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Consumption of Domestic Cat in Madagascar: Frequency, Purpose, and Health Implications

Raymond Czaja, Abigail Wills, Sahondra Hanitriniaina, Kim E. Reuter & Brent J. Sewall

To cite this article: Raymond Czaja, Abigail Wills, Sahondra Hanitriniaina, Kim E. Reuter & Brent J. Sewall (2015) Consumption of Domestic Cat in Madagascar: Frequency, Purpose, and Health Implications, Anthrozoös, 28:3, 469-482, DOI: 10.1080/08927936.2015.1052280

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2015.1052280

Published online: 06 Oct 2015.

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ANTHROZOÖS VOLUME 28, ISSUE 3 REPRINTS AVAILABLE PHOTOCOPYING © ISAZ 2015 PP. 469–482 DIRECTLY FROM PERMITTED PRINTED IN THE UK THE PUBLISHERS BY LICENSE ONLY

Consumption of Domestic Cat in Madagascar: Frequency, Purpose, and Health Implications Raymond Czaja*, Abigail Wills†, Sahondra Hanitriniaina‡, Kim E. Reuter* and Brent J. Sewall* *Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA †Mpingo Conservation & Development Initiative, PO Box 49, Kilwa Masoko, Tanzania ‡University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar Address for correspondence: ABSTRACT The domestic cat Felis catus has a long history of interaction with hu- Kim E. Reuter, Department of Biology, mans, and is found throughout the world as a household pet and a feral animal. 1900 North 12th St., Despite people’s often sentimental association with cats, cat meat is sometimes Philadelphia, PA 19122, consumed by them; this practice can have important implications for public health. USA. E-mail: In Madagascar, a least developed country that has experienced recent political in- [email protected] stability, cat consumption is known to occur, but remains poorly understood. To improve our understanding of cat consumption practices in Madagascar we in- terviewed 512 respondents in five towns. We used semi-structured interviews to: 1) clarify the preference for, and prevalence, correlates, and timing of, cat con- sumption; 2) describe methods used to procure cats for consumption; 3) identify motives for consuming cat meat; and, 4) evaluate to what extent patterns of cat- Downloaded by [173.49.151.133] at 21:05 24 February 2016 meat consumption are influenced by taboos. We found that, although cat was not a preferred source of meat, many (34%) Malagasy respondents had consumed cat meat before, with most (54%) of these indicating such consumption occurred in the last decade. We did not detect a link between consumption of cat meat and recent access to meat (a proxy for food security). Cat meat was almost never purchased, but rather was obtained when the owners consumed their own pet cat, as a gift, or by hunting feral cats. Cat meat was usually consumed in smaller towns following cat–human conflict such as attacks on chickens, but in the large capital city, cat meat was procured primarily from road-killed individuals. These re- sults suggest cat-meat consumption is typically an opportunistic means to obtain

inexpensive meat, rather than principally serving as a response to economic hard- DOI: 10.1080/08927936.2015.1052280 Anthrozoös ship. These results further suggest cat handling and consumption may present a potential pathway for transmission of several diseases, including toxoplasmosis, that may warrant heightened public health efforts. 469 Downloaded by [173.49.151.133] at 21:05 24 February 2016 AZ 28(3)-text_Layout18/26/159:58PMPage470

470 Anthrozoös cooked meats(Sukthana2006). Forexample,catandothermeatleftunrefrigerated could of undercooked catmeatmayleadtoinfectionsinhumans,asisthe caseforotherunder- pose ahealththreat ifprepared appropriately (Sukthana2006;Golgoswki 2011), may alsoprovide ameansofdiseasetransmission.Althoughcatmeatdoesnotordinarily tions thatotherwiselacksufficient nutrient-richfood.However, theconsumption ofcatmeat a positiveeffect onhealthifitprovides protein, iron, orothervitalnutrientstohumanpopula- and personalpreferences. is likelythatcat-meatconsumptiondiffers basedonsocialnorms,economiccircumstances, as pets,theymaynotbeviewedsuitablefor changes intimeandspace(Medina2007).For its consumptionmaybechanginggiventhatthestatusof animalsas“edible”or“inedible” cook booksknowninEurope from the15thcentury—thesocioculturalnormssurrounding meat hasbeenconsumedhistorically—arecipe forcatcanbefoundinoneoftheoldest consuming