Local Cross-Border Cooperation As a Territorial Strategy for Peripheral Borderlands?

Matteo Berzi: Local Cross-Border Cooperation as a Territorial Strategy for Peripheral Borderlands?

Local Cross-Border Cooperation as a Territorial Strategy for Peri- - pheral Borderlands? The Analysis of Two Study Cases along the Matteo Berzi: Local Cross-Border Cooperation as a Territo rial Strategy for Peripheral Borderlands? Eastern French-Spanish Border Using the Territorialist Approach.

Matteo Berzi

Abstract Zusammenfassung Örtliche grenzüberschreitende Zusammenarbeit als Ter- ritorialstrategie für Grenzregionen? Untersuchung von This contribution applies the Territorialist Approach (TA) in zwei Fallstudien entlang der östlichen Grenze zwischen order to analyse cross-border cooperation in two areas located - Frankreich und Spanien unter Verwendung des territori- along the Eastern French-Spanish border. TA is an innovative, alen Ansatzes multi-disciplinary and culturally oriented approach for territo - rial studies, which is rooted in the Italian school of geography. - According to this approach, “territory” is perceived as the result Der Beitrag befasst sich mit dem Territorialansatz in der Rau - - of a longstanding cyclical process of interaction between hu mentwicklung zur Untersuchung der grenzübergreifenden man settlements and the environment, whereby each civiliza Zusammenarbeit in zwei Gebieten an der östlichen franzö - tion ‘stores’ a set of tangible (artefacts) as well as intangible sisch-spanischen Grenze. Es ist ein neuer, fachübergreifender (meanings, values and symbols) assets that drive local relations und kulturorientierter Ansatz für Studien zur Raumentwick - and shape the local identity (the milieu). Therefore, we regard lung, der seine Wurzeln in der italienischen Geographieschule cross-border territories as complex territorial units, wherein hat. Danach ist „Territorium“ das Ergebnis eines lange wäh - - geographical, socioeconomic and cultural patterns have been renden zyklischen Prozesses des Zusammenspiels zwischen - affected by the evolution of border functions and by the chang menschlichen Siedlungen und der Umgebung, wobei jede Zivi es in national, international and sub-national policies. In this lisation eine Reihe von materiellen (Artefakte) und immateri milieu sense, local cross-border networks, both formal and informal, ellen (Bedeutungen, Werte und Symbole) Werten bewahrt, die - contribute in keeping a shared local . At the same time, die lokalen Beziehungen fördert und die lokale Identität (das - in Europe, local Cross-Border Cooperation (CBC) is boosted by Milieu) formt. Deshalb sehen wir Grenzregionen als komplizier European integration processes by means of political, financial te räumliche Einheiten, in denen geographische, sozio-ökono - and legal support. It represents an opportunity for local agents mische und kulturelle Verhaltensmuster durch die Entwicklung - to develop joint actions for the endogenous enhancement of the von Grenzfunktionen und Veränderungen der nationalen, in borderland. In this sense, the local milieu represents a very im ternationalen und regionalen Politik beeinflusst worden sind. portant factor for generating local development. The two case Sowohl formelle als auch informelle grenzüberschreitende - studies were conducted in Cerdanya and the Coast of Albera Netzwerke tragen zur Erhaltung eines gemeinsamen lokalen - Marítima (CAM). Our analysis on Cerdanya demonstrates how Milieus bei. In Europa wird die grenzüberschreitende Zusam - community-led initiatives, which are based on local needs and menarbeit durch politische, finanzielle und rechtliche Förder the shared territorial capital, represent a feasible alternative for maßnahmen gestärkt. Sie bietet für lokale Vermittler eine Mög local development. The case of the Albera is geographically even lichkeit zum Ausbau gemeinsamer Maßnahmen zur endogenen - more peripheral, wherein the absence of stable cross-border Stärkung des Grenzgebiets. Die Untersuchung zu Cerdanya local networks, on the one hand, and of feasible CBC projects, zeigt, wie von der Gemeinde geleitete Initiativen, die auf loka on the other, exacerbates its geographic remoteness and the len Bedürfnissen und dem gemeinsamen räumlichen Kapital anthropic pressures on the fragile coastal environment. beruhen, eine machbare Alternative zur lokalen Entwicklung Cross-Border Cooperation; Borderland; Territorialistic Approach; - darstellen. Die Küste von Albera Marítima (CAM) dagegen liegt Cerdanya; Albera Marítima; Milieu; Local endogenous develop- geographisch eher abseits, wobei das Fehlen grenzübergrei ment fender lokaler Netzwerke einerseits und machbarer Projekte der grenzübergreifenden Zusammenarbeit andererseits seine geographische Abseitslage und den anthropischen Druck auf die sensible Küstenregion verschärfen. Grenzübergreifende Zusammenarbeit; Grenzland; Territorialer Ansatz; Cerdanya; Albera Marítima; Milieu; lokale endogene Ent- wicklung 9 Europa Regional 24, 2016 (2017) I 1-2

Introduction - - milieu - conditions of living on the border and the two case studies are analysed to iden This contribution aims to show the ap develop economic, cultural and political tify the common of the two border plication of the “Territorialist Approach” cross-border neighbouring interactions. lands and assess the involvement of local - local mi- (TA) to two borderlands located across Local agents cooperate in order to face actors in CBC. These elements lead to the lieu the Franco-Spanish border. TA is an inno common needs, enhance their comparative discussion and some final vative and culturally oriented approach and design joint territorial actions remarkable conclusions regarding the - for territorial studies that began in the (Perkmann 2003). Since the 1990s, the application of TA in the borderlands. A Territorialist Approach to Border- mid-1980s and was developed by an in EU’s cohesion policies are supporting lands ternational and interdisciplinary group of this kind of interaction by means of the scholars. In 2010 this multi-disciplinary Interreg programmes, and more recently - group founded the Territorialist Society, by introducing the European Grouping of The first section discusses the theoretical which is a non-profit organisation that Territorial Cooperation (EGTC), a specific approach. It briefly starts with some back 1 - encourages scientific discussions on the cross-border legal framework . ground considerations about the current - theoretical and methodological focus on The hypothesis argued in this contribu expansion of border studies and focuses territory. According to their manifesto, tion is that new cycles of local cross-bor on the institutionalisation of CBC in the - the “territory” is conceived as a highly der re-territorialisation could begin along European Union. The concept of territory “ complex living system, resulting from a the EU borderlands, according to histori is therefore explained according to the - long standing coevolutionary processes cal and geographical contexts. Two case Territorialist Approach and it is adapted between human settlements and the en studies located along the eastern French- to the real conditions of borderlands. ” The Border Studies Background vironment” … “constantly transformed by Spanish border have been selected for - the cultural project of each civilization a comparative analysis. These are the (Magnaghi 2011, p. 3). The processes of mountain micro-region of Cerdanya and Before explaining the theoretical ap milieu. - territorialisation eventually produce the the Coast of Albera Marítima (hereafter: proach, some background information

