material elements that are socially transmitted from generation to generation. Culture is continuous because cultural patterns transcend years, reappearing in successive generations. Culture is cumulative because each generation contributes to the reservoir.

Marriage Types and Norms

Marriage is one of the universal social institutions established to control and regulate the life of mankind. It is closely associated with the institution of family.Infact both the institutions are complementary to each other. It is an institution with different implications in different cultures. Its purposes, functions and forms may differ from society to society but it is present everywhere as an institution. Westermarck in 'History of Human marriage' defines marriage as the more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring. According to Malinowski marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children. Robert Lowie describes marriage as a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates. For Horton and Hunt marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. The following are the different types of marriages

Polygyny:

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given time. It is of two types --- Sororal polygyny and non sororal polygyny

Sororal polygyny:

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is often called sororate.

Non-sororal polygyny:

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as sisters.

Polyandry:

It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man. It is less common than polygyny. It is of two types---- Fraternal Polyandry and non fraternal polyandry.

Fraternal polyandry:

When several share the same wife the practice can be called alelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual or potential to one's husband's brothers is called levirate. It is prevalent among Todas.

Non - fraternal polyandry:

In this type the husband need not have any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her ; the others have no claim over her.

Monogamy:

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman .It is the most common and acceptable form of marriage.

Serial monogamy:

In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the first spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time.

Straight monogamy:

In this remarriage is not allowed.

Group Marriage:

It means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Here the husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the entire group as a whole. which are various measure of dispersion, explain each of them? Answer: In many ways, measures of central tendency are less useful in statistical analysis than measures of dispersion of values around the central tendency The dispersion of values within variables is especially important in social and political research because:

• Dispersion or "variation" in observations is what we seek to explain. • Researchers want to know WHY some cases lie above average and others below average for a given variable: o TURNOUT in voting: why do some states show higher rates than others? o CRIMES in cities: why are there differences in crime rates? o CIVIL STRIFE among countries: what accounts for differing amounts? • Much of statistical explanation aims at explaining DIFFERENCES in observations -- also known as o VARIATION, or the more technical term, VARIANCE If everything were the same, we would have no need of statistics. But, people's heights, ages, etc., do vary. We often need to measure the extent to which scores in a dataset differ from each other. Such a measure is called the dispersion of a distribution Some measure of dispersion are 1) Range The range is the simplest measure of dispersion. The range can be thought of in two ways . 1. As a quantity: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. "The range of scores on the exam was 32." 2. As an interval; the lowest and highest scores may be reported as the range. "The range was 62 to 94," which would be written (62, 94). The Range of a Distribution Find the range in the following sets of data: NUMBER OF BROTHERS AND SISTERS

{ 2, 3, 1, 1, 0, 5, 3, 1, 2, 7, 4, 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 6, 3, 2, 0, 0, 7, 4, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 5, 12, 4, 2, 0, 5, 3, 0, 2, 2, 1, 1, 8, 2, 1, 2 } An outlier is an extreme score, i.e., an infrequently occurring score at either tail of the distribution. Range is determined by the furthest outliers at either end of the distribution. Range is of limited use as a measure of dispersion, because it reflects information about extreme values but not necessarily about "typical" values. Only when the range is "narrow" (meaning that there are no outliers) does it tell us about typical values in the data. 2) Percentile range Most students are familiar with the grading scale in which "C" is assigned to average scores, "B" to above-average scores, and so forth. When grading exams "on a curve," instructors look to see how a particular score compares to the other scores. The letter grade given to an exam score is determined not by its relationship to just the high and low scores, but by its relative position among all the scores. Percentile describes the relative location of points anywhere along the range of a distribution. A score that is at a certain percentile falls even with or above that percent of scores. The median score of a distribution is at the 50th percentile: It is the score at which 50% of other scores are below (or equal) and 50% are above. Commonly used percentile measures are named in terms of how they divide distributions. Quartiles divide scores into fourths, so that a score falling in the first quartile lies within the lowest 25% of scores, while a score in the fourth quartile is higher than at least 75% of the scores. Quartile Finder The divisions you have just performed illustrate quartile scores. Two other percentile scores commonly used to describe the dispersion in a distribution are decile and quintile scores which divide cases into equal sized subsets of tenths (10%) and fifths (20%), respectively. In theory, percentile scores divide a distribution into 100 equal sized groups. In practice this may not be possible because the number of cases may be under 100. A box plot is an effective visual representation of both central tendency and dispersion. It simultaneously shows the 25th, 50th (median), and 75th percentile scores, along with the minimum and maximum scores. The "box" of the box plot shows the middle or "most typical" 50% of the values, while the "whiskers" of the box plot show the more extreme values. The length of the whiskers indicate visually how extreme the outliers are. Below is the box plot for the distribution you just separated into quartiles. The boundaries of the box plot's "box" line up with the columns for the quartile scores on the histogram. The box plot displays the median score and shows the range of the distribution as well. By far the most commonly used measures of dispersion in the social sciences are Variance and standard deviation. Variance is the average squared difference of scores from the mean score of a distribution. Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. In calculating the variance of data points, we square the difference between each point and the mean because if we summed the differences directly, the result would always be zero. For example, suppose three friends work on campus and earn $5.50, $7.50, and $8 per hour, respectively. The mean of these values is $(5.50 + 7.50 + 8)/3 = $7 per hour. If we summed the differences of the mean from each wage, we would get (5.50-7) + (7.50-7) + (8-7) = -1.50 + .50 + 1 = 0. Instead, we square the terms to obtain a variance equal to 2.25 + .25 + 1 = 3.50. This figure is a measure of dispersion in the set of scores. The variance is the minimum sum of squared differences of each score from any number. In other words, if we used any number other than the mean as the value from which each score is subtracted, the resulting sum of squared differences would be greater. (You can try it yourself -- see if any number other than 7 can be plugged into the preceeding calculation and yield a sum of squared differences less than 3.50.) The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance. In some sense, taking the square root of the variance "undoes" the squaring of the differences that we did when we calculated the variance. Variance and standard deviation of a population are designated by and , respectively. Variance and standard deviation of a sample are designated by s2 and s, respectively. 4) Standard Deviation The standard deviation ( or s) and variance ( or s2) are more complete measures of dispersion which take into account every score in a distribution. The other measures of dispersion we have discussed are based on considerably less information. However, because variance relies on the squared differences of scores from the mean, a single outlier has greater impact on the size of the variance than does a single score near the mean. Some statisticians view this property as a shortcoming of variance as a measure of dispersion, especially when there is reason to doubt the reliability of some of the extreme scores. For example, a researcher might believe that a person who reports watching television an average of 24 hours per day may have misunderstood the question. Just one such extreme score might result in an appreciably larger standard deviation, especially if the sample is small. Fortunately, since all scores are used in the calculation of variance, the many non-extreme scores (those closer to the mean) will tend to offset the misleading impact of any extreme scores. The standard deviation and variance are the most commonly used measures of dispersion in the social sciences because: • Both take into account the precise difference between each score and the mean. Consequently, these measures are based on a maximum amount of information. • The standard deviation is the baseline for defining the concept of standardized score or "z- score". • Variance in a set of scores on some dependent variable is a baseline for measuring the correlation between two or more variables (the degree to which they are related).