catwhenothermeatswere notavailable(Clancy2010).Finally, althoughcat to consumecatmeatforsustenance(Golgoswki2011),andItalianshavealsoresorted to (Medina 2007),Peruvianshostanannualfestivaltohonortheirancestorswhowere forced 2007). Forinstance,French soldiersreported consumingcatduringtheSecondWorld War been linkedtofoodinsecurity, withoneresearcher describingitasa“faminefood” ing catmeat(Yiu 2012).Inadditiontothis,theconsumptionofcatmeathasoccasionally choose theirprotein sources, aswealthyindividualsinChinahavealsoreported consum- Cats mayalsobeapreferred foodforindividualswhohavetheeconomicflexibilityto while catsare raisedandeatenforcultural reasons byfarmersinSwitzerland(Hall2013). cat meatisconsumedbecauseitbelievedthatwillbringgoodluck(Ngwa-Niba2003), million catsare consumedannuallyinAsia alone(BartlettandClifton2003).InCameroon, lions ofpetandferalcatsare consumedgloballyperyear;onereport estimatedthat4 sumed (Schwabe1996)fordifferent reasons throughout theworldanditislikelythatmil- et al.1998)andare considered typesofdomesticcat(LevyandCrawford 2004). in behaviorandappearance,petcatsferalare onespecies;bothinterbreed (Daniels and are oftenderivedfrom lostandabandonedpetcats(Robertson2008).Despitedifferences to alimitedextentonhumansforfoodandshelter, oftencannotbesafelyhandledbyhumans, with humans)hasgivenrisetoferalcats,whichmayreproduce inthewild,donotrely orrely only ographic spread ofthecatasahousehold pet (hereafter, petcats; i.e.,catsthatassociateclosely cats) are keptforcompanionshipandpestcontrol (Menotti-Raymondetal.2003).The widege- (Tennent etal.2010).Inmany areas oftheworldtoday, domesticcats(hereafter referred toas tions, andbeingusedasastatusfashionsymbolforwealthy18th-centuryEuropeans and treated asminordeitiesbyancientEgyptians,affiliated withdevilrybymiddle-aged civiliza- by theRomans(Danielsetal.1998).There are reports ofearlydomesticcatsbeingworshipped Keywords: Consumption ofDomesticCatinMadagascar:Frequency, Purpose,andHealthImplications ments developed(Faure andKitchener2009).Domesticcats, initially beendomesticatedbyhumanstolimitrodent populationgrowth asagricultural settle- ❖ Cat consumptionpracticesmayhaveimportantpublichealth consequences.Itmighthave Despite theiroftensentimentalassociationswithhumans(Medina2007),catsare con- of Cyprus(Tennent etal.2010). Itisthoughtthatthewildcat, cat coexistenceappearingapproximately 8,000yearsagoataNeolithicsiteontheisle Humans andcatshavealonghistoryofinteraction,withthefirstevidencehuman– Africa, domesticcat, Felis catus , foodsecurity, protein consumption (Medina2007).Therefore, it example, ascatsare increasingly viewed Felis catus Felis silvestris , were furtherspread consumption , mayhave (Medina Downloaded by [173.49.151.133] at 21:05 24 February 2016 AZ 28(3)-text_Layout18/26/159:58PMPage471 Madagascar hashighratesof adolescentmalnutrition(50%)compared withitssub-Saharan (World Bank 2013).Inpartforthesereasons, many Malagasypeopleare food-insecure, and already poorpopulationinwhichover90%ofthepeople liveonlessthan2USDperday coup d’étatin2009(Plochand Cook2012).Theserecent eventsmay furtherimpoverishan 2011), withestimatedlossesofover$400millioninforeign aidby2012followingapolitical instability inrecent yearshascausedasevere decrease in foreign aidtothecountry(Harris described asundergoinganHIVepidemicintheearly2000s (Leutscheretal.2003).Political growing humanpopulationwithanannualgrowth rateof2.6%(CIAFactbook2014)andwas IndianOceanislandofMadagascar. consequencesisthewestern Madagascarhasarapidly consumption isneeded. sumption, therefore, animproved understandingofthefrequency andpurposeofcat-meat media reports (Podberscek2009).To assessthehealthconsequencesofcat-meatcon- garding theconsumptionofcatmeatinotherpartsworldislimitedtoanecdotaland/or there are nostudiesexaminingthissubjectinsub-SaharanAfrica,andmostinformationre- they are consumed(Podberscek2009), andhowcatmeatisobtained.To ourknowledge, derstudied; inmanydevelopingcountriesitisunclearhowfrequently catsare consumed,why fects thepoorest 500millionpeoplein sub-Saharan Africa(HotezandKamath2009). and more broadly isconsidered aNeglectedTropical Disease—acommonailmentthat af- large urbanareas ofCoted’Ivoire andtheDemocraticRepublicofCongo(Lucasetal.1993), For instance,toxoplasmosisisthethird mostcommoncauseofdeathtoAIDSpatientsin diseases (WHO2009);and5)pooraccesstobasicmedicalcare uponfallingill(WHO2009). of undercooked meat(Sukthana2006); 