Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 1974 Activities NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 1 9 74 Activities

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, D.C. 20546 President’s Message of Transmittal To the Congress of the United States: Joint preparations and training with the Soviet I am pleased to transmit this report on the activities Union proceeded for the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz and accomplishments of the United States in aero- manned docking experiment. Cooperative space nautics and space in 1974. This is in accordance with activities with other nations continued on the basis Section 206 of the National Aeronautics and Space of mutual benefits. Development by European Act of 1958, as amended (42 U.S.C. 2476). nations at their expense of the Spacelab for use with the Space Shuttle got well underway. During 1974, the Nation’s activities in aeronautics and space continued to produce significant benefits, Exploration of the planets continued with success- to experiment with and develop new applications, to ful missions to Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury. The increase scientific knowledge, and to advance tech- science of astronomy advanced with important new nology. The report shows: observations and discoveries using ground-based, high-altitude, and space telescopes. In aeronautics good progress was made in develop- The use of communications satellites continued ing technology to reduce energy requirements, to expand as a principal method of international noise, and pollution of civil aircraft. Modernization communications. The first domestic privately of the air traffic control system continued with the owned communications satellites opened a new introduction of semiautomated equipment for air dimension in our tele-communications systems. route traffic control. Satellites continued to play an essential role in national defense activities-in communications, Milestones in military aircraft development in- navigation, and other fields. Demonstration pro- cluded the roll-out of the B-1 bomber, delivery of grams tested the use of satellite systems to improve the first operational F-15 fighter aircraft, deploy- delivery of health and education services. ment to the fleet of the A-6E all-weather attack aircraft, and the successful testing of the new CH- Experimental uses of Earth observation satellites 53E helicopter. were tested in crop surveys, pollution monitoring, land use planning, water resources management, Transfer of aeronautical and space technology to and other fields, Weather satellites continued to other fields continued with many beneficial appli- be our chief source of both global and local cations in energy, materials, transportation, medical weather data; a new geostationary satellite began care, and other areas. continuous observation of weather affecting the I believe that all Americans, and people of all Western hemisphere. nations, can be gratified with the accomplishments The Skylab manned space station mission was suc- and the continued progress toward achieving the cessfully completed ; it demonstrated that human objectives of the National Aeronautics and Space Act beings can survive and work well in space for of 1958 that are comprehensively described in this months or more at a time and provided a store of report. new scientific and technical data on the Sun, Earth The WHITE HOUSE, resources, medical effects of space flight, and other Nineteen Hundred an2 Seventy-five. fields. Development of the Space Shuttle progressed on schedule, and within costs, toward the goal of a versatile reusable vehicle for toutine and economical use of space at the end of the decade.

iii Table of Contents

Page Page I. Summrfry of U.S. Aeronautics and Space Ac- Introduction ______---______91 tivities in 1974 ______1 Aerospace Science ______--- 91 Introduction ______- 1 Space Applications ______-____-_--93 Space ...... 1 Aerospace Engineering ______94 Aeronautics ______---- 4 Education ...... 95 11. National Aeronautics and Space Administration 7 X. Office of Telecommunications Policy ______97 Introduction ______-__-- -- 7 Introduction ______--____---97 Applications to Earth ______- 8 Aeronautical Satellite Experiment ______97 Study of Sun-Earth Interactions and Cos- Maritime Mobile Satellite Service _____- 98 mic Processes ______-____-- 16 Proposed Amendment to Communications Exploration of the Planets ______- 19 Satellite Act of 1962 __----__------98 Analysis of Lunar Data ______- 20 Direct Broadcast Satellites ______99 Study of Man ...... 21 Frequency Management ______--99 Space Transportation ______-- 24 Satellite Launch Insurance ______99 Tracking and Data Acquisition ______26 XI. Federal Communications Commission ______101 Space and Nuclear Research and Tech- Introduction ______--- 101 nology ______27 Communications Satellites ______- 101 Aeronautics Research and Technology _- 31 Specialized Satellite Services ______102 International Affairs ______-___--- 37 International Telecommunications Union 102 DissemiFating.Technology and Benefits-- 40 Frequency Allocation and Coordination-- 103 University Aflairs ______-____--_-----40 XII. The Smithsonian Institution ______105 111. Department of Defense ______41 Introduction ...... 105 Introduction ...... 41 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory- 105 Space Activities...... 42 National Museum of Natural History __ 106 Aeronautics ______44 Center for Short-Lived Phenomena ____ 106 Aircraft Research and Technology ______48 National Air and Space Museum ______107 Space Research and Technology ______50 XIII. Environmental Protection Agency ______109 Space Ground Support ______-____--51 Introduction ______109 International Cooperation ______52 Orqanization of Remote Sensing Activi- Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinat- ties ...... 109 ing Board ______53 Aircraft Oriented Research and Applica- IV. Department of Transportation ______55 tions ...... 110 Introduction ...... 55 Space Programs and Applications 111 Office of the Secretary Programs _____- 55 XIV. Atomic Energy Commission ______113 Aviation Safety Research and Develop- Introduction ...... 113 ment ...... 56 Jupiter Spacecraft ______113 Air Traffic Control and Navigation ____ 58 Lincoln Experimental Satellite ______113 V. Department of Commerce ______61 Viking Mars Lander ______114 Introduction 61 Mariner/ Jupiter Saturn ______114 ...... Generator Technology ______114 Use of Satellites in Environmental Moni- Terrestrial Power toring and Prediction ______-___-- 61 ______114 64 XV. Department of Agriculture ______117 Other Satellite and Space Applications-- Introduction __- Space Support Activities ______66 ______-____ 117 Atmospheric and Solar Physics ______67 Remote Sensing Activity ______117 Aeronautical Programs ______68 Providing Expertise to Other Nations __ 118 Environmental Data Programs ______69 XVI. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ____ 119 VI. Department of the Interior ______71 XVII. United States Information Agency ______121 Introduction ...... 71 Introduction ...... ___ 121 Space ______71 Press and Publications ______121 Aeronautics ______74 Radio ...... 122 International Cooperation ______76 Motion Pictures and Television ______123 VII. Department of State ...... 79 Information Centers and Exhibits ______124 Introduction ______79 Activities Within the United Nations ____ 79 Appendixes International Cooperation ______81 Satellite Services ...... 82 A- 1 U.S. Spacecraft Record ______125 Support to Federal Agencies ______83 A-2 World Record of Space Launchings Successful VIII. National Science Foundation ______85 in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ______125 Introduction ...... ___ 85 A-3 Successful U.S. Launchings - 1974 ______126 Astronomy ______85 B- 1 US. Applications Satellites, 1970-1974 _____ 133 Atmospheric Sciences ______87 E2 US.-Launched Scientific Payloads. 1970-1974- 135 U.S. Antarctic Research Program ______88 E3 US.-Launched Space Probes. 1970-1974 ____ 136 Engineering.. ______88 C History of United States and Soviet Manned Materials Research ______88 Space Flights ______- 137 Chemistry ______89 D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ______139 Research Applied.to National Needs-_-_ 89 E-1 Space Activities of the U.S.Government ____ 140 Education Activities ______89 US. Space Budget-New Obligational Au- IX. National Academy of Sciences, National Acad- thority ...... 140 emy of Engineering, National Research E-2 Space Activities Budget ______141 Council ______-______- 91 Aeronautics Budget ______-- 141

V Spacecraft Study Matters Vital to Earth Life on Earth is dependent on the Sun, interactions between the Sun and Earth, and the changes in- duced by human activities, Space provides a unique vantage point to study such phenomena. In this se- quence we observe the Sun, one region of severe interaction between the Sun and human food supplies, and finally how weather factors on one continent influence those on another.

This Skylab 4 image shows one of the most spectacular solar flares ever recorded. The flare spans more than 588,000 kilom- eters (367,000 miles) of the solar surface. We need to study the Sun because it is our primary source of energy, providing us with the heat and light needed for life; it influences our weather; and it can affect navigation instruments and disrupt radio communications.

The dark area of vegetation (outlined) stands out in this Earth Resources Tech- nology-1 (ERTS-1) image of the parched, sun-drenched African Sahel which forms the border of the Sahara desert. The dark area was found to be ranchland where grass cover was main- tained by controlled grazing. Thus, ERTS-1 pictured how encroachment of the desert can be slowed by controlled grazing. The drought in the Sahel is be- lieved to be due to a change in climate- as yet unexplained-that is affecting world food supplies.

Imagery from the Synchronous Meteor- ological Satellite-1 (SMS-1) shows hot, dry, dust-laden air blowing off the Sahara desert across the Atlantic. Weather in Florida was influenced when the air reached there six days later. About half of the tropical storms, including hurri- canes, originate when hot air from the Sahara meets cool air along Africa’s At- lantic coast.

vi I Summary of United States Aeronautics and Space Activities in 1974

Introduction accomplish more accurate quantitative predictions of food and fiber resources, along with better evaluations In 1974 the U.S. Government activities in aero- of land productivity; and to monitor changes affect- nautics and space continued to make significant con- ing the total production and quality of our natural tributions toward the fulfillment of the nation’s goals resources and environment, including man-environ- in space and aeronautics, including application of ment interactions. space systems and technology to beneficial uses on NASA, the USDA, and the National Oceanic and Earth, exploration of space and increase of scientific Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) initiated a knowledge, development of improved space systems joint Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment and technology, international cooperation, and ad- (LACIE) to develop and demonstrate the capability vancement of civil and military aeronautics. Also in to inventory wheat from space. The initial phase will 1974, space activities in the private sector expanded be directed at the Great Plains wheat-producing re- to provide additional services to the public. The gion. The results of these investigations may lead to accomplishments in 1974 are summarized in this demonstrations of the feasibility of utilizing remote chapter and described in detail in the following chap- sensing technology for more accurate and timely ters for each of the 16 Federal agencies having ac- worldwide inventories of major crops. tivities related to aeronautics and space. Both NOAA and the Environmental Protection Space Agency (EPA) continued to use satellite data for environmental monitoring. Information on ocean- In 1974, the United States launched 28 space pay- ographic and hydrologic conditions in the form of loads. Twelve were for Defense purposes and 16 were analyzed maps depicting sea and lake ice conditions, launched by the National Aeronautics and Space thermal boundaries in the oceans, lakes, and rivers, Administration (NASA). Of the NASA-launched and snow cover estimates in selected river basins was payloads, eight were communication satellites with the disseminated by NOAA to users via National Weather balance being designed to secure weather, oceanic, Service Facsimile networks. The information in these atmospheric, or astronomi-cal data or to advance maps was derived from satellite data. Satellite data satellite technology. The majority (nine) of the continues to play an important role in pollution NASA-launched payloads were international in monitoring, weather modification experiments, and character, being launched with, or for, the United meteorological and oceanographic research. Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Netherlands. Satellite imagery, along with appropriate ground Earth Resources and Environment truth data, was used by the Department of Com- merce to monitor urban development, to classify land During 1974, several Federal departments and areas, and to make population estimates in the United agencies, as well as many State agencies, universities, States and selected foreign countries. and private institutions, continued experimentation on The Department of the Interior participated with the use of remotely sensed data from space and air- NASA and other agencies in a wide variety of ac- craft in the study and monitoring of Earth resources tivities involving remote sensing by aircraft and and the environment. satellites for such uses as land management, prepara- The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) con- tion of environmental impact statements, and map- tinued its efforts in the development and evaluation ping. of aerospace remote sensing technology for use in Instrumental to all of these satellite-derived improving its agricultural and forestry programs. This advances was the data acquired and transmitted to involved additional research on the feasibility and Earth by the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1 operational utility of using aerospace-acquired data to (ERTS-1, redesignated LANDSAT-1 on January 15,

1 1975). Designed to last a year, ERTS-1 began its range weather forecasts and predict climatic changes, third year of operation on July 23, 1974, still provid- both of which can contribute to efficient management ing valuable data for application to improved moni- of the nation’s food and fiber resources as well as to toring and management of Earth’s resources and the’ the alleviation of the worst effects of severe storms. environment. Data from the last Skylab mission, which ended early in 1974, also contributed greatly Communications to the nation’s capabilities in these disciplines, so The application of communications satellite tech- important to satisfying the growing demands on the nology was broadened this year to provide vital Earth’s limited resources and the problem of its popu- services while keeping down costs. Improved com- lation’s wastes. munications through satellites have contributed to such wide-ranging areas as education and medical Meteorology care in remote areas and toward increasing safety and During 1974, satellites and aircraft played speeding up day-to-day operations of ships and air- an increasingly important role in the low-cost liners, activities having large potential economic gathering of meteorological data on a large scale. benefits. During the year, the United States, in cooperation Beginning operations in July 1974, the experimental with many other nations, made substantial advances Applications Technology Satellite-6 ( ATS-6) has toward obtaining an understanding of the dynamics relayed graduate college courses from the University of global weather and in the development of satellite of Kentucky to teachers in 15 isolated Appalachian systems to gather and use this knowledge. In time, communities. It has enabled physicians and other these can lead to accurate long range forecasts with health professionals of Veterans Administration hos- potentially vast economic benefits for agriculture, pitals in remote Appalachian regions to attend semi- construction, transportation, recreation, and other nars and obtain medical consultations. This program- industries. ming has been certified for continuing education From June 15 to September 23, the United States credit by the American Medical and other professional and 69 other nations monitored virtually every known associations. meteorological factor along a 20-million-square-mile The same satellite also was used to provide career tropical area of land and sea stretching from the education to junior high school students in remote eastern Pacific Ocean across Latin America, the areas of the Rocky Mountains. In addition, it has Atlantic, and Africa to the western Indian Ocean. furnished communications links between medical Some 4,000 people using 41 ships, 40 buoys, 12 air- aides in isolated Alaskan villages and physicians in craft, and five United States satellites and one Soviet regional Alaskan hospitals. This Health, Education satellite probed from about a mile below the sea Tele-communications (HET) experiment is partici- surface to the top of the atmosphere. Agencies of the pated in by NASA, the Department of Health, U.S. participating included the Department of Com- Education and Welfare, the Veterans Administration, merce, the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- the Federation of Rocky Mountain States, and various tration, the Department of Transportation, the other organizations. In 1975, ATS-6 will be made National Science Foundation, and the Department of available to the government of India for telecasting State. of educational programs to thousands of Indian The study, part of the Global Atmospheric Research villages. Program (GARP), is called GATE for GARP ATS-6 has also demonstrated the feasibility of high Atlantic Tropic Experiment. The tropics are believed quality ship-to-shore communication via satellite. The to be a key to Earth‘s weather. Supporting GATE experiment is applicable to aircraft position location was the initial task of NASA’s Synchronous Me- and other communications. teorological Satellite (SMS-1 ) , launched. May 17. The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Or- SMS-I is the prototype of the forthcoming U.S. ganization has completed a study of a maritime Department of Commerce Geostationary Operational satellite system to service merchant fleets at sea. In Environmental Satellite (GOES) System. From geo- addition, the United States, Canada, and the Euro- stationary orbit, SMS-I maintains a 24-hour weather pean Space Research Organization have agreed on a watch on most of the Western Hemisphere, trans- program to test the use of satellites for air-traffic com- mitting data to produce a picture every 30 minutes. munication over the Atlantic. It can also acquire and provide information from The INTELSAT global communications satellite hundreds of instruments mounted on balloons, stream system continues to grow in capability and participa- gauges, ocean buoys, merchant ships, and fire, tion. At the end of 1974, it had 86 Earth stations in weather, agricultural, and seismic stations. It thus 62 countries and a membership of 86 countries. contributes to our growing capability to provide long Westar 1 and 2, the first two domestic communica-