According to Governa (1997), the CAM), which is located on the eastern should be briefly outlined. Firstly, border milieu not only represents the foundation most extension of the Pyrenees. Between studies are recently undergoing a phase milieu - of a specific local collective identity, but these two borderlands share an important of considerable expansion (Houtum - - also the development of the endogenous local : the Catalan culture and herit 2000). Many scholars in social sciences potentials of the territory. The local ter age, historical common landscape as well such as, geography, anthropology, sociol - - ritorial network adapts the global inputs as traditional and current socioeconomic ogy, ethnography, economic disciplines, - to the local context, so as not to irrevers activities. They also face similar prob political science, international relations, - ibly alter the milieu, thereby starting the lems, such as remoteness, the lack of in etc. are increasingly interested in the - beneficial processes of endogenous local frastructures, services and the decline of topic of borders, especially on their so development. Many global inputs, such traditional activities, such as agriculture cioeconomic, spatial, cultural and politi - as economic globalization, are inducing and fishery. CBC started in both cases at cal impacts at local and regional scales de-territorialisation processes at the lo the beginning of the 1980s to promote a (Paasi 1996; Martinez 2002; Kaplan a. - - cal scale, unbinding the functions of a more integrated vision of the borderland. Häkli 2002; Wilson a. Donnan 2012). - - place. It increases, for example, the fragil Nevertheless, the results of CBC process Geographers and political scientists spe - ity and the vulnerability of the territories of the two case studies are notably differ cifically focus on cross-border coopera towards the current social and environ ent. The structure of the contribution is as tion processes, its multiple forms, scales - mental changes (Magnaghi 2001). In this follows. Firstly, the theoretical framework and types of governance (Perkmann - paper, we try to apply it to the study of is exposed, focusing on TA and its adap 2003). Secondly, economic globalisation borderlands, where the local socioeco tation to borderlands. Secondly, a brief is pushing nation-states into a process of - - nomic and cultural patterns are directly overview of the French-Spanish border re-scaling (Brenner 1999), i.e. toward a affected by presence of a border. Fol is presented, focusing on the historical reorganisation and redistribution of pow lowing the TA approach, the borderland framework and the institutionalization er to other sub-national entities, such as - could be perceived as a special territory of cross-border cooperation in the region. regional and local authorities as well as to - - with its own milieu and identity. Since Thirdly, the mixed qualitative and quanti supra-national entities, i.e. the European the end of 19th century, the territoriali tative methodology is explained. Finally, Union. Thirdly, the increasingly new re ties of nation-states have induced deep gionalist dynamics (Shaw a. Söderbaum 1 The European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation social, cultural and territorial changes (EGTC) is a legal instrument introduced by the 2003; Amin 2004) produces new forms European Commission to support the cross-border - in borderlands (Anderson a. O’Dowd cooperation and the cross-border institution-building of territorial governance at both a macro process for the public administrations (Reg. EC 1999). Nevertheless, borderlanders have 1082/2006). scale (the EU) and micro scale (the es been able to take advantage of the real tablishment of the ‘Euroregions’) that is 10 Matteo Berzi: Local Cross-Border Cooperation as a Territorial Strategy for Peripheral Borderlands?

A Local Territorial System mainly based on the multilevel approach - (Hooper a. Kramsch 2004). Fourthly, in the current process of European integra tion, local and regional CBC is gaining an - important role in the political and in the GLOBAL institutional agendas (Bufon 1993; An derson a. O’Dowd 1999; Paasi 2003). - Specifically, EU policies and programmes External (i.e. Interreg) are boosting new territo Inputs - rial synergies through the empowerment Key Actor Local Network of local actors. Furthermore, the grow - Local Actors ing academic and institutional interest Inputs - Rielaboration/Adaptation LOCAL in cross-border spatial planning is boost (Local Territorial System) ing rethinking processes of new territo - Territorial Capital rial strategies (Colomb 2007; Dühr et al. (Local Milieu) - 2010; Janin Rivolin 2010; Paasi a. Zim IfL 2017 merbauer 2015). These dynamics em Design: M. Berzi Source: own elaboration (from GOVERNA 1997, DEMATTEIS a. GOVERNA 2005, MAGNAGHI 2001) Editing: T. Balcke phasise that nowadays national borders get a central place in the academic debate, - Fig. 1: A Local Territorial System particularly their meaning, functions (O ‘Dowd 2001) and perception from mul - tiple actors (Paasi 1996, 2003). The Concept of Territory: A Territori- - - exclusive identity (Turco 1988). One of networked local communities start ben alist Approach - the most noticeable outputs is, for exam eficial and innovative territorial process - ple, the landscape. The morphological al es, adapting and filtering the global inputs The theoretical approach is based on re- teration and the adoption of specific con (economic, cultural, political, etc.) within - elaborating and adapting the concept of struction techniques in urban, rural, and their Local Territorial System (LTS) in territory, and consequently, the one of lo coastal environments are also “charged order to avoid an irreversible alteration - cal endogenous development according to up” with aesthetic, symbolic and spiritual of their own milieu (Governa 1997). As the Territorialist Approach (TA). It is an values. In short, the territory is the result schematized in Figure 1, local develop - innovative cultural-geographic approach of a co-evolutionary process between the ment is generated in this constant and - - developed by an international and inter anthropic and the natural environments, double dialectic between the global-local - disciplinary group of scholars, who con which acquires a certain autonomy and scales, on the one hand, and the innova - ceived territory as “a common good with complexity (Ibid.). It is conceived in a sys tion-identity processes, on the other. The Concept of Cross-Border its own historic, cultural, social, environ tem that grows, evolves, expands, decays, - Territory mental identity, considering landscape dies and is reborn, thereby generating a as its visible manifestation” (Magnaghi constant dialectic between anthropogen - 2011, p. 1). The significance and relation ic communities that continue to build it. Here the notion of territory is applied to - - between the territory and the local devel The territory is part of a cyclical process borderlands, or rather in a territory that opment concepts has been widely stud where each civilization “stores” a set of has been directly affected by a superim - - ied, among others, by Dematteis (1995), physical and cultural patterns, enriching position of a national border. As the result Turco (1988), Governa (1997) and Mag the local milieu in the long term. Demat of geopolitical and historical factors, the - - naghi (2001). teis defines the milieu as “a permanent border induced the fragmentation of the - According to these scholars, the terri series of socio-cultural features that have ethnic, cultural, socioeconomic pre-exist - tory represents a cultural-historical pro sedimented in a given geographical area ing patterns (Anderson a. O’Dowd 1999). - cess, in which local communities produce through the historical evolution of inter Once the border has been established, - tangible (artifacts) as well as intangible subjective relationships which are in re the new political order introduces new - - (meanings, values, symbols) assets that lation to the use of local natural ecosys normative and social codes, and from the - - constantly interact with a specific envi tems” (quoted in Pollice 2003, p. 108). local perspective, it brought new de-ter human ronment. Through several territorialis Therefore, the milieu represents an im ritorializing processes that threaten the environment - ing actions (Magnaghi 2001), this portant endogenous resource inside the reproduction of the local milieu. These