4)lessefficient meansofdetectingandtreating some Africa, Fortson2011);2)poorhygienepractices(Brown 2000);3)higherratesofconsumption dividuals inthepopulation(60%ofglobe’s HIV-positive individualsreside insub-Saharan regions becausetheselocationsoftenhave: 1)ahigherincidenceofimmunocompromised in- humanssolelybycats,butcatsinsomecasesserveasimportantvectors. uses felidsasitshostduringsexualreproduction, noneofthesediseasesare transmittedto sources (Tenter, Heckeroth theexceptionof andWeiss 2000).With ease istransmittedtohumansthrough contact withinfectedcatfecesorfeces-contaminated and Weiss 2000). ous deformitiessuchasblindnessandneurological damageamonginfants(Tenter, Heckeroth toxoplasmosis andcanbefataltohumanswithweakenedimmunesystemsorresult inseri- function asoneoftheprimaryhostsparasiticprotozoan lethal tohumansandcanbetransmittedviaindirect contact(Thiryetal.2007).Finally, cats fected infants(McCalletal.2007).Avian diseasethathasbeen influenzaisanotherfeline-borne pregnant womenand5%inchildren under5yearsold,withmortalityratesreaching 38%ofin- prevalence relapsing oftick-borne feverwithinAfricancountrieshasbeenashigh7.5%in as thespirochaete Haemaphysalis elliptica also result indiseasetransmission.Forexample,catsare hostsforticks(particularlythespecies lethal botulinumtoxin(Galeyetal.2000). encourage growth ofthebacterium One developingcountrywhere theconsumptionofcatsmayhaveimportanthealth This aspectofthehuman–catrelationship—the consumptionofcatmeat—hasbeenun- The diseaserisktohumansfrom catsmay behigherindevelopingcountriesthanother Further, thecapture andhandlingofcatscatcarcasses priortoconsumptioncould Toxoplasma gondii Borrelia crocidurae ), whichare vectorsofdiseases(Horak,HeyneandDonking2010)such antibodies are present in74%ofadultcatsandthedis- Clostridium botulinum, , whichcausesrelapsing etal.2006).The fever(Vial Toxoplasma gondii which produces thepotentially Toxoplasma gondii , whichcauses zj etal. Czaja , which

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472 Anthrozoös a widerangeofreligious, philosophical,andtheoretical explanations(reviewed byMorris 1994). to arguewhyornotmeat is consumedindevelopedanddevelopingcountriesinvolve Meat-related taboosare notuniquetoMadagascar; avarietyofhypotheseshavebeenraised tic pigs,bushgoats,lemur, andfruitbats(Randrianandrianina, Racey andJenkins2010). taboos andstrong dislikesformanyofthereadily availablesources ofmeat,includingdomes- a household(Lambek1992).Studiesofurbanareas Madagascarhaverevealed ofwestern also bevillage-orfamily-based,impactjustafewindividuals orevenasingleindividualwithin Mbazza 2011).Taboos—also knownasfadys—are sometimesregionally adhered to,but can they are strongly affected byethnicandreligious taboos(Jenkinsetal.2011;vanVlietand food bypoor, food-insecure Malagasycommunitiesremains unclear. Henry andMacbeth2007).Thustheextenttowhichcatconsumption maybeusedasafallback all potentialfoodsources iftheywere considered “inedible”in theirhomecultures (MacClancy, culturesconsumed inwestern (Medina2007) andnon-localresearchers maynothavestudied meat amongMalagasypeople(Tucker 2007).Thismaybebecausecatmeatisnottypically of catsinmanyareas ofthecountry(Junge etal.2008)andtheirstatusasapossiblesource of consumption studiesinMadagascar(e.g.,Razafimanahakaetal.2012),despitethepresence provide importantnutritionalbenefits.However, catmeathasbeenomittedfrom previous meat desirability andresultant lowerprice,cheaper meatsources suchasbushmeatcannonetheless poor householdsimpacted(Goldenetal.2011).Theseresults suggestthat,despitetheirlower pect a29%increase inthelevelsofchildhood anemia,withadisproportionately highnumberof et al.2011).Thestudynotedthatwithoutaccesstobushmeat,theruralcommunitycouldex- their dietswithbushmeathadsignificantlyhigherblood-iron levelsthanthosethatdidnot(Golden (Brashares etal.2011;Jenkins Nasi,Taber andvanVliet2011). and urbanpoortosupplementdiets,atrend thathasbeenseeninotherAfricancountries bushmeat (Jenkinsetal.2011).Assuch,issometimesusedbyMadagascar’s rural wild animals(vanVlietandMbazza2011).However, domesticmeatcanbemore expensivethan such asbushmeat(Jenkinsetal.2011),whichisderivedfrom unregulated orillegalhuntingof rived from animalsraisedbyfarmersand ranchers)ispreferred overnon-domesticalternatives Zaman 2008).InMadagascar, domesticmeat(i.e.,suchaschickenandbeefthatisde- eggs, andlivestock,tocheapermore easilyaccessiblesources ofprotein (Wodon and 1990), althoughtheyare present ontheisland(Jungeetal.2008). 