2 tions satellites, were launched by NASA this year IUS. Spacelab is being developed by the European on a reimbursable basis for Western Union, which is Space Research Organization (ESRO) at European using these satellites to provide commercial services. expense as a component of the Space Transportation The Telesat Canada Anik satellites, launched begin- System. In 1974, ESRO awarded the contract for ning in 1973, are also being used by commercial U.S. Spacelab development and work has started. This organizations for domestic service on an interim basis. European contribution has established a new dimen- Additional domestic satellite systems are expected to sion in US.-European space cooperation. begin operations in 1975 and 1976. Exploration of the Solar System Space Operations ,Gathering information of interest to the world, of Skylab, one of the world’s most productive great scientific importance, and of significant rele- missions in terms of observations on humans, vance to problems we have on Earth, Mariner 10 the Sun, and the Earth, came to a successful (formerly known as Mariner Venus/Mercury ’73) conclusion with the safe splashdown and recovery of early in 1974 flew by Venus and Mercury and pro- the third manned mission on February 8, 1974. It vided an immense amount of data, including the first demonstrated that man can perform work in space close-up pictures of Venus and Mercury. A second not only to conduct assigned tasks, but to overcome pass by Mercury occurred on September 21, 1974. A severe problems-saving and making “more than suc- remarkable third flyby is scheduled for March 1975. cessful” a mission that appeared doamed after the Observations of Mercury revealed a lunar-like failure of the Skylab micrometeoroid shield during cratered surface, an unexpected faint magnetic field, ascent. The results of the Skylab missions show that a thin atmosphere, chiefly helium, and surface tem- we have not yet found a limit to the time people can peratures ranging from minus 160 degrees Centigrade successfully live and work in space. (minus 300 degrees Fahrenheit) on the night side to Considering the need for a space rescue capability 430 degrees Centigrade (800 degrees Fahrenheit) on for future manned missions, and as an effort to the day side. increase international cooperation, the US. and the Mariner 10 ultraviolet photographs of Venus show Soviet Union have scheduled a cooperative space vivid cloud bands rotating more than 60 times faster docking experiment in 1975. During 1974, the two than the planet. Other results suggest dense cloud nations worked cooperatively preparing for the 1975 layers below the fast moving uppermost cloud deck, mission. This project will yield much valuable ex- although no atmospheric storms have been found on perience on the problems associated with working Venus. Studies of the atmosphere of Venus have with another nation in space, including those prob- helped us assess potential problems of the effects of lems related to dissimilar equipment, communications, pollutants in the Earth’s stratosphere, and are con- tracking, launch sites, and language. In addition to tributing to the analysis and understanding of them. the docking experiments, valuable experiments in On December 3, 1974, Pioneer 11 successfully flew space processing, pollution monitoring, and other within 43,000 kilometers (27,000 miles) of Jupiter, areas will be performed by the American astronauts survived the planet’s intense radiation, and is now on participating in the Apollo-Soyuz flight. its way to a rendezvous with Saturn in 1979, when it The large scale development effort on the Space may return man’s first closeup view of Saturn and its Shuttle continued to grow in 1974 as design work mysterious rings. approached completion and the program moved into Data gathered by Pioneer 11 have supplemented the hardware test and fabrication stages. The Space the data obtained by Pioneer 10 (which flew past Shuttle is the major element in the new Space Trans- Jupiter in late 1973). The Pioneer 11 encounter was portation System (STS) designed to reduce the cost three times closer than Pioneer 10, and culminated a of both civilian and defense space activities and make two-year, billion-kilometer (600,000,000-mile) journey the full advantages of space available in the 1980’s from Earth. The spacecraft swept past the giant and beyond. planet at a record speed of more than 160,000 km The STS consists of the Space Shuttle, the Interim (100,000 mi.) an hour. Upper Stage (IUS) or Space Tug, and the Spacelab. Pioneer 11 flew over Jupiter’s North and South The Space Shuttle will provide routine access to Poles, returning spectacular pictures of its turbulent Earth orbit for placing, repairing, or retrieving satel- cloudtops never before seen with such clarity. The lites and for carrying the Spacelab to provide an op- apparently placid polar regions showed huge masses portunity for scientists and technicians to accompany of air cells, spouting gases like bubbles in boiling and conduct their experiments in space. In 1974, water, becoming increasingly turbulent away from the NASA awarded the final major contract for the Space poles and finally blending into the huge bands of Shuttle. The Department of Defense will develop the colorful streaking gases that girdle the gigantic planet. 3 This new Pioneer 11 data will add to the knowledge efficient automobile engines, and new medical tech- obtained from Pioneer 10, which first gave us a new nology. picture of the solar system’s largest planet. Sifting through Pioneer 10 data, investigators have con- Aeronautics cluded that Jupiter is a whirling ball of liquid hydro- Federal activities in aeronautics included research gen, without any detectable surface. They also suggest and development designed to improve civil air trans- that the Great Red Spot-a mystery since Galileo portation, advance military capability, and through first turned his telescope on it-is a gigantic hurricane the export of superior aircraft continue to provide a which has been raging along a 40,000 km (25,000 positive input to the US.balance of payments. mi.) front for at least 400 years. Helios A, launched in December 1974, is a coopera- Energy Reduction tive mission with the Federal Republic of Germany In the civil sector, NASA is conducting which will fly closer to the Sun than any previous an aggressive program to reduce energy require- mission and will provide extensive new data on our ments for aircraft as a part of a broader effort basic energy source and the sustainer of all life on to improve aircraft performance and economy. The Earth. Using a variety of sensors, Helios will supple- program includes the development of more efficient ment the outstanding data gathered by the Skylab propulsion systems; the reduction of drag by the use Solar Telescope. of novel concepts such as the super-critical wing and compliant aircraft skin panels; the reduction of air- Astronomy craft structural weight through the application of Using ground-based, rocket, balloon, and lightweight composite materials to aircraft structures ; satellite measurements, research in astronomy, the use of advanced active flight control systems; and supported by NASA, the National Science Founda- investigations of the use of alternative fuels such as tion, and the Smithsonian Institution, brought new hydrogen and fuels derived from the liquification of discoveries during the year : the first-time verification coal. of water molecules in comets, as comet Kohoutek During 1974, flight tests with an F-8 aircraft with streaked through our solar system; a 13th satellite of a NASA-designed supercritical wing demonstrated a Jupiter; a pylsar that is a member of a double star 15 percent increase in range without using any addi- system; and new data on the size and shape of the tional fuel. NASA also demonstrated a significant Crab Nebula. Even though Kohoutek did not live up reduction in skin-friction drag using compliant air- to its predicted brightness, the fortuitous timing of it craft skin concepts. This approach has a potential for with Skylab enabled observations from space that a 50 percent skin drag reduction. A series of studies greatly increased our knowledge of comets. was initiated to explore opportunities for achieving major reductions in fuel consumption for subsonic Defense commercial aircraft through improved propulsion Satellites continued to play an essential role systems and airframe modifications. Flight evaluation in our national defense activities. During 1974 signi- of composite wing midsections was begun under a ficant actions were taken to expand and improve the NASA-U.S. Air Force program. Results of the. July Defense Satellite Communications System to better 1974 NASA-sponsored symposium on active controls serve the needs of the National Command Authorities indicates that their use to enhance aircraft con- and the World Wide Military Command and Control trollability and reduce structural loads has a potential System. The NAVSTAR global-positioning satellite for a 25 percent reduction in aircraft gross takeoff program also advanced significantly during the year. weight, with an accompanying reduction in fuel Contracts were let for the Phase I satellites and for requirements. user-equipment development. The Defense Meteoro- logical Satellite Program continued to furnish weather Reduction of Environmental Impacts data both to the military and to the civil-scientific A strong continuing effort was maintained by NASA community through NOAA. and the Department of Transportation to reduce the undesirable environmental effects of aircraft. The Terrestrial Applications noise-reduction program is concerned with propulsion In addition to direct applications of space to human systems, airframe noise, sonic booms, and enhancing needs, a strong concerted effort is being made by the airport environment by using modified landing NASA and the other agencies to apply space-derived approach techniques. A steep approach landing pro- technology directly to terrestrial use in such areas as cedure tested last year was further validated this year energy, materials, transportation, and health care. by a United Airlines DC-8 long-range transport Examples include solar heating and cooling, more equipped with a sophisticated navigation system 4 modified to accommodate this new procedure under Atlantic. FAA was designated as the responsible mutine scheduled-serviceconditions. The ground area United States agency and COMSAT was selected as subjected to objectionable noise was reduced about 50 the U.S. contractor to supply and support the satel- percent. NASA ground tests of modified JT8D com- lites. The objective of this joint program is to evaluate mercial jet engines indicated that the ground area the use of satellites to enhance communication and affected by objectionable noise from current commer- assist in controlling transatlantic air traffic. cial aircraft using this engine could be reduced by 75 Safety percent. The engine-emission-reduction program is aimed at FAA, NASA, and other agencies are involved assessing the impact of high-altitude jet aircraft en- in research and development efforts to improve air- gine exhaust emissions on the stratosphere, and their craft safety and increase the chances of survival in contribution to atmospheric pollution; and on de- the event of an accident. During 1974, FAA placed veloping and demonstrating clean-engine technology particular emphasis on the investigation and develop- to reduce emissions from current and future aircraft ment of means to reduce mid-air collisions. NASA’s engines of all classes. During 1974, a United Airlines program conducted in cooperation with FAA focused Boeing 747 equipped with an atmospheric-sampling on reducing flight accidents through improved inex- instrument package commenced routine service on a pensive instrumentation for general aviation aircraft, commercial air route over the United States to increased safety in terminal-area operations, and in- Hawaii to measure the atmospheric effects of aircraft creased aircraft and human survivability in case of exhaust products along major intercontinental airline accident. routes. Phase 1 tests were completed on several com- During fiscal year 1974, several promising labora- bustor concepts in the NASA Clean Combustor tech- tory-developed techniques for minimizing the effect nology program, meeting 1979 EPA idle mode emis- that one aircraft’s wake can have on another aircraft sion goals. were flight tested to determine their full-scale per------The Climatic Impact Assessment Program has ful- formance. Also, a prototype laser doppler system for filled its congressional commitment by completing a detecting and tracking these wakes near airports so three-year comprehensive international collaboration that other aircraft can be warned of their locations and scientific data exchange. Ten major countries in- and take appropriate avoidance action began opera- cluding the U.K., France, and USSR, which now fly tional evaluation at John F. Kennedy Airport in New supersonic transports, have participated in this pro- York. A new tire material which promises longer life gram. The report of findings is complete. Additional and improved blowout protection for heavily loaded actions have been identified and some follow-on aircraft tires was developed by NASA chemists. A activity initiated. These results will be used as a basis new brake compound which reduces brake wear and for developing regulatory actions to prevent adverse effects of brake heating was also developed and is environmental impact caused by aircraft operations currently being tested. Five full-scale general aviation in the stratosphere. aircraft were crash-tested to provide data for the de- sign of more crashworthy aircraft in the future. NASA Air TrafficControl developed and tested during 1974, both in laboratories The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and full-scale fuselage tests, numerous new fire re- programs have stressed investigations, inhouse and at tardant materials for potential aircraft interior use selected universities, relating to airport capacity and which, in the event an aircraft should experience an techniques of improved air traffic control and naviga- in-flight or post-crash fire, could increase escape and tion. The new microwave landing ‘system has been survival time for passengers and crew. completed through Phase I1 of a three-phase develop- Although these and other developments from the ment program. aviation safety program are intended primarily for Modernization of the air traffic control system by aircraft use, many of these developments, such as the FAA has continued with the introduction of semi- advanced tire, brake, and fire-retardant materials, automated equipment for the air route traffic control can play a significant role in enhancing the safety of centers and for the radar terminals. At the end of the other modes of transportation. year, all 61 of the planned Automated Radar Termi- nal Systems were in operation at the high density Research on Future Air Transportation terminals, and less complex systems are being installed A significant part of NASA’s aeronautics program at locations with lower levels of aircraft activity. continued to be addressed to advancing short haul, A long-term program has been initiated among the Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL), and Vertical United States, Canada, and ESRO involving experi- Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) concepts to meet the ments with satellites in geostationary orbits over the specialized needs of the civil air transportation system i 5 and the military services in the 1980’s. The program petitive fly-off during 1975-76. The widely used H-53 includes the development of puropulsive-lift aircraft series helicopter has had its payload more than technology, tilt-rotor aircraft technology, and ad- doubled (to over 16 tons) by the incorporation of a vanced rotor-craft technology. Avionics and operating third engine in the new CH-53E. By the end of 1974, procedures technology are being developed for navi- the first two prototype CH-53E’s successfully accumu- gation, guidance, and control of both short-haul and lated well over 100 flight hours. First flight of the conventional aircraft in the 1980’s environment. Advanced Attack Helicopter, being developed com- petitively, is scheduled for the Spring of 1975. Defeme Initial deployment of the E-2C Carrier-Based Air- borne Warning and Control System took place in Development of advanced aeronautical technology September 1974. The E-3A Airborne Warning and suitable for future military systems is a major goal Control System (AWACS) underwent a Systems of both DOD and NASA. Joint efforts in research, Integration Demonstration from March through Oc- development, and test of experimental and prototype tober 1974, as an aid to making a production decision. aircraft produced significant progress in 1974 toward AS of the end of 1974, a total of three 747 aircraft the goal of achieving advanced systems of superior had been accepted by the Air Force for modification capability. as E-4A interim National Emergency Airborne Com- In 1974, the development of the A-10 Close Air mand Posts. Support Aircraft continued on schedule with over The remote-piloted-vehicle (RPV) concept ad- 1000 flight test hours being accumulated on the two vanced substantially this past year through the use of prototype aircraft. Rollout of the Air Force B-1 very reliable and miniature electronic devices and bomber, under development since 1970, occurred in more efficient configuration design. The RPV is un- October and its first flight successfully took place in manned, being flown by a pilot from a cockpit on the December. The A-6E All-Weather Attack Aircraft ground. This economical approach permits extended- has been deployed to the U.S. Sixth Fleet, and is flight-duration missions and releases personnel not ready for deployment to the U.S. Seventh Fleet. The only from tedious flights but from highly dangerous first two squadrons of the F-14 Carrier-Based Tactical missions. RPV’s also offer substantial savings for Fighter were deployed on the USS Enterprise in research and development through the use of scale September. The Navy has defined the requirements models in place of more expensive full-sized aircraft. for a carrier-based strike fighter aircraft (NACF) A major success of the Army’s aeronautical propul- which will complement the F-14 in maintaining mari- sion research and exploratory development program time air superiority and beachhead air defense in the has been the development of efficient analytical meth- early 1980’s. The Air Force F-15 Advanced Tactical ods for the design of small high-temperature com- Fighter continues on schedule, the first operational bustors. Tests of the technique indicate a tremendous aircraft being delivered to Tactical Air Command in potential for weight reduction and lower emissions for November 1974. Plans are underway to modify a this class of aircraft propulsion engines. significant number of the newer F-4’s to incorporate The NASA-U.S. Army Rotor Systems Research Air- the advanced Wild Weasel avionics system for use in craft program to test promising new rotor systems search and destruction of hostile radar systems. The under actual flight conditions entered the initial fabri- Air Force Lightweight Fighter Program will com- cation phase with delivery scheduled for 1977. The mence full scale development after source selection in NASA-U.S. Army Tilt-Rotor Research Aircraft pro- early 1975, following the 1974 flight evaluation of gram also reached the fabrication phase, with delivery prototypes. of two craft expected late in 1975. The Utility Tactical Aircraft System (UTTAS) A Proximity Warning System to prevent aircraft will be the Army’s first assault helicopter capable of collisions will soon become a reality at four major carrying a combat-equipped infantry squad. Proto- installations where the Army has its greatest concen- types by two manufacturers will participate in a com- tration of aircraft.

6 National Aeronautics 11 and Space Administration

Introduction In space applications we are no longer just examin ing if certain things can be done, but are engaging in The National Aeronautics and Space Administra- experimental demonstrations of practical uses having tion (NASA) is the civilian agency established by the significant potential benefits. Experimental satellites National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 to plan, are being used to demonstrate the use of satellite direct and conduct aeronautical and space research communications systems for education and health care and exploration activities. Under the basic policy purposes. Other experimental satellites are showing objective that activities in space shall be devoted to how to acquire and use various forms of remotely peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind, sensed data for mapping, inventorying, and monitor- NASA’s statutory goals include the expansion of hu- ing Earth resources and atmospheric pollution. man knowledge of phenomena in the atmosphere and In space science we are now asking more specific t space; development and operation of aeronautical questions. For example, NASA is looking at the de- and space vehicles and equipment; discovery and tailed structure of the Sun from space, seeking to application of potential benefits of space activities; understand better its energy processes, and the sun- preservation of US. leadership in aeronautics and spots, flares, prominences, and other solar phenomena space science, technology, and applications ; and CO- that interact with the Earth’s atmosphere to affect operation with other nations on peaceful applications. our weather, climate, ecology, harvests, atmospheric In NASA’s early years, the focus of the space pollution processes, and radio communications. program was on the development of the technology In planning the exploration of other planets, NASA required for space operations and on broad questions is emphasizing studies of their atmospheric processes, of space science, applications, and operations. In geological formations, mineralization, and other fac- science, NASA began with the exploration of space tors that will aid us to understand better our own around the Earth, then expanded its inquiry to de- planet, the Earth. Investigators of distant stars are termine the general nature of the Sun, Moon, solar studying newly discovered energy sources so powerful system, and universe. Experimental communications that they are unexplained by present knowledge. Dis- and weather satellites demonstrated the feasibility of covery of the physical Jaws that will unlock their using space to improve critical services needed by secrets could eventually transform mankind’s future modern society. The ability of man to live and per- here on Earth. form useful work in space was demonstrated by a Space operations are a going business, much of series of manned space flight programs of increasing which is directed at the routine employment of space complexity, duration, and productivity, culminating flight capability to conduct scientific and applications in the Apollo missions to the Moon and the Skylab programs. More than half of NASA’s launches in .experimental space station. 1974 were reimbursable launches paid for by com- As experience and knowledge have accumulated, mercial, other federa! or foreign users of space. NASA has identified a growing number of Earth- In space technology, the Space Shuttle, NASA’s oriented space applications, and non-space applica- largest project in the 1970’s, is under development tions for space-developed technology. Its scientific to provide the Space Transportation System for the inquiries are now focused not only on important 1980’s for launch and recovery of science and applica- scientific questions but also more directly on scientific tions payloads and the conduct of laboratory opera- questions related to urgent human needs back on tions in space utilizing the Spacelab being developed Earth. Space operations have become almost routine by the European Space Research Organization. Be- and NASA’s technology advances are now directed sides opening up a whole range of new possibilities in at reducing the cost of space operations as well as space, the Shuttle is designed to permit the conduct developing new capabilities for the future. of space missions at lower cost.

7 NASA’s current space objectives, toward which its civil and military aviation. NASA’s basic goal in aero- activities in 1974 were directed, include to: nautics is to provide US. industry and the Depart- Pioneer and stimulate the employment of new ment of Defense with advanced concepts and tech- space applications in such areas as meteorology, nology which will enable them to maintain the su- communications, Earth resources survey, pollu- periority of our aircraft over any competitor. On the tion monitoring, navigation, space processing, civil side, technological advance is essential to pre- and data collection and management. serve our position in aircraft exports, one of the Provide launch services for a growing list of major positive contributors to our balance of pay- commercial users, other civilian federal agencies, ments. On the military side, technological superi- and foreign nations. ority is essential to an effective defense posture. Assist federal, state, and local agencies and US. For civil aviation, the emphasis of NASA’s con- industry and small business in applying space- tinuing work in aeronautical research is on the tech- developed knowledge and technology directly to nology required for improved, more efficient, more terrestrial civil applications in such areas as convenient, safer transportation, with special focus energy, medical technology, transportation, ma- on reducing energy consumption and minimizing en- terials, remote delivery of education and medical vironmental impact. For military aviation, the em- care, and pollution-control technology. phasis is on improved performance and the specialized Explore the solar system to understand the forma- technological requirements of each of the military tion and nature of other planets, which can help services. us better understand the dynamics and structure NASA’s current objectives in aeronautical research of the Earth and its atmosphere, and learn more and technology, to which its activities were directed about its resources and how to preserve its en- in 1974, include: vironment. Reduce the energy requirements of current and Improve our understanding of the Earth-Sun future aircraft and concurrently seek to improve c interactions that affect almost every aspect of their performance and economy of operations. our existence. Reduce noise, pollution, and other undesirable Seek to discover the nature of cosmic processes environmental effects of aircraft. that can be of benefit to mankind. Improve aircraft safety and operations through Use the unique environment of space to study the application of advances in space and aero- the adaptive biological processes of humans and nautical technology. other living organisms, both to prepare for Advance the technology and explore new systems broader future participation in manned space ).. concepts for improved short haul, short takeoff flight and to develop medical understanding and and landing, and vertical takeoff aircraft. techniques for use on Earth. Continue to provide research and technical sup- Continue the search for evidences of the existence port to the aeronautical development programs of life on other planets and elsewhere in the uni- of the military services. verse in order to gain new insights into the na- This chapter summarizes NASA’s 1974 activities ture of life itself and into fundamental philo- in space, aeronautics, and the applications of aero- sophical questions of man’s place in the universe. space technology. Develop the Space Shuttle system within the projected cat estimates to provide an improved Applications to Earth and economical means of conducting all space The primary objective of NASA’s applications operations in the 1980’s. program is to employ space and its technologies to Seek to reduce the cost of space activities ge‘n- help in the solution of problems here on Earth. Ap- erally by studying lower cost approaches and plications programs employ remote sensing to con- applying advanced technology to reduce the duct observations in Earth Resources Survey, Pol- cost of payloads and equipment. lution Monitoring, Weather and Climate, and Earth Support United States policy in seeking better and Ocean Physics. Space observations are already relations with the Soviet Union through the finding use at local and national levels, here and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project-a joint docking abroad, for such activities as weather forecasting, mission in 1975. crop estimation, land-use determination, mapping, Cooperate with other nations generally in space mineral exploration, resource determination, environ- activities on the basis of mutual interests, with- mental monitoring, and hydrological management. out the exchange of funds. Other program areas utilizing space systems and re- In aeronautics, NASA serves as the principal agency lated technology to increase man’s ability to deal for aeronautical research and technology for both with problems amenable to technological solutions 8 1- are Communications, Material Processing in Space, of water coming from snowmelt. These predictions Technology Applications, and energy-related activi- are particularly important in the Western United

I- ties. States where small increases in the accuracy of run- t- The program areas listed above and NASA activi- off predictions may have significant economic benefits. e ties to aid users in their application are individually In the coastal zones, ERTS data have been used !- reported upon in this section. to map variations in current circulation patterns and e to infer sand transport due to offshore currents off the Earth Resources Survey 7- coast of California; to provide information on water L- The Earth Resources Survey Program involves the circulation patterns within the Delaware Bay; and to application of space or space-related remote sensing reveal unexpected circulation patterns in the northern 1- systems to the measuring and monitoring of param- portion of Cook Inlet, Alaska. 1- eters associated with agriculture, forestry, miner- SKYLAB/EREP.-The Earth Resources Experi- .e ology, marine and inland water resources, cartog- ment Package (EREP), which was flown on Skylab, IS raphy, land use and urban development, and geology. included a complement of six advanced photogra- L- The experiments conducted within this program are phic and electronic sensors which acquired data in L- designed to explore the technology that could permit, the visible, infrared, and microwave portions of the d on an operational basis, the measurement, monitoring, electromagnetic spectrum. These sensors were flown Y and eventually management of the world’s resources to gain information for the design of future auto- including food, fiber, timber, and water; the identifi- mated systems and to explore the feasibility of using h cation and the utilization of other resources, such as data with increased spatial resolution and data in d minerals and fossil fuels; and the wise planning for other spectral bands such as in the microwave re- use of arable and habitable lands. gion for resource survey studies. These data will be d During 1974, the Earth Resources Technology correlated with information obtained about selected .e Satellite (ERTS-1, now known as LANDSAT-1) ground sites from aircraft and/or from on-site continued to acquire much new data on resources’ measurements. Particular emphasis is being placed .e parameters and these data, along with extensive data on validating the utility of spectral signature identi- from the Earth Resources Experiment Package car- fication from orbital altitudes. Investigations are h ried on Skylab and those from the Earth Observa- being conducted in the areas of agriculture, range and tions Aircraft Program, were used to further our 1- forestry, geology, water resources, coastal zones, land measurement and monitoring capability. Planning use planning, and cartography. for the initiation of new experimental and demon- IS $ fi stration programs was continued. Applications Demonstrations.-As a result of NASA’s success in its remote sensing research pro- Earth Resources Technology Satellites.-ERTS- 1, grams, several experimental demonstrations of re- launched July 23, 1972, has been a successful experi- mote sensing capabilities are being planned. These mental mission and has provided data for more than programs are major efforts designed to demonstrate 300 specific investigations. The data returned from and transfer developed and proven technology to !S ERTS-1 have proven to be of exceptional quality, operational user agencies. They are designed to serve )- and some of the applications that have been iden- as the transition from the R&D remote sensing sys- tified from the investigations are summarized below. tem to the operational system. Agriculture investigation results indicate that use Presently planned demonstrations include: ( 1) a of ERTS-1 technology could result in more timely capability to inventory crops, (2) a system to ex- 1s estimates of crop production and yield. tend the shipping season in the Great Lakes through 0 Land use inventory data obtained from ERTS-1 ice monitoring, (3) the capability to generate or up- 3- have been incorporated into some existing state and date environmental maps of a (predominantly) wet- 1. regional land use information management systems lands area, and (4) an automated natural resources I- and have provided valuable updates of these systems. system oriented to state or regional use. . h In water resources, numerical water distribution Y models have been implemented by the U.S. Geo- Earth Observations Aircraft Program.-In 1974 d logical Survey in South Florida. These models com- the emphasis in the Earth Observations Aircraft Pro- 5 bine data on the area of surface water from ERTS-1 gram shifted from obtaining complementary remote 5 imagery with data on water level obtained from sensing data for the support of satellite missions to 1- ground measurements relayed to ERTS-1 by Data an integral part of NASA and interagency applica- t. Collection Platforms, providing accurate and eco- tions research and demonstration projects. The air- .- nomical estimates of ground water available for irri- craft program now supports activities in meteorology, 11 gation and urban use. ERTS-1 data have also been environmental quality, and earth and ocean physics .S utilized in the accurate prediction and management research tasks in addition to those of Earth resources survey which dominated flight activity in previous stratospheric structure and composition and to moni- years. The primary objectives of the program con- tor possible changes in stratospheric conditions re- tinue to relate to the identification and development sulting from natural phenomena and man’s activities. of sensors for future space missions, and the develop- Stratospheric processes are especially important be- ment of remote sensing and analytical techniques. cause of their influence upon atmospheric tempera- During 1974 NASA operated one of the aircraft in tures and solar radiation reaching the earth’s sur- support of other agency programs to measure pollut- face. ants and climatic impacts associated with the strato- Data from high altitude (20 kilometers; 12.6 sphere. Also, another aircraft supported the Global miles) aircraft surveys have indicated baseline upper Atmospheric Research Program’s Atlantic Tropical atmosphere particle densities of about 15 particles/ Experiment. These activities are described in the cm3? varying by a factor of two to three on a day-to- following sections. day basis. Up to 80% of the particles are in the size range of less than 0.1 micron diameter and are Pollution Monitoring of sulfate origin. Flights to the north polar regions mark the beginning of quasi-hemispherical surveys 1974 marked the second year of existence of of ozone, nitric oxide, and aerosols to determine re- NASA’s Pollution Monitoring Program as an entity. gional variations. Recent transfer of an Air Force This program is aimed at developing and demon- WB-57F aircraft to NASA, for use in support of the strating the technology needed to monitor param- Department of Transportation’s Climatic Impact eters associated with the pollution of the atmos- Assessment Program and the NASA stratospheric re- phere and the waters of the earth. This technology search program, will enhance the capability for de- is expected to contribute to an eventual national capa- termining the baseline stratosphere and studying the bility for operational systems capable of continually effects of both natural and man-derived pollutants. monitoring the environment and helping to maintain an acceptable environmental quality. Low Altitude Atmospheric (Tropospheric) Moni- toring.-Recent aircraft flights of two different car- Oceanographic and Air Pollution Observing Satel- bon monoxide remote monitors in the Washington, lite.-The Nimbus G Oceanographic and Air Pollu- D.C. area marked the initiation of a program to tion Observing Satellite planned for launch in define the capability of remote sensors for satisfying 1978 is a major focus of the program; its nine ex- urban/regional scale monitoring needs. Initial periments are designed to provide data on air and studies will concentrate on carbon monoxide and water pollution, oceanography, the atmosphere/ sulfur dioxide to support national requirements for ocean interface, and the Earth’s energy balance. Al- ambient air monitoring of these pollutants. Remote though serving as a technology demonstration pro- sensor measurements, supported by computer models gram, Nimbus G marks a first step towards eventual and in situ ground-truth measurements, are expected operational monitoring on regional? national, and to demonstrate the capabilities of an integrated global scales. Procurement for the design and con- urban/regional system by 1980. struction of the spacecraft and associated experi- ments is underway. Water Pollution Monitoring.-Algae serve as bio- In May, a successful major prototype demonstra- logical indicators of water quality because of their tion test was conducted for the Lower Atmosphere response to nutrients (growth) or to toxic substances Composition and Temperature Experiment designed (disappearance) . Remote measurement of algae to measure vertical profiles of trace stratospheric con- bloom concentrations, distributions, and possibly stituents on a global scale. A successful test, conducted algae type have been demonstrated through the use under the Advanced Applications Flight Experiment of infrared photography, multispectral scanners, and (AAFE) Program, obtained data over a five-hour pe- active laser systems. Continued analysis of studies in riod on atmospheric constituents between 36 and 42 the upper Potomac River, in cooperation with the kilometers (22.6 and 26 miles). It was supported by Environmental Protection Agency, have demon- 15 simultaneous correlation experiments using bal- strated the capability of making detailed maps of loons, rockets, and aircraft-borne remote and in situ algae blooms with concentrations as low as about experiments as well as ground-based observations. 30 micrograms per quart (or liter). Multispectral Several universities, the Department of Transporta- scanner studies of Clear Lake-a highly fertile lake tion, the Department of Defense, and the National in California-have shown highly complex algae Center for Atmospheric Research participated. distributions with distinctive spectral signatures ap- parently related to algae type. Research continues High Altitude Atmospheric (Stratospheric) Moni- with a four-color laser system optimized to detect toring.-Emphasis in stratospheric research is in- fluorescence from the red, golden, brown, green, and creasing, both to establish a national baseline of blue-green groups of algae. Weather ad Climate ment of the practical limits of weather systems predictability, (3) deve!.opment of more efficient The Weather and Climate program has the long- methods for assimilation of meteorological observa- est history among U.S. programs to apply space tions, and, in particular, usage of non-synoptic data techniques. These activities are primarily directed as a basis for predicting large-scale atmospheric mo- toward improving the accuracy of both the short and tions, and (4) design of an optimum composite long-term weather forecasting. meteorological observing system for numerical Within the Weather and Climate program, basic weather prediction of general circulation features. and applied research is conducted to support space- related experiments, satellite development, and oper- Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS)Pro- ations of the National Weather Program. Activities gram.-SMS-1 was launched into a geostationary also include the development and demonstration of orbit during May 1974. The Visible and Infrared new sensing techniques and atmospheric modeling Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR) aboard offers full- techniques in support of the Global Atmospheric Earth disk pictures of the Western Hemisphere every Research Program (GARP) . During 1974 the first 30 minutes during the day or night. The VISSR has Synchronous Meteorological Satellite ( SMS) was the capability of a visible-range resolution of about launched and made significant contributions to the 0.56 miles (0.9 kilomters) and an infrared resolution acquisition of near-continuous cloud cover imagery of 5.6 miles (9 kilometers). The acquisition of such of the Western Hemisphere. SMS was a major com- high-resolution data at frequent intervals in real- ponent of the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment time will contribute significantly to efforts of identify. described below. ing, monitoring, and tracking severe weather phen- omena such as hurricanes and atmospheric conditions Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) .- conducive to tornado formation. This added observa- The GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) tional tool should aid short-range forecasting and is a highly successful international atmospheric re- promote more timely issuing of weather and disaster search experiment to gather data to contribute to warnings. SMS-1 and SMS-B (to be launched in the understanding of the behavior of the tropical 1975) will comprise, in part, a geostationary satellite atmosphere and its ultimate effect on global weather. system which can fulfill the NOAA requirements for The experiment began during the summer of 1974 the National Operational Environmental Satellite and lasted 101 days. In this first large-scale inter- System. national GARP experiment, NASA participated through data collection by the ship VANGUARD, ATS4.-Although this is primarily a communica- a CV-990 aircraft, a direct-readout ground station, tions satellite, its launch in May of 1974 marked it and the meteorological satellites, SMS-1, ATS-3, as the first geostationary three-axis stabilized satellite. and Nimbus-5. Such stabilization ability will be of major importance A second principal GARP activity was the May in future geostationary Earth-oriented spacecraft be- 1974 Data Systems Test (DST) ; primary responsi- cause of the greater viewing time thereby afforded. bility was assigned to NASA for the DST, which The Geosynchronous Very High Resolution Radiom- produced the first real-time global data set. The eter aboard ATS-6 was designed to derive cloud- observation system consisted of the Nimbus-5 at- tracked winds and sea-surface temperatures in sup- mospheric sounders, the operational satellite NOAA- port of GARP as well as measure reflected solar- 3, ATS-3, and the conventional network of surface, energy and emitted infrared energy. This instrument upper-air, and aircraft observations. Processing of produced about 600 very high quality color images satellite sounding data from Nimbus-5 and proced- before it was disabled due to a component failure. ures for determining wind fields from cloud-track images obtained by geostationary satellites high- Earth and Ocean Physics Applications lighted the DST. During 1974, the Earth and Ocean Physics Appli- The DST provided a simulation of the observing cations Program continued its ground-based and data collection and data-processing system concepts flight activities in support of its primary goal, which and procedures under consideration for the First is to identify, develop, and demonstrate relevant GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) currently plan- space techniques that may contribute significantly to ned for 1977-79. Further testing is planned for 1975 the development and validation of predictive models following the launch of Nimbus F. FGGE will con- for earthquake hazard alleviation, ocean-surface centrate efforts to utilize collected data in attaining conditions, and ocean circulation. the following goals: ( 1) A more realistic atmospheric GEOS-C, the Geodynamic Experimental Ocean model for extended range forecasting, general circu- Satellite is proceeding to launch readiness in March lation changes, and climate prediction, (2) assess- of 1975. Data from this program is expected to vali-