takes its own aspect, physi local developmental process. Indeed as dynamics have become stronger since the ognomy and character, i.e. a unique and Dematteis and Governa state (2005), late nineteenth century when nation-state 11 Europa Regional 24, 2016 (2017) I 1-2

- ideologies were emerging and reinforcing lack accessibility and public services, and been consulted. The information has been - - a sense of belonging to the nation (Sahl where uneven economic development catalogued in databases for statistical and - - ins 1989). As Guichonnet and Raffes is apparent. In this sense, several types cartographic analysis. Data processing al tin state: “the border reshape and re of territorial projects could be designed lows us to highlight the existence of a lo - organize the social space” (1974, p. 46). and implemented across the border. For cal cross-border milieu from a historical - However borderlanders have been able instance, such projects were already initi and geographical perspective as well as to benefit in several ways from the pres ated in the French-Spanish border. Some the involvement of local stakeholders in ence of the border. Some examples are examples include the implementation of a cross-border cooperation. A General Overview of the French- represented by illegal trade relations, health functional area in Cerdanya (Berzi Spanish border such as smuggling, the reaffirmations of a. Durà 2015), the touristic districts along some “pre-border” historical rights for the Pyrenees (Blasco et al. 2014), or the - breeders, fishermen, or enduring family cross-border integration of Basque urban The French-Spanish border is considered ties. In O’Dowd’s view, local communi areas on the Atlantic side of the Pyrenees. one of the oldest and stablest in Europe Objectives of the Study and ties reinterpret the border according to (Sahlins 1989). Since 1659 it separates Methodological Approach three main senses: an administrative and the Northern and Southern sides of the - political barrier that limits neighbouring Pyrenees. However, it took a further two - interactions, a resource for the economic The methodology aims to analyse the centuries to establish the official inter exchanges, and a symbol of local identity most relevant territorial and social dy national boundary with the Treaties of - - (O’Dowd 2001). In analysing USA-Mexico namics of two peripheral borderlands Bayonne (1856–1868). The historical cross-border interactions, Martinez ar located in the Eastern Pyrenees across and geographical justification of the bor - - - gues the existence of a particular local the French-Spanish border, in this case, der was prompted by the two emerging - milieu, i.e. the borderland milieu (Mar Cerdanya and the Coast of Albera Ma nation-states, which imposed a new para tinez 2002). It is conceived as a unique rítima, so as to to critically discuss the digm over the secular trans-Pyrenean do environmental and social framework that limits and potentialities of the current minions, such as the Crown of Aragon (to - milieu is characterised by a set of circumstances, and future local CBC. The analysis focuses the east) or Navarra (to the west), which such as separateness, otherness, transna on characterising the common as did not recognise the mountain ranges - tionalism, etc. well as identifying the local cross-border as a boundary (Ibid.). Local mountain Trying to combine the TA to the border network. The methodology combines communities were generally extrane - the studies literatures, we argue that the new quantitative and qualitative analysis, ous to the nationalist logic, the uplands - - cycles of local cross-border re-territorial which relies on a broad set of sources: a) were considered to be place of socio- isation could start along the EU border academic references, such as investiga economic relations (Brunet 2002; Salsa - lands. In Europe, local CBC is supported tions of Sahlins (1989), Moncusí (2005) 2007). Traditional agreements regulated facerias or lie et by the European Territorial Cooperation and Oliveras (2013) for Cerdanya and the relationship among the local commu - passerie policy, which provides the financial and the works of Barbaza (1966), Aguirre nities. Examples are the - - legal instruments to promote joint pro (2013) and Lloret and Rivera (2008) in the central-western Pyrenees - jects that strengthen cross-border rela for the Coast of Albera Marítima; b) in (Jaurieta 2004) as well as the historical - tions among borderland communities. In stitutional sources for statistical data fishing rights for the Basque communi view of the historical and the geographi (Ifremer 2014; Idescat 2015) and the ties in the Gulf of Biscay and the Catalan local milieu cal contexts, local CBC, which is based on databases of CBC programmes (Poctefa fishermen in the Gulf of Lion (Rodriguez the enhancement of and the 2007–2013, Interreg IIIA EFA 2000–2006 a. Fabri 1989). The advancing national 2 - empowerment of social and institutional and the Regional Funds for cross-border ideologies at the end of the nineteenth - - networks, represents a suitable strategy micro-projects) ; c) fieldwork for con century and the Franco dictatorship in the for facing common challenges, and real ducting 20 semi-structured interviews twentieth century heightened the percep - - ising territorial integration (Sohn 2014). with local and regional actors belonging tion of the border as a barrier. However, - Nevertheless, CBC often requires the sup to the public administration (representa important changes during the late 1970s port of regional and state authorities, such tive of the counties, mayors, tourist of in Spain, namely the return of democracy, - - as those in transport, telecommunication ficials) as well as private stakeholders the adoption of the Spanish Constitution - and health care services. Indeed multi (tourist accommodations and representa and the institution of the Autonomous level governance is an important process tives of local economic activities, such as Communities, led to the rebirth and re - that gives effectiveness, feasibility and fishery for CAM). Local sources have also cultivation of cross-border relationships. 2 Respectively: Cross-Border Operative Programme of durability to CBC (Hooper a. Kramsch France-Spain-Andorra, Interreg Spain-France-Andorra The cultural as well as the linguistic con and the Micro-Projects Funds for the Eurodistict of the 2004). Specifically, such a process is vital Catalan Cross-Border Space. tinuities across the border represent two in peripheral borderlands, which mostly important catalysts for local and regional 12 Matteo Berzi: Local Cross-Border Cooperation as a Territorial Strategy for Peripheral Borderlands?