Standardized Distribution Scores, or "Z-Scores" Actual scores from a distribution are commonly known as a "raw scores." These are expressed in terms of empirical units like dollars, years, tons, etc. We might say "The Smith family's income is $29,418." To compare a raw score to the mean, we might say something like "The mean household income in the U.S. is $2,232 above the Smith family's income." This difference is an absolute deviation of 2,232 emirical units (dollars, in this example) from the mean. When we are given an absolute deviation from the mean, expressed in terms of empirical units, it is difficult to tell if the difference is "large" or "small" compared to other members of the data set. In the above example, are there many families that make less money than the Smith family, or only a few? We were not given enough information to decide. We get more information about deviation from the mean when we use the standard deviation measure presented earlier in this tutorial. Raw scores expressed in empirical units can be converted to "standardized" scores, called z-scores. The z-score is a measure of how many units of standard deviation the raw score is from the mean. Thus, the z-score is a relative measure instead of an absolute measure. This is because every individual in the dataset affects value for the standard deviation. Raw scores are converted to standardized z-scores by the following equations: Population z-score Sample z-score where is the population mean, is the sample mean, is the population standard deviation, s is the sample standard deviation, and x is the raw score being converted. For example, if the mean of a sample of I.Q. scores is 100 and the standard deviation is 15, then an I.Q. of 128 would correspond to: = (128 - 100) / 15 = 1.87 For the same distribution, a score of 90 would correspond to: z = (90 - 100) / 15 = - 0.67 A positive z-score indicates that the corresponding raw score is above the mean. A negative z- score represents a raw score that is below the mean. A raw score equal to the mean has a z-score of zero (it is zero standard deviations away). Z-scores allow for control across different units of measure. For example, an income that is 25,000 units above the mean might sound very high for someone accustomed to thinking in terms of U.S. dollars, but if the unit is much smaller (such as Italian Lires or Greek Drachmas), the raw score might be only slightly above average. Z-scores provide a standardized description of departures from the mean that control for differences in size of empirical units. When a dataset conforms to a "normal" distribution, each z-score corresponds exactly to known, specific percentile score. If a researcher can assume that a given empirical distribution approximates the normal distribution, then he or she can assume that the data's z-scores approximate the z-scores of the normal distribution as well. In this case, z-scores can map the raw scores to their percentile scores in the data. As an example, suppose the mean of a set of incomes is $60,200, the standard deviation is $5,500, and the distribution of the data values approximates the normal distribution. Then an income of $69,275 is calculated to have a z-score of 1.65. For a normal distribution, a z-score of 1.65 always corresponds to the 95th percentile. Thus, we can assume that $69,275 is the 95th percentile score in the empirical data, meaning that 95% of the scores lie at or below $69,275. The normal distribution is a precisly defined, theoretical distribution. Empirical distributions are not likely to conform perfectly to the normal distribution. If the data distribution is unlike the normal distribution, then z-scores do not translate to percentiles in the "normal" way. However, to the extent that an empirical distribution approximates the normal distribution, z-scores do translate to percentiles in a reliable way.

define hypothesis-what are the nature, scope and testing of hypothesis? Answer: A tentative proposal made to explain certain observations or facts that requires further investigation to be verified. A hypothesis is a formulation of a question that lends itself to a prediction. This prediction can be verified or falsified. A question can only be use as scientific hypothesis, if their is an experimental approach or observational study that can be designed to check the outcome of a prediction. Nature of hypothesis N the various discussions of the hypothesis which have appeared in works on inductive logic and in writings on scientific method, its structure and function have received considerable attention, while its origin has been comparatively neglected. The hypothesis has generally been treated as that part of scientific procedure which marks the stage where a definite plan or method is proposed for dealing with new or unexplained facts. It is regarded as an invention for the purpose of explaining the given, as a definite conjecture which is to be tested by an appeal to experience to see whether deductions made in accordance with it will be found true in fact. The function of the hypothesis is to unify, to furnish a method of dealing with things, and its structure must be suitable to this end. It must be so formed that it will be likely to prove valid, and writers have formulated various rules to be followed in the formation of hypotheses. These rules state the main requirements of a good hypothesis, and are intended to aid in a general way by pointing out certain limits within which it must fall.

In respect to the origin of the hypothesis, writers have usually contented themselves with pointing out the kind of situations in which hypotheses are likely to appear. But after this has been done, after favorable external conditions have been given, the rest must be left to "genius," for hypotheses arise as "happy guesses," for which no rule or law can be given. In fact, the genius differs from the ordinary plodding mortal in just this ability to form fruitful

Hypotheses in the midst of the same facts which to other less gifted individuals remain only so many disconnected experiences. Hypothesis is to determine its nature a little more precisely through an investigation of its rather obscure origin, and to call attention to certain features of its function which have not generally been accorded their due significance. The scope hypothesis We should be surprised that language is as complicated as it is. That is to say, there is no reasonable doubt that a language with a context-free grammar, together with a transparent inductive characterization of the semantics, would have all of the expressive power of historically given natural languages, but none of the quirks or other puzzling features that we actually find when we study them. This circumstance suggests that the relations between apparent syntactic structure on the one hand and interpretation on the other --- the “interface conditions,” in popular terminology --- should be seen through the perspective of an underlying regularity of structure and interpretation that can be revealed only through extended inquiry, taking into consideration especially comparative data. Indeed, advances made especially during the past twenty-five years or so indicate that, at least over a broad domain, structures either generated from what is (more or less) apparent, or else underlying those apparent structures, display the kind of regularity in their interface conditions that is familiar to us from the formalized languages. The elements that I concentrate upon here are two: the triggering of relative scope (from the interpretive point of view), and the distinction between those elements that contribute to meaning through their contribution to reference and truth conditions, on the one hand, and those that do so through the information that they provide about the intentional states of the speaker or those the speaker is talking about, on the other. As will be seen, I will in part support Jaakko Hintikka’s view that the latter distinction involves scope too, but in a more derivative fashion than he has explicitly envisaged. TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis testing refers to the process of using statistical analysis to determine if the observed differences between two or more samples are due to random chance (as stated in the null hypothesis) or to true differences in the samples (as stated in the alternate hypothesis). A null hypothesis (H0) is a stated assumption that there is no difference in parameters (mean, variance, DPMO) for two or more populations. The alternate hypothesis (Ha) is a statement that the observed difference or relationship between two populations is real and not the result of chance or an error in sampling. Hypothesis testing is the process of using a variety of statistical tools to analyze data and, ultimately, to fail to reject or reject the null hypothesis. From a practical point of view, finding statistical evidence that the null hypothesis is false allows you to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Hypothesis testing is the use of statistics to determine the probability that a given hypothesis is true. The usual process of hypothesis testing consists of four steps.