11 5'15466 0 - '15 - 2 date the use of a radar altimeter for measurement launched in the series to date, has been employed of the ocean geoid, as well as to provide accurate in- in experiments in the use of satellites for health and formation on wave height and sea state. education communications to remote areas. Two new projects were defined as part of the With the launch of the ATS-6, NASA’s activities in Earth and Ocean Physics Program in 1974. These communications research and development are being are the Tectonic Plate Motion and SEASAT-A proj- refocused toward exploring more advanced elements ects. The former is concerned with the physical of this technology, with further application of already motions of the Tectonic plates which make up the developed technology being left to the private satellite surface of the Earth while the latter is designed to and communications industry. acquire data on ocean dynamics. Both will contribute Applications Technology Satellite.-The Applica- to a better understanding of Earth and ocean tions Technology Satellite 6 (ATS-6), the most processes and their effect upon the environment in versatile and powerful communications satellite yet which we live. developed, was successfully launched into synchro- nous orbit May 30, 1974. This satellite is distin- Communications guished by its 30-foot parabolic reflector antenna NASA has long been active in programs to develop which can relay high quality signals, such as in- the technologies for utilization of space systems in structional color television, to small, inexpensive communications systems of vastly increased capa- ground terminals. At the end of the first month of bility. A major segment of the communications in- flight, all systems had been successfully evaluated dustry, including established firms, new quasi- with very few anomalies encountered, and the governmental corporations, and international organi- spacecraft was declared operational. zations, is heavily involved in space communications. ATS-6 contains a total of 23 experiments covering The world-wide need for improved communications a wide variety of useful applications and new tech- received added impetus. During 1974, a number of niques. One very important applications experiment countries moved ahead with planning for communi- explores continuous voice communication with and cations satellite services. The United States will be position determination for ships and airplanes in a major supplier of subsystems, spacecraft, launch trans-oceanic travel. There arc also experiments to services, and ground-station equipment. Continuing investigate characteristics of newly allocated radio our commitment to launch commercial communica- frequencies being considered for future communica- tion satellites for international services on a reim- tions use and to determine the power density levels, bursable basis, another INTELSAT IV was launched frequency distribution, and geographical location of on November 21, 1974, and additional launches are sources of interference to presently used satellite expected in 1975. communications frequencies. There is also an experi- There was continued growth in domestic com- ment to demonstrate a ground-based equipment ap- mercial communications satellite activities, as West- proach to reducing the cost and complexity of con- ern Union inaugurated its domestic satellite service. trolling satellites and achieving a measure of com- NASA provided launch services for Western Union’s monality between satellites to reduce development Westar A in April and Westar B in October 1974, costs. There are other experiments in day-night cloud- on a reimbursable basis. RCA is continuing develop- cover imagery and several experiments in space ment and construction of satellites for its domestic science. All of these have performed satisfactorily. system and anticipates a first launch in 1975. The The satellite mission was formally declared a success American Satellite Corporation is leasing capacity on on September 25, 1974. the Canadian communications satellite ANJK pend- The ATS-6 Health, Education Telecommunica- ing a decision to launch its own. The Comsat Cor- tions (HET) experiment, which investigates the poration’s Maritime Satellite-MARISAT-neared practicability of satellites for broadcasting educa- completion in 1974 and a launch is planned for 1975. tional and health information to people in remote The result was a favorable outlook for growth or isolated areas, began operations in July 1974 with in domestic telecommunications industry. In plan- the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) and ning for the growth of existing services and the the Veterans Administration (VA) components. The inclusion of new services over the next 10 to 15 ARC components provided two summer courses for years, NASA is assisting in preparations for the World graduate college credit, relayed through ATS-6 from Administrative Radio Conferences in 1977 and 1979. the University of Kentucky at Lexington, to teach- In May 1974, NASA successfully launched the ers in 15 isolated Appalachian locations. sixth in its series of Applications Technology Satel- During these courses, the participants were able lites (ATS-6). This spacecraft, employing the most to initiate inquiries and provide responses to test powerful and versatile communications systems questions through a spacecraft launched earlier,

12 ATSS. Additional college credit courses with inter- the Canadian spacecraft. With the CTS in geosta- active capability will continue throughout the cur- tionary orbit in view of the United States and Can- rent academic year. The VA component of HET ada, NASA and the Canadian Department plan to provide seminars and medical consultation for conduct numerous communications experiments, shar- physicians and health professionals at 11 VA hos- ing time on the spacecraft equally. Experiments to pitals. This programming is certified for health pro- be performed range over a wide variety of potentially fessions continuing education credit by the American beneficial satellite applications. Included are experi- Medical Association. The Rocky Mountain com- ments related to educational and health services to ponent of HET started career education instructional remote areas of the country and interchange of uni- television in September. As with tKe Appalachian ve'rsity ' curricula. In addition, scientific experiments component of HET, some of the reception terminals associated with the transmission of digital television are equipped to utilize ATS-3 for interaction be- will be performed. In 1974 coordination with Canada tween participating junior high school students and and preparations for the launch continued. instructors in Denver, Colorado. The Alaskan health component of HET, which experiments with pro- Advanced Communications Research and Techni- vision of improved health care to isolated Alaskan cal Consultation Services.-In 1974, emphasis was villages, also started operation in September. In this placed on conducting research needed to explore the component, audio and video medical data and tele- higher regions of the radio frequency spectrum. conferencing can be transmitted between medical Studies continued on frequency allocation and band- aides at remote locations and physicians located in width and orbit requirements for future applications regional hospitals in Alaska and at the University of missions. Studies and investigations to open up new Washington's School of Medicine. regions of the spectrum for applications research were continued as were efforts to develop or improve Following the experiments in the United States, space systems components and technologies to facili- it is planned to move the ATS-6 satellite from the tate increased efficiency in use of the geostationary United States to India to support a Satellite Instruc- orbit. Much of this effort is stimulated by increased tional Television Experiment (SITE) to be con- crowding of the radio frequency spectrum and is ducted by the Indian Government. Instructional designed to discover methods of alleviation. Techni- television programs are planned to be provided to cal consultation to the Federal Communications about 5,000 Indian Villages, 2,000 of them by direct Commission, in the form of satellite systems evalua- broadcast to individual receivers. The Indian ground tions, continued to expand as more and more new station is completed and ready for the SITE experi- applications for domestic and international satellite ment. Television program production is underway services were filed. This consisted of numerous satel- and production of television receivers to serve the lite system evaluations for the FCC. Spacecraft de- village sites is accelerating. In July 1976, following sign reviews for INTELSAT and the United States completion of SITE experiments, ATS-6 is planned domestic communications satellite applicants con- to be moved back to the United States for additional tinued. experiments. A major effort in 1974 involved the beginning of preparations for the World Administrative Radio Communications Technology Satellite (CTS).- Conferences to be held in 1977 and 1979. In this The Communications Technology Satellite is a joint work NASA provides technical support to the Fed- development of the Canadian Department of Com- eral Communications Commission, the Office of munications and NASA. This experimental satellite Telecommunications Policy, and the Department of will be launched near the end of 1975 and is planned State, as they prepare the United States position for to begin experimental broadcasting to small low-cost these two world conferences. terminals. This spacecraft pioneers the use of the 12 GHz frequency allocation which has been set Data Collection Via Satellite.-Expansion of data aside for broadcast satellites. The United States is collection activities using spacecraft continued in providing the super-efficient 200 watt output Trans- 1974. Interest in the use of Earth-based sensors to be mitter Experiment Package for the satellite and the interrogated by satellites continues to cxpand. Instal- Thor/Delta launch vehicle. The United States will lation of a read-out station for data-collection plat- perform environmental testing and launch of the forms in the Gulf Coast region of the United States Canadian-developed spacecraft. During 1974 solu- was initiated at the National Space Technology tions were developed for problems associated with Laboratories in Mississippi. operating the Transmitter Experiment Package in a Disaster Warning System.-In response to a re- space environment. An engineering model of this quest from the National Oceanographic and Atmos- package was delivered to Canada and integrated with pheric Administration (NOAA) , a comparative study

13 of ground-based and satellite-based communications other federal agencies, state, and local governments segments of a national disaster warning system was in developing technology systems for use in hospitals, conducted. The concept would make it possible to police departments, ground transportation, etc. transmit real-time warning alerts into U.S. homes, One such system originally developed in this pro- businesses, and institutions and providing communica- gram is the Modular Integrated Utilities System, a tions links between ground-based components of the concept to integrate all community utility functions natural disaster control system. into a single, energy-efficient, environmentally benign Data Management.-In 1974, NASA initiated a package. This ongoing program being conducted by concentrated effort in data management. The intent NASA’s Office of Energy Programs for HUD was is to devise techniques to reduce costs and improve detailed in last year’s report. efficiency in handling experimental data and informa- Another system is the Activated Carbon Treat- tion. The objective of this effort was to define ment System, developed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion optimized data systems to satisfy identifiable needs Laboratory. This system, which uses technology of data users and to improve performance and reduce developed for the production of solid-fueled rock- costs of components used in sensor data formatting, ets, relies on activated carbon to treat municipal processing, storage, and dissemination. The improved sewage or industrial wastes. The removed organic and optimized components, in turn, are planned to be material is then “pyrolyzed” to produce more ac- integrated into an optimized overall system. Initially tivated carbon. The system was demonstrated this addressing only the data and information activities year at a treatment facility operated by Orange associated with Applications programs, it is envisioned County, California. that in time these new techniques will be employed This process eliminates the problem of sludge elsewhere in NASA and in other data management disposal and may result in substantial savings in programs. new plant construction and operating costs. The US. Environmental Protection Agency has approvdd Space Processing a grant for the County Sanitation Districts of Orange Space Processing Applications has as its primary County to construct a 1,000,000 gallons per day plant goal the identification, development, and demonstra- which would use this process. tion of processing techniques that are designed to take In a reiated area, NASA is developing a Water advantage of the unique qualities of the space envi- Quality Monitoring and Control System for use in ronment to produce materials which might be more municipal sewage treatment facilities or smaller economical to process in space or impossible to pro- “package” sewage treatment plants. This system will duce on Earth, but which could be of great value use many of the advanced sensors developed for if available. future long-duration manned space flights. Research begun in 1973 was continued in order to further analyze the results of Skylab and to de- User Affairs velop concepts for new processes. On November 4, During 1974, NASA’s Office of Applications made 1974, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology significant strides in improving its understanding of presented President Ford with a crystal of indium the many needs of the various “user communities,’’ antimonide that was grown aboard Skylab in Jan- and at the same time progress was made in exposing , uary 1974 as part of the space-processing experiments to those communities the potential application of on the Skylab missions. An example of the potential space technology and systems to help meet their in space processing, this crystal was the purist and needs. These activities have been focused in the Office longest yet produced by man. Such crystals could of User Affairs of the Office of Applications. NASA make feasible substantial reductions in the size of the is working closely with such mission-oriented agen- components in computers, television sets, and other cies of the Federal Government as the Departments electronic devices. of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, Health, Educa- Non-Space Applications of Space Techlzology tion and Welfare, Housing and Urban Development, and Transportation, and the Corps of Engineers and ( Technology Applicatiolzs ) the Environmental Protection Agency. In addition, Many of the problems and difficulties facing the NASA also expanded its active dialogue with state nation today in areas such as housing, transportation, government agencies and regional organizations in public safety, and pollution control could be reduced such areas as resources and land use management, or eliminated by new technological developments. energy, communications, and the environment. Toward this goal, NASA, through its Technology Applications program, is bringing together teams of Environmental Afifi1ications.-NASA jointly spon- experienced scientists and engineers to work with sored (with the Environmental Protection Agency) 14 two major regional meetings to identify EPA prob- technology activities, which have been enhanced in lem areas which are conducive to solution by ap- recent years by the co-location at NSTL of research plications of NASA-developed technology. These and technology activities of several other government conferences were attended by technical experts from agencies. various NASA field installations, by representatives from EPA National Environmental Research Centers, NASA Elzergy Program and by representatives of EPA regional offices. These To provide a focus for the application of its ad- conferences resulted in the identification of a large vanced aerospace technology to energy needs, NASA number of significant environmental problems to has established an Office of Energy Programs. This which NASA technology and expertise can be applied. office will manage NASA energy programs and will Work plans are in progress toward developing spe- coordinate NASA support to other Federal agencies cific projects to implement solutions to the problems conducting energy research and development. on a jointly funded basis. Solar Energy Electricity Generation.-NASA has Summer Study of Space Applications.-A major pioneered in the development of solar energy collec- activity of the User Affairs program involved repre- tion and conversion systems. The Skylab space sta- sentatives of the user community in reviewing NASA’s tion and the upcoming Viking Mars Lander space- applications programs at a Summer Study of Space craft are among the many spacecraft utilizing solar Applications held at Snowmass, Colorado. This study arrays to produce electricity. In cooperation with the was formally sponsored by the National Academy of National Science Foundation, NASA is conducting Engineering’s Space Applications Board and took a program to reduce the cost and improve the place from June 30 through July 13, 1974. efficiency of solar cells. Promising progress has been The study was focused on 14 multi-disciplinary made in the growth of high-quality, single-crystal panels and a staff which together totaled more than silicon ribbons for application to mass-produced, low- 100. Senior officials from industry, academia, state cost solar cells. and local governments, federal agencies, and repre- Microwave Energy Transmission.-Transmission sentatives of the applications program user communi- of electricity via microwave radiation is also being ties participated. These were well known experts from investigated as a vital component of possible large a variety of fields, many of whom had little previous satellite power stations. In a recent NASA demon- knowledge of the ongoing and future activities of the stration at the Venus test site at Goldstone, Cali- NASA applications program. The Director of the fornia, a record was set for wireless transmission of Summer Study was Jack M. Campbell, President of power. A one-square-meter receiving-and-rectifying the Federation of Rocky Mountain States, and antenna (rectenna) delivered approximately one former governor of New Mexico. kilowatt of power at a range of 1.6 kilometers. The The working panels were organized into the fol- efficiency of the rectenna in converting the incoming lowing disciplinary areas : Weather and Climate; microwave power to direct current power was Uses of Communications; Agriculture, Forest and slightly over 75 percent. Range; Environmental Quality; Materials Processing in Space; Land Use Planning; Marine and Maritime Solar Heating and Cooling.-The use of solar Uses; Extractable Resources; and Inland Water. energy for heating and cooling of buildings is being Additional panels of an “overview” character ad- investigated as a potential alternative to current meth- dressed the subjects of Institutional Arrangements, ods. Under the 1974 Solar Heating and Cooling Dem- Information Services and Processing, and Costs and onstration Act, NASA has initiated program planning Benefits. These panels provided perspective regarding in conjunction with the Department of Housing and cost and institutional inhibiting and driving factors. Urban Development and several other Federal agen- These panel activities were supported by inputs from cies to demonstrate the residential and commercial a Panel on Space Transportation and a NASA Tech- feasibility of solar heating and cooling units and to nology Support Team. develop the capability within private enterprise for the widespread application of this abundant source ,Establishment of the National Space Technology of energy. Laboratories.-Effective June 14, 1974, the National In June, an experimental solar house was com- Space Technology Laboratories (formerly the Mis- pleted at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Hunts- sissippi Test Facility) was created at Bay St. Louis, ville, Alabama, which will ultimately derive up to Mississippi. This step was taken in recognition of 85 percent of its heating and cooling energy from the capabilities that exist there for conducting remote sun. Ground was broken in July for a 50,000-square sensing, environmental, and related research and foot office building at the Langley Research Center in