- de la Cerdanya - CBC in the Pyrenees, especially in the sides in the daily life, which further dete , the Font-Romeu Manifesto Basque-speaking and Catalan-speaking riorated social cohesion (Sahlins 1989; was approved to build a stronger local po - borderlands (Häkli 2004; Beck 2008). Moncusì 2005). During the 1970s, the litical cohesion. Consequently, the Grand - Since the 1980s, the engagement of local valley underwent an important urban Council of Cerdanya was established be and regional authorities in CBC has been development, whereby the accompany tween the CCC and the CCPC (Oliveras - encouraged by important institutional ing processes constantly increased the 2013). Since 2009 they adopted a new and financial European initiatives, such number of second homes and the growth flag symbolizing their union. The afore as the entry of Spain into the European of low-density urbanisations that spread mentioned entities established the EGTC Economic Community, the adoption of throughout the valley and modified the Pirineus-Cerdanya in 2011 to promote - the Madrid Convention (COE 1980), the typical landscape (the Cerdan enclosure). joint territorial actions for tourism, local - implementations of the Schengen Agree Nowadays tourism and the construction economy and culture. During the official - ment, Interreg programmes and the industry are the most important eco conferences, Catalan is the main language, - - EGCT. Along the French-Spanish border, nomic activities that promote important even if French and Spanish are also spo many cross-border institutions are ac cross-border mobility. According to the ken. Although some French public offi tive today: at a regional scale, there is president of the Catalan County Council cials are not native Cerdans and do not the Euroregion Pyrénées-Méditerranée (Consell Comarcal de la Cerdanya, CCC), speak Catalan, they nevertheless claim - on the eastern side and the Euroregion whom we interviewed, and the President to understand it. Indeed, according to Aquitaine-Euskadi-Navarra on the west of the French Community of Municipality the President we interviewed as well as ern side. Also two sub-regional entities (Communauté de Communes Pyrénées- the Vice President of the EGCT Pirineus- - were involved, namely the Eurodistrict of Cerdagne, CCPC), the labour market is Cerdanya state, the language does not - - the Catalan Cross-Border Space and the highly interdependent, in that local work represent an insurmountable barrier for - EGTC Huesca-Haute Pyrenees. Other ac ers frequently seek employment or busi local cross-border cooperation. A Multi-Sectorial Cooperation tive local structures include the Basque ness on the other side of the border, espe - Eurocity, Consorcio Bidasoa-Txingudi, cially in the areas of tourism, services and EGTC Pirienus-Cerdanya, etc. construction industry. Furthermore, as a Local CBC in Cerdanya is applied to sev Evidences of Local Cross-Border - result of shopping activities in the local eral sectors. In this section, we report on Integration in Cerdanya weekly markets, the local population fre some important and successful initiatives. - quently moves between both sides of the The joint environmental management - Cerdanya, which is a mountain micro- border. Therefore, it can be assumed that includes a number of initiatives (Oliver region of about 1000 km², is divided the uniformity of the territory, the simi as 2013). One of the first joint actions - between the Haute Cerdagne in France larities of the socio-economic system and was the realisation of the water treatment (Región Occitanie Pyrénées-Méditer cultural homogeneity of Cerdanya before plant in Puigcerdà in 1989 (Ibid.), which ranée) and the Baixa Cerdanya in the and after the appearance of the border, was advocated by the AMC and financed Spanish region of Catalonia (Fig. 2). All are important factors for a longstanding by Interreg I (1989–1994). This project over Cerdanya, which is an area that can CBC tradition. continued in Interreg II (1994–1999) and Toward a Stable Institutional be considered an eminently cross-border Cooperation currently eleven border municipalities space, there are no elements of physical are connected to the sewerage system. - - disruptions (Vila 1984; Sahlins 1989; A few years later a nearby wastewater - Mancebo 1999). Despite the limits im Institutional cross-border coopera treatment plant was also built. In 2004 - posed by the national political order tion initiatives in Cerdanya began in the the Segre cross-border river was subject with the enforcement of the Treaty of the 1980s. In 1991, 43 of the 50 municipali ed to a joint management plan, between - Pyrenees, communal law between local ties of the valley founded the Association the CCC, the closer Consell Comarcal de - communities continued to regulate the of Municipalities of Cerdanya (AMC). The l’Alt Urgell and the CCPC with the Inter - management of local resources on both association strived to promote CBC in sec reg IIIA funding. The aim of the project - sides of the border (Moncusí 2005) in tors such as tourism, environment, infra was to improve the management of one Diada de la the form of a local council, who took joint structure, transport, health and culture. of Cerdanya’s most important natural re Cerdanya decisions concerning breeding, pastures The AMC also promoted the sources through a joint strategy so as to - and water uses. The two side of Cerdanya (Cerdanya Day), an annual day enhance water quality and the riparian shared trade exchanges, legally as well of conferences and events, where French ecosystems. In the same Interreg IIIA Pro as illegally (smuggling of dairy products, and Catalan local institutions, together gramme, another project was approved to - - tobacco, etc.). Nation-state interventions with the citizens, discuss common needs decontaminate the Carol River’s waters, Diada created mental and psychological barri and potential initiatives (i.e. Interreg pro and in 2009 the treatment plant of Latour ers between the French and Spanish’s jects). In the late 1990s, during one de Carol in Haute Cerdagne was built. 13 Europa Regional 24, 2016 (2017) I 1-2

The case study of Cerdanya

Geographical framework Historical region

FRANCE

SPAIN

0 100 km

Current administrative subdivisions

0 10 km

IfL 2017 Design: M. Berzi Editing: T. Balcke Source: own elaboration (from ICC, IGN and ESRI)

Fig. 2: The case study of Cerdanya in the geographical framework (A), the historical region (B) and current administrative subdivisions (C)