1. Formulate the null hypothesis (commonly, that the observations are the result of pure chance) and the alternative hypothesis (commonly, that the observations show a real effect combined with a component of chance variation).

2. Identify a test statistic that can be used to assess the truth of the null hypothesis.

3. Compute the P-value, which is the probability that a test statistic at least as significant as the one observed would be obtained assuming that the null hypothesis were true. The smaller the - value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis.

4. Compare the -value to an acceptable significance value (sometimes called an alpha value). If , that the observed effect is statistically significant, the null hypothesis is ruled out, and the alternative hypothesis is valid. Flow Diagram 1 Identify the null hypothesis H0 and the alternate hypothesis HA.

2 Choose ?. The value should be small, usually less than 10%. It is important to consider the consequences of both types of errors.

3 Select the test statistic and determine its value from the sample data. This value is called the observed value of the test statistic. Remember that a t statistic is usually appropriate for a small number of samples; for larger number of samples, a z statistic can work well if data are normally distributed.

4 Compare the observed value of the statistic to the critical value obtained for the chosen ?.

5 Make a decision.

If the test statistic falls in the critical region:

Reject H0 in favour of HA. If the test statistic does not fall in the critical region: Conclude that there is not enough evidence to reject H0. Practical Example A) One tailed Test An aquaculture farm takes water from a stream and returns it after it has circulated through the fish tanks. The owner thinks that, since the water circulates rather quickly through the tanks, there is little organic matter in the effluent. To find out if this is true, he takes some samples of the water at the intake and other samples downstream the outlet, and tests for Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). If BOD increases, it can be said that the effluent contains more organic matter than the stream can handle. The data for this problem are given in the following table:

Table 3. BOD in the stream One tailed t-test : Upstream Downstream 6.782 9.063 5.809 8.381 6.849 8.660 6.879 8.405 7.014 9.248 7.321 8.735 5.986 9.772 6.628 8.545 6.822 8.063 6.448 8.001

1. A is the set of samples taken at the intake; and B is the set of samples taken downstream. o H0: ?B < ?A o HA: ?B > ?A 2. Choose an ?. Let us use 5% for this example. 3. The observed t value is calculated 4. The critical t value is obtained according to the degrees of freedom The resulting t test values are shown in this table: Table 4. t-Test : Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances Upstream Downstream Mean 6.6539 8.6874 Variance 0.2124 0.2988 Observations 10 10 Pooled Variance 0.2556 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 Degrees of freedom 18 t stat -8.9941 P(T The numerical value of the calculated t statistic is higher than the critical t value. We therefore reject H0 and conclude that the effluent is polluting the stream. what is a case study method? Briefly explain assumption and major steps in case study method. Answer: Case study research excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used the case study research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social scientists, in particular, have made wide use of this qualitative research method to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas and extension of methods. Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p. 23). Critics of the case study method believe that the study of a small number of cases can offer no grounds for establishing reliability or generality of findings. Others feel that the intense exposure to study of the case biases the findings. Some dismiss case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet researchers continue to use the case study research method with success in carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and problems. Reports on case studies from many disciplines are widely available in the literature. This paper explains how to use the case study method and then applies the method to an example case study project designed to examine how one set of users, non-profit organizations, make use of an electronic community network. The study examines the issue of whether or not the electronic community network is beneficial in some way to non-profit organizations and what those benefits might be. Many well- known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and suggested techniques for organizing and conducting the research successfully. This introduction to case study research draws upon their work and proposes six steps that should be used: • Determine and define the research questions

• Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques

• Prepare to collect the data • Collect data in the field • Evaluate and analyze the data • Prepare the report

Step 1. Determine and Define the Research Questions

The first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to which the researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex phenomenon or object. The researcher establishes the focus of the study by forming questions about the situation or problem to be studied and determining a purpose for the study. The research object in a case study is often a program, an entity, a person, or a group of people. Each object is likely to be intricately connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues, providing wide ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case study. The researcher investigates the object of the case study in depth using a variety of data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the case and answers the research questions. Case study research generally answers one or more questions which begin with "how" or "why." The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or conditions and their inter-relationships. To assist in targeting and formulating the questions, researchers conduct a literature review. This review establishes what research has been previously conducted and leads to refined, insightful questions about the problem. Careful definition of the questions at the start pinpoints where to look for evidence and helps determine the methods of analysis to be used in the study. The literature review, definition of the purpose of the case study, and early determination of the potential audience for the final report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, and publicly reported.

Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques During the design phase of case study research, the researcher determines what approaches to use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine in depth and which instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When using multiple cases, each case is treated as a single case. Each case?s conclusions can then be used as information contributing to the whole study, but each case remains a single case. Exemplary case studies carefully select cases and carefully examine the choices available from among many research tools available in order to increase the validity of the study. Careful discrimination at the point of selection also helps erect boundaries around the case. The researcher must determine whether to study cases which are unique in some way or cases which are considered typical and may also select cases to represent a variety of geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other parameters. A useful step in the selection process is to repeatedly refer back to the purpose of the study in order to focus attention on where to look for cases and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the study and answer the research questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key element, but a case study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis. For example, a case study may involve study of a single industry and a firm participating in that industry. This type of case study involves two levels of analysis and increases the complexity and amount of data to be gathered and analyzed. A key strength of the case study method involves using multiple sources and techniques in the data gathering process. The researcher determines in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data to answer the research questions. Data gathered is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to collect data can include surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and even the collection of physical artifacts. The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically and properly in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase, researchers must ensure that the study is well constructed to ensure construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Construct validity requires the researcher to use the correct measures for the concepts being studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or causal studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions and requires the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to uncover convergent lines of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a chain of evidence forward and backward. External validity reflects whether or not findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case or cases; the more variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can withstand and still yield the same findings, the more external validity. Techniques such as cross-case examination and within-case examination along with literature review helps ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy, and precision of measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the procedures used are well documented and can be repeated with the same results over and over again.