1994). Inaddition,there are almostnodataonferalcatpopulationsinMadagascar(Van’t Woudt rural Malawishowedthat35of100surveyedhouseholdsownedatotal41cats(Morris Madagascar ownpetdogs—mostlyasguard dogs(Ratsitorahinaetal.2009)—whiledatafrom rates ofownership.However, itisknownthat88%ofurbanhouseholdsinthecapitalcity do keepcatsaspetsinMadagascar(KER,pers.obs.)althoughthere are nodataregarding the communitiesinMadagascarmightconsumecatasameanstoalleviatefoodinsecurity. predators tolimitferal-catpopulations(Apps1983),onecouldexpectthatfood-insecure found across manyregions inMadagascar(Jungeetal.2008),withfewlarge terrestrial et al.2012).Giventheeconomichardships facedbythesepeople,andgiventhatcatscanbe resort toexploitingtheresources intheirimmediatesurroundings forsubsistence(LeManach African counterparts(Fotso2007).Inresponse tosuchcircumstances, Malagasy peopleoften Consumption ofDomesticCatinMadagascar:Frequency, Purpose,andHealthImplications Patterns ofmeatconsumptioninMadagascar arePatterns sometimesdifficult toelucidate,because One studyinaruralMalagasycommunityshowedthatchildren infamiliesthatsupplemented Households inotherareas ofsub-Saharan Africahavebeenknowntoshiftfrom eatingfish, It shouldbenotedthatlittleisknownabouthuman–catinteractionsinMadagascar. People Downloaded by [173.49.151.133] at 21:05 24 February 2016 AZ 28(3)-text_Layout18/26/159:58PMPage473 cat, butthatthesewouldvarybytown. Mbazza 2011),wehypothesizedthat(4A)there wouldbetaboosassociatedwithconsuming Madagascar(Randrianandrianina,RaceyandJenkins2010;etal.2011;vanVliet and regional variationintaboosassociated withothertypesofmeatconsumptionin curity duringperiodsofeconomichardship. Forourlastobjective,duetothewideprevalence hypothesized that(3A)thepurposeofcat-meatconsumptionwouldbetoreduce foodinse- car andelsewhere insub-SaharanAfrica duringdifficult periods(Wodon andZaman2008),we through amarket.Forthethird objective,resulting from thedietshiftsobservedinMadagas- after aperiodofownershiporbeinghuntedasferalcat,opposedtopurchase food markets(KER&ARW, pers.obs.),we hypothesizedthat(2A)catswouldbeconsumed ond objective,duetothelackofanecdotalobservationscatmeatbeingsoldinMalagasy consumption wouldberecent, andwouldhaveoccurred withinthelast10years.Foroursec- an area becamemore foodsecure (Jenkinsetal.2011),andthat(1D)mostreports ofcat-meat we hypothesizedthat:(1C)theconsumptionofcatmeatwoulddecrease whenresidents of economy wasdamagedfollowingpoliticalcrisesin2002and2009(PlochCook2012), et al.2011)andurban(Nasi,Taber andvanVliet2011)areas, andgiven thattheMalagasy elsewhere inAfricaofconsumptionnon-preferred, inexpensivemeatinbothrural(Brashares (1B) fewpeoplewouldlistcatasapreferred meatsource. Inaddition,basedonreports from tion are uncommonintheliterature, (1A)relatively fewpeoplewouldhaveconsumedcatsand influenced bytaboos. ofcat-meatconsumptionare consumingcatmeat;and,4)evaluatetowhatextentpatterns 2) describemethodsusedtoprocure catsforconsumption;3)identifythe motivesfor to: 1)quantifythepreference for, andprevalence, correlates, andtimingof,catconsumption; strong preferences ordislikes—fortheconsumptionofcatsinMadagascar. However, itremains unclearwhetherthere are similarethnicandreligious taboos—oreven pate orifnoonewaspresent, wemovedontothenexthousehold.Interviews were conducted sent wasreceived priortobeginningeachinterview. Ifaneligibleindividual refused topartici- face-to-face recruitment, noidentifyinginformationwascollected,and verbalinformedcon- ing powerforhouseholdgoods).Intervieweeswere askedtoparticipateinthestudyusing only oneadultperhouseholdwhoself-identifiedasahead-of-household (i.e.hadmajorbuy- town, stratifiedbyadministrativeunit.To ensure independenceofsampling,weinterviewed formed partofalargermeatconsumptionsurvey. We sampledrandomhouseholds ineach 512 peopleinfivetownsofcentralMadagascar(Table 1),from JunetoAugust2013.This Semi-structured interviews(Rietbergen-McCrackenandNarayan1998)were conductedwith Social Surveys from electedofficials atallstudysites,priortotheonsetofdatacollection. /DCB.SAP/SCB, May182013).We alsoreceived regional and localapprovals forresearch Madagascar MinistryofWater andForests (Permitnumber:071/13/MEF/SG/DGF Number: 21414,May2013)andfieldresearch wasconductedundertheauthorizationof Survey materialswere approved bytheTemple UniversityInstitutionalReviewBoard (Protocol Research Permissions Methods For thefirstobjective,wehypothesizedthat,giventhatreferences tocat-meatconsump- We aimedtoexaminetheconsumptionofcatsincentralMadagascar. Ourobjectiveswere zj etal. Czaja