14 Matteo Berzi: Local Cross-Border Cooperation as a Territorial Strategy for Peripheral Borderlands?

Local economy is also supported by cross- the fortuitous opportunity to change the Mer, Port-Vendres, Collioure, Banyuls sur - border cooperation. During the Poctefa previous perception (Oliveras 2013). Mer and Cerbère) in the Département des (Programme Opérationel de Coopéra Regional and local authorities considered Pyrénées Orientales (Región Occitanie - - tion Territorial Espagne-France-Andorra) the idea of building a new joint hospital. Pyrénées-Méditerranée) and six Catalan 2007–2013, the MTC (Matadero Trans The successful feasibility study, which municipalities of the northern Costa Bra fronterizo de la Cerdanya) was approved was funded by the Interreg IIIA and led va (Portbou, Colera, Llançà, El Port de la - - to build a joint slaughterhouse in Ur in to the proposal of the executive project in Selva, Cadaqués and Roses) belonging to Haute Cerdagne. The new infrastructure the Poctefa 2007–2013 Programme, re the Comarca de l’Alt Empordà. The coast - provides a common plant for Cerdan ceived around EUR 18 Million in funding. line, which is shaped by morphological, breeders to support the local meat in In 2010 the status of EGTC Hospital de la climatic (mistral and tramontane winds) dustry with an estimated production of Cerdanya was adopted, simplifying many and marine factors (Liguro-Provencal - about 900 tons per year. In this way, the bureaucratic and legal issues. The hospital current), is almost entirely rocky and - livestock would not have to be sent out of opened its doors in September 2014 and hardly accessible. Therefore, the histori - Cerdanya, as Cerdan breeders currently the first official statistics seems encourag cal anthropization needed to be modified - do, thus completing the meat cycle within ing. Until February 2015, 21.6 % of admit in order to adapt to this particular and the valley. Moreover, farmers will have the ted patients came from the French side, as complex environment. Local communi - opportunity to slaughter their own meat well as 15 % of the emergencies and 18 % ties reshaped the maritime slopes with - for domestic consumption or small retail of diagnostic tests. Beyond the mere infra vineyard and olive plantations. During sale. The construction of the joint slaugth structure, the EGTC Hospital the Cerdanya the first half of the 1800s, terracing was - - erhouse, which stopped for several years promotes the creation of a healthcare the characteristic landscape (Barbaza due to lack of Spanish funding, will be functional area by coordinating health fa 1966). A key element for studying the lo - - concluded in 2017. In the tourism sector, cilities and the socio-sanitary structures of cal milieu involves the maritime activities. since 2010 the Consell Comarcal Cerdan the valley (Berzi a. Dura 2015). Traditionally, economic, social and cul - ya and the Communauté de Communes Regarding spatial planning, the Cross- tural exchanges were developed through - Pyréenées-Cerdagne are cooperating to border Landscape Plan has been adopted coasting trade, i.e. cabotage. When con - coordinate the touristic promotion of the in 2013. The initiative, which was fi sulting local literature (Rahola a. Rahola - - entire valley. The same institution also nanced by the Eurodistrict’s Micro-Pro 1976; Prat et al. 2006), we learned that received Interreg IIIA funding for enhanc ject Fund, involves many agents (the EGTC historical trade relations emerged, espe ing the ancient Romanic Route. In order to Pirineus-Cerdanya, the Llívia City Council, cially between Collioure, Cadaques and El field in order to reduce the phenomenon the Landscape Observatory of Catalonia Port de la Selva. CAM’s fishermen shared of seasonality, alternative initiatives have and the French Parc Naturel Régional des the same fishing techniques and they3 still been jointly set up. One example is the Pyrénées Catalanes). The Plan provides benefit today from the historical fishing - 215km running competition Gran Volta de concrete actions for promoting a long- rights that were established in 1967 . Our la Cerdanya, a mountain circuit attracting term territorial strategy based on land interview with the Head of Fishermen’s - every year many international athletes. scape values (Observatori del Paisatge Association of Port de la Selva (Confraria - Today the health sector is a prime ex de Catalunya 2013). It addresses the de Pescadors) reveals that the relations - - ample of CBC in Cerdanya. Historically, economic, social and institutional stake between the fishermen of the two sides - the main hospital of the valley was in holders of Cerdanya’s French and Span of Albera are good and no significant his Puigcerdà, but for the Haute Cerdagne’s ish sides. This initiative can be an effective torical and current conflicts have been re population, the facilities were located in cross-border management tool to support corded. The geographical isolation played - Prades, (60 km away from the valley) or local endogenous development. an important role in the conservation of The Coast of Albera Marítima: - in Perpignan (100 km). Despite the geo the local milieu, which remained almost Between Common Heritage and graphical proximity, cross-border flows to unchanged despite the international divi Socioeconomic Divergences - Puigcerdà’s hospital were scarce mainly sion between France and Spain. However, because of the ‘psychological barrier’ that since the last quarter of the 1800s, impor - the French had toward the Spanish health- The Coast of Albera Marítima, which could tant external factors induced significant - care system, which was considered quali be defined as a geographical unit that is changes to the local milieu. In 1879 the - tatively worse than the French one (Mon easily detectable in the wider regional phylloxera pest ravaged grapevines all cusì 2005). But in 1996 and 2001 when context, is enclosed by the easternmost over the Albera, which led to the extinc - the road connection between the Haute prolongation of the Pyrenees and the Gulf tion of local vineyards. Thereafter, the - 3 Council Regulation (EC) No 2371/2002 of 20 Cerdagne and Prades was cut respec of Lion. The case study involves eleven December 2002 on the conservation and sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources under the Common tively due to a landslide and heavy snow municipalities: seven belonging to French Fisheries Policy, Annex I. fall, these extraordinary events created Canton de la Côte Vermeille (Argelès sur 15 Europa Regional 24, 2016 (2017) I 1-2