Step 3. Prepare to Collect the Data Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple sources, systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the researcher from becoming overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent the researcher from losing sight of the original research purpose and questions. Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis. Exemplary case studies prepare good training programs for investigators, establish clear protocols and procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a pilot study in advance of moving into the field in order to remove obvious barriers and problems. The investigator training program covers the basic concepts of the study, terminology, processes, and methods, and teaches investigators how to properly apply the techniques being used in the study. The program also trains investigators to understand how the gathering of data using multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing opportunities for triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for narrative reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents, and guidelines for field procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good listeners who can hear exactly the words being used by those interviewed. Qualifications for investigators also include being able to ask good questions and interpret answers. Good investigators review documents looking for facts, but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative evidence elsewhere when that seems appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-life situations and not feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments, or lack of office space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the study and grasp the issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators must also be aware that they are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened or unsure of what the case study will bring. After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a pilot site and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that problematic areas can be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to anticipate key problems and events, identify key people, prepare letters of introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and actively seek opportunities to revisit and revise the research design in order to address and add to the original set of research questions.

4. Collect Data in the Field The researcher must collect and store multiple sources of evidence comprehensively and systematically, in formats that can be referenced and sorted so that converging lines of inquiry and patterns can be uncovered. Researchers carefully observe the object of the case study and identify causal factors associated with the observed phenomenon. Renegotiation of arrangements with the objects of the study or addition of questions to interviews may be necessary as the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but when changes are made, they are documented systematically. Exemplary case studies use field notes and databases to categorize and reference data so that it is readily available for subsequent reinterpretation. Field notes record feelings and intuitive hunches, pose questions, and document the work in progress. They record testimonies, stories, and illustrations which can be used in later reports. They may warn of impending bias because of the detailed exposure of the client to special attention, or give an early signal that a pattern is emerging. They assist in determining whether or not the inquiry needs to be reformulated or redefined based on what is being observed. Field notes should be kept separate from the data being collected and stored for analysis. Maintaining the relationship between the issue and the evidence is mandatory. The researcher may enter some data into a database and physically store other data, but the researcher documents, classifies, and cross-references all evidence so that it can be efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over the course of the study.

Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to find linkages between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the original research questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process, the researcher remains open to new opportunities and insights. The case study method, with its use of multiple data collection methods and analysis techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions. The tactics used in analysis force researchers to move beyond initial impressions to improve the likelihood of accurate and reliable findings. Exemplary case studies will deliberately sort the data in many different ways to expose or create new insights and will deliberately look for conflicting data to disconfirm the analysis. Researchers categorize, tabulate, and recombine data to address the initial propositions or purpose of the study, and conduct cross-checks of facts and discrepancies in accounts. Focused, short, repeat interviews may be necessary to gather additional data to verify key observations or check a fact. Specific techniques include placing information into arrays, creating matrices of categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating frequency of events. Researchers use the quantitative data that has been collected to corroborate and support the qualitative data which is most useful for understanding the rationale or theory underlying relationships. Another technique is to use multiple investigators to gain the advantage provided when a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the patterns. When the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases. Conflicting perceptions, on the other hand, cause the researchers to pry more deeply. Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps investigators from reaching premature conclusions by requiring that investigators look at the data in many different ways. Cross-case analysis divides the data by type across all cases investigated. One researcher then examines the data of that type thoroughly. When a pattern from one data type is corroborated by the evidence from another, the finding is stronger. When evidence conflicts, deeper probing of the differences is necessary to identify the cause or source of conflict. In all cases, the researcher treats the evidence fairly to produce analytic conclusions answering the original "how" and "why" research questions.

Step 6. Prepare the report Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex issue into one that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and examine the study and reach an understanding independent of the researcher. The goal of the written report is to portray a complex problem in a way that conveys a vicarious experience to the reader. Case studies present data in very publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to apply the experience in his or her own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular attention to displaying sufficient evidence to gain the reader?s confidence that all avenues have been explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special attention to conflicting propositions. Techniques for composing the report can include handling each case as a separate chapter or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Some researchers report the case study as a story. During the report preparation process, researchers critically examine the document looking for ways the report is incomplete. The researcher uses representative audience groups to review and comment on the draft document. Based on the comments, the researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case study researchers suggest that the document review audience include a journalist and some suggest that the documents should be reviewed by the participants in the study.

Case studies are complex because they generally involve multiple sources of data, may include multiple cases within a study, and produce large amounts of data for analysis. Researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to provide a basis to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an object or phenomenon. The advantages of the case study method are its applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public accessibility through written reports. Case study results relate directly to the common reader?s everyday experience and facilitate an understanding of complex real-life situations.

Assumption of case study method

The case study method is based on several assumptions. The importance assumptions are explained below

Uniformity of human nature

The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human behavior may vary according to situations. This assumption underlines the collection of case data.

Nature history of the unit

The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned. It gives the background for the study

Comprehensive study

The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned

Applicability

Psychologist has stated that some statement about human broadly apply to each individual or to each member of a large group.

Homogeneity

According to cora dubois,an antraopologist, the case study is possible only because of certain basic homogeneity or similarity in evidenced in the mankind.

Major steps of case study method: I. Identify the case topic, setting, primary focus, and perspective.

II. Obtain relevant public background materials and knowledgeable informant insights.

III. Obtain access, approval, and clarify anonymity issues with key gatekeeper.

IV. Obtain relevant documents, minutes, reports and other appropriate materials.

V. Develop preliminary chronology of key events leading to controversy or decision and identify key players and issues.

VI. Consider varied perspective and sources of information and pedagogical purpose of the case.

VII. Develop interview protocol (key questions for various informants) and further information to collect. This will evolve further.

VIII. Conduct interviews and collect other documents, information and materials.

IX. Develop case outline and style of presentation.

X. Draft case. Obtain comment and feedback from key gatekeeper (and other students). Revise and finalize the case

Documentation: The documentary sources are important sources of information for a researcher. A document is anything in writing – a record, files or diaries, published or unpublished- which can be extracted and used in research. It is very valuable source of information for research either in management or in social science. it may comprises office files, business and legal papers, biographies, official and unofficial records, letters, proceedings of any courts ,committees, societies, assemblies and parliaments, enactments, constitution, reports of surveys or research of commissions, official statistics, newspapers editorials, special articles, company news, cases or company directors reports etc. documentation is the process of collecting and extracting the documents which relevant research.

Documents may be classified into

1) Personal documents: personal documents are those are written by or on behalf of individuals. They may include autobiographical, biographies diaries memories letters observations and inscriptions, which are primarily written for the use and satisfaction of individuals and which can be utilized for research purposes. Personal documents play a very vital role in research.

2) Company documents

3) Consultants report and published materials and 4) Public documents b) sources and tabulations It is the process of condensation of the data for convenience, in statistical processing, presentation and interpretation of the information.

A good table is one which has the following requirements :

1. It should present the data clearly, highlighting important details.

2. It should save space but attractively designed.

3. The table number and title of the table should be given.+

4. Row and column headings must explain the figures therein.

5. Averages or percentages should be close to the data.

6. Units of the measurement should be clearly stated along the titles or headings.

7. Abbreviations and symbols should be avoided as far as possible.

8. Sources of the data should be given at the bottom of the data.

9. In case irregularities creep in table or any feature is not sufficiently explained, references and foot notes must be given.