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474 Anthrozoös Consumption ofDomesticCatinMadagascar:Frequency, Purpose,andHealthImplications

Table 1. Population, sample size, and percent of individuals who had consumed cat meat, by town. Total means are shown with 95% confidence intervals. Town Name Population Number of Percent of Mean Number of Mean Length Percent (Ilo Program Interviews Individuals Who Times Cat Meat of Time Since of Individuals 2003) Conducted Had Consumed Was Consumed Last Consumption with Taboos Cat Meat in Lifetime (Years) Against Consuming Cat Meat Andriba 32,000 122 43.44% 3.11 7.32 3.27% Ankazobe 13,085 63 25.40% 2.00 N D 0.00% Antananarivo 1,054,649 199 26.13% 2.50 13.37 0.05% Antsiafabositra 8,328 70 47.14% 3.48 8.50 10.00% Mahatsinjo 15,000 58 25.86% 2.00 28.00 3.45% Total — 512 33.59 ± 9.43%* 2.62 ± 0.58 14.29 ± 9.31* 3.35 ± 3.57%* *Indicates significant differences between study sites. ND = no data were available. Downloaded by [173.49.151.133] at 21:05 24 February 2016 AZ 28(3)-text_Layout18/26/159:58PMPage475 2,197 MGAto1USD,respectively; United NationsTreasury 2014). parentheses (basedonJune1st2012and June1st2013exchangeratesof2,100MGAand we present price-related datainMalagasyAriary(MGA)withtheUSDollar(USD)equivalent Rank SumsTests were usedtotestforsignificantdifferences withinandbetweentowns. replicates. Pearson’s Chi-Squared Tests ofIndependenceandnonparametricKruskal-Wallis Summary dataare shownasmeans(mean ±95%confidenceinterval),withtownsasthe Analysis from wildcats( respondents alsorecognized domesticcats,including petandferalindividuals,asdistinct to bethesamespecies,andare bothreferred tousingtheMalagasyname“Saka.” casion, orinunusualcircumstances?” In Madagascar, bothpetandferalcatsare understood when, where, andhow?”7)“Didyou consumethisforaspecificreason, foraspecialoc- it?” 5)“Didyoubuyit?Ifyes,when,where, andforhowmuch?”6)“Didyoucatchit?Ifyes, 2) “Howoftenhaveyouconsumedcat?”3)“Whendidlasteatit?”4)“Where didyoueat “Have youeverconsumedcat(petandferalindividuals)?”Iftheanswerwasyes,weasked: food secure thanthosewhohadnot. under theassumptionthatindividualswhohadeatenandpurchased meatrecently were more did youpurchase?”); thiswasusedasaproxy forestimatinganindividual’s foodsecurity, different typesofmeatthathaveyouconsumedinthepastthree days?Whichofthesemeats were alsoaskedabouttheirmeatconsumptioninthepastthree days(i.e.,“Can youlistthe your preferred typesofmeat?”and2)“Doyouhaveanymeat-related taboos?”Individuals were askedgeneralquestionsabouttheirmeatconsumptionhabits,including:1)“Whatare in theinterviewee’s languageof choice(French orthelocalMalagasydialect).Interviewees town (Pearson’s Chi-Squared Tests ofIndependence (Table 1),thoughtheproportion ofindividualswhohadeverconsumed catmeatdidvaryby at leastonceintheirlifetime.At25%ofindividualsallfivetownshadconsumedcat Contrary toourhypothesis(1A),manyinterviewees(33.59%±9.43)hadconsumedcatmeat Preference for, andPrevalence,Correla Results (Kruskal-Wallis RankSumsTest, respondents whowere abletoprovide anestimate;thisdid notdiffer significantlybytown lowest (25.40%).Cathadbeenconsumedanaverageof2.62 (±0.58)timesbythe87.5%of cat before (47.14%),whileAnkazobe,theclosesttowntoMadagascar’s capitalcity, hadthe ulous townofAntsiafabositrahadthehighestpercentage ofrespondents whohadconsumed 5–8-month periodpriorarespondent’s participationinthesurvey(dependentvariable was the change alongsidetheprevalence ofcat-meatconsumptionreported in2013,thatis,the a respondent hadpurchased meatornotinthe three dayspriortotheinterview)didnot (hypothesis1C).Anindividual’s recent accesstomeat(acategoricalvariableindicatingwhether hunted, andfishedmeats. (eitherpetorferal),thoughindividualsfreely listedoveradozendifferent typesof when askedanopen-endedquestionabouttheirpreferred typeofmeat,nobodylistedcat In caseswhere respondents reported thattheyhadprocured catmeatthrough purchase, In addition,intervieweeswere askedquestionsspecifictocatconsumption,including:1) There were noindications thatfoodsecurityaffected local consumptionofcatmeat F. silvestris ). ␹ 2 (4) = 2.685, tes, andTiming of,CatConsumption p = 0.612).Inaccordance withhypothesis(1B), ␹ 2 (4) = 19.578, p < 0.001).Theleastpop- domesticated, zj etal. Czaja