- - Spanish and French states adopted two two countries was inaugurated, and the of Albera. They introduced more invasive - - different strategies. The French replanted different track gauges (Gimenez Capdev techniques and began fishing for new and greatly improved the quality of win ila 2012) led to a functional specialisa species, i.e. tuna. This situation increased emaking, thereby establishing the current tion of Cerbère and Portbou’s economies. the competition among local fishermen. - - certifications of controlled designations In 1939, during La Retirada, the exile of The activity switched from traditional to - - of origin for this region known as Bany Spanish Republicans after the victory of industrial, threating the marine environ uls AOC and Collioure AOC. On the South General Franco’s army brought about a ment and changing social and cultural val ern side, vineyards have been abandoned strong depopulation in several Southern ues (Bouba 2009). Nowadays the fishery due to the creation of a sanitary cordon Alberas’s villages. On Argeles sur Mer’s economy between the two sides of Albera - to avoid the proliferation of phylloxera beaches concentration camps were set is very different. Comparing French and to the South (Iglesies 1968). Nowadays up for the exiles. In 1962 Algeria’s inde Catalan statistical data (Ifremer 2014; - pieds-noirs - the border marks the drastic interruption pendence brought about the arrival of Idescat 2015) on fleets, employment of vineyards and olive grove terraces be circa 10.000 (French-Alge and the quantity and value of catches, the tween the two sides (Fig. 3). In 1878 the rian exiles) in Port-Vendres. Most were Southern side is much more competitive international rail connection between the fishermen, who settled along the coast than its Northern counterpart. The Coast of Albera Marítima

Geographical localization Current urban and agricultural land use

FRANCE

SPAIN

0 150 km

Environmental protection and geopolitical framework

0 20 km

IfL 2017 Design: M. Berzi 0 10 km Editing: T. Balcke Source: own elaboration (from ICC, IGN, EEA and ESRI)

Fig. 3: the Coast of Albera Marítima. Geographical localization (A), Environmental protection and geopolitical framework (B), Current urban and agricultural Land Use (C)

16 Matteo Berzi: Local Cross-Border Cooperation as a Territorial Strategy for Peripheral Borderlands?

- - Tourism is undoubtedly the most impor San Vicenç) for promoting cultural and (Association Albera Viva 2014), the - tant activity of the CAM. It started during sportive linkages between the two sides AAVV stated that two local public agen th - the first half of the 20 century attracting of the Albera. One result was the en cies, the CCACV and the Pays Pyrénées les Fauves - many elite tourists and artists, especially hancement of the maritime heritage with Méditerranée (PPM) are already support - in Collioure ( group) and Cada the establishment of the typical Catalan ing local cross-border cooperation in the - - - qués (like Salvador Dali and Pablo Picas rowing competition (Llagut) in 1997. Five Albera. Indeed the latter is currently a key so). During the 1960s, mass tourism grad years later it became a regional competi player in the local cross-border coopera - ually invaded the CAM, bringing radical tion for the whole Catalan rowing teams. tion process along the Eastern Pyrenees. - changes in traditional economies, human Despite this success, the cross-border as The PPM has recently introduced a Cross- landscape and threatening many habitats sociation was abandoned due to a lack of Border Multi-Level Governance Commit - and the biodiversity (Barbaza 1966). In local political interest. In 2007 there was tee to engage local, regional and national - - both sides of the Albera, touristic devel an official attempt to bring it back by the stakeholders in order to support and opment led to a strong coastal urbanisa Mayor of Portbou, but neighbouring mu coordinate local cross-border instances - - tion. Touristic activities currently produce nicipalities did not support this attempt. towards the next Poctefa 2014–2020. - significant social and environmental pres In 2013 another interesting and wider ini According to interviews with 13 local sures (Gómez et al. 2006; Lloret a. Rive tiative was promoted by 26 municipalities stakeholders, during the first months of ra 2008). The analysis of the coastal land (13 on each side) with the cooperation 2015, 70 % of respondents point out that - use (500 m from the coastline) shows an between the Catalan consortium Terra a joint association, such as the EGTC, is - important urban pressure (40 % on the de Pas (literally, Association Land of Pas perceived as an administrative burden. Côte Vermeille and 30 % on the southern sage, CTP) and the Communauté de Com Moreover, most of them ignore European - side), in which second residences have munes Albère-Côte Vermeille (CCACV). best practices as well as the potential - a considerable impact (40 %). The high Their main purpose was to develop joint benefits. Therefore, it seems that cross- est number of accommodations can be projects for sustainable tourism (trek border institution-building process is far found in the municipalities of Roses and king routes, new touristic labels, etc.), from being conceived as a feasible local - Argelès-sur-mer. The former specialises especially making use of Interreg funds. territorial strategy. The Unfeasible Cross-Border Coop- in hotels and attracts many international However, in 2014, the institution was dis - eration tourists, especially French tourists from solved by Catalan partners. According to - Toulouse. The latter municipality devel our interviews with the former president - oped camping tourism and hosts more of CTP, the main reason was the imple The analysis of the Interreg’s projects national visitors. According to the Coun mentation of the Spanish Reform for Local shows the lack of joint initiatives. With - cillor for Tourism and to the Mayors we Administration (LRSAL), which obligated the last EU Programmes, (Interreg III-A - interviewed (Argelès, Roses, Portbou the biggest municipality of the consorti 2000–2006 and Poctefa 2007–2013), the - and LLançà), the competitive attitude in ums to assume all the management costs. local actors did not participate as part tourism has generally prevailed over co The longest cross-border institution was ners or leaders. Also their activity in the operation, especially in the private sector. the voluntary Associaciò Albera Viva Micro-Project Funds is minimal. When - In summary, the Coast of Albera Marítima (AAV). Founded in 1991, the association consulting the list of projects provided by presents complex historical and socioec studies and raises awareness for a natural the representative of Catalan government onomic dynamics that have significantly and cultural common heritage. It joined in Perpignan (Casa de la Generalitat), we reduced local cross-border interaction the 28 municipalities of the two sides of learned that out of a hundred projects, - Diada de l’Albera and impoverished the local milieu along the Albera Massif. Like in Cerdanya, the just one affects the case study area, which the Coast of Albera Marítima. Neverthe AAV promoted the . Since involves the touristic enhancement of the liaison less, since the 1980s local administrations 2002 almost 30 cross-border seminars ancient maritime cabotage routes. It was - have been trying to develop new cross- were organised and addressed common based on the between a private - border networks. territorial heritage: history, archaeology, navigation company of l’Escala (a mu The Discontinuity of Institutional - Cross-Border Cooperation marine environment, fishery, agriculture, nicipality of Costa Brava) and the munici etc. These meetings promoted discus pality of Port-Vendres. It was abandoned - - - sions on important common issues for after the inauguration due to the lack of Cross-border institution-building is char local development, such as fire preven institutional and financial support. Inter - - acterized by a strong discontinuity. In tion, the impact of the high-speed train views show that competitive attitudes in - - 1982 the municipality of Cerbère, Port connection (AVE) and the awareness of tourism still prevail on cooperation, es - vendres, Banyuls, Collioure, Portbou Lla the Eurodistrict of the Catalan Cross-bor pecially for the private sector. However, nçà and Port de la Selva launched the first der Space. The Association was officially coastal municipalities are currently pre association (Associaciò Cap de Creus-Cap dissolved in 2013. In their last document paring a cross-border project based on 17 Europa Regional 24, 2016 (2017) I 1-2