15 Hampton, Virginia. This building should be able to 25 percent and emissions below the 1977 Federal derive up to 90 percent of its heating and 50 percent standards can be obtained. of its cooling from a field of solar collectors. A major accomplishment during this year was the These facilities will provide test beds for new com- development and demonstration of a generator which ponents, as well as aid in understanding the day-to- produces a hydrogen-rich gas directly from gasoline day problems associated with solar heating and and is of a sufficiently small size to be packaged on cooling. board a normal automobile. Such a device may per- mit essentially the same economical and low-pollu- Wind Energy Program.-Wind-energy systems tion performance as was previously demonstrated have been used for centuries for pumping water, for bottled hydrogen. grinding grain, and in limited cases, generating elec- tricity. Wind-driven electrical generating systems, Energy Conversion Alternatives Study.-Currently however, have thus far not been cost-competitive over 60 percent of the heat generated in an electric with fossil-fueled plants. power plant is wasted. Many alternative approaches NASA has many years of experience in airplane are possible for reducing this wasted energy. NASA and helicopter technology involving blade designs is conducting a study to obtain a comparative eval- incorporating advanced materials, structures, rotating uation of the merits of various energy conversion sys- machinery, etc. As a result of this program, the NSF, tems utilizing coal or coal-derived fuels. The study as a part of its Five-Year Wind Energy program, has is jointly funded by the National Science Foundation, assigned NASA the responsibility for design, fabrica- the Department of the Interior, and NASA. The tion, and testing of windmills. The intent of this final report from the study should be available by the effort is to determine if such systems are technically end of Calendar Year 1975. feasible and if they can generate electrical power Advanced Coal Energy Extraction.-To help meet reliably and cost-effectively. At the present time, de- the Nation’s energy needs, the Department of ‘the sign and construction of a 100 Kilowatt Wind Gen- Interior is expanding its research and development erator is underway at the NASA Lewis Research effort to increase coal production with enhanced mine Center. Initial testing is scheduled for July 1975. safety. NASA was requested early in 1974 to assist Transkortation Systems Aerodynamic Drag Stitd- . with that effort by selective application of its back- ies.-NASA, in cooperation with the Department of ground and experience m engineering and physical sciences. Transportation, is conducting two studies designed. to reduce the drag and correspondingly increase the NASA is now working &h the Bureau of Mines’ fuel’ economy of transportation systems. At the Flight to select mutually agreeable technology advancement Research Center, trucks are being tested to determine projects that build on expertise unique to NASA and the drag reduction possible through changes in their will be complementary to the Bureau of Mines re- basic aerodynamic shape. In addition, an assessment search and development program. Both near term is being made of selected commercially-available (1978) and intermediate term (1985) technology drag reduction “add on” devices. advancement projects are under consideration. At the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, scale models of automobiles (sub-com- Study of Sun-Earth Interactions and pact, compact, and full size) are undergoing wind Cosmic Processes tunnel tests. Aerodynamic changes such as the addi- tion of front and aft spoilers, vehicle underpanning, NASA’s Physics and Astronomy programs are di- etc., are being evaluated, both in the wind tunnel rected toward the investigation of the Earth, the and in full-scale road tests Sun and the solar system, the galactic and extra- galactic phenomena, and how they interrelate. These Low Pollution/Low Fuel Consumption Automo- programs also seek to discover new physical and en- tive Engines.-A relatively recent discovery has ergy principles by studying the awesome processes shown that small quantities of hydrogen-rich gas that abound in this gigantic cosmic laboratory. AS introduced into the internal combustion engine, along most of the radiations from these processes are with the normal gasoline/air mixture, permit opera- screened from the Earth’s surface, it is advantageous tion with increased efficiency and greatly reduced to place our instruments above the Earth‘s atmos- pollutant emissions. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, phere-in space. in cooperation with the Environmental Protection To achieve these program objectives, NASA uses Agency and the Department of Transportation, is techniques ranging from theoretical and laboratory conducting tests using bottled hydrogen. Results in- research through aircraft, balloon, and sounding dicate that fuel economy improvements of nearly rocket flights to small explorer spacecraft, large

16 automated observatories, and manned spacecraft. environment and the upper atmosphere, thereby Research teams involved in this program are located producing climatic and other variations. The region at NASA field centers, other government labora- of maximum solar absorption is near 100 miles tories, universities, and industrial laboratories. For- (160 km) altitude and this region is now being SYS- eign participation is encouraged with the partici- tematically investigated on a global scale for the pating country providing its share of the costs. first time by the Atmosphere Explorer (AE)-C (Ex- plorer 51) launched in December 1973. Study of the Sun Data from AE-C have already demonstrated the The Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO-7), importance of large-scale dynamic atmospheric mo- launched in September 1971, attained an impressive tions which have a direct bearing on the distribution list of achievements prior to reentry in July 1974. of pollutants. The complicated chemical processes Achievements include detection of nuclear reactions which accompany the absorption of sunlight are be- in solar flares, the discovery of oscillations in the ing investigated in this program. These processes Sun’s transition region between the chromosphere must be understood before we can predict the long- and corona, and the development of improved tech- term effects of man-made contaminants on our at- niques for forecasting the appearance of active mosphere. regions. Particularly significant are the excellent Another important objective of the Magneto- observations taken by OSO-7 in conjunction with spheric Physics program is to understand the proc- the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount experiments. esses which occur in the outer magnetosphere where Development of the last spacecraft in the series, the solar wind interacts with the Earth‘s atmosphere OSO-I continued in 1974, pointing towards a and magnetic field. The Hawkeye satellite, launched planned launch for May 1975. OSO-I is designed to June 3, 1974, was placed in the region of the mag- offer the best combination of high spectral, spatial, netic neutral point, at an altitude of about 77,000 and time resolution ever obtained in many important miles (124,000 km). This is where the Earth’s mag- UV and EUV lines. From these data, the detailed netic field is neutralized by the solar wind, and where structure, dynamics, and heating of the chromosphere solar-wind particles can enter the Earth’s atmos- and transition region will be studied. OSO-I also con- phrre to produce the polar auroras. tains several advanced X-ray instruments for study- The International Sun-Earth Explorer program ing solar, stellar, and cosmic X-ray sources. (ISEE) (formerly International Magnetosphere The Apollo Telescope Mount ( ATM) deployed Explorer (IME) program), which is a cooperative aboard Skylab from May 1973 to February 1974 was venture between NASA and the European Space a new “second generation” space observatory, where Research Organization (ESRO) is proceeding on the skill of an on-board manned observer was added schedule. The ISEE will consist of three spacecraft: to the largest observatory yet placed in orbit. an A/B pair to be launched in late 1977 into a The data acquired by the six major ATM instru- highly elliptical orbit about the Earth to study de- ments, together with those obtained by the world- tailed time-space variations of particle population wide program of complementary ground-based and and electric and magnetic fields; and an ISEE-C rocket-borne observations, form the most compre- spacecraft to be launched in late 1978 into a halo hensive set of simultaneous high-resolution solar data orbit around one of the libration points between ever collected. An analysis of these data promises to the Sun and the Earth to study the solar wind produce substantial growth in man’s knowledge of impact to the magnetosphere and to measure cosmic the structure and dynamics of the solar atmosphere, rays. and of the coupling between the solar atmosphere, the solar wind, and the terrestrial atmosphere. For ex- Znternational Coopsratiue Study of the Sun ample, ATM data indicate that most of the solar Helios is a cooperative space project between the wind may be “blowing” from the mysterious coronal Federal Republic of Germany and the United States holes. Similarly, the observation of flares-the cata- which has the general scientific objective of pro- clysmic events that have dwarfed the world’s total viding increased understanding of fundamental solar power consumption for thousands of years at the processes and solar-terrestrial relationships. The He- present rate-has shown that there are different lios-A spacecraft, launched by a Titan-Centaur on mechanisms at work in different flares. December 10, 1974, and Helios-B, to be launched a year later, are to go in over two-thirds the distance Sun-Earth Interactions from the Earth to the Sun, closer than any previous An important objective of the Magnetospheric spacecraft, during the three-month period after Physics program is to understand the processes by launch. Germany built the spacecraft and seven of which the Sun influences the entire near-Earth the experiments; the US. provided three experi-

17 nients, the launch vehicles, launch and flight opera- coast of Kenya, Africa. This mission was the first tion support, and technical support. three-sided cooperative program as, in addition to the US/UK effort, the launch was conducted by Orbiting Astronomy Observatory (OAO) Italy at their launch site. The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory3 (OAO- 3-Copernicus), launched in August 1972, is con- Scientific Investigation of Comet Kohoutek tinuing to obtain scientific data. The primary ob- A bright, long-period comet, Comet Kohoutek, was jective of OAO-3 is to obtain high-resolution ultra- discovered in March 1973, and was the basis of an violet spectra of stars necessary to investigate the intensive scientific campaign to study the origin and composition and physical state of matter in inter- structure of comets and their relationship to the stellar space and of stellar sources. early formation of the solar system. The combina- In its first two years of operation, OAO-3 ob- tion of aircraft and space observations with ATM, tained over 9,800 observations of 243 unique celestial and ground-based studies organized in NASA’s Op- objects with the Princeton University experiment, eration Kohoutek, yielded a substantial breakthrough and over 1,400 observations of 234 celestial objects in the knowledge of the composition and morphology with the University College London X-ray experi- of comets and indicated the great effectiveness and ment. flexibility of space instruments for such special events. The detection of a cloud of hydrogen surrounding High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) the nucleus and the improved data on the upper lim- The basic scientific objective of the High Energy its of the abundances of many other elements will Astronomy Observatory program is to explore the measurably enhance the validation of various com- previously inaccessible regions of celestial X-ray and etary theories. gamma-ray sources and of cosmic-ray flux. This pro- gram has the potential to enhance our understand- Spacelab Science Payloads ing of newly discovered energy processes and of the Several studies have been undertaken related to creation of matter. It should also greatly improve our planning science payloads for the Space Shuttle. understanding of observed phenomena such as quas- Initial studies pertained to facility-class payloads that ars, pulsars, novae, and supernovae, the most in- would be flown from once to several times per year tense energy phenomena yet discovered. and would have an operational life comparable to During 1974, primary emphasis was placed on traditional ground-based facilities. The spacecraft the detailed design of the HEAO-A spacecraft and science payloads program builds upon the experience scientific payload. Design of the HEAO-B instru- and accomplishments of both previous and on-going ments has begun and definition of the HEAO-C flight projects including the extremely successful payload is continuing. In addition, long-lead items Skylab. are being procured. The design of a facility to cali- In Atmospheric and Space Physics a preliminary brate the large X-ray telescope on HEAO-B was payload design for an Atmospheres, Magnetospheres, completed and construction started. and Plasmas-In-Space Spacelab (AMPS) has begun. This facility concept capitalizes on the commonality International Satellites of instrumentation required for dynamic investiga- In addition to the previously mentioned ISEE, tions of the near-Earth environment in the several work continues on the International IJltraviolet Ex- disciplines represented. plorer (IUE), a joint project between NASA, UK, In Astronomy, similar definition studies have be- and ESRO. This project’s goal is to place a 45-cm gun for a meter-class, cryogenically cooled, infrared astronomical telescope into a, modified gkosynchronous telescope facility; a meter-class, high-resolution op- orbit and operate it as an’ international observing tical/ultraviolet. telescope facility; and a solar physics facility. The satellite, planned for launch in FY telescope cluster facility. 1977, is designed to obtain ultraviolet spectra of stars from 1200 to 3200A. Large Space Telescope (UT) Defirtition In continuing the high scientific priority given to A LST placed in Earth orbit could be used for ob- X-ray astronomy, two international cooperative Ex- servations not possible from Earth-based telescopes plorer-class missions were launched in 1974. ANS, due to the atmospheric veiling effects on many wave- a cooperative satellite with the Netherlands, was lengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. launched on August 30 from the Western Test Range. Preliminary systems definitions and advanced tech- The UK-5 Satellite, fifth in the series of cooperative nological development on selected elements of the programs with the United Kingdom, was launched LST were carried out this year. These studies show in October 1974 from the San Marco Range off the that the design of a telescope of 2.4 to 3 meters (8 to

18 10 feet) in diameter is feasible. Such a telescope hundreds of cool clouds in our galaxy, previously could make possible astronomical observations ten unknown, were detected using a new telescope of times deeper into space, possibly to the edge of the radical design. cosmos, with more detail than has ever before been The further development of the balloon itself possible. showed satisfactory progress with the successful flight of the largest balloon ever flown, with a diameter Sub-orbital Program of 450 feet-half again as long as a football field. As a link between theoretical and laboratory re- The application of the super-pressure balloon, de-. search and orbiting spacecraft, NASA uses jet air- veloped to increase the length of flight time from craft, sounding rockets, and balloons to test and several days to several months at constant altitude, qualify new instrumentation for future space mis- will provide for future, long-duration Earth-orbital sions, to make scientific measurements not possible flights with astronomy and high-energy astrophysics from Earth, and to acquire short-term physics payloads. and astronomy data from the upper reaches of the atmosphere in a more economical and timely man- Exploration of the Planets ner than attainable from satellite instrumentation. Progress was continued in 1974 toward a better Airborne Science Program.-The initial data ob- understanding of the planets, their satellites, and in- tained with the new 91-centimeter infrared telescope terplanetary space in the solar system. In addition to carried by a C-141 aircraft to above 90 percent of the the contribution to science and basic knowledge, bet- Earth‘s veiling atmosphere, has demonstrated the po- ter comprehension of the formation and composition tential for infrared astronomy. This program also sim- of other planets helps us understand the processes ulated the interaction between the experimenter, the that affect the composition and mineral properties scientific instrumentation, and the flight platform as of our own. Similarly, improved understanding of the might take place on a Space Shuttle flight. atmospheres and magnetic fields of other planets such as Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, helps US Sounding Rocket Program.-Sixty-eight Physics to discover and test out theories about the Earth’s at- and Astronomy sounding rockets were launched this mosphere, magnetosphere, and weather. year at locations in the United States, Canada, Swe- den, and Norway by diversified research teams from Mariner Venus/Mercury 1973 universities, industry, foreign governments, and NASA Mariner 10, the Mariner Venus/Mercury ’73 Centers. A significant accomplishment was the spacecraft, was launched on November 3, 1973. launching of 54 rockets from Wallops Island, Vir- Within hours following planetary injection, a near- ginia, within a period of 24 hours in support of a Earth science phase commenced consisting of Earth joint Air Force/NASA-sponsored investigation of photography and ultraviolet spectrometer scans. While the atmospheric layering and density distribution of passing through the lunar orbit on November 5, ions and neutrals. Observations of colored lumines- new photography of the Moon’s polar region was cent clouds caused by the release of chemicals from obtained. These hundreds of new lunar photographs several rockets provided a large amount of correla- were utilized to calibrate the TV system. tive data and created considerable public interest, as Venus encounter occurred on February 5, 1974, reported by visual sightings from as far as Connec- when the spacecraft passed the planet at an altitude ticut and South Carolina. of 5760 km. The first closeup pictures ever taken Other firsts included the acquisition of ultraviolet of Venus revealed clearly the high-speed circulation spectrum data of a planetary nebula with a proto- of the upper atmospheric clouds. These circulation type instrument developed by NASA astronomers, patterns, photographed in ultraviolet, displayed and the first ultraviolet photograph of a star cluster. properties of the Venusian atmosphere not previously Balloon Program.-BaIloons continue to be an im- known to planetary scientists. portant platform for large, heavy telescopes required The Mercury encounter on March 29, 1974, to conduct infrared, gamma-ray, and cosmic-ray as- marked man’s first close-up look at the smallest and tronomy. During the past year, 45 scientific payloads innermost planet of our solar system. High-resolu- were launched from the United States and Canada. tion photography of the surface revealed a lunar- One significant observation was of the strongest like terrain that was densely cratered but with a source ever seen in the far infrared. The source is well-developed crust, covering what could be an one-tenth as bright as the Moon, and its origin is still Earth-like interior. The pictures revealed a surface a mystery. Important observations were also made morphology that showed large circular basins and of the Crab Nebula in high energy X-rays as this scarped ridges that reflect a unique period of plane- strong source was occulted by the Moon. In addition, tary evolution. Additional science findings included a surprising Outer €%nets Mission planet-related magnetic field, a sparse helium at- The Mariner Jupiter/Saturh 1977 (MJS’77) proj- mosphere, and unexpected streams of high-energy ect, warmly endorsed by the Space Science Board electrons and protons in the shadowed region behind of the National Academy of Sciences, was approved the planet. in 1973 as part of the outer planets exploration Following completion of the Mercury encounter program. Two identical spacecraft are planned to be sequence, Mariner 10 was placed on a trajectory for launched in 1977 to Jupiter where they will be ac- a second Mercury encounter which took place on celerated by Jupiter’s gravity and orbital velocity for September 21, 1974. During this second encounter, “a the trip to Saturn, thus enabling attainment of valu- spacc first,” Mariner 10 flew by on the sunlit side able encounter data on both Jupiter and Saturn. In to obtain photography of the South Polar region not addition to obtaining information on the planets possible during the first encounter. A remarkable themselves, on the interplanetary medium, and on third fly by is schcduled for March 1975. interstellar cosmic rays, these spacecraft should yield close-encounter data on Saturn’s rings and on the Viking Alars Mission massive satellites of both planets. These Mariner The Viking project is designed to begin a new class spacecraft are planned to encounter Jupiter phase of Mars exploration in mid-1976, when two about one and one-half years after launch and Saturn Viking Landers reach its surface and begin their in approximately three and one-half years after detailed scientific investigations. The scientific ob- launch. jectives of this mission are to obtain data concerning During 1974, the detailed spacecraft system de- the search for life on Mars and to gather informa- sign was essentially completed, and most of the sub- tion which will help us understand the evolution of system and science instruments preliminary designs Mars and the solar system. The two Viking space- were completed. A major effort was carried out to craft are planned to be launched in August 1975. arrive at a satisfactory approach for protecting the During 1974, qualification testing of Viking sci- spacecraft from the strong radiation at Jupiter meas- ence instruments, engineering subsystems, and the ured by Pioneer 10. complete Orbiter and Lander spacecraft was Pioneer Venus Project completed. A major accomplishment in the qualifi- cation testing was the exposure of a complete Lander The Pioneer Venus project, started in FY 1975, is to multiple heat sterilization cycles. aimed toward two of the major goals of planetary exploration : improving our understanding of the Exploration of Jupiter origin and evolution df the solar system, and im- proving our understanding of dynamic processes on The close-up exploration of -the outer planets Earth. This project’s primary goal is to obtain a started when Pioneer 10 flew past Jupiter late in detailed characterization of Venus’ atmQsphere 1973. Objectives of Pioneers 10 and 11 were to con- which in turn, is expected to provide information duct the first exploratory investigations of the inter- that will be beneficial toward understanding the planetary region out beyond the orbit of Mars, the Earth’s atmosphere. Asteroid Belt, and the planet Jupiter. Pioneer 10 The project has two flight missions: one to make was launched in March 1972, and Pioneer 11 in in-situ measurements at multiple locations on Venus April 1973. with atmospheric entry probes; and the other an During this year, much of the data obtained while orbiter mission to provide data on a planetary scale. in thc encounter period has been analyzed with A systems contractor and scientific instrumenta- interesting results. As examples: tion were selectcd during 1974 to maintain a schedule -The interior of Jupiter is even hotter than pre- leading to two Atlas Centaur launches in 1978. vious estimates. As a result, the planet must be com- posed largely of liquid hydrogen; Analysis of Lunar Data -The familiar circular cyclones and anti-cyclones of the Earth are stretched completely around Ju- In 1974, the effort was continued to carefully ex- piter. The grey-whitr iones are rising cloud ridges tract and analyze the information available from lunar that extend 20 km above the orange-brown belts; flights, Earth-based obsc‘rvations, and laboratory ex- -The strong tilted magnctic field plus the rapid pcriments. A Lunar Data Analysis and Synthesis pro- rotation rate and large diameter of Jupiter provide gram was initiated to support nearly 50 Principal an imniense outc‘r magnetosphrre that is unique in Investigators in their efforts to correlate existing data the solar systrni, a beautiful “space lab” for the and improve our knowledge of lunar origin, history, study of plasma ('energetic particle physics. coinposition, and present environment, as well as the

20 Moon’s relationship to the Earth and solar system. rocks. Since the Moon and the Earth are currently In June 1974, about 40 US. and 75 U.S.S.R. thought to have formed as near neighbors in space, scientists participated in a four-day conference in study of these oldest lunar rocks provides data bear- Moscow on the cosmochemistry of the Moon and ing on the earliest years of the Earth. The original planets, Agreement on basic lunar mapping prin- crust of the Moon, presently believed preserved as ciples was obtained during the second joint US.- the lunar highlands, resembles a relatively light- U.S.S.R. Cartography meeting. weight, light-colored volcanic Earth rock known as Continuing analysis of the Apollo 15-17 metric anorthosite. Previously considered of minor signifi- photography is pfoQiding increasingly accurate po- cance, the role of this rock in Earth’s history is now sitioning and detaiIing of surface’features. In 1974, being ’reassessed by geologi~ts. the first large-scale maps were produted and dis- In its first billion years, the Moon experienced tributed to lunar investigators for intensive study. intensive bombardment by asteroid-like bodies as Geochemical measiirements made from the orbit- large as several miles in diameter. Although the ing Apollo spacecraft are allowing us to extend the Earth must have undergone similar bombardment, detailed knowledge of lunar surfacp composition at subsequent erosive processes have erased much of the the landing sites to the approximately 25 percent of record. As a result of this current interest in mete- the Moon’s surfare that was flown over by the Apollo oritic impacts and their contributions to planetary orbiters. Chemical elements initially measured from surface topography, an impressive number of more orbit included aluminum, silicon, magnesium, ura- recent Earth features have been restudied and re- nium, potassium, and thorium. Recent refinements identified as the modified remnants of small mete- in data-processing techniques are now permitting oritic craters. Some of these Earth craters have as- measurements of iron and titanium from orbit to be sociated mineral deposits of large economic value, added to this list. This proven technique is now hence, the better the understanding of their origin, available for future planetary missions. the better the chances of finding new deposits of The five Apollo Lunar Surface ‘Experimental similar genesis. Packages {ALSEP’s) placed on the Moon are still Analyses of the lunar minerals reveal that they returning useful scientific data. were formed under conditions in which free oxygen Over the long term, the most valuable scientific and water were much scarcer than when terrestrial result of the lunar program may well be an increasrd minerals and rocks were formed. If. as the knowledge of oitr Earth and the rntire solar system. majority of scientists now believe, thr Earth and A second laser telesPopr, being completed on Mount Moon originated as near neighbors in space, these. Haleakala in Hawaii, will complemrnt the existing compositional differences must reflect different con- telescope at the McDonald Observatory in Texas, ditions prevailing at the time of formation. The dis- which is now ranging on the three laser ranging ret- covery of rusted Moon rocks has bqen particularly roreflectors placed at the Apollo 11, 14 and 15 exciting as it indicates that water and oxygen ,vital landing sites and also on the U.S.S.R.’s 1,unokhod I1 to life may be derived from the Moon’s surface. reflector. As a result of this laser program, scientists have now determined to a high degre? of accuracy Study of Man the path of the Moon around the Earth and thr NASA’s Space Biomedical Research Program is an motions of thc Moon around its own axis. With these intcgrated program of research into the effects of results, and the new Hawaiian station. it is planned to space and space flight environments on living organ- hegin the determination of minute variations in the isms, their components, and functions. It focuses on Earth’s rotation rate and the wobhlcs or wandering5 the living system, from man on down to the simplest in the Earth’s pnlar axis of rotation. cell. Space Biomedical Research provides for the -These irrrgularitirs are thouqht by some scirn- conduct of a ground-based and spaceflight research tists to be associatrd with large carthquakes and proqram dcsiqned to eliiridate and enhance man’s perhaps even to prccrdr thcrii. These phenomrna ability to function effectively, efficiently, and safely are being studied for their possible implications for during space flight, and to conduct life-sciences re- rarthquahr prcdiction. search using the unique environmrnt of space t~ Studies initiated on .4pollo 17 samples of large support and advance Earth-based science. lunar boulders are revealing important relationships between lunar rock types that were not obtainable Skylab from the small rocks and soil grains returned prc- Skylab, a multi-faceted mission, produced the most - viously. The age of one Apollo 17 rock is the oldest complete medical study of man in space. For the first yet determined. At 4.7 billion years, it is nearly a timr, an cxtended medical study of man in space, billion years older than the oldrst knowri Earth with a doctor on board, was accomplished.