10. The rounding of figures should be unbiased.

"Classified and arranged facts speak of themselves, and narrated they are as dead as mutton" This quote is given by J.R. Hicks. The process of dividing the data into different groups ( viz. classes) which are homogeneous within but heterogeneous between themselves, is called a classification. It helps in understanding the salient features of the data and also the comparison with similar data. For a final analysis it is the best friend of a statistician. c) Classification and tabulation The data is classified in the following ways : 1. According to attributes or qualities this is divided into two parts :

(A) Simple classification

(B) Multiple classification.

2. According to variable or quantity or classification according to class intervals. -

Qualitative Classification : When facts are grouped according to the qualities (attributes) like religion, literacy, business etc., the classification is called as qualitative classification. (A) Simple Classification : It is also known as classification according to Dichotomy. When data (facts) are divided into groups according to their qualities, the classification is called as 'Simple Classification'. Qualities are denoted by capital letters (A, B, C, D ...... ) while the absence of these qualities are denoted by lower case letters (a, b, c, d, .... etc.)

(B) Manifold or multiple classification : In this method data is classified using one or more qualities. First, the data is divided into two groups (classes) using one of the qualities. Then using the remaining qualities, the data is divided into different subgroups. For example, the population of a country is classified using three attributes: sex, literacy and business

Classification according to class intervals or variables : The data which is expressed in numbers (quantitative data), is classified according to class-intervals. While forming class-intervals one should bear in mind that each and every item must be covered. After finding the least value of an item and the highest value of an item, classify these items into different class-intervals. For example if in any data the age of 100 persons ranging from 2 years to 47 years In deciding on the grouping of the data into classes, for the purpose of reducing it to a manageable form, we observe that the number of classes should not be too large. If it were so then the object of summarization would be defeated. The number of classes should also not be too small because then we will miss a great deal of detail available and get a distorted picture. As a rule one should have between 10 and 25 classes, the actual number depending on the total frequency. Further, classes should be exhaustive; they should not be overlapping, so that no observed value falls in more than one class. Apart from exceptions, all classes should have the same length. f) Scope of managerial research: Management Research (MR) is an international journal dedicated to advancing the understanding of management in private and public sector organizations through empirical investigation and theoretical analysis. MR attempts to provide an international dialogue between researchers and thereby improve the understanding of the nature of management in different settings and, consequently, achieve a reasonable transfer of research results to management practice in several contexts. MR is especially dedicated to foster the general advancement of management scholarship among iberoamerican scholars and/or those academics interested in iberoamerican issues. Iberoamerica is defined broadly to include all of Latin America, Latino populations in North America, and Spain/Portugal. However, submissions are encouraged from all management scholars regardless of ethnicity or national origin and manuscripts should not be limited to themes dealing with iberoamerican populations. MR is a multidisciplinary outlet open to contributions of high quality, from any perspective relevant to the field and from any country. MR intends to become a supranational journal which gives special attention to national and cultural similarities and differences world-wide. This is reflected by its international editorial board and publisher and its sponsorship by the Iberoamerican Academy of Management. MR is open to a variety of perspectives, including those that seek to improve the effectiveness of, as well, as those critical of, management and organizations. MR is receptive to research across a broad range of management topics such as human resource management, organizational behavior, organization theory, strategic management, corporate governance, and managerial economics. The management and organization contributions present in MR articles can also be grounded in the basic social disciplines of economics, psychology, or sociology. Articles can be empirical, theoretical or measurement oriented. Conceptual articles should provide new theoretical insights that can advance our understanding of management and organizations. Empirical articles should have well-articulated and strong theoretical foundations. All types of empirical methods -quantitative, qualitative or combinations- are acceptable. MR encourages the interplay between theorizing the empirical research in the belief that they should be mutually informative. MR is especially interested in new data sources. That includes models that test new theory and expand our sample pools by including alternative approaches to sampling and measurement and samples drawn from non-traditional sources (e.g., from iberoamerican firms), and the examination of the validity and reliability of such samples. MR publishes only original research as articles or research notes. Manuscripts will be considered for publication with the understanding that their contents are not under consideration for publication elsewhere. Prior presentation at conference or concurrent consideration for presentation at a conference does not disqualify a manuscript from consideration by MR.

Social Problems Faced by Women

Dowry

Max Radin has defined dowry as the property, which a man receives from his wife or her family at the time of his marriage. Dowry may be broadly defined as gifts and valuables received in marriage by the bride, the bridegroom and his relatives.

The amount of dowry is regulated by factors like boy's service and salary, social and economic status of the girl's father, the social prestige of the boy's family, educational qualifications of the girl and the boy, girl's working and her salary, girl's and boy's beauty and features, future prospects of economic security, size and the composition of the girl's and boy's family and factors like that. What is significant is that girl's parents give her money and gifts not only at the time of her wedding but they continue to give gifts to her husband's family throughout the life.

McKim Marriott holds that the feeling behind this is that one's daughter and sister at marriage become the helpless possession of an alien kinship group and to secure her good treatment, lavish hospitality must be offered to her in-laws from time to time.

One of the causes of dowry is the desire and aspiration of every parent to marry his daughter in a higher and a rich family to keep up or to add to his prestige and also to prove comforts and security to the daughter. The high marriage- market values of the boys belonging to rich and high social status families have swelled the amount of dowry.

Other cause of the existence of dowry is that giving dowry is a social custom and it is very difficult to change customs all of a sudden. The feeling is that practicing customs generates and strengthens solidarity and cohesiveness among people.

Many people give and take dowry only because their parents and ancestors had been practicing it. Custom has stereotyped the old dowry system and till some rebellious youth muster courage to abolish it and girls resist social pressures to give it, people will stick to it. Amongst Hindus, marriage in the same caste and sub-caste has been prescribed by the social and religious practices with the result that choice of selecting a mate is always restricted. This results in the paucity of young boys who have high salaried jobs or promising careers in the profession.

They become scarce commodities and their parents demand huge amount of money from the girl's parents to accept her as their daughter-in-law, as if girls and chattel for which the bargain has to be made. Nevertheless, their scarcity is exacerbated and aggravated by the custom of marriage in the same caste.

A few people give more just to exhibit their high social and economic status. Jains and Rajputs, for example, spend lakhs of rupees in the marriage of their just to show their high status or keep their prestige in the society even if they have to borrow money.

The most important cause of accepting dowry by the grooms' parents is that they have to give dowry to their daughters and sisters. Naturally, they look to the dowry of their sons to meet their obligations in finding husbands for their daughters.