- a joint touristic initiative, endorsed by this partial overlapping was generated by still far from being implemented due to - the PPM Cross-Border Committee in the a lack of coordination between the com the lack of CBC in important sectors, such - Poctefa 2014–2020 programme. petent authorities. Indeed since 2008, as winter tourism, education and trans - An interesting initiative was the cam both the Spanish and French governments port (Oliveras 2013; Berzi 2016). The Two paign for becoming a UNESCO Interna have been negotiating the establishment The Coast of Albera Marítima (CAM) sides of the Mediterranean Pyrenees tional World Heritage site called of a Transboundary Marine Protected is more peripheral than Cerdanya due to 2 milieu , which Area (TMPA). It would include a large geographical and morphological factors. was promoted by the Consell Comarcal de marine space (10,000 km ) in the Gulf of Moreover, the borderland’s has l’Alt Empordà and the PPM in 2006. The Lion and protect more than 1,500–2,000 undergone a process of socioeconomic - campaign was based on the concept of species, which would present the most and cultural differentiation that had been - an integrated and unique cross-border biodiversity among all 25 Marine Pro caused by severe external factors (the pieds- human landscape. The adoption of the tected Areas in the world. Unfortunately, phylloxera of grapevines, the new rail noirs EGTC status was selected for the joint once again, after the official meeting in way connection, the arrival of the governance of 64,000 ha, which covers Collioure in 2009, no progress has been , the Republican exile, mass tourism, the whole uplands of the Albera and the recorded. Nevertheless, we think that the etc.). Today both sides are threatened by - - coastal zone (Castell 2006). In the end, project of a transboundary protected area similar problems. However, almost every the initiative was withdrawn by the Span could solve the geopolitical problem and, attempt of local CBC to resolve such com - - ish government, stating that they needed at the same time, have a positive impact mon threats, such as touristic pressure on to improve some weak aspects of the cam on environmental conservation. the fragile coastal and maritime ecosys Comparative Discussion paign, i.e. cross-border linkages and the tems and the decline of artisanal fishery, - shared cultural heritage, before the final faded away and no long-term results were - - judgment. At the same time, they feared The analysis of the two case studies pro achieved. Therefore, it seems difficult to that a rejection by evaluators would com vides important elements for a brief com conceive local CBC as a feasible territorial promise future applications. Therefore, it parative discussion. First we start with strategy. The cooperation should improve - has never been proposed again. some considerations regarding each case. the institutional capacities of the local CAM is also embroiled in French-Span The cross-border micro-region of agents as well as appease the competitive - ish maritime border dispute. Since the Cerdanya is an emblematic case study. attitude of local stakeholders. As with the - seventies, the maritime boundary de The local and academic literature review case of Cerdanya, regional and national - limitation between France and Spain is revealed the presence of strong geograph authorities should coordinate and be - still controversial (Faramiñán Gilbert ical, socio-economic and cultural similari more engaged in the issues concerning milieu a. Gutiérrez Castillo 2007, p. 314). In ties between the Haute Cerdagne and the the region of the Albera. - terestingly, both countries have recently Baixa Cerdanya. The common local Some overall considerations can now - established new marine protected areas has been maintained by local communi be argued. Firstly, the analysis shows - along their claimed maritime border. On ties by means of socio-economic and that, in both cases, historically the bor the one hand, the French Ministry of the cultural cross-border interactions. Since der was not conceived as a barrier by lo Environment declared the establishment the 1980s local administrations have cal communities, rather it represents an - of the Parc Naturel Marin Golf du Lion in implemented many joint initiatives to important economic resource (O ‘Dowd - - 2014. On the other hand, the Spanish gov tackle important common issues, such as 2001). The presence of the border does - milieu ernment, declared two new Nature 2000 water management and health-care ser not lead to the disintegration of local re sites in 2015 (The Empordà’s Sea as Spe vices, and enhance the common . lations. Rather this was due mainly to the cial Protection Areas and The Submarine Together with financial and legal support intervention as well as non-intervention - Canyons of Cap de Creus as Special Areas from the EU, the implementation of the of national authorities. Secondly, in both - of Conservation). However the Spanish multi-level governance system, provide cases, the differences became more re and the French protected areas partially effectiveness and sustainability to the lo markable by the end of the nineteenth - - overlap along the contested maritime cal CBC. New infrastructures, such as the century with the emerging socioeconomic - boundary. We could hypothesise that the slaughterhouse and the hospital, the pro and cultural differentiations of the Pyr - establishment of natural protected ar motion of cultural and social initiatives as enean borderlands. However, Cerdanya’s - eas could serve as geopolitical interests well as the joint governance of the land local communities maintained stronger - of the states, which seek to control stra scape contributes to reducing the effect of interactions than those of the Albera, tegic environmental resources (Guyot mental, psychological and socio-cultural wherein such relations were rather lim - a. Sepúlveda, 2014). Such a hypothesis barriers still existing between the two ited by topographical and geographical would require conducting further re sides of Cerdanya. Nevertheless, local constrains (the reliefs, the rocky coast search. Nevertheless, we can state that cross-border integration initiatives are and the sea). The best example is the 18 Matteo Berzi: Local Cross-Border Cooperation as a Territorial Strategy for Peripheral Borderlands?