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476 Anthrozoös Consumption ofDomesticCatinMadagascar:Frequency, Purpose,andHealthImplications cat(s) becausetheanimal(s)had: eatenachickenorhumanfood( for othermeatwhenno meat wasavailable.Otherrespondents claimedtohaveeaten Contrary tohypothesis(3A),only oneindividualindicatedthatacatwaseatenassubstitute Purpose ofCat-MeatConsumption putting outbait(1respondent). using adog(3respondents in3towns),withsticksorstones(2respondents in1town),orby trap (5respondents in3towns).Catswere alsocaughtbyhand(4respondents in2towns), provide additionaldetails.Themostcommonmeansusedtocatchcatswasusingarope towns, whereas themethodusedleast toprocure catmeatinalltownswaspurchase. cats forfood.Catmeatwasmostcommonlyprocured from anindividual’s ownpetcatinall ceived themeatasagift(27.78%±7.04)andfewindividualshadbought(1.12%1.08) (53.92% ±4.57)andmanyreported catching cats(16.88%±10.33).Nonetheless,manyre- cordance withhypothesis(2A),mostindividuals consumedcatsthattheyhadraisedaspets Most individuals(85.2%)identifiedthemethodbywhichtheyprocured theircatmeat.Inac- Methods ofProcurementCatsforConsumption Chi-Squared Tests ofIndependence, presence/absence ofarespondent’s consumptionofcatmeatinthistimeperiod;Pearson’s ␹ (± 9.31;Table 1),thoughthisvariedsignificantlybytown(Kruskal-Wallis RankSumsTest, the meanlengthoftimethathadpassedsinceconsumptioncatmeatwas14.29years last 11–20years,andoverone-quarterhaddonesomore than20yearspreviously. Further, (54.07% ±19.25).However, 17.98%(±19.06)ofintervieweeslastconsumedcatmeatinthe our hypothesis(1D),more thanhalfof respondents hadconsumedcatinthelast10years last consumptionevent,thoughwedidnotaskthisquestioninAnkazobe.Inaccordance with 6,000 MGA(2.73USD)peranimal(thishadbeenkilled intraffic). less thanonewholeanimal).Thesecondindividualpurchased catmeatinAndriba2013for Antananarivoin2012for1,000MGA(0.48USD)perpiece of meat(amountunspecified,but detailedinformationregarding thepurchase. Oneindividual hadpurchased catmeatin 2 (3) Individuals whohadpurchased catmeatbefore ( Individuals whohadcaughtcatsforconsumption( Most individuals(63.1%)whohadconsumedcatmeatprovided uswiththeyearoftheir = 9.927, Figure 1. p = 0.019;Figure 1). Time oflastconsumptioncatmeat,bytown. p ≥ 0.18foralltowns). n n = 2overall)were askedtoprovide = 19overall)were alsoaskedto n = 39),beenkilledby traffic Downloaded by [173.49.151.133] at 21:05 24 February 2016 AZ 28(3)-text_Layout18/26/159:58PMPage477 consumption ofpetlemursmay alsobeoccurringinMadagascarforsimilarreasons (Zinner gasy peopleappeared tobewillingconsumecatmeat whenitwasavailable.Similarly, car are often viewedashouseholdpets(i.e.,notfooditems;Junge et al.2008),manyMala- Nonetheless, fewpeoplehadtaboosagainstcatconsumption, andwhilecatsinMadagas- means oftacklinghunger, giventhelarge scaleoffoodinsecurityissuesinMadagascar. sumption (Goldenetal.2011),catconsumptionisunlikelyto provide asufficient, sustainable not detectalinkbetweencatconsumptionandfoodinsecurity. Further, likebushmeatcon- unintentionalkillingofcatsbyvehiclecollisions. meat alsoappeared tobemostlyopportunistic,withconsumptionprimarilyfollowing ally consumedanyway(Morris1994).Inthelargecapitalcity of Antanarivo,consumptioncat al. 2013)andinMalawi,animalsthatare killedforreasons otherthanconsumptionare usu- been notedinthekillingoflargerpredators followinghuman–wildlifeconflicts(e.g.,Hazzahet that are ofvalue,followedbyopportunisticconsumptionthecat.Similarmotivationshave ens) inruralareas mayindicatethatcats were primarilykilledtoprotect otherfoodresources of consumptionfollowingawildlife–humanconflict(i.e.,whencatsatehumanfoodorchick- tion ofrespondents withtaboosagainst catmeatallvaryingbytown.Inaddition,thehighrate 2009). Someregional variationwasevident, withconsumptionrates,motivation,andpropor- 36% ofurbandogownersinMadagascarreceived theirdogsasagift(Ratsitorahina etal. cats and/orcatmeat(28%ofrespondents received catsasagift)isnotsurprisinggiventhat obtained whenanownerkilledhis/herownpetcat,asagift,orbycatchingcats.Thegiftof stitute forothermeat.Catmeatwasgenerallynotpurchased inmarkets;ratheritwastypically interview) were notmore orlesslikelytoeatcat,thoughatleastoneindividualateitasasub- lower foodsecurity(i.e.,intervieweeswhohadpurchased meatinthethree dayspriortothe once intheirlifetime,withmostconsumptionoccurringthelastdecade.Individuals