For instance, an individual who may be against the dowry system is compelled to accept fifty to sixty thousand rupees in cash in dowry only because he has to spend an equal amount in his sister's or daughter's marriage. The vicious circle starts and the amount of dowry goes on increasing till it assumes a scandalous proportion.

Child Marriages

Many people marry their daughters in childhood to escape from dowry, and pre-puberty marriage is an evil in itself. On maturity, the boys may or may not be able to adjust with their wives. This crisis situation is by no means left behind after the child marriage is consummated on attaining maturity. If by chance a husband becomes educated or professionally trained and his wife remains uneducated, both partners face crises.

Death During Childbirth

Early marriage exposes women to longer childbearing period. This means greater health hazards to women and children. Several studies show that teenaged mothers risk to health for both themselves and their children. This risk is further enhanced by poor nutrition.

Various surveys indicate that women's caloric content is about 100 calories (per women per day) less than they spend, whereas men show an 800 caloric surplus intake. Women expend a great deal of energy working inside and outside the house, whereas they often have insufficient food.

Customarily they often eat after the men and other members of the family have eaten. The lack of knowledge and improper care during postnatal period, and frequent pregnancies lead to larger fetal wastage, birth of larger number of low eight babies, and death of young women. Neglect During Early Childhood

The neglect of the girl child starts very early in life. The extent of neglect varies from family to family depending on their economic position. But in comparison to her male counterpart a female child is relatively neglected in most of the socioeconomic strata.

Throughout the country it has been noticed that when the girl child depends on breast-feeding the chances of her survival are relatively more.

Data from various sources shows that from infancy till the age of 15 the death rate for female child far exceeds the mortality rate for male child. There are several causes underlying this. Firstly, the female children are breast fed for a far shorter period than their male counterparts.

Secondly, during illness parents show a greater concern towards male children. This neglect is quite often enforced by poor economic condition. Finally, in addition to the intake of insufficient and non-nutritious food the female child is exposed to a greater workload very early in life.

Often in families of weaker economic strength the girl child is found attending the household chores as well as taking care of her younger brothers and sisters.

Atrocities on Women

Male violence against women is a worldwide phenomenon. Although not every woman has experienced it, and many expect not to, fear of violence is an important factor in the lives of most women. It determines what they do, when they do it, where they do it, and with whom.

Fear of violence is a cause of women's lack of participation in activities beyond the home, as well as inside it. Within the home, women and girls may be subjected to physical and sexual abuse as punishment or as culturally justified assaults. These acts shape their attitude to life, and their expectations of themselves

There are various forms of crime against women. Sometimes, it begins even before their birth, sometimes in the adulthood and other phrases of life. In the Indian society, the position of women is always perceived in relation to the man, from birth onwards and at every stage of life, she is dependent on him.

This perception has given birth to various social customs and practices. One important manifestation of these customs and practices has been that of . It is seen as a pinnacle of achievement for a woman. This custom of self-immolation of the widow on her husband's pyre was an age-old practice in some parts of the counter, which received deification.

The popular belief ran that the enters into the body of the woman who resolves to become a sati. The practice of sati has been abolished by law with the initiative of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in the early decades of nineteenth century. However, there has been a significant revival of the practice of sati in the last few decades. Indeed, Rajasthan has been the focal point for this practice in recent years.

Violence against women both inside and outside of their home has been a crucial issue in the contemporary Indian society. Women in India constitute near about half of its population and most of them are grinding under the socio-cultural and religious structures. One gender has been controlling the space of the India's social economic, political and religious fabric since time immemorial

The condition of widows is one of the most neglected social issues in India. Because of widowhood the quality of life is lowered for many Indian women. Three percent of all Indian women are widows and on an average, mortality rate is 86 percent higher among elderly widows in comparison to married women of the same age group.

Various studies indicated that (i) legal rights of widows are violated, (ii) they suffer forceful social isolation, (iii) they have limited freedom to marry, (iv) restrictive employment opportunities for widows, (v) most widows get little economic support from their family or from the community.

It is common to read news about violation or wrongs committed on women everyday. Our orthodox society is so much prejudiced by age-old habits and customs that a violated woman, whether she is forced or helpless, has no place in the society.

Another danger in India is that, Indian law does not differentiate between major and minor rape. In every ten-rape case, six are of minor girls. In every seven minutes a crime is committed against women in India. Every 26 minutes a woman is molested. Every 34 minutes a rape takes place.

Every 42 minutes a sexual harassment incident occurs. Every 43 minutes a woman is kidnapped. And every 93 minutes a woman is burnt to death over dowry. One-quarter of the reported involve girls under the age of 16 but the vast majority are never reported. Although the penalty is severe, convictions are rare. Marriage Legislation

In March 1961, when the bill on unequal marriages was being discussed in the Rajya Sabha, one member quoted epic against its inclusion in the institution of Hindu marriage. Dr. Radhakrishnan, the then chairman of the Rajya Sabha, had remarked: the ancient history cannot solve the problems of modern society. This is an answer in one sentence to those critics who want to maintain a gap between social opinion and social legislation.

Legislation must meet the social needs of the people; and because the social needs change, legislation also must change from time to time. The function of social legislation is to adjust the legal system continually to a society, which is constantly outgrowing that system. The gulf between the current needs of the society and the old laws must be bridged. The laws have got to give recognition to certain de facto changes in society. One of the changes in modern India is the change in the attitude towards marriage; hence the necessity of laws on different aspects of marriage.

The laws enacted in India relate to: (i) age at marriage (ii) field of mate selection, ii) number of in marriage, (iv) breaking of marriage, (v) dowry to be given and taken, and (vi) remarriage.

The important legislations relating to these six aspects of marriage passed from time to time are: (i) The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (dealing with age at marriage), (ii) The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act 1946 and Hindu Marriage Validity Act, 1949 (dealing with field of mate selection), (iii) The Special Act. 1954 (dealing with age at marriage, freedom to children in marriage without parental consent, bigamy, and breaking up of marriage), (iv) the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (dealing with age at marriage with the consent of parents bigamy, and breaking up of marriage) (v) The Dowry Act 1961, and (vi) The Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929

It came into force on April 1, 1930. It restrains the marriage of a child, though the marriage itself is not declared void. Accordingly, contracting, performing and facilitating the marriage of boys under eighteen and girls less than fourteen years of age were an offence.

The age of girls was later on raised to fifteen years. The amendment made in 1978 further rose the age for boys to twenty-one years and for girls to eighteen years. The violation of the Act prescribes penalty but the marriage itself remains valid.

The offence under the Act is non-cognizable and provides punishment for the bridegroom, parent, guardian, and the priest, which are three months of simple imprisonment and a fine of up to Rs. 1000.

No woman is, however, punishable with imprisonment under this Act. The Act also provides for the issue of injunction order prohibiting the child marriage. But no action can be taken for the offence if a period of more than one year has expired from the date of the alleged marriage.