- - - comparison between the two borderland territorial strategy for many peripheral economic activities, tourism, public ser - landscapes: the drastic interruption of borderlands. The evolutions of EU poli vices, etc. It has non-repeatability pro - vineyards and olive groves terraces in cies from above as well as local and re priety because the local milieu is unique Albera is counterpoised with the more gional initiatives from below are converg and exclusive for each territory (Governa - homogeneous Cerdan enclosure. Thirdly, ing towards new models of cross-border 1997). Finally, the milieu represents a - - local CBC represents a feasible territo territorial management. Two case studies powerful “unexploited deposit”, on which - rial strategy when community-led initia conducted along the French-Spanish bor innovative territorial strategies could be tives find regional and national support der have been compared and analysed: designed and implemented towards a po and multi-level governance is adopted. the valley of Cerdanya and the coast of tentially effective and sustainable cross- - Cerdanya’s local proactivity is opposed Albera Marítima, which are both located border integration. Acknowledgments to CAM’s competitive attitudes, whereby across the eastern Pyrenees. In both cas a lack of mutual trust still prevails. Indeed es, the analysis shows the presence of a the ambitious projects of environmental social, economic and cultural territorial This research has been realised within - - preservation, such as the aforementioned capital that persisted over time, despite the framework of the PhD Programme - campaign to become recognised as a UN the presence of boundary. Furthermore, in Geography at the Autonomous Uni - ESCO World Heritage site, did not re we discovered a borderland milieu that versity of Barcelona (2014–2017). ceive enough support from regional and is characterized by its own cultural, so This research was also conducted in - national institutions (unlike the case of cioeconomic and aesthetic values, such as the framework of the research project - - Hospital de la Cerdanya, which was en its landscape. CS02013–45257-P funded by Spanish dorsed by both the Catalan government The case of Cerdanya’s CBC demon Ministry of Economy, Industry and Com - and the French Health Ministry). Fourthly, strates how community-led initiatives, petitiveness (MINECO) called Territorial - - in both cases local CBC had a similar kick- based on local needs and on the shared Cooperation in Spain and the EU: A se off in promoting institutional initiatives, territorial capital, could represent a feasi lection of guiding experiences for Excel - even though in Cerdanya, it evolved into ble alternative for local development: on lency and Innovation in the 2014–2020 a stable and successful practice, obtaining an endogenous level, based on its unique period (COOP-RECOT II). Bibliography several Interreg funds. However, in CAM, ness and exclusivity, and a cross-border despite all the efforts, the development of level, by creating joint projects, plans cross-border cooperation dynamics is still and new shared institutions. However, in Aguirre, J. M. (2013): El règim jurídic del hard to achieve. analysing the case study of the Albera, we litoral català. 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Peзюме Résumé

Местное трансграничное сотрудничество как террито- La coopération transfrontalière locale est elle une stratégie Маттео Берци Matteo Berzi риальная стратегия для приграничных регионов? Два territoriale pour les régions frontalières périphériques? тематических ключевых исследования на восточной Analyse de deux études de cas le long de la frontière fran- границе между Францией и Испанией с использовани- co-espagnole orientale à l’aide de l’approche territorialiste ем территориального подхода -

Cette contribution met en application l’approche territoria - - Статья посвящена территориальному подходу в области liste (AT) afin d’analyser la coopération transfrontalière dans - пространственного развития для исследования трансгра deux zones situées le long de la frontière orientale franco-es - ничного сотрудничества в двух областях, расположенных pagnole. L’AT est une approche des études territoriales inno вдоль восточной франко-испанской границы. Территори vante, multidisciplinaire et orientée vers la culture, qui trouve альный подход является новым, междисциплинарным и ses origines dans l’école italienne de géographie. Selon cette - культурно-географически ориентированным подходом к approche, le « territoire » est perçu comme le résultat d’un - исследованиям по пространственному развитию, имею processus cyclique ancien d’interaction entre les implantations - щим свои корни в итальянской школе географии. Соглас humaines et l’environnement, par lequel chaque civilisation но этому подходу, «территория» определяется как резуль « stocke » un ensemble de biens matériels (artéfacts) ainsi que тат длительного циклического процесса взаимодействия des biens immatériels (sens, valeurs et symboles) qui animent - антропогенных поселений и окружающей среды, причём les relations locales et forment l’identité locale (le milieu). Par каждая цивилизация сохраняет ряд материальных (арте conséquent, nous considérons les territoires transfrontaliers факты) и нематериальных (смыслы, ценности и символы) comme des unités territoriales complexes, dans lesquelles les памятников, способствующих формированию местных schémas géographiques, socio-économiques et culturels ont été взаимоотношений и локальной идентичности (среды). affectés par l’évolution des fonctions de la frontière et par les - Поэтому приграничные регионы рассматриваются как changements dans les politiques nationales, internationales et milieu сложные пространственные единицы, в которых геогра infranationales.En ce sens, des réseaux locaux transfrontaliers, - фические, социально-экономические и культурные модели à la fois formels et informels, contribuent à maintenir un поведения находились под влиянием развития погранич local partagé. Dans le même temps, en Europe, la coopération ных функций и изменений национальной, международной transfrontalière (CTF) locale est stimulée par des processus и региональной политики. В этом смысле трансграничные d’intégration européenne apportant un soutien politique, сети, как формально, так и неформально вносят свой вклад financier et juridique. Elle représente pour les agents locaux - в поддержание общей локальной среды.В то же время в une opportunité de développement des actions communes - Европе, трансграничное сотрудничество усиливается по permettant le renforcement endogène de la zone frontalière. средством политических, финансовых и правовых мер En ce sens, le milieu local représente un facteur très impor поддержки. Оно обеспечивает для местных акторов пути tant pour générer un développement local. Les deux études de к разработке совместных мер по эндогенному укреплению cas ont été menées en Basse-Cerdagne et sur la côte de l’Albère приграничных территорий. В этом отношении локальная maritime (CAM). Notre analyse de la Basse-Cerdagne montre среда является весьма важным фактором для развития на en quoi les initiatives menées par la communauté, basées sur Cerdanya местном уровне. Оба ключевых исследования проводились les besoins locaux et le capital territorial partagé, représentent Albera Marítima в Серданье/ и на побережье Альбера Маритима/ une alternative possible pour le développement local. Le cas de - . Исследование в Серданье показывает, l’Albère est géographiquement encore plus périphérique, en ce - каким образом инициативы на местном уровне, базиру que l’absence de réseaux locaux transfrontaliers stables, d’une ющиеся на локальных потребностях и общем простран part, et de projets de CTF possibles, d’autre part, exacerbe son Albera ственном капитале, представляют собой жизнеспособную éloignement géographique et les pressions anthropiques sur альтернативу для локального развития. Альбера/ l’environnement côtier fragile. - Coopération transfrontalière; région frontalière; approche terri- географически расположена более периферийно, причём - torialistique; Basse-Cerdagne; Albère maritime; milieu; dévelop- отсутствие трансграничных локальных сетей, с одной сто - pement local endogène роны, и осуществимых проектов трансграничного сотруд ничества, с другой, усиливают её географическую изолиро ванность и антропогенное давления на прибрежную зону. Трансграничное сотрудничество; пограничная террито- рия; территориальный подход; Сердань; Albera Marítima; среда; местное эндогенное развитие