21 The Skylab flight program came to a successful volved in these related changes are not completely conclusion on February 8, 1974 with the safe return understood as yet. The current Space Life Science of astronauts Gerald P. Carr, Edward G. Gibson and Research Program is preparing, through ground-based William R. Pogue. This last Skylab crew spent 84 studies, inflight investigations on man and his bio- days in orbit, establishing a new record for long- logical surrogates which will be conducted in the duration manned space flight. The last Skylab mis- Shuttle/Spacelab era. sion met or exceeded all of its planned objectives. 2. All three crewmen of the second manned mission The analysis of the scientific data collected dur- experienced varying degrees of “stomach awareness,” ing the three missions will continue over the next nausea, and, in one crewman, vomiting which is cur- several years. However, most of the data collected rently believed associated with a response of the vesti- by Skylab should be in the public domain by mid- bular system. However, none of the crewmen of the 1975 and be available to interested parties for inde- first manned mission had such a response and only pendent studies. one of the three crewmen in the third manned mission Skylab demonstrated that a multidisciplinary experienced nausea and vomiting. When such re- manned space station is not only practical but can sponses did occur, they were alleviated within two to be highly productive. The men worked well in space, three days and all symptoms were totally absent in actively enjoying the experience of living in orbital five days. The use of an anti-motion sickness medi- weightlessness. It was possible to maintain essentially cation (Scop-dex) as a preventive measure may ex- normal operations of the immensely complex vehicle plain the absence of any problem in the two crewmen even in the face of a number of equipment mal- in the third manned mission. It is also possible that functions. Also, the crew produced large volumes of they may not have had a problem without medication very high-quality data in many scientific and engi- ‘This condition is being vigorously studied in the Life neering fields, more than fulfilling the expectations Sciences ground-based research program. on which the experiment program was based. The 3. The Skylab medical-experiments program observations and data taking of the Comet Kohoutek showed that at the end of the 84 days mission, a grad- resulted in the greatest advance in cometary research ual and small loss of calcium was still taking place. since Halley’s time. The calcium loss observed in all the Skylab crewmen parallelled the loss of calcium observed in bed rest Medical Results of Skylab studies conducted in the Space Life Sciences Research With the successful completion of the third Program. Although it is suspected that the calcium manned Skylab mission, the most significant series loss originates from selected bones in the body, current of inflight medical studies on man’s adaption to and ground-based research studies are being conducted in performance in space flight came to an end. The order to identify the actual source. However, it will three manned missions of 28, 59 and 84 days, re- then be necessary to conduct medical experiments in spectively, provided medical data from a series of the Shuttle/Spacelab Program to ascertain if the same studies of the time course of adaptive changes which physiological mechanisms are at play in the weight- occur as a result of the weightless environment in- less environment of space flight. herent in space flight. All of the observed changes 4. Prior to Skylab, it was believed that the 100 per- returned to the preflight dalues during the postflight cent oxygen environment was the basis for the ob- observation period, indicating that the changes were served red blood cell mass loss that occurred in the reversible. Gemini and Apollo crews. A special pressurized All of the medical-experiment equipment launched chamber ground-based study proved that a 100 per- in Skylab performed throughout the entire Skylab cent oxygen environment would cause such a change. Flight Program with no major failures. This per- However, a drop in red-cell mass was observed in mitted the scheduled performance of all tnedical Skylab with a mixed gas atmosphere of 30 percent experiments as planned and provided reliable and nitrogen and 70 percent oxygen. Since the red-cell repeatable data. mass loss became less with each succeeding manned The significant adaptive changes occurring in man mission, it is believed that the change is due to some during the Skylab missions are summarized as fol- adaptive mechanism associated with red-cell produc- lows : tion within the blood-forming organs of the body. 1. There is an apparent redistribution of body fluids Not only did the red blood cell mass loss decrease within the first few hours of exposure to the weight- with extended mission duration but the recovery time less environment of space flight, followed by a com- to preflight values was quicker following the longer plementary adaptive change of the cardiovascular missions. This further supports the theory that these system which ultimately plateaus in three to five changes in red-cell mass are related to an adaptive weeks. The underlying physiological mechanisms in- process at the red-cell production level of response.

22 In summary, the medical results of the Skylab mis- capable of yielding instantaneous information for as sions have added confidence to the potential commit- many as 16 users simultaneously. MEDICS can also ment of man to long-duration space flight. These are be used in applications other than the space pro- no foreseeable, unresolvable problems which would gram; for example, MEDICS is planned to be used to limit the commitment of man for long duration space support the joint NASA-HEW remote health care flight missions. The Space Life Sciences program delivery project described below. ground-based research efforts and subsequent Shuttle/ MEDICS represents a significant advance in the Spacelab medical experiments are focusing on the application of minicomputers. MEDICS computer key issues learned from Skylab with the ultimate programs enable the operation of a time-shared objective of insuring that preventive or corrective generalized storage and retrieval system on a mini- measures will be available well in advance of a long- computer, rather than the usual expensive large- duration manned space flight. scale computer required for those types of operations. With the MEDICS software package, a hospital or The Impact of Space Medical Research regional medical center could make a relatively small On Health in the U.S. equipment investment and put into operation a flex- NASA is one of the few agencies that concentrates ible time-shared management information system to its research on the study of normal healthy body meet diverse medical and administrative needs. systems; most other medical research involves the study of diseasesd systems. This unique approach Space Technology Applied to Rural Papago Ad- promises to provide needed insight into the basic vanced Health Care (STARPAHC) .-In April 1973, physiology of man, and through this knowledge the Papago Indian Reservation near Tucson, Arizona, diseased conditions could be better identified, under- was selected as the site for the Integrated Medical and stood, and treated. NASA's diverse research has pro- Behavioral Laboratory Measurement System (IM- vided or promises to provide (1) a means of early BLMS) field test. In this joint NASA-HEW proj- identification of disease, (2) the necessary biological ect, NASA is providing the design, assembly, instal- quantification of radiation doses for the use of ac- lation, and two years of operations of a telemedicine celerator-produced radiation in human cancer ther- system, and HEW is providing the medical and para- apy, (3) an understanding of the loss of bone and medical personnel to use the system. Health care muscle tissues from immoblized limbs, (4) a rapid on the reservation was already a responsibility of means of measuring and interpreting human respira- HEW, administered by the Indian Health Service tory functions and condition, and (5) an increased (IHS). Shortly after site selection, the program understanding of and ability to diagnose cardiovas- added a new designation, STARPAHC, reflecting cular disease. the involvement of the Papago reservation. The IMBLMS/STARPAHC remote health care Import of Skylab Medical Results.-As an exam- delivery system, scheduled to begin test operations ple, Skylab inflight medical investigations of physi- in early 1975, makes optimum use of advanced med- ological adaptive processes found that the weightless ical instrumentation; video, voice, and data com- environment produced changes which cannot be ex- munications; modern data-management techniques; plained on the basis of current theories of fluid/elec- and physician's assistants and other paramedical per- trolyte balance, cardiovascular dynamics, and sonnel functioning independently and under the re- neurophysiology of the vestibular system. The Skylab mote supervision of a physician. The specially trained medical experiments provided data under unique paramedics, called Community Health Medics conditions (near zero-G) which portend new vistas (CHM) by the IHS, may examine a patient, trans- for the study of basic physiological functions under- mit medical information to a physician in a control lying the observed adaptive changes. Subsequent center miles away, and consult via two-way TV with studies should provide better understanding and the physician who may diagnose the problem and knowledge of these systems which could ultimately prescribe treatment. lead to improved preventive and therapeutic meas- Other Medical Technology.-Materials, analytical ures for the delivery of health care. techniques, computers, and communications systems Medical Information Computer System (MED- originally developed for the exploration of space ICS).-The Life Sciences Directorate at the NASA have been valuable to medical research and health Johnson Space Center (JSC), has been developing a care delivery. The examples which can be cited are low-cost multiuser minicomputer system to meet a many. High-purity carbon materials originally de- variety of space-related operational medical needs. veloped for rocket nozzle liners have proven to be The system, called MEDICS, is flexible, quickly very biologically compatible. They are now used in learned, easy to operate, relatively inexpensive, and heart valves, and development of their use for direct

23 skeletal attachment of artificial limbs is progressing A greatly improved pacemaker for heart patients rapidly. Computer-assisted image processing and en- uses many electronic and electrical components first hancement techniques originally developed for the developed for NASA spacecraft. This pacemaker .Pioneer and Mariner planetary exploration programs uses a rechargeable battery rather than nuclear gem are now used to analyze chest x-rays and human erated power, and therefore emits no radioactivity. chromosome patterns, to study possible countenneas- These examples are illustrative of ways in which ures against atherosclerosis (hardening of the arter- space-developed technology is being utilized for hu- ies), and even to visualize cheniical molecules. Com- man betterment. munications satellites are already helping to deliver health care in Alaska, and medical instrumentation Space Transportation developed for Skylab is being used in emergency medical systems. In January 1972, the President formally proposed A device developed for medical studies of astro- to the Congress that the United States initiate the nauts who are on long space missions is the basis for development of the Space Shuttle. The SpacC’Shuttle a miniaturized medical diagnostic system capable of is the major component of the new Space Transpor- performing 12 different blood analyses. Another at- tation System (STS) conceived for the 1980’s and tribute of the system is that it uses approximately beyond. Later in the 1970’s and early 1980’s, the one-tenth cubic centimeter of blood to do its work. United States plans to also develop the upper stage This is about a fiftieth of the blood simple required Space Tug which will boost satellites to synchronous for most conventional analyses. The system is espe- orbits. In the meanwhile, it is planned to use an cially attractive for use with infants, the elderly, and Interim Upper Stage to be developed by the USAB. emergency room cases where minimum blood samples In addition, the Europeans have agreed to develop arl available. the Spacelab that will be compatible’with the Space Hospital patients can move about freely and yet Shuttle and .will be taken into orbit and operated provide the meaical staff with continuous readings in-the Sh~ttle’spayroad bay. The new STS will be of their heartbeats and body temperatures because used to transport NASA and. hon-NASA payloads the patients weaf space-age- wrist radios that trans- in commu+catioris, navigation, traffic .control,. mit these readings to a hospital central station. This meteorology, Earth obiervations, and space science: radio system is derived from equipment developed A stable of ‘unmanned expendable laufichers is and used in the Mercury and Gemini-manned space available to meet current needs. The reyable launch flight programs. system is being developed under NASA . direction. From a machine to conduct eye examinations on This section describes the progrgss made irf develop: astronauts has come the Automated Visual Sensi- ing the STS as well as the activities of the current tivity Tester (AVST). With the AVST, a technician expendable launch systems. can in 10 minutes check a patient for such eye dis- orders as glaucoma, cataract, and scotoma (a blind Space Transportation System ------spot in- the field of vision). Such tests usually take The STS consists of a reusable Space Shuttle 25 minutes with conventional manual techniques. orbiter, Spacelab, and an upper stage Space Tug. The NASA biochemical machine procea for de- The system is designed to provide economical tection of extraterrestrial life has been adapted tp and versatile space transportation for tuture decades. human health uses in FLASH (Fast Luciferace Au- As discusse’d -under the- intehdional affain -set- tomated Assay Specimens for Hospitals), which an- tion, a manned laboratory (Spacelab), which aIyzes bacteria in urine samples. can be housed in the Shuttle cargo bay, is EPIC, a machine for measuring human coordi- concurrently being developed and funded by the nation, is another device developed from NASA tech- European Space Research Organization to provide nology. It is expected to find many uses not only in the user community with a ground-type laboratory biomedicine, rehabilitation, and the physiology of which can take advantage of the unique environ- muscular coordination, but also in job-aptitude test- ment of space. ing, law enforcement, and highway safety. In re- The STS is expected to be an economical and habilitation work, for example, test results can show reliable transportation system for placing a wide progress or indicate need for remedial help. variety of payloads (weighing as much as 29,000 By swallowing a one-inch by half-inch bugged tab- kilograms (65,000 Ibs.) ) into orbit and retrieving let, patients can keep medical personnel continuously certain of these for return to earth. Because it utilizes informed about temperatures deep within their a reusable orbiter vehicle and reusable booster rockets, bodies. Local temperature increases can reveal in- the cost of each flight is anticipated to be less than fections. most present launch techniques which expend the

24 i

\ launch vehicle.’ This feature is one of the prime obtained in’July and preliminary flight testing, prior motivation factors for the STS. to initiation of modification to accommodate the In the 1980’s, the STS is planned to pennit the orbiter, has started. The first manned orbital flight elimination of the rather large stable of launch will occur in 1979 and the Shuttle is expected to be vehicles that are used today. The STS is expected to operational in 1980. be used to place almost all our satellites into orbit Interim Upper Stage/Space Tug.-A large num- and have the capability of rendezvous with malfunc- ber of the payloads expected to be flown on the Space tioning satellites to provide for repair on-orbit or for Shuttle during the 1980s will require a Shuttle Upper return to Earth. This capability assumes particular Stage to deliver these payloads to orbits beyond the importance with the predicted growing future re- capability of the Shuttle alone. In 1973 the Depart- quirements for additional weather, Earth resources, ment of Defense and NASA agreed to a two-phase communication, and navigational satellites. Upper Stage Program. Concurrent plans call for the Space Shuttle.-The size and weight-carrying ca- USAF to develop an Interim Upper Stage (IUS) pacity of the Shuttle oibiter will free spacecraft de- capable of delivering payloads to high energy orbits; signers from constraints that have made payloads no payload retrieval capability will be built into the very difficult and costly to build. With the Shuttle, IUS. NASA will be responsible for the planning of it will br possible to use relatively inexpensive, more a full-capability reusable Tug, which will have the nearly standard laboratory equipment in place of capability to deliver, retrieive, and, if economically specially constructed, highly miniaturized parts desirable, service payloads in high energy orbits. The which are expensive to develop and test. It will Interim Upper Stage is planned to be available in also eliminate test articles and back-up hardware. 1980; thr Tug is expected to be operational about three years later. The design effort on all of the major elements of the total shuttle orbiter system has now been ini- STS Mission and Payload Integration.-The Mis- tiated. Rockwell International/Space Division sion and Payload Integration Office continued its was selected to build the orbiter vehicle. Procure- activities of studying the utilization of the STS and ment to support this activity was initiated and 19 assuring hardware and operational compatibility be- subcontracts, each exceeding $10 million, have been tween payloads and the STS. authorized. Approximately half of the orbiter vehicle In 1974, primary efforts wcrc directed toward funds will be subcontracted to other firms throughout forniali7ing early Shuttle mission plans and conduct- the country. This widespread use of the nation’s ing economic analyses for the continuing deveiop- technical base is typical of the other major elements ment and updating of the Payload and Flight Sum- as well. maries that comprise the NASA Mission Model. The external tank for carrying the liquid cryo- Cuweent Luzc.nch Vehicles genic propellants for the orbiter main engines is being designed and built by Martin-Marietta Corp. While awaiting the deployment of the STS, N&A in Louisiana. The main engines, which are the prime is continuing to rely on expendable launchers to ful- power plants for the oibiter, are being constructed by fill its launch obligations. The physical character- Rocketdyne in California. Hardware components of istics of these launchers are given in Appendix D, the engines, the long lead time clement of the Space \vhile the details on their 1974 launch activities are Shuttle system, are already being tested. The fourth given below. major element of the flight vehicle is the booster, Scout.-During 1974, the four-stage solid-propel- consisting of two solid rocket motors strapped to the lant Scout launch-vehiclr system placed six-satellites external tank to provide additional thrust during the in orbit, five of which were cooperative or reim- initial launch phase. The motor for this element will bursable international missions. In addition, standby be built by Thiokol in M’asatch, Utah. readiness was maintained to support further launches The Congress appropriatrd $475 million in FY74 of the US. Navy Transit Satellite Navigation and $800 million in FY75 for the design, develop- S ys tein. ment, test, and evaluation to be accomplished dur- Delta.--The first Delta mission in 1974-its 100th ing this period. These funds have been utilizcd to launch, was the first Delta launch utilizing surplus take advantage of the skills available throughout Saturn IR H-I engincs adapted to Delta. the United States and has allowed the development The vehicle was unsuccessful in attempting to to proceed at a good pace. place the British military cominunications satellite in The first orbiter test flight scheduled for 1977 will geosynchronous orbit, due to a failure in the second be an unpowered flight after release from a carrier stage electronics package. Appropriate corrective ac- aircraft. This carrier aircraft, a commercial 747, was tions wcrr indtutrd and tb\,chicle laced six satel-