The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act,1946

Among Hindus, no marriage is valid between persons related to each other within the prohibited degrees, unless such marriage is sanctioned by custom. However, this Act validated marriages between persons belonging to the same gotra or parivara (agnatic groups). This Act now stands repealed after the passing of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

This Act came into force from May 18, 1955 and applies to whole of India, except Jammu and Kashmir. The word Hindu in the Act includes Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists and the Scheduled Castes.

The conditions for marriage between any two Hindus as provided in the Act are:

(i) neither party has a spouse living; (ii) neither party is an idiot or lunatic; (iii) the groom must have completed eighteen years age and the bride fifteen years age. The amendment in the Act made in 1978 has raised this age to twenty-one years for boys and eighteen years for girls (iv) the parties should not be within the degrees of prohibited relationships, unless the custom permits the marriage between the two; (v) the parties should not be sapindas of each other unless the custom permits the marriage between the two; (vi) where the bride is under eighteen years of age and the groom is under twenty-one years of age the consent of her/his guardian in marriage must have been obtained.

The persons whose consent may be obtained in order of preference are: father, mother, paternal grandfather, paternal grandmother, brother paternal uncle, maternal, maternal grandmother and maternal uncle. No particular form of solemnization is prescribed by the Act. The parties are free to solemnize the marriage in accordance with the customary rites and ceremonies. The Act permits judicial separation as well as annulment of marriage.

Either party can seek judicial separation on any one of the four grounds; desertion for a continuous of two years, cruel treatment, leprosy, and adultery.

The annulment of marriage may be on any one of the following four grounds:

(i) the spouse must have been impotent at the time of marriage and continues to be so until the institution of the proceedings, (ii) party to the marriage was an idiot or lunatic at the time of marriage, (iii) consent of the petitioner or of the guardian was obtained by force or fraud. However, the petition presented on this ground will not be entertained after one years of marriage, and (iv) the wife was pregnant by some person other than the petitioner at the time of marriage.

The dissolution of marriage may be on the grounds of adultery, conversion of religion, unsound mind, leprosy, venereal disease, renunciation, desertion for seven years, and cohabitation not resumed after two years after judicial separation.

A wife may also apply for divorce if her husband had already a wife before marriage, and he is guilty of rape or bestiality. The 1986 amendment permits divorce on the ground of incompatibility and mutual consent also. The petition for dissolution of marriage can be submitted to the court only when three years have elapsed after marriage.

This period has, however, been reduced to one year after the 1986 amendment. The divorcees cannot remarry till one year elapses since the decree of divorce. The Act also provides for the maintenance allowance during judicial separation and alimony after divorce. Not only wife but also husband can also claim the maintenance allowances.

The Special Marriage Act, 1954

This Act came into force on April 1, 1955. It repealed the Special Marriage Act, 1872 which provided a form of marriage for those who did not wish to conform to the existing forms. The 1872 Act provided that persons wishing to marry (under the Act) had to declare that they did not profess Hindu, Jain, Sikh, Muslim, Parsis, Christian or any other religion.

In 1923, an amendment was made in the Act under which a person wanting to marry (under the Act) had not to give any such declaration. Each party was simply required to make a declaration that it professed one or other religion.

The Act, thus, recognized inter-religion marriages. The conditions pertaining to age, living spouse, prohibited relationship and mental state as prescribed by the 1954 Act for marriage are the same as provided in the 1955 Act. Under the 1954 Act, a marriage officer solemnizes the marriage.

The parties have to notify him at least a month before the marriage date. One of the parties must have resided in the district in which the marriage officer's office is located.

During this one month, any person can raise objection against the marriage. If the marriage is not solemnized within three months from the date of notice, a fresh notice is required. Presence of two witnesses is necessary at the time of marriage. This Act also provides for the annulment of marriage, judicial separation, as well as divorce and alimony. The grounds for these are the same as provided in the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.

Hindu Widows Remarriage Act, 1856

From period onwards, widows were not permitted to remarry. According to Manu, a widow who marries again brings disgrace on herself; she should, therefore, be excluded from the seat of her lord. The 1856 Act removed all legal obstacles to the marriage of Hindu widows.

The object was to promote good morals and public welfare. The Act declares that the remarriage of a widow whose husband is dead at the time of her second marriage is valid and no issue of such marriage will be illegitimate.

In case the remarrying widow is a minor whose marriage has not been consummated, the consent of father, mother, grandfather, and elder brother or nearest male relative is required. Any marriage contracted without such consent is void. However, if the marriage has been consummated, it will not be declared void. The Act forfeits the widow her right of maintenance out of the estate of her first husband.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

This Act was passed on May 20, 1961. The Act does not apply to Muslims. It permits exchange of gifts for not more than Rs. 2,000. It prescribes the penalty of six month's imprisonment or a fine up to Rs. 5,000 or both for its violation. The police, on its own, cannot take any action for the violation of the Act unless some complaint is lodged with it. No action can be taken after one year of marriage.

Socio-Economic Programme

Under this programme, the Central Social Welfare Board gives financial assistance to voluntary organizations for undertaking a wide variety of income-generating activities which include the production of central components in ancillaries units, handlooms, handicrafts, agro-based activities such as animal husbandry sericulture and fisheries and self-employment ventures like vegetables or fish-vending, etc.

For production units, only women organization and organizations working for the handicapped women cooperatives and institution like jails, and Nariniketans, are eligible for grants to the extent of 85 percent of the project cost and the remaining 15 percent is to be met by the grantee institutions.

The dairy scheme focuses exclusively on women's organizations having at least 20 women members, including Mahila Mandals, Indira Mahila Kendras, Self Help Groups and organizations already assisted under STEP schemes. The benefits of the scheme are meant for women whose families are below the poverty line. Rural women's Development and Employment Project

The Rural Women's Development and Empowerment Project (now also being called "SWA- SAKTI Project" has been sanctioned on 16 October 1998 as a Centrally-sponsored project for five years at an estimated outlay of Rs. 186.21 crore. In addition, an amount of Rs. Five crore is to be provided, over the project period but outside the project outlay, for facilitating setting up in the project States of revolving funds for giving interest-bearing loans to beneficiary groups primarily during their initial formative stage.

The objectives of the project are (i) Establishment of self-reliant women's self-help-groups (SHGs) between 7,400 and 12,000 having 15-20 members each, which will improve the quality of their lives, through greater access to and control over, resources; (ii) Sensitizing and strengthening the institutional capacity of support agencies to proactively address women's needs; (iii) Developing linkages between SHGs and leading institutions to ensure women's continued access to credit facilities for income generation activities; (iv) Enhancing women's access to resources for better quality of life, including those for drudgery reduction and time-saving devices; and (v) Increased control of women, particularly poor women, over income and spending, through their involvement in income generating activities.