towns wesurveyedinMadagascar, 34%ofourintervieweeshadconsumedcatmeatatleast We foundthat,althoughcatmeatisnot apreferred meatsource formostindividualsinthe Discussion ␹ them from consumingcatmeatdiffered bytown(Pearson’s Chi-squared Test of In accordance withourhypothesis(4A),theproportion ofrespondents withtaboosprohibiting Prevalence ofTaboos AssociatedwithCatConsumption or founddead( respondents ( taboo againsttheconsumptionofcatmeathadeverconsumedbefore. Afew was low(3.35%±3.57).Noneoftherespondents ( he/she preferred nottoeatitduethestatusofcatasapet. because theownerhad:toomanypetcats( wanted toeatcat( most likelytobeconsumedafterbeingkilledintraffic (54%ofthetime). they atehumanfoodorchickens(47.81%±17.72).Incontrast,inAntananarivo,catswere capital andbyfaritslargesttown).Inmosttowns,catswere mostlikelytobeconsumedafter the useoilofcattotreat asthma. 2 (4) Unlike inpriorresearch examiningbushmeatconsumption(Goldenetal.2011),wedid Such explanationsvariedbetweenthefoursmallertownsandAntananarivo(thecountry’s = 19.685, n p n > 10)expressed strong dislikeforthemeat,withonerespondent statingthat < 0.001),althoughtheproportion ofrespondents havingsuchtaboosoverall = 21),grown fat( n = 1).OneindividualinAndribareported gettingacatasgiftinorder to n = 15),becomeold,injured, orbehavedbadly( n = 2),beendrinkingalcohol( n = 11)whoindicatedhavingapersonal n Independence, = 1),orsimply n zj etal. Czaja = 12),or

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478 Anthrozoös or byproviding healthandsafetyinformationaboutwhytheconsumption ofmeatinsome discouragetheconsumptionof animalswhichdiedofnaturalcauses(KERunpublisheddata), outreach programs couldbuildonexistingtaboos heldbysomecommunitieswhichoften rates ofdiseasenotonlyfrom catmeatbutfrom illnessmore food-borne generally. Specifically, ness abouttherisksofconsumingimproperly handledmeatcouldbeeffective inreducing dercooked botulinum-infectedmeat(Motarjemi2002).Providing educationandraisingaware- destroy thecontaminant,thereby removing theriskofinfection thatcomeswitheatingun- cass (Galeyetal.2000).However, cooking themeatatanappropriately hightemperature can resulting from growth ofpopulationsthe other) meat.Forinstance,deceasedcatsmaytestpositive fortheType Cbotulinumtoxin techniques canreduce thelikelihoodofcontractingapathogenaftereatinginfectedcat(and (Sukthana2006). HIV and 2012), toxoplasmosismightposeamajorhealthrisk(Sukthana2006);concurrent infectionof of Madagascar, where HIVprevalence amongfemalescould beashigh15%(Baraletal. scale andthosecontainingindividualswhoare immunocompromised. Forexample,inareas be higherincertainsocialgroups, including groups atthelowestendofsocioeconomic meat—whether itisundercooked orhas beenimproperly handledpriortoconsumption—will road-killed carcasses, includingcats.Inaddition,it is likelythattherisksofconsumingcat 2012). ThismaybeespeciallytrueinlocationssuchasMadagascar, where peopleconsume could leadtomore frequent transmissionoftick-related pathogens(Muyembe-Tamfum etal. Fever (Dupontetal.1997).Increasing human contactwithwildanimalsinAfricancountries Relapsing in ahospitaltheDemocraticRepublicofCongowere diagnosedwithTick-borne brates and,toalesserextentlivingcats,are notinsubstantial.Forexample,7.4%ofpatients diseasespriortotheconsumptionofmeat. site-borne if thecatiskilledviaavehiclecollision—couldbeatanincreased exposure risktoectopara- 2012). Giventheserisks,individualsthathandledeceasedcatsforlongerperiods—especially as idealhostsformanyspeciesofticks,especiallyintropical environments (Spolidorioetal thirds of96road-killed carcasses studiedinSouthCarolina, USA.Thesecarcasses canserve RelapsingFever( Lyme diseaseand Tick-borne Reeves (2005)foundthatectoparasites—vectorsformultiplezoonoticpathogens,including mal afterbeingstruckandkilledbyavehicle,canposehealthriskstoconsumers.Nelder staples,andwhenthesesidedishesare inadequate,theyare (Morris1994). “scorned” for socialreasons; inMalawi,meatisservedasthepreferred sidedishtoaccompanygrain 2002)—is considered inadequateandcatmeatisusedintheabsenceofotherfoodoptions accompany rice—astaplefooditeminMadagascar(Dostie,HaggbladeandRandriamamonjy were absentorafterapetcatconsumedfoodresources. Perhapsthelackofasidedishto It isnoteworthythatsomerespondents indicatedeatingcatmeatwhenotherfoodoptions bushmeat—is legalandeasilyaccessibletoMalagasypeople,eventhoselivinginurbanareas. tected mayprovide anirregular, butvaluable,source