25

t lites in orbit including the first domestic commercial One study initiated is of the Manned Orbital communications satellite, Westar-A; the important Systems Concept, with investigation of the feasibility Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) to pro- of the modules, transported to orbit in the Shuttle, vide the initial operational capability to monitor being docked together to form an Earth-orbiting severe storms ; a second Western Union satellite facility. Another is to analyze propulsion requirements (Westar-B) ; the seventh in a series of operational of missions currently identified in the Mission Model meteorological satellites for NOAA; the British mil- Analysis and potential future missions. An investi- itary communication satellite; and an experimental gation may then be performed to determine whether communications satellite for a joint French and Ger- existing systems, uprated systems, or new propulsion man Government consortium. systems would be most cost-effective. Also, during 1974, contracts were signed for seven An investig tion is being performed to determine the feasibility of assembling in orbit some of the very additional reimbursable launches including three for 7 RCA ; two for the French/German Government con- large structures that have been proposed, such as the sortium; two for ESRO; and an initial agreement Solar Satellite Power Station, or a large radiotele- was made with the Japanese Government for three scope. Also being investigated is maintaining and launches in 1976-1977. servicing satellites in orbit, perhaps thus extending many-fold the lifetimes of a multitude of unmanned Atlas Centaur.-One Atlas Centaur launch took satellites as well as manned facilities. place during the past year. An Intelsat IV space- craft was successfully placed in a synchronous trans- fer trajectory on November 21, 1974. Five launches Tracking and Data Acquisition Program are planned for the coming year to support reim- The objectives of the Tracking and Data Ac- bursable missions: four INTELSAT IV and IV A quisition Program are to provide responsive and launches and one Comsat Domestic Communications efficient tracking, data acquisition, communications, Satellite launch. and related support to meet the requirements of Titan Centaur.-A proof flight of the new Titan all NASA flight projects. Such support is essential Centaur vehicle on Februafi 11, 1974, was only for achieving the scientific objectives of all flight partially successful due to a failure of the Centaur missions, for executing the critical decisions which stage boost pump. Corrective action was taken re- must be made to assure the success of these flight sulting in a successful launch of the German Helios-A missions, and, in the case of manned missions, to in- solar probe in December. sure the safety of the astronauts. During the past The Titan Centaur vehicle has been chosen to year the Tracking and Data Acquisition Program launch the dual Viking missions in 1975, as well as met the requirements of all flight projects on sched- the second Helios spacecraft in 1976. ule and with excellent reliability. The majority of the support rendered the flight Aduatzced Studies projects is provided through the facilities of two Advanced Studies provide a foundation for new worldwide tracking networks-the Spaceflight manned space flight programs. These studies explore Tracking and Data Network (STDN) and the Deep various potential program options to arrive at Space Network (DSN). The STDN furnishes sup- technical, cost, and schedule data which can be used port to all Earth-or8iting missions; the DSN sup- by management in the decision-making process. ports the other major class of NASA’s flight pro- Factors investigated include extension of existing grams, that is, the planetary and interplanetary capabilities, new modes of operation, or new con- missions. cepts. During 1974, the last of the studies and Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN) related activities were completed relative to the The operational activities of STDN remained at Space Tug and Interim Upper Stage (IUS) of the a high level during 1974 with support being pro- Space Shuttle. They supported a decision for the USAF to develop the IUS and for NASA to defer vided to an average of 40 individual flight projects. the full-capability Tug until a later date. During In addition to supporting all of NASA’s Earth-or- this year an effort was initiated to perform inte- bital missions, the network supported space projects grated long-term planning for manned space sys- conducted by other Government agencies, private tems during the ’80’s and ’90’s. This may ultimately industry, and foreign countries through cooperative result in a series of identified potential program international programs. options with first estimates of costs and schedules, as Communications.-One of the major inissions well as an identification of critical technologies launched during the year and supported by the needed. network was the Applications Technology Satellite. This satellite, named ATS-6, is the most complex, support for Pioneer 11 is essentially the same as was versatile, and powerful communications spacecraft provided Pioneer 10 one year earlier. launched to date. The network is continuing its support of Pioneer 11 as the spacecraft is now on a trajectory headed Meteorology.-In late May, the network sup- for Saturn. The spacecraft should encounter Saturn ported the launch of the first in a new series of in mid-1979 and at that time the network will be weather satellites-the Synchronous Meteorological acquiring data from a distance of over one and one- Satellite (SMS) The spacecraft, in near-synchro- . half billion kilometers from earth. Without the ad- nous orbit, is in a relatively fixed position above the vanced capabilities of the large 64-meter antennas, Equator and is providing meteorologists with an it would be impossible to conduct a mission over updated picture of temperatures and clouds over such extreme distances. the US. every 30 minutes. NASA’s tracking and data acquisition support to SMS is completed after Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System the spacecraft is in orbit and its on-board systems A major objective in the longer-range plan for operational. At that time the National Oceanic the Tracking and Data Acquisition Program is and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) will as- the introduction of the capabilities of a Track- sume the control of the satellite. ing and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) Deep Space Network into the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network. The TDRSS is planned to consist of two satellites The Deep Space Network (DSN) continued to in synchronous orbit to relay data between low-alti- provide excellent support to NASA’s planetary and tude mission spacecraft and a single ground station interplanetary missions. In addition to the sub- located in the United States. The TDRSS is planned stantial operational activities of last year, good prog- to provide nearly full-time, realtime contact with ress was made in modifying and augmenting the Earth-orbiting spacecraft and replace a number of network systems for support of future missions, such the present ground stations of the STDN, leading as the 1975 Viking missions to Mars. over the longer term to overall reductions in tracking Venus-Mercury.-The Mariner 10, launched in and data acquisition support costs. November 1973, required a high level of network Good progress toward achieving the TDRSS ob- support throughout 1974. The mission imposed jective was made in 1974 when Congress authorized many “first-time” support requirements on the net- (FY 1975 Authorization and Appropriation Acts) work, the most critical being the requirement to NASA to proceed with the needed procurement ac- conduct multiple midcourse trajectory changes. tivities. The authority to implement the TDRSS These changes were needed to achieve a precise flyby is subject to further Congressional review of the eco- of Venus to take advantage of that planet’s gravity nomic tradeoffs between obtaining the services on to obtain the necessary velocity to fly by the planet a long-term leased basis from the private sector Mercury. The ability $ the network to precisely versus a NASA-owned system. track the Mariner spacecraft resulted in successful encounters of both planets, and the network received Space and Nuclear Research and Technology outstanding photographs of the planets. The NASA Space and Nuclear Research and The receipt of a large number of these photo- Technology programs are directed at providing a graphs, of excellent quality, was possible only through technology base for support of current and future the 64-meter diameter antennas. The DSN has three space activities by advancing the technology used in of these large antennas evenly spaced around the systems required to transport, power, control, and world : Canberra, Australia; Madrid, Spain; and communicate with the spacecraft, and in scientific in- Goldstone, California. The capabilites afforded by struments needed to achieve the objectives of cur- the huge antennas and ultra-sensitive receiving sys- rent and future NASA space missions. Some of the tems have permitted NASA to conduct missions at resulting technology has applications to terrestrial ever-increasing distances from Earth and to maxi- uses as well. The significant accomplishments of the imize the science data return. program in 1974 are noted below. ]upiter.-The Pioneer 1 1 spacecraft required near continuous support throughout the year as it com- Space Propulsion Technology pleted its journey to Jupiter, more than 900 million Every major space mission that NASA has per- kilometers (560 million miles) away. When the formed has been preceded by extensive rocket pro- spacecraft encountered Jupiter on December 3, the pulsion technology efforts. Propulsion systems take network began acquiring data on the planet from years to develop, and the technology must be ready the three 64-meter antenna stations. The network before development starts. This means that the 27 575-666 0 - 75 - 3 technology for NASA missions in the 1980’s should the proposed system were conducted in near vacuum be pursued in the 1970’s. Propulsion systems are conditions as well as at high pressure and in simu- expensive to develop and they are usually the major lated atmospheres. component of a vehicle system and, considering fuel, Liquid Propulsion Technology.-A major long- comprise the majority of the weight at launch. There- range goal of the chemical propulsion program is to fore propulsion technology improvements can sub- discover new energy storage concepts capable of stantially improve performance and/or reduce cost more than doubling the specific impulse of present of a program. chemical rockets. Theoretical and experimental NASA propulsion technology encompasses efforts studies are continuing in the areas of atomic hydro- in liquid and solid fuel chemical systems as gen: hydrogen enriched solids, and electronically well as electric-powered thrusters. In all cases excited solid helium. the technology is aimed at expanding NASA’s mission capability at lower cost. Costs can be re- Experimental attempts to generate atomic hydro- duced by using lower cost hardware (typified by gen, by disassociating molecular hydrogen in a strong simpler solid fuel motors), by reusing systems over magnetic field and cooling the products to one de- and over (like the Space Shuttle), or by improv- gree Kelvin, have exhibited energy storage by the release of heat. Presses capable of developing pres- ing performance of a particular stage enough to allow use of a smaller, cheaper launch system. sures of 35,000 pounds per square inch are being Improved performance also opens the door to developed to generate and study metallic hydrogen. previously impractical missions such as out-of-the- An experimental effort on energy storage by hydro- ecliptic and close-to-the-Sun probes. A “new hori- gen absorption in solids will study the promising zons” program has also been established to assure hydrogen/deuterium palladium system. consideration of unconventional propulsion systems In the reusable oxygen-hydrogen propulsion tech- offering several times the energy levels now attain- nology program, contracts were awarded to develop able. Selected program highlights are described high-performance liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen below. turbomachinery designed for 10-hour service life, and to develop a regeneratively cooled thrust cham- Solid Propulsion Tcchno1ogy.-The final motor ber capable of completing 300 start/stop cycles. in a series of high efficiency solid-fuel motors was Fluorinated oxidizer (FLOX) propellant combina- successfully tested in a static condition. This motor tions offer up to a 30 percent increase in engine combined several advanced features such as a light specific impulse over currently operational propulsion weight all-carbon nozzle and expansion cone, a spe- systems. This makes them attractive for use in future cial igniter which provides a several second thrust planetary missions which require long life systems. buildup to minimize shock to the spacecraft, and an Eighteen month storage tests of titanium and alumi- unusually flexible propellant. num in cryogenic fluorine and FLOX were completed Planetary missions require propulsion systems which this year. The tests indicate that the compatibility of can withstand thermal sterilization cycling from about these materials with fluorinated oxidizers is more 295 degrees to 410 degrees Kelvin (70 degrees to 275 than adequate for missions in excess of 5 years. degrees Farenheit). The application of low-cost re- liable solid motors to these missions has been pre- Electric Propulsion Technology.-Electric propul- vented by the distortion tendencies and chemical sion is attractive as auxiliary propulsion for longlife instability of solid-fuels at these high temperatures. station keeping and attitude control applications, A significant step forward was taken this year with and as primary propulsion for planetary/interplane- the successful static firing of a thermally sterilized tary and near-Earth applications requiring high solid-fuel motor. specific impulse, reliability, and low mission cost. The high atmospheric pressures of planets like Tests of a one-thousandth of a pound (4.5 milli- Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn require extremely large Newtons) thrust (150 watt) ion engine aboard the weight penalties if conventional chemical rockets ATS-6 satellite were initiated this year to demon- or aerodynamic surfaces are used for entry or control. strate north-south station keeping. Endurance testing A pulsed detonation mode concept was developed of small engines in ground facilities continued. In which meets this challenge by using the output of a the area of primary propulsion, the endurance testing high-powered laser to detonate a small explosive of a standardized 2.75 kilowatt ion engine was con- charge remotely. The resulting shock wave is then tinued past the one year mark. directed by means of an expansion nozzle to provide Space Power Technology thrust. The nozzle is designed to allow expulsion of the atmospheric gases which fill it between pulses, Spacecraft depend on the Sun, batteries, fuel cells, adding to the energy of the propellant. Firings of and nuclear energy to supply the power needed to

28 operate instruments, computers, life-support systems, form the heat energy from radioactive sources to radios, and electric rocket engines. Due to weight electrical energy to power spacecraft systems. restrictions, power for space missions has been limit- ed, and the expansion of mission capabilities, there- Direct Conversion of Nuclear Energy into Laser fore, requires improvements in existing kinds of space Light.-As part of the Nuclear Energy Technology power systems and research on new concepts. Costs Program, fission energy from a nuclear reactor was of power systems should also be reduced. For these converted directly into laser light for the first time reasons, NASA’s research and technology program in an experiment this year. A helium-xenon laser was gives considerable emphasis to the area of space made to operate utilizing only the energy of fission power and covers a wide variety of energy sources fragments to energize the laser. This mechanism pro- and end uses. While space missions will be the vides for the controlled conversion of nuclear energy major use of this NASA power-technology program, directly into coherent laser light which could lead it is possible to apply this technology to other energy to major advances in energy conversion, long range frelated systems. communications, and power transmission over long distances. Sbacecraft Energy Systems Technology.-A test panel of newly developed, high efficiency solar cells High Power Lasers and Energetics Technology.- was flown on the IMP J satellite to verify predictions Two new test devices that can produce fusion-like of up to a 20 percent increase in efficiency with no piasmas began regular experimental operation as loss in radiation resistance. The technical feasibility part of a research program on methods to use fusion of making solar cells from a silicon ribbon grown energy for space power plants. In one test series, .directly from the melt was demonstrated this year. helium was heated under steady-state conditions to This is one of the critical first steps in manufacturing a temperature of 100 million degrees Kelvin. low cost solar cells. A basic research effort has Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generators determined that the impurities that are introduced can make major improvements to power plant with the doping material degrade the performance efficiency and can provide light-weight space power of highly doped silicon solar cells. This problem units. This year improved efficiency was measured in has been holding up further improvements in tests of an MHD generator system suitable for use efficiency. with nuclear power plants. New efficient combustors Preliminary specifications have been developed for were designed and tested in preparation for experi- primary batteries having five-to-ten year shelf life. mental testing of MHD generators powered by the These lifetimes are required for future outer planet burning of hydrogen and oxygen. atmospheric entry probes. These batteries have po- Large, powerful superconducting magnets are re- tential Earth applications as well. quired for efficient confinement of plasmas and for Recent progress in the regulation, distribution, and generatifig electrical power. Progress was made this control of electric power in spacecraft was demon- year in developing processes for commercial manu- strated by the flight qualification of a power-process- facture of a new form of wire (i.e., ribbon) which ing system for the CTS spacecraft. The system can make large and powerful superconducting mag- operates at 11,000 volts, exceeds 85 percent efficiency, nets stable and practical. and has a voltage ripple of+O.Ol percent. NASA scientists invented a new technique for Nuclear Energy Technology.-An analysis was establishing laser action in metal vapors and devel- completed on gaseous fuel reactors which indicates oped a copper chloride vapor laser that radiates in that they could be operated, using uranium hexa- the “Green Band.” A new form of laser action was flouride, at 1500 degrees Kelvin for high efficiency demonstrated this year which depends on control of power generation. Gaseous fuel reactors couId also be the spin energy of the nucleus. This process holds utilized for the destruction of certain radioactive promise for use in low-noise amplifiers and biomedi- waste products from other nuclear power plants by cal research. transmutation and fusion of the waste material in In research on the transmission of power by laser the gaseous fuel reactors. Plans and designs were light, the transmission of CO, laser power in a verti- prepared for conducting low-power tests of such cal direction was analyzed to include the changing gaseous fuel reactors. composition of the atmosphere at various altitudes. Tests of a new thermionic energy converter de- It was determined that an increase of transmission signed to operate at lower temperatures with in- efficiency of 70 percent could be realized by tuning creased efficiency were successfully completed this the laser frequency so as to avoid the most important year. Thermionic converters can be used to trans- absorption lines in the atmosphere. Atmospheric Entry Technology tion without solid-to-solid rubbing, so that both leak- The objective of increasing our knowledge and age and wear are minimized. The concept has a understanding of the origin and evolution of the variety of potential applications both within and out- solar system and extending our knowledge of the side of the aerospace field, e.g., the LOX pump of Earth by comparative studies of the outer planets the Space Shuttle main engine, main bearings of requires the in-situ measurement of the atmos- aircraft gas turbine engines, etc. In aeronautics alone, pheres of these planets. The Advanced Atmosphere it is estimated that as much as ten percent of the Entry Technology program is designed to establish a 500 million barrels of crude oil used annually by the base of information to permit the design of probes US. military and civil aircraft fleet could be saved that can enter the atmospheres of the outer planets, through improved seal technology. Up to five per- Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, in a safe, reliable, and cent savings are realizable from current advanced predictable manner. In addition, the program is de- sealing concepts, such as the lift pad seal. signed to provide the aerodynamic characteristics for Heat Pipe Technology.-A feedback controlled spacecraft entering the Earth’s atmosphere. Selected heat pipe and a thermal diode heat pipe, which per- highlights of the program are described below. mits heat transfer in only one direction, were de- Entry Aerothermodynamics.-Methods were de- monstrated in flight tests on board the ATS-6 satel- veloped for estimating the very high heating expect- lite. The devices were used for thermal control of ed during entry into the atmosphere of Venus, Uran- temperature-sensitive spacecraft components. This us, Saturn, and Jupiter. This year, estimates were advanced technology for heat transfer provides a made for the Pioneer Venus Project of the heating greatly enhanced capability for spacecraft thermal to be expected by a probe entering the Venusian control, and has potential use for heating and cool- atmosphere. ing, without electrical power or moving parts, in in- dustrial plants, hospitals, laboratories, and homes. Entry Technology Flight Experiment.-Fifteen flights have been completed in the Joint NASA/Air Guidance, Control and Znjormatiolt Force program which utilizes the X-24B research ve- Systems Technology hicle to help develop a technology base for advanced entry spacecraft and also for applications to hyper- The increasing complexity of space missions has sonic cruise vehicles. The vehicle’s flight characteris- resulted in new instruments and components that tics, performance, and handling qualities have been have improved space exploration and operation capa- evaluated in the speed range from Mach 1.6 to bilities. These instrument concepts can be applied to landing. planetary as well as Earth-observation type missions, i.e., Earth Resources, Meteorology, Weather and Cli- Materials and Structures Technology mate, etc. The applications of this new technology Materials and structures are the building blocks have imposed more stringent demands on the com- of launch vehicles, spacecraft, and payloads for munication links between space vehicles and the man’s exploitation of space. Supporting research in user community. The reception, transmission, proc- materials and structures has the goal of providing essing, and storage of information must be improved increased payload capability, resulting from structur- to satisfy these demands and must also be accomp- al weight reductions of up to 25 percent, and low lished at lower cost and with increased reliability. cost, energy conservative systems. Selected highlights The following paragraphs describe some of NASA’s of the program are described below. achievements in these areas during the past year. Polymerization of Monomeric Reactants.- A new Microwave Power Tubes.-A technique was de- technique was developed for obtaining more pro- veloped for improving the efficiency of microwave cessable, higher temperature resistant polymers for power-amplifier tubes from their current 10 to 20 use as matrix materials in advanced resin fiber com- percent efficiencies to greater than 50 percent. The posites. These composites have potential for use in new tube will be used to transmit 200 watts of a variety of high performance applications. The power at 12 gigahertz on the Joint Canadian/NASA composites are presently being evaluated to explore Communications Technology Satellite in FY 1976. their use in advanced space transportation systems Solid-State Data Storage System.-Tape-recorder to achieve payload weight increases of 25 to 35 type operations were demonstrated with a 6x104 bit percent. feasibility model of a no-moving-part solid-state re- Seal Technology.-NASA has developed a hydro- placement system for scientific tape recorders. Studies dynamic self-balancing or “lift pad” seal. The seal indicate that a IOs bit unit can be developed that has demonstrated its ability to maintain close sepera- will have 10 times the expected useful life of con- vential satellite tape recorders, and will be smaller Shuttle Dynamics.-Studies were completed which and require less power. defined methods to allow a wider range for the location of the center of gravity of the orbiter so that Infrared Heterodyne Radiometer.-An infrared a broader range of payload sizes and shapes can be heterodyne radiometer which is sensitive to and accommodated. capable of measuring wavelengths around 10 micro- meters was developed. The radiometer was used to Thermal Protection Materials.-Evaluation of the map the infrared radiation of the Moon and Mars flight performance of Shuttle thermal protection ma- with extreme accuracy and sensitivity. terials is continuing in specialized test facilities. Re- sults of tests on materials to be used as antenna win- Wideband Communications Receiver.-The first dows indicate that no significant surface degradation Doppler tracking wideband receiver capable of oper- or deterioration in the dielectic constant should occur. ating with data rates exceeding 300 megabits per Propellant Gauging System.-A gauging system second and at a bandwidth of 2 700 megahertz was was developed to determine the quantity of liquid developed. In addition, a modulation system com- fuels in tanks under zero “g” conditions. The system, patible with a carbon dioxide laser was operated which has a maximum error of 0.5 percent over the this year. These two activities complete the develop- full range of tank capacity, is based on the absorption ment of the components for an optical data transfer of gamma rays passing through the tank. system with a capacity capable of satisfying the re- Low Cost Space Systems quirements of future Earth resources missions. The LOWCost Systems Office was established last Solid-State Image.-A solid-state imaging sensor year to lead an Agency-wide effort to reduce the over- consisting of a 100x160 array of Charge Coupled all cost of space systems. A cost-benefit analysis ac- Devices (CCD) was fabricated and tested as the tivity has been established and several common space- active element in a planetary imaging camera. The craft components have been identified for standardiza- sensitivity of the CCD camera is 10 times that of tion. Contracts have been let to develop two types of the Mariner 10 camera, with a four-fold reduction standard spacecraft tape recorders. Also, work has in weight and power. been initiated that will lead to the development of a Semiconductor Laser Diode.-A breakthrough in standard spacecraft attitude control propulsion sys- laser technology was achieved with the development tem, a flight computer, an inertial reference unit, of the first continous wave semiconductor laser diode solar cells, NiCd battery cells and a transponder. In that operates at room temperature in the visible part addition, NASA’s business and program practices are of the spectrum. A minimum of 2000 hours of stable being surveyed to identify opportunities for effecting operation was obtained with the emission of tens of cost savings in the administration and management milliwatts of power. The power required to operate of R&D programs. A study has been undertaken to the device is 100 times less than that required for identify those management techniques which were a typical gas laser. common to R&D projects that were accomplished at lower than estimated costs. Space Shuttle Supporting Technology Aeronautics Research and Technology The Space Shuttle is a reusable, space transporta- The NASA Aeronautics Research and Technology tion system essential for economical space explora- programs are directed at serving national needs by tion and exploitation. Since 1969, NASA has focusing on the objectives of developing technology conducted a broad program to provide technol- to (1) reduce energy requirements and improve the ogy critical to the design and development of the performance and economy of aircraft, (2) reduce the Shuttle. This technology program was a multidisci- undesirable environmental effects of aircraft such as plinary activity which involved aerodynamics, dy- noise and pollution, (3) improve aircraft safety and namics, structures, materials, propulsion, power, terminal area operations, (4) advance short-haul, flight control, communications, operations, mainte- short take-off and landing, and vertical take-off and nance, and safety. Now that the Shuttle development landing system concepts, and (5) provide aero- program is well advanced, the Shuttle supporting nautical technology support to the military. The technology program is confined to those areas, such significant accomplishments of the program in 1974 as the evaluation of thermal-protection materials and are noted below. flight performance, where significant contributions to Reducing Energy Requirements and lmproving the success of the Shuttle program can be made. Performance and Economy Selected highlights of the program are described Events of this past year have shown the vulner- below. ability of our transportation system to interruptions