The implementing agencies will be the Women's Development Corporation of the concerned States of Bihar, Haryana, and Karnataka; Gujarat Women's Economic Development Corporation in Gujarat; M.P. Mahila Arthik Vikas Nigam in Madhya Pradesh and Mahila Kalyan Nigam in Uttar Pradesh, who will actively associate NGOs in the implementation tasks. The Government of India in the form of grant-in-aid will provide funds.

At the Central level, the Department of Women and Child Development, assisted by the Central Project Support Unit (CPSU), handle the project. NIPCCD has been identified as the Lead Training Agency, while Agricultural Finance Corporation has been contracted as the Lead Monitoring and Evaluation Agency. Both of them work in close liaison with the CPSU, under the directions of the Department.

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA)

Development of Women and Children in Rural Area Programme (DWCRA) was started in September 1982 in the form of a sub-plan of Integrated Rural Development Programme. The main aim of this programme was to provide proper self-employment opportunities to the women of those rural families who are living below the poverty line, so that their social and economic standard could be improved.

The main points of this programme are as under:

1. Under this programme, the policy of making a group of 10-15 women has been adopted corresponding to the local resources, their own choices and skills to complete the economic activities.

2. The targeted women are financed by the loans and subsidies under IRDP.

3. Since 1995-96, Revolving Fund of Rs. 25,000 has been provided to each women group for meeting their working capital requirements. 4. The amount of the Revolving Fund was being shared by the Central Government, the State Government and UNICEF in the ratio of 40:40:20. Since 1 Jan. 1996 UNICEF has refused to contribute its share. That is why, now the ratio of 50:50 is being shared between the Centre and the State Government.

5. The District Rural Development Agency has the responsibility of implementing the DWCRA plan.

6. Since 1995-96 the childcare activities have also been included under DWCRA programme. For this purpose, each district has been allotted an amount of Rs. 1.50 lakh p.a. In this, the share of the Central Government will be Rs. 1 lakh and remaining Rs. 50,000 will be the share of the State Government.

7. In order to encourage the projects of DWCRA in the rural area, CAPART extends its support to the voluntary institutions also.

8. During the Sixth plan, 3,308 women group were formed under this programmes and the total number of members was 52,170. In the Seventh plan, 28,031 women groups were formed and the total number of members was 4.70 lakhs. During Eighth plan, 1, 41,397 women groups were formed with total membership of 22.67 lakh. During 1997-98, 36,436 lakh women were benefited. During 1998-99, 19,657 groups were formed in which 2.35 Lakh women were benefited. Upto March 31, 1999, 38.04 lakh women were benefited under DWCRA since its inception. Since April, 1, 1999 DWCRA has been merged with newly introduced scheme namely Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana.

Indira Mahila Yojna

The Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY) aims at organizing at the grass-root level to facilitate their participation in decision-making and their empowerment was launched on 20 August 1995, to start with, in 200 ICDS blocks. The strength of the scheme lies in the strength of group dynamics.

The objectives of the scheme are: convergence of the schemes of every sectoral department; awareness generation among the women from rural areas and urban slums; and economic empowerment of women.

Balika Samriddhi Yojana

The Balika Samriddhi Yojana (BSY) is a scheme to raise the status of the girl child. The first component of the scheme of BSY was launched with effect from 2 October 1997. Under this, the mother of a girl child born on or after 15 August 1997 in family living below the poverty line was given a grant of Rs. 500. The benefits and means of delivery have been redesigned in the current financial years.

The post-delivery grant of Rs. 500 per girl child (up to two girls in a family living below the poverty line) will be deposited in bank account in the name of the girl child or in a post office if there is no bank nearby.

In the same account will be deposited annual scholarships ranging from Rs. 300 for class I to Rs. 1,000 for class X when the girl starts going to school. The matured value of the deposits (along with interest) will be repayable to the girl on her attaining the age of 18 years and having remained unmarried till then.

National Commission for Women

The National Commission for Women was set up on 31 January 1992 in pursuance of the National Commission for Women Act 1990.

The functions assigned to the Commission are wide and varied covering almost all facets of issues relating to safeguarding women's rights and promotion. The Commission has a Chairman, five members and a Member Secretary, all nominated by the Central government. The Commission continues to pursue its mandated activities, namely, review of legislation, interventions in specific individual complaints of atrocities and remedial action to safeguard the interest of women where appropriate and feasible.

The Commission has accorded highest priority to securing speedy justice to women. Towards this end, the Commission is organizing Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats, offering counseling in family disputes and conducting training programmes for creating legal awareness among women. Plan of Action to Combat Sexual Exploitation of Women and Children

The Supreme Court in a case passed an order on 9 July 1997, directing interalia the constituting of a committee to make an in-depth study of the problem of prostitution, child prostitutes and children of prostitutes and to evolve suitable schemes for their rescue and rehabilitation.

Accordingly the Committee on Prostitution, Child Prostitutes and Children of Prostitutes of commercial sexual exploitation and trafficking of women and children and children of the women victims was constituted to evolve such schemes as are appropriate and consistent with the directions given by the Supreme Court.

A draft plan of Action prepared by the Committee has been approved in a meeting chaired by the Hon'ble Prime Minister. The Plan of Action would guide the actions of the Ministries/ Departments of the Central government, NGOs, the public and private sectors and other sections of society.

The Plan of Action consists of action points grouped under prevention, trafficking, awareness generation and social mobilization, health care services, education and childcare, housing, shelter and civic amenities, economic empowerment, legal reforms and law enforcement, rescue and rehabilitation, institutional machinery and methodology.

The report of the Committee and the plan of Action to combat trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation of women and children have been sent to the concerned Central Ministries/ Departments and State governments/ UT administrations for implementation of the action points. National Women Fund

In 1992-93 a National Women Fund was established to meet the loan requirements of the poor women. This fund was established in the form of a society under the Society Registration Act by a collected sum of 31 crore rupees. This fund has given help to more than 250 non-government organizations. Women and Children Development Minister of State is the ex-official chairman of this fund.

Mahila Samridhi Yojana With the objective of providing economic security to the rural women and to encourage, the saving habit among them, the Mahila Samridhi Yojna was started on 2 October 1993. Under this plan, the rural women of 18 years of above age can open their saving account in the rural post office of their own area with a minimum Rs. 4 or its multiplier.

On the amount not withdrawn for 1 year, 25% of the deposited amount is given to the depositor by the government in the form of encouragement amount. Such accounts opened under the scheme account opened under the scheme are provided 25% bonus with a maximum of Rs. 300 every year.

Up to 31 March 1997 2.45 crore accounts were opened under this scheme with a total collection of Rs. 265.09 crore. The Department of Women and Child Development, the nodal agency for MSY, decided in April 1997 that now new MSY accounts should be opened from 1 April 1997 onwards but the existing account could be maintained.