ofmeat-basedprotein that—unlikemuch These results suggestthattheoccasional,opportunisticconsumptionofcatmeatwede- procurement, mostconsumedcatsthathadbeenraisedeitherbythemselves oraneighbor. et al.2001;Reuter2015).Further, oftheintervieweeswhoreported theirmethodof Consumption ofDomesticCatinMadagascar:Frequency, Purpose,andHealthImplications The risksofconsumingcatmeatcouldbemitigatedinseveral ways.Appropriate cooking pathogens foundonroad-killedThe publichealthimplicationsofthesetick-borne verte- The handlingofcatmeatpriortoconsumption,especiallyfollowingthedeathani- Toxoplasma has been a public health concern sincethe1980sandisincreasinghas beenapublichealthconcern Clostridium botulinum orladuttoni)— Borrelia were present inovertwo- bacterium inthecatcar- Downloaded by [173.49.151.133] at 21:05 24 February 2016 AZ 28(3)-text_Layout18/26/159:58PMPage479 undercooked meats. consuming catinthecountry, particularly inregards tohandlingroad-killed catsand ease, suggestsaneedforfurtherstudyintothepublichealth consequencesofhandlingand meat inMadagascar, coupledwiththe likely heightenedsusceptibilityofthepopulationtodis- both ruralandurbanareas. Ourfindingofwidespread thoughinfrequent consumptionofcat Madagascar, itcouldpotentiallyalsobe usedasanoccasionalinexpensiveprotein source in cat consumptionwouldnotbeasufficient orsustainablesolutiontofoodinsecurityissuesin consumption mayresult inpartfrom alackofaccesstopreferred meatoptions,andalthough rural areas andvehiclecollisionswithcats inthelargecityofAntananarivo.Nonetheless,cat sumption appeared opportunistic:following catdeathsfrom human–wildlifeconflictinmore does notusuallyseemtobeconsumedwhenothermeatsources are scarce. Rather, con- not findevidencethatcat-meatconsumptionwasdrivenbyfoodinsecurity. Further, catmeat decade inwhichpoliticalupheavalshaveledtoeconomichardship inMadagascar, wedid though mostrespondents whohadconsumed catmeathaddonesoduringthemostrecent least onceinthepast,andcatswere consumed byrespondents inalltownsexamined.Al- spread; one-third ofthepeopleweinterviewedincentralMadagascarhadconsumeditat meat wasnotpreferred andconsumptionwasinfrequent, consumptionwasnonethelesswide- our knowledge,thisisthefirststudytoexamineissueinsub-SaharanAfrica.Althoughcat the frequency, purpose,andconsequencesofconsumingthisprotein source remain few;to Andriamarovololona andHockley2008). vance, giventhatsomefoodtaboosandsocialnormsinthecountryare weakening(Jones, these taboos—andthoseheldagainsteatingcats—maybediminishingintheirculturalrele- taboos againsttheconsumptionofdogsinMadagascar(KER,unpublisheddata)andthat tion mayoccur, thishasnotbeenstudied.Thisisparticularlyinteresting giventhatthere are the capitalcityownpetdogs(Ratsitorahinaetal.2009)anditisconceivablethatconsump- dogs mightposearisk(Ratsitorahinaetal.2009).Whilethemajorityofurbanhouseholdsin given thatonly7%ofpetdogsinMadagascarare vaccinatedagainstrabiesandhandlingof example, itwouldbeadvantageoustostudywhetherferalandpetdogsare alsoconsumed, Madagascar, additionalresearch studiesare neededtoaddress thesegapsinknowledge.For there are nodataonthefrequency withwhichroad-killed orferalanimalsare consumed in also inherent, toacertainextent,theconsumptionofotheranimals.However, giventhat article are notlimitedtoferalanddomesticcats;itisreasonable toassumethat theserisksare ethnic backgrounds thatfavormeat-restricted diets(KERpers.obs;Walsh 2007). culturally appropriate meanstoimprove nutrition,evenamongMalagasypeoplewith religious and could bemore sustainabletoproduce thanmeat(PimentelandPimentel2003) and maybea cat meatisconsumedtosupplementnutrient-poordiets.Inthesecases,plant-basedproteins ucation about,anddevelopmentof,non-meatprotein sources mayalsobeappropriate where circumstances (especiallyroad-killed vertebrates)shouldbeapproached withcare. Finally, theed- manuscript. Anyopinion,findings, andconclusionsorrecommendations expressed inthis search permits. Thanksalsototwoanonymousreviewers fortheirvaluablefeedbackonthe Madagascar Instituteforthe Conservation ofTropical Environments forassistancewithre- Thanks tothehostcommunities fortheirhospitalityandassistancewiththeresearch, andto Acknowledgements To conclude,catmeatisconsumedacross manycultures andcontinents,butstudieson It shouldbenotedthattherisksofconsumingroad-killed orferalanimalsdiscussedinthis consuming zj etal. Czaja

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