31 in the supply of petroleum fuel. Air transportation, tion, reduced noise, and greater passenger comfort. although highly productive, requires a significant Last year, flight tests demonstrated the feasibility of portion of the Nation’s petroleum fuel. Relatively digital fly-by-wire control of aircraft. This year the small reductions in drag and structural weight com- design of a triply redundant system was completed. bined with higher propulsion system efficiencies can A program was initiated to develop techniques for have a large effect on the overall fuel consumption the design of aircraft using active control concepts. and economic efficiency of the aircraft. Some high- Studies were completed by Boeing and Lockheed lights of the NASA programs for reducing energy which defined how existing aircraft could be used requirements and improving performance and to demonstrate individual active control concepts. economy are described in the following paragraphs. . Gas Turbine Propulsioa Systems.-NASA and the Efficient Subsonic Wings.-The NASA-developed Air Force initiated a long-range research program supercritical wing technology allows for subsonic air- aimed at strengthening and expanding the technology craft cruise speeds to be increased nearer to the speed base for aircraft gas-turbine propulsion systems. The of sound without encountering undesirable increases Air Force will supply modern advanced technology in drag. This means that aircraft speed and distance engines to sellve as research propulsion systems and can be increased without any increase in fuel con- NASA has the responsibility for planning and execu- sumption. Flight tests with an F-8 aircraft with super- tion of the research programs. critical wing demonstrated a 15 percent increase in Fuel Consumption Reduetion.-A system design distance traveled without using any additional fuel. study was begun to explore fuel-conserving oppor- An advanced wing, the NASA GAW-1, was developed tunities for subsonic transport aircraft. The study is for general aviation aircraft and is planned to be intended to quantitatively establish sensitivities and flight tested on a light twin-engine aircraft. trade-offs among fuel conservation, noise, engine emis- sions, schedule delay, and economics and identify the Transonic Aircraft Technology.-More than one- technology advances needed for the design of fu- third of the 50 planned test flights of the F-Ill air- ture aircraft. A series of studies was initiated to de- craft equipped with an advanced supercritical wing termine various approaches for reducing commercial were completed in the Transonic Aircraft Technology subsonic jet engine fuel consumption. The studies will (TACT) program. Preliminary flight data confirms examine modifications to existing engines and engine wind tunnel model data predictions of improved per- design concepts based on unconventional approaches formance. with the objective of achieving a 30 percent reduction Skin Friction Drag Reduction.-Preliminary tests in fuel consumption. Other studies were initiated to were completed on compliant or flexible aircraft skin establish the feasibility of major airframe-modifica- concepts which indicate a reduction of at least 16 tion fuel conservation technologies for commercial percent in skin-friction drag. Application of the com- aircraft. Alternate fuels such as hydrogen and meth- pliant-wall concepts to aircraft have the potential of ane are being studied by NASA as a possible means significantly decreasing aircraft fuel consumption. of reducing aircraft petroleum demands. Combustor tests have been run which evaluated the engine Filamentry Composite Materials.-NASA research emissions resulting from blends of hydrocarbons has shown that the use of boron- or graphite-epoxy which simulate fuels that could be produced from composite materials can reduce the structural weight the liquification of coal. of aircraft components by as much as 50 percent, re- sulting in reduced fuel consumption and increased Remotely Piloted Research Vehicles.-Progress was performance and economic benefit. Although bench- made in evaluating the advantages of using unpilot- level research has demonstrated the advantages of ed, scale-model aircraft for flight research involving composites, application is dependent on verification of hazardous or new high-risk aircraft concepts. A three- their durability in airline operations. A five-year eighths scale F-15 fighter Remotely Piloted Research flight durability program, which will amass more than Vehicle (RPRV) was maneuvered into stalls and two million component flight test hours, is in progress spins to investigate best means of recovery from and will include two components on military air- spins. An advanced wing concept, the oblique wing, craft and four secondary plus two primary structural which has promise for reducing drag and sonic boom components on commercial aircraft. for high speed aircraft, was evaluated in low speed Active Control Technology.-The use of active flight using the low cost RPRV approach. control technology, together with improved aerody- Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology.-NASA namics, has been shown in analytical studies to have has initiated the Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Tech- potential benefits in the areas of superior perform- nology program to promote and stimulate the appli- ance, increased aircraft life, reduced fuel consump- cation of new advanced (high-risk) technology in a 32 multidisciplinary manner to the design of future diction methods, and techniques for assessing human highly maneuverable military aircraft. The program response. In exhaust pollution reduction, the program plans to utilize the RPRV flight test technique to includes combustion and pollution formation research realize the RPRV benefits of safety (unmanned), as well as combustor design technology demonstra- flexibility (remotely piloted), and low cost (subscale tions. These activities include analyses and experi- models). ments to predict and measure the atmospheric impact Supersonic Cruise Aircraft Research.-A shock of aircraft exhaust emissions. stabilization system which optimizes inlet operation at Some high1:ghts of the NASA programs for reduc- very high speeds was designed and wind-tunnel test- ing undesirable environmental effects of aircraft are ed this year. A cooperative airframe/propulsion con- described in the following paragraphs. trol system, which minimizes undesirable interactions Reducing Engine Noise from Existing Transport between airframe and propulsion systems, is being de- Aircraft.-NASA’s Refan Program is a major effort signed for flight testing on a Mach 3 aircraft. Flight involving the application of advanced technology to and laboratory evaluations of various new structural the quieting of the JT8D engine which powers a concepts, suitable for the high Mach number environ- major portion of the Nation’s narrow-body com- ment, e.g., weldbrazed and honeycomb titanium pan- mercial air fleet. The noise-footprint areas of these els, are in process. aircraft can be reduced substantially, when the en- Aircraft Handling and Ride Quality.-NASA’s ef- gine’s two-stage fans are replaced with larger single- fort to provide passenger acceptance and ride quality stage fans. During the past year, three refanned criteria for future air transportation systems con- engines have been built and ground tested. To date, tinues this year. Commercial aircraft motion data the refanned engines have met performance, endur- were collected in flight and the resulting data in- ance, and acoustic goals. Acoustically treated nacelles corporated into simulation studies conducted in the were fabricated, and the necessary airframe modifi- Passenger Ride Quality Apparatus. Modified Boeing cations determined to begin ground testing the en- 727 approach and landing trajectories were used gines on a Boeing 727 configuration and flight testing to provide subjective ride-quality data applicable on a Douglas DC-9 aircraft in early 1975. to projected short haul take-off and landing opera- Acoustic Composite Nacelle.-Conceptual design tions. studies were initiated to define the means of inte- In a cooperative program with Kansas University grating various acoustic composite material concepts and Beech Aircraft Company, a split-surface stability in engine nacelle construction to reduce aircraft noise augmentation system was designed and evaluated in footprint area, without increasing operating costs and the laboratory. This system may reduce pilot work- fuel consumption. load and provide better aircraft handling and ride Propeller and Rotor Noise Reduction-Studies are characteristics. Flight tests will begin next year in a underway to determine the potential for reducing the Beech 99 commuter airline aircraft. propeller noise of general aviation aircraft. Initial concentration is on the use of shrouds and ducts to Reducing Undesirable Elzvironmental Effects reduce propeller noise. Full-scale wind tunnel tests of a modified airplane with a shrouded propeller Aircraft noise and exhaust pollution are two un- have been completed. desirable environmental effects. A major NASA Wind-tunnel tests were completed which demon- responsibility in aeronautics is to perform the re- strate that low-speed propellers and rotors with ser- search and develop the technology to reduce aircraft rated leading edges are quieter than conventional noise and pollution in ways that are economically airfoils. Further tests are planned to determine and operationally sound. Data and technical understanding resulting from whether the noise-reduction effects of serrations will the NASA programs serve to enlarge the technology apply to high-speed rotors, fans, and inlet compressors base the aviation industry uses to develop hardware for jet engines. modifications and new designs. They furnish the Airframe Noise Reduction.-A program was initi- government realistic and credible technical informa- ated to determine the source, magnitude, and meth- tion needed in deciding and promulgating future ods of reducing airframe noise for large transport air- noise and exhaust emission regulations. craft in approach (Le., flaps and landing gear ex- NASA’s noise and pollution reduction program is tended) configurations. Preliminary noise-source quite broad. In noise reduction, it includes funda- measurements were made in conventional wind tun- mental studies of acoustics and noise sources, acous- nels and anechoic chambers, and airframe noise-pre- tic suppression and reduction techniques and tech- diction techniques were developed using fundamental nology demonstrations, community noise-impact-pre- noise-source principles and data correlations.

33 Noise Reduction Laboratory.-The completion of velop technology to reduce aircraft emissions to meet the Aircraft Noise Reduction Laboratory at the NASA Environmental Protection Agency emission stand- Langley Research Center this year provides a power- ards for 1979. The expanded program will include ful new tool for research into the nature of aircraft the application and demonstration of clean combustor noise and human response to it. technology on all thrust classes of commercial air- craft engines, including internal combustion and tur- Noise Reduction Flight Procedures.-The two-seg boprop engines. Phase I tests on several combustor ment landing approach was developed by NASA to concepts of the Clean Combustor Program reported reduce aircraft noise levels on the ground, in com- last year were completed and the 1979 EPA idle munities near airports, due to aircraft approaches mode emission goals for the T-2 class (large) engines for landing. A United Airlines DC-8 aircraft, utiliz- were met. ing the two-segment approach, achieved a 53 percent reduction in the ground area impacted by noise Engine Cycles for Supersonic Aircraft.-Engine above desirable tolerance levels. This year, there was cycle studies are underway that will lead to the a major effort to develop avionics and flight proce- selection next year of an optimum engine cycle for dures that will allow current jet transport aircraft supersonic cruise aircraft to minimize noise and pol- to make two-segment approaches under instrument lution. flight conditions during routine schedule service. Improving Aircraft Safety and Quiet, Clean, Short Haul Experimental Engine.- Terminal-Area Operations NASA’s Quiet, Clean, Short Haul Experimental En- New aircraft types, changing operational environ- gine (QCSEE) program has as its objective the dem- ments, and revised flight procedures all have signifi- onstration of high-bypass-ratio engine technology for cant implications for aircraft safety and efficient air- very quiet, very clean, and efficient propulsion systems port operations. A continuing program of research is technology which might be used in economically necessary to minimize the impact of these changes viable and environmentally acceptable powered-lift while at the same time providing a net improvement short-haul aircraft. General Electric Company will over the longer term. Airport terminal-area conges- design, build, test, and deliver two experimental tion and operational difficulties account for most powered-lift propulsion systems to NASA for exten- flight and ground delays, with their waste of sive ground evaluation of acoustic and aerodynamic precious fuel and the travelers’ valuable time. The performance in appropriate wing/flap system installa- population living and working near airports is heavily tions. The preliminary design of the two QCSEE impacted by aircraft noise. propulsion systems was approved this year. The first Safe and efficient terminal-area operations thus system is designed for application to under-the-wing benefit the traveler, the aircraft operator, and the propulsive lift configurations; the second system is airport neighbor. Programs for improving aircraft designed for over-the-wing configurations. safety and terminal-area operations continued to make progress this year; selected highlights are de- Global Air Sampling Program.-The purpose of scribed below. the global air sampling program is to determine the contribution of high-altitude jet aircraft engine ex- Aircraft Wake Vortex Reduction.-The wakes left haust emissions to atmospheric pollution. A United by large aircraft pose a significant hazard to other Airlines Boeing 747 equipped with an atmospheric aircraft if adequate spacing between aircraft is not sampling instrument package commenced routine maintained. The problem of trailing vortices cur- service on a commercial air route over the continen- tails maximum use of our Nation’s airports. Reduc- tal United States to Hawaii. Subsequently, Pan Amer- tion of wake-vortex intensity would permit closer ican plans to fly a similar instrument package on a aircraft spacing in operations and thereby increase round-the-world commercial air route in the north- airport operational efficiency. Numerous techniques ern hemisphere. were evaluated for reducing wake vortices in wind- tunnel and water-channel tests. This year the most Stratospheric Jet Wake Measurements.-The near promising concepts were flight tested to determine wake constituents of a YF-12 aircraft exhaust are their full-scale performance. Flight tests of techniques being measured to determine the impact of super- using wing-tip mounted splines and engine-induced sonic aircraft engine emissions on the stratosphere. turbulence verified the extent of wake vortex mini- A water dump system is currently being tested on mization predicted by model tests. Flight tests of the YF-12 aircraft to mark its exhaust wake to assist another promising technique, varying spanwise lift the probe aircraft in locating the wake. distribution, were completed with a Boeing 747 late Clean Combustor Program.-The NASA Clean this year. Concurrently, in the event that aerodyna- Combustor technology program was expanded to de- mic reduction of aircraft wakes should be impractical for retrofitting the current jet fleet, NASA is devel- error factor in aircraft accidents were reported. This oping a laser doppler system for detecting and work was continued to verify the significance of tracking aircraft wakes in the vicinity of airports. the previous findings and to define research studies This system would also enable air traffic controllers that will provide solutions with special emphasis to adjust aircraft spacing more closely. Tests of a placed on the approach and landing flight phase. A prototype system were completed this year and the comprehensive program was initiated to understand system is undergoing operational evaluation at JFK the requirements and roles of air crews and ground airport in New York. controllers in the automated air traffic control en- Aircraft StalllSpin Characteristics.-According to vironment projected for 1985 and beyond. An the National Transportation Safety Board, 35 percent oculometer, a device which unobtrusively provides of all general aviation accidents and resulting fatali- accurate real-time data on where a pilot is looking ties are caused by the stall/spin phenomenon. Stall/ during tasks, has been developed and put into opera- spin behavior is under investigation utilizing unique tion. Use of the oculometer should provide an effec- facilities, such as the spin tunnel at Langley Research tive technique for use in the development of safe, Center, to determine design criteria for aircraft with efficient advanced flight-management systems. vastly reduced stall/spin characteristics. Terminal Configured Vehicle Operations.-NASA’s Aircraft Landing Systems.-This year NASA re- Terminal Configured Vehicle program has the ob- search on aircraft landing systems led to the develop- jective of providing technology to enable future Con- ment of a new polymer additive for tires which will ventional Take-Off and Landing (CTOL) aircraft substantially reduce aircraft tire wear and blowouts. to be totally compatible with advanced air traffic A new brake compound was developed which should management systems. By 1982 this system should increase brake life and reduce brake fading. Tests include such features as improved four-dimension- were completed which resulted in a new understand- al (position plus time) navigation, more flexible land- ing of the operation of aircraft anti-skid systems under ing guidance systems, better communications, and tire hydroplaning conditions. more automation, such as for computer assisted sepa- ration of aircraft. To validate various airborne system Aircraft Crashworthiness.-Five full-scale aircraft concepts, extensive use is being made of simulators crash tests were performed this year as part of the and flight experiments in a simulated high density General Aviation Crashworthiness program. Data terminal area. Flight research with a Boeing 737 air- from the program will be used to develop analytical craft, modified to include an advanced electronic dis- methods for predicting structural collapse behavior play system, automatic guidance and control system, under crash-impact situations, define a survivable and aft flight deck, was initiated. The accuracies crash envelope, improve restraint methods, and de- obtained give encouragement of attaining the goal line design methods to improve crash survivability. of less than five seconds time variation from the A total of 32 airframes damaged in Hurricane Agnes flight program in routine operations. The program have been acquired from Piper Aircraft Corporation places emphasis on the human factor aspects of for this purpose. operations and the interactions of crew members. Fire Retardant Materials for Aircraft.-Each year aircraft accidents occur in which occupants survive Advancing Short Haul, Short Take-Off and Land- the initial impact but succumb to the smoke, heat, ing, and Vertical Take-Off and Landing System and toxic fumes produced by post-crash fire. NASA Concepts research on developing fire-retardant materials for The problems of airport congestion to the traveler, aircraft continued this year with the development of aircraft noise on the surrounding community, and an improved fire-retardant window material. Tests new emphasis on fuel conservation, coupled with in- were also made of fire-retardant fabrics, coatings, and creased air traffic forecasts, are matters of national other interior materials to determine their safety concern. Airport congestion in the high-density cor- characteristics and effectiveness. Full-scale fuselage ridors especially detracts from the convenience of the fire tests were conducted for preliminary assessment shorter distance traveler, since a high percentage of of nonflammable properties of new materials for total trip time is associated with ground operations. aircraft interiors. The materials showed good fire Introduction of new short-haul transports (vertical resistance and lower smoke production than current and short-take-off and landing aircraft) and systems materials, but still produced significant amounts of might better utilize existing airports and airspace, toxic by-products indicating that further research is provide precise touchdown times, and may contribute needed. to reducing congestion and fuel consumption. These Human Error in Aircraft Accidents.-Last year the aircraft are expected to provide the means of con- results of a preliminary study to assess the human taining noise within the airport boundaries because of

35 steep descent and ascent flight paths and the ability tions were initiated this year with a DHC-6 turbo- to maneuver around local population communities. prop and the C-8 Augmentor Wing Research Air- Selected program highlights are described below. craft to obtain performance data. A control system for STOL and Vertical Take-Off Propulsive-Lift Technology.-Research emphasis and Landing (VTOL) aircraft, that uses optimal continued on the upper surface blown flap and jet four-dimensional (position plus time) guidance tech- augmentor wing propulsive-lift concepts this year. niques that can control touchdown time within 25 These concepts are aimed at providing transport air- second along tightly curved approach paths, was craft with short-field performance and acceptable flight tested this year. This precise touchdown capa- noise levels, with minimum penalty to cruise perform- bility can double maximum STOL landing rates, and ance and operating costs. Studies are in progress to reduces the danger of interference with conventional refine and expand the technology base for the upper aircraft on adjacent approach paths. surface blown flap concept, emphasizing cruise per- formance and noise aspects. The first of a series of Lift Fan and Vectored Thrust Aircraft Technol- advanced augmentor wing concepts intended to pro- ogy.-In the Vertical rake-off and Landing vide improved lift augmentation and reduced noise (VTOL) aircraft research program, small-scale wind was tested on a semispan wind-tunnel model this tunnel tests were completed on an advanced lift plus year. Proof-of-concept flight tests of the C-8 aug- lift-cruise aircraft model and on a vectored-thrust mentor wing research aircraft, incorporating an early combat VTOL configuration. Small-scale tests of two version of the augmentor concept, were completed, lift-fan configurations were completed in the V/ verifying the increase in lift indicated from previous STOL tunnel. These tests are aimed at providing wind tunnel model studies. part of the technology required for a VTOL civil transport having the speed range, operating costs, Quiet Short-Haul Research Aircraft.-A Quiet and capability of current medium range CTOL air- Short-Haul Research Airplane program was initiated craft. Initial static tests of a thrust vectoring system, to generate and verify, through flight research, a tech- designed to have light weight and rapid response nology data base for design and certification criteria characteristics with small losses in thrust, were com- for practical and efficient quiet propulsive-lift short- pleted in 1974 as part of a joint NASA/Navy pro- haul transports. Preliminary design studies were com- gram. The program is expected to provide design pleted and the selection made of the propulsive-lift information for future military aircraft having VTOL concept to be used on the research aircraft. Next and high subsonic cruise speed capability. Flight dy- year an existing C-8 Buffalo aircraft will be modified namics research utilized the variable stability X-22 to a swept-wing hybrid-upper surface blowing ad- tilt duct V/STOL airplane to investigate require- vanced propulsive-lift configuration powered by four ments for making decelerating approaches to a ver- Avco Lycoming AFL 502 series engines. tical landing under instrument flight conditions. STOL Crosswind Landing.-A study of the prob- VTOL Navigation, Guidance, and Control Sys- lems associated with landing during extreme cross- tems.-An integrated navigation, guidance, and con- winds in a typical Short Take-Off and Landing trol system for VTOL aircraft is being developed as (STOL) aircraft was completed in 1974, resulting in part of a joint NASA/Army program to improve the follow-on research with a versatile tri-cycle crosswind technology for short-haul aircraft. A CH-47 heli- landing gear system being planned for 1975. copter will be used for flight tests. A three-axis strap- down inertial navigation system, using ring lasers as STOL Navigation, Guidance, and Control Sys- low-cost, no-movingpart replacements for the con- tems.-An effort is being conducted under a joint ventional mechanical gyros, was developed; and ac- NASA/FAA agreement to help provide the tech- curacies of approximately one nautical mile per hour nology required for the design and development of an were demonstrated. Flight evaluation is planned next effective STOL short-haul air transportation system year. that can operate unobtrusively into city centers and A program is underway to provide technology to suburban facilities. An operating systems experiments demonstrate the capability of VTOL aircraft to land program was formulated to aid in the choice of and takeoff with optimized fuel consumption and terminal area navigation, guidance, and control safety under low visibility conditions or at unpre- system concepts for STOL short-haul aircraft, and pared sites. will evaluate operational procedures. A flexible digital avionics research system (STOLAND) was Rotorcraft Technology.-In the rotorcraft tech- installed in the CV-340 short-haul transport aircraft, nology program, the effort to reduce the noise and and 8 test flights were made to obtain preliminary vibration due to vortices generated by the rotor blade avionics system performance. STOLAND investiga- tips continued with full-scale tests to examine the 36 effects of rotor blade tip shape on noise and lift per- US /USSR Cooperation formance; and with tower tests of a rotor concept Joint NASA/Soviet Academy of Sciences Working using air mass injection near the tip. Studies of ad- Groups continued to implement the May 24, 1972 vanced rotor concepts included the completion of US/USSR Agreement Concerning Cooperation in small-scale high-speed wind tunnel tests of the reverse the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. This agree- velocity rotor designed for higher cruise speed appli- ment provides for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project-a cation, tower tests of a large-scale variable geometry joint manned experimental flight in 1975 to test coni- rotor designed for reduced vibration and noise, and patible rendezvous and docking systems-and for co- aeroelastic analysis of the bearingless rotor designed operation in space science and applications. ' for reduced drag and maifitenahce. Plight tests were completed on the CH-46 variable stability helicopter Apollo-Soyur Test Project (ASTP).-ASTP is the providing a quantitative comparison of several com- joint US/USSR manned space flight provided for by binations of control and pilot display concepts evalu- the US/USSR Agreement Concerning Cooperation ating trade-offs ip pilot workload, task performance, in Space which President Nixon and Chairman Kosy- and complexity. gin signed at the Moscow Summit in May 1972. Rotor Systems Research Aircraft.-The joint This experimental flight, on schedule for JuIy.1975, NASA/Army Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RS- has as its primary objective the conduct of space RA) program consists of the design and fabrication experiments to test the technical requirements and of two unique flight research vehicles incorporating solutions for compatibility of systems for rendezvous special research measurement systems with the capa- and docking of future manned spacecraft and stations. bility to test promising new rotor systems and to verify A successfuI mission will contribute to a rescue capa- new analytical methods in a real flight environment, bility for future manned space flights and broaden which cannot be simulated adequately in ground- opportunities for US and USSR space cooperation in based facilities. The program entered the initial fab- the years ahead. The Apollo Spacecraft is also car- rication phase this year with delivery scheduled for rying 27 individual experiments on this mission, five 1977. of which are joint experiments with the Soviets. These experiments cover the fields of science, space process- Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft.-The joint NASA/ ing and manufacturing, applications, and life sci- Army Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft (TRRA) pro- ences. Several of the experiments are completely gram, which consists of the design, fabrication and funded, except for spacecraft integration costs, by flight test of two tilt rotor aircraft, reached the fabri- foreign governments. For example, the Federal Re- cation phase this year with delivery scheduled late public of Germany is funding an e1ectrophoresi.l ex- next year. The benefits offered by the tilt rotor con- periment to four to five million marks (apprpxi- cept result from combining the low disc loading hover mately two million dollars). efficiency of a helicopter with the good cruise effi- The ASTP mission plan calls for the Soyuz to be ciency and increased forward speed capability of a launched first from the Soviet launch site at Baikonir. fixed wing aircraft configuration. The first Apollo launch opportunity will occur about Supporting the Military in Maintaining the seven and one-half hours after Soyuz liftoff. Once in Superiority of Military Aircraft orbit, the Apollo will perform the necessary rendez- NASA continues to assist the military by develop- vous maneuvers and then dock with the Soyuz. For ing advanced technology suitable for future military about two days, the astronauts and the cosmonauts systems. In addition to conducting these R&D pro- will exchange visits between vehicles and carry out grams, NASA has provided direct technical sup- joint activities, including experiments in space science port to specific military aircraft programs, such as and applications. There will be additional tests of the the F-15, B-1, YF-16 and YF-17 programs to enhance compatible docking mechanisms and, after final sep- the success of their development. aration, the Apollo spacecraft will conduct further independent activities before re-entry. International Affairs The docking mechanisms to be used in the mission Highlights of 1974 included joint testing and train- are separately developed and manufactured by the ing for the Apollo-SoyuZ test flight in July 1975, four two nations but are based on a'single set of ageed cooperative satellite 'launchings, selection of foreign design specifications for components which must be investigators for studies based on remote sensing data compatible. US and Soviet engineers are closely en- to be obtained by the ERTS-B satellite, and on- gaged in the solution of common problems. schedule progress in the development of Spacelab, the With design and development essentially complete, manned orbiting laboratory which our European part- major progress in 1974 included joint compatibility ners are building to operate with the Space Shuttle. tests of communications and docking systems and the

37 start of intensive US/USSR joint flight crew and The objective of the Spacelab program is to pro- flight-controller training. During the year, the Soviet vide the user community with a ground-type labora- side conducted two unmanned flights of the Soyuz tory which can take advantage of the unique environ- spacecraft to test new systems and equipment to be ment of space. used in the joint mission and completed an addi- The development of Spacelab, undertaken by tional test flight of a manned Soyuz modified to agreement with NASA by the European Space Re- an ASTP configuration. Meanwhile, NASA and the search organization (ESRO), proceeded on schedule Soviet Academy approved public information plans with award in June 1974 by ESRO of the develop- for both the pre-mission and flight phases of the ment contract to a European consortium headed by project. Plans have been made for the conduct of ERN0 of Germany. Spacelab represents a major pre-launch tests at the US and USSR launch sites, (approximately $420 million) contribution by ten and a joint flight readiness review has been scheduled participating European countries to the Shuttle-based for May 1975. Space Transportation System. Delivery of the first Spacelab flight unit is planned for mid 1979. Space Science and Applications.--In the space Meanwhile NASA and ESRO continued and ex- science area, a joint NASA/Soviet Academy Con- panded their respective Spacelab-use planning efforts ference on the Cosmochemistry of the Moon and the involving representatives of a broader variety of Planets was held in Moscow in June. During the science and application disciplines including physics Conference, a detailed Soviet briefing on the results and astronomy, life sciences, communications and of their recent missions to Mars was provided for a navigation, Earth observations, and space processing. team of US specialists associated with the NASA Vik- A NASA/ESRO Joint User Requirements Group ing Project. US and Soviet specialists, who are pre- (JURG) met throughout the year to assure that paring the joint experiment involving the correlation European and US. communities’ user requirements of geomagnetic data through ATS-6, met in the US are provided on a timely basis for Spacelab design. in October for technical coordination. The Space In addition, a Joint Planning Group (JPG) was Biology and Medicine Working Group met in the established in mid-year to recommend the experi- USSR in late October to exchange biomedical re- mental objectives of the first Spacelab flight, which sults of the Soyuz 13 and 14 and Skylab space flights. will be a joint NASA/ESRO mission. The Working Group also made recommendations, And looking further into the future, NASA, in subsequently approved, which provide for NASA to coordination with ESRO, has initiated Spacelab niis- prepare life science experiments for flight on the next sion-definition studies in three science disciplines : ( 1) available Soviet biological satellite. atmospheric, magnetospheric, and plasmas-in-space In the space applications area, the joint Working (AMPS), (2) solar physics, and (3) ultraviolet Group on the Natural Environment agreed to (1) astronomy. The AMPS Working Group, first to be continued analysis and exchange of Nimbus/Cosmos established, includes 14 foreign scientists-from Can- microwave data and (2) coordinated investigation ada, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, and the of microwave methods to determine moisture. In addi- United Kingdom. tion, the Working Group agreed on actions looking Cooperative Satellite and Probe Projects to the definition of coordinated studies in (1) geology and geomorphology, (2) vegetation, soil, and land HELIOS-A, the first of two solar probes devel- use, and (3) hydrology. In connection with the pro- oped in cooperation with Germany, was launched posed coordinated studies of vegetation, soil, and on December 10 from the Eastern Test Range. This land use, U.S. scientists visited the Kursk test site is the largest cooperative project yet flown by NASA in the Soviet Union. Also, US. and U.S.S.R. ex- and is designed to take scientific data closer to the periment scientists met in Leningrad in May to pre- sun than any spacecraft has previously flown. The sent the results of the final analyses of the data ob- second HELIOS is scheduled for launch in early tained during the joint Bering Sea microwave sensing 1976. Each spacecraft will carry an array of 10 ex- experiment. This was the first time two independent periments (seven German and three US.) designed research groups have made microwave radiometry to measure magnetic fields, plasma and radio waves, measurements of sea ice and the ocean surface under cosmic rays, and other particle and radiation phe- the same conditions of varying surface roughness and nomenon in interplanetary space and near the sun. intervening atmospheric conditions with generally These are expected to yield new data on solar be- the same results. havior which is important to understanding the Sun’s Spacelab effects on the Earth. Spacelab, to be carried in the Space Shuttle cargo Netherlands Astronomy Satellite (ANS) was bay, received considerable attention during the year. launched by NASA from the Western Test Range

38 (WTR) on August 27. It carried x-ray instruments to the growing network of earth resources data and an ultraviolet telescope for the study of stars and facilities. A data-processing facility for Brazil’s ERTS stellar objects and was the first cooperative U.S./ data-acquisition station, established in 1973, became Netherlands scientific satellite. operational in September of this year. There is also an operating ERTS ground station in Canada. San Marco C2, a joint Italian-U.S. cooperative Several other countries have expressed interest in spacecraft to measure upper atmosphere density in establishing similar facilities. the equatorial region, was successfully launched aboard a Scout rocket from an Indian Ocean plat- Reimbursable Luunchings form off the coast of Kenya, Africa, on February 18. AEROS-B, a German aeronomy satellite was UK-5, an astronomy satellite developed as a co- launched by NASA from WTR on July 12. Four operative project between NASA and the British German and one U.S. experiment on board will Science Research Council, was launched on October investigate the varied particles and fields processes 15 on a NASA Scout launch vehicle from the that take place in the upper layers of the Earth’s Italian San Marco Range on the equator off the atmosphere. coast of Kenya. The spacecraft, contributed by the Syrnphonie, a French/German experimental com- U.K., is designed to continue the study of stellar munications satellite, was launched from ETR on X-ray sources and search for new X-ray emitters in December 18 aboard a Delta vehicle. the universe. UK-X4, an experimental technology satellite INTASAT, a cooperative spacecraft designed and launched successfully on March 8, is the first cost- developed in Spain, was launched as a secondary reimbursable launch by NASA for the United King- payload with ITOS-G on a Thor-Delta vehicle on dom. The five U.K. experiments on board the three- November 15 from WTR. The satellite is an iono- axis stabilized spacecraft demonstrated some new spheric beacon designed to permit measurement on approaches to small satellite subsystem design. the ground of the total electron content of the ionosphere as a function of latitude and time. Broadcast Satellite Experiment Work continues on other cooperative satellite mis- India.-With the launching of the NASA ATS-6 sions : (a) the International Utraviolet Explorer satellite on May 30, 1974, an important milestone (IUE), being developed in cooperation with the U.K. was passed in the preparation for the oneyear and ESRO, is expected to provide in 1976 a telescope NASA/Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) facility in synchronous orbit for high resolution ultra- cooperative Satellite Instructional Television Experi- violet stellar studies, and (b) the Communications ment (SITE). SITE, which is planned to begin in Technology Satellite (CTS), a Canadian-U.S. CO- mid-1975, involves the broadcast of educational tele- operative spacecraft to advance the state of the art vision programs from a station in India via the ATS- in communications-satellite technology and demon- 6 satellite to some 5000 remote Indian villages, more strate low-cost broadcast capability in the millimeter than 2000 of which will be equipped to receive the wave frequency band to remote areas, is planned for signal directly from the spacecraft on standard TV launch in 1975. receivers augmented by a 10-foot antenna and asso- Earth Resources ciated equipment to convert the satellite signal into a TV picture. The remaining villages will receive ERTS investigations.-Investigators from 37 coun- the signals via conventional ground-relay systems. tries and two international organizations analyzed SITE will be the first large-scale experiment in data obtained from the first Earth Resources Tech- satellite broadcasting to community receivers in an nology Satellite (ERTS-1, now redesignated LAND- underdeveloped country. India, which is responsible SAT-1) and the Earth Resources Experiment Pack- for all ground equipment, is also producing all the age (EREP) on Skylab. ERTS follow-on studies necessary programs for the year-long experiment. were approved to analyze remotely sensed data in the NASA will provide the satellite time (four hours a form of imagery or on magnetic tapes collected by day) and is providing technical assistance to the ERTS spacecraft. This will involve investigators from development of the ground hardware. 42 countries and five international organizations. Lulzar Samples Ground facilities.-Under an agreement reached in May, the Italian organization Telespazio will build 37 Principal Investigators from outside the United a ground station designed to receive data directly from States, representing participation by 11 countries, NASA experimental earth resources satellites. Lo- were selected to continue or begin new investigations cated at Fucino, the new installation will be linked under the NASA Lunar Sample Research Program. 39 Disseminating Technology and Benefits new projects in the areas of Biomedicine, Urban Construction and Safety, Environmental Pollu- The prime objective of NASA’s Technology Utiliz- tion, Fire Safety, Transportation, and Law En- ation program is to stimulate and organize the trans- forcement. Some of the significant accomplishments fer of technology from aeronautics and space pro- resulting from these projects during 1974 included: grams to the non-aerospace public and private the installation of the NASA-developed Flat Con- sectors. The Technology Utilization program uses ductor Cable in an Urban Development Corporation many means for the dissemination of new technology of New York demonstration structure in New York; resulting from NASA’s research and development the increase in the number of implants of the NASA efforts, when such technology is deemed to have sponsored Rechargable Cardiac Pacemaker to over commercial potential. Various publications issued in- 600 and the development and demonstration of a clude Tech Briefs-single-page summaries describing pediatric unit; the field test and evaluation by three the technology; Technical Support Packages-in- major U.S. City Fire Departments of the NASA depth elaborations of the technical aspects of the Fireman’s Breathing System; the commercialization Tech Brief; Compilations-briefs on techniques or of Controi Systems for the Handicapped developed processes relating to a single field; and other NASA under projects sponsored by this Program; and many Special Publications, Case Studies, Profiles etc. others. In all aspects of these efforts, the Technology Other methods used in the Technology Utilization Utilization program continued its emphasis in sharing Program to disseminate NASA technology for second- the technology developed under this program with ary application include the sponsorship of six Indus- other Government agencies and State and local trial Application Centers and one Computer Software governments, as well as private industry. As a result and Management Information Center (COSMIC). of these efforts, the amount of joint funding with

, These centers are geographically situated throughout other agencies has increased, thus enabling the Tech- the .Nation to serve as a network of technical assist- nology Utilization program to sponsor more projects ance €or both small businesses and large fir&. In ad- as well as reduce the time for disseminating the tech- dition the Technology Utilization program sponsors nology to the private ahd public sector. . Patent .Licensing Conferences .in prime geographical lacations to encourage businessmen to make commer- .cia1 ‘use of NhSA-owned patents.’ To expand its. ef- University Affairs forts towards assisting minbrity enterprises in utiliz- . ing NASA-gen’erated technology for commercial ap- Participation of the academic community in NASA plications, a full time staff member was assigned programs continued during 1974. Some 1,632 proj- to concentrate on this work. One outgrowth of this ects totaling $101 million were funded in support effort was the assistance given by the Technology of research and space flight experiments in 258 Utilization program in a minority-business conference universities. This represents an increase of 30 schools and exhibition jointly sponsored by the Office of over last year, most of which are participating in a Minority Business Enterprise and NASA. special effort to assure minority schools an oppor- The successful Applications Evgineering Program tunity of working with NASA. A total of 102 awards was continued during 1974 with the addition of for $2.4 million was made to 44 minority schools.

40 111 Department of Defense

Introduction dimensional capability. Such a capability is not presently planned prior to 1981, although accelera- Space and aeronautical activities play a central tion to 1979 is being kept as an option if it can be role in enabling the Department of Defense (DOD) shown to provide cost benefits. The accuracy of the to carry out its mission-space in a supportive de- world-wide two-dimensional system will be approxi- fense role in such activities as communications, mately 50 meters. Expansion from two-dimension to navigation, meterorology and space surveillance, three-dimension with accuracies of 10 meters in any aeronautics in an active defense role in terms of direction is planned by 1984. tactical and strategic aircraft, air mobility, ground Weather data from anywhere on the globe can be surveillance and airborne early warning and com- stored aboard the Defense Meteorological Satellite mand posts. This chapter reports the progress made Program and transmitted to Air Force Global by DOD in space and aeronautics during 1974 to Weather Central in Nebraska. Real-time local area enhance its defense capabilities. imagery can also be transmitted to mobile readout Significant actions were taken this past year to stations for on-the-spot use by U.S. forces in the area, expand and improve the Defense Satellite Com- and during the past two years has been made munications System better to serve the needs of the routinely available to the civil/scientific community National Command Authorities and the World Wide through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Military Command and Control System. Existing Administration. earth terminals were upgraded to operate with the The Advanced Research Projects Agency and the new generation communications satellites and new Air Force are currently engaged in advancing the large terminals were placed in procurement action technology which would permit better surveillance for use in the DSCS around the world. Two new of passive (“quiet”) satellites. Groundbased and Phase I1 satellites were readied for launch in early space sensors will both be used to provide the best 1975 and action was taken to procure six additional mix of capabilities. satellites to replenish the system on a periodic basis. The Department of Defense is committed to sup- New electronic components were ordered which will port the NASA Space Shuttle program, providing add to the efficiency and versatility of the system. an interim upper stage for use in 1980 until the Also, the Navy initiated operation of its shipboard NASA space tug is developed in the mid-1980’s. terminals in the DSCS. Certain military payloads would be flown from the The NAVSTAR global positioning satellite pro- Kennedy Space Center starting in 1980. gram advanced significantly during 1974. The joint Increased operational air mobility is being pro- program office was formed and manned by repre- vided by the C-5A heavy logistics transport aircraft sentatives of all military Services and the Defense and SAC C-135 tanker. Approximately 50,000 hours Mapping Agency. Contracts were let for the Phase of flying time have been logged during the past year. I satellites and for user equipment development. The The B-1 strategic bomber prototype had a SUC- first technology satellite for flight demonstration of cessful first flight on 23 December 1974. The flight, the atomic clocks was successfully launched in July. lasting over an hour, permitted an1 assessment of the In August a decision was made to expand the con- aircraft’s low-speed flying qualities and of such sub- stellation to six satellites to provide precise tracking system operations as throttle transients and after- capabilities for test of important Department of burner lights. Defense weapon platforms. If the objectives of cost The remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) concept has and performance are met during the first phase of the been advanced significantly during the past year NAVSTAR program then a decision may be made through the use of very reliable and miniature elec- to expand the program to a world-wide two- tronic devices and more efficient configuration design.

41 The concept permits extended flight duration mis- tracts for digital modulation equipment for use in sions, releasing personnel not only from tedious DSCS ground terminals which will make the system flights but from highly dangerous missions. capable of accepting directly the inputs of digital computers and communications systems which Space Activities operate in the digital mode. During 1974, also, the Navy activated its interim shipboard terminals for Military space programs have had a significant operation with the DSCS I1 satellites. impact on strategic and tactical forces with the evolution of communications, meteorological, navi- Fleet Satellite Communications System gation, and surveillance satellite systems. With the The Fleet Satellite Communications System maturing of space technology and the success of (FLTSATCOM) objective is to develop and deploy space systems operations on a routine basis, we a satellite communications system to satisfy the most have proceeded with confidence toward the imple- urgent, worldwide near-term tactical communica- mentation of those programs which would greatly tions requirements of the Navy and Air Force. Ini- enhance our land, naval, and air forces. tial contracts were awarded in late 1972. Production Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) has commenced for both shipboard terminal installa- tions and the large Fleet Broadcast shore transmit- The objective of the DSCS is to provide rapid, ters permitting installations to commence in 1975. reliable and secure communications to satisfy the Resolution of difficult technical problems in early requirements of the National Command Authorities 1974 permitted final satellite design accomplishment and the World Wide Military Command and Con- in December. Production is expected to commence in trol System. During 1974, the Phase I communica- mid- 1975. The shipboard terminal equipment will be tions satellites, which were launched in the period operated on a leased “Gapfiller” capability in the 1966 through 1968, continued in use. However, by MARISAT spacecraft until the FLTSATCOM sys- the end of the year the number of Phase I satellites tem is operational in 1977. still in operation was reduced to the extent that con- tinuous service in the Phase I system was no longer Air Force Satellite Communications System possible. This concluded a highly successful program, The Air Force Satellite Communications (AF- albeit, one of limited capability. SATCOM) System will provide communications With the successful launch of the third and fourth capability via satellite to satisfy high priority Air Phase I1 communications satellites on 13 December Force requirements for command and control of 1973, the DSCS was in position to renew operations strategic forces. The AFSATCOM space segment is in the Phase I1 system which had been interrupted comprised of Air Force ultra high frequency (UHF) by the failure of the first two Phase I1 satellites. communications capability on the Navy Fleet Satel- after extensive testing these two new satellites were lite Communications (FLTSATCOM) System and placed in operation in February 1974, one over the the Air Force Satellite Data Systems (SDS), and Atlantic Ocean and one over the Pacific Ocean. Dual global backup capability on other Department of launch of the fifth and sixth satellites by mid-1975 Defense satellites. The AFSATCOM terminal segment will extend the coverage of the DSCS and will pro- will consist of airborne, mobile and fixed terminals. vide an on-orbit spare. The terminal development was continued and ini- The Air Force, as an agent for the DSCS, has tial operational testing is scheduled to begin in early contracted for procurement of six additional Phase 1975. I1 satellites which will be launched in pairs as needed to replenish the DSCS space segment. Army Satellite Communications Activities Also, during 1974, the modification of Phase I The Army Satellite Communications Ground En- DSCS earth terminals to increase * their capability vironment includes the development of strategic and and reliability was completed for Phase I1 satellite tactical satellite communications around terminals use. The Army contracted for the procurement of for use by all Services. Two major projects in this new Phase I1 large earth terminals used in the program element are the Defense Satellite Com- DSCS and the Navy’s Fleet Satellite Communica- munications System (DSCS) Phase I1 and the Tac- tions System after extensive testing of the engineering tical Satellite Communications (TACSATCOM) model terminal in an operational environment at system. A third and smaller project in this program Palo Alto, California. The Air Force has contracted is devoted to the exploratory development required for the production of Time Division Multiplex to support the two major projects. equipment which will provide more efficient utiliza- The U.S. Army has essentially completed modi- tion of communications channels in the DSCS. In fying all existing DSCS ground terminals to up- late 1974, the Army placed initial production con- grade their reliability and communications capacity.

42 New heavy transportable terminals have been in- Optical Station to form a target signatures catalog stalled at Palo Alto, California in support of the for detailed systems design. A new generation of Air Force Satellite Control Facility and at Fort sensors with very large formats employing advanced Detrick, Maryland in support of DSCS requirements. readout and data processing schemes is under devel- Additional heavy terminals have been contracted opment. The final phase of this multi-year program for to satisfy other area needs of the DSCS. A light will be a series of verification experiments which transportable terminal is currently in engineering demonstrate the capabilities of these advanced sen- development for a mid-FY 75 delivery. sors for autonomous surveillance of space. Ground The small terminal contract for test models of tests of these devices will be conducted at the Maui highly transportable satellite ground terminals was Optical Station. awarded in December 1972 and seven models are to For the near-term capability, the MIT Lincoln be delivered by mid-FY 75 for extensive field testing. Laboratory, under Air Force sponsorship, is develop- These terminals will provide mobile multichannel ing a simplified version of an operational system to communications for the Army in the field utilizing be operating in the White Sands Missile Range area the DSCS Phase I1 satellites. Engineering Develop- in the spring of 1975. ment has begun on a UHF manpack terminal and The Air Force is advancing technology critical to a contract award is expected in mid-FY 1975 for space-based systems that would be capable of pro- engineering development of the UHF vehicular viding long range real-time surveillance of satellites. terminal. Long-term requirements are expected to place The interim operational capability continues to heavy demands on surveillance systems and will re- support various contingencies and field exercises. quire more sophisticated approaches. These satellites Operational testing through the year has assisted in would have the advantages of eliminating the re- further development of concepts for the utilization quirements for overseas ground stations. These sys- of this significant transmission medium in support of tems are expected to be operating in the early 1980s. combat readiness operations. Space 0b ject Zdentification Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Since 1972 ARPA has been involved in a broad This space program, formerly called the Defense research program to advance the technologies of Systems Application Program, provides timely, high- space object identification. Both optical and radar quality visual and infrared weather data to our techniques are being defined, developed, and demon- military forces. Two satellites are in orbit at all times, strated to measure the physical characteristics of one providing data in the early morning and early space objects. Wideband microwave techniques have evening, and the other near local noon and midnight. been developed and have demonstrated great utility The orbit is circular, near-polar, at an altitude of for providing precise spatial information on space 450 nautical miles, and each satellite circles the objects. Transfer of this technology to the Services earth every 102 minutes. Weather data from any- is underway. Millimeter wave imaging techniques where in the world can be stored aboard the satel- are approaching the point where a demonstration of lites and transmitted to Air Force Global Weather their potential is possible. A development program Central in Nebraska. Real-time local area imagery which could lead to a wideband laser imaging radar can also be transmitted to mobile readout stations is also underway. In the optical area, sensors are for on-the-spot use by US. forces in the area. Since being developed to measure the effects of atmos- December 1972, the data from this program have pheric turbulence on pictures of space objects taken been made routinely available to the civil/scientific by large ground-based telescopes. Removal of the community through the National Oceanic and At- atmospherically imposed distortions will greatly im- mospheric Administration (NOAA) . The Depart- prove the present image quality. A verification test ment of Defense is also cooperating with NASA of an atmospheric correction imaging system is and NOAA in the development of an operationally planned for the ARPA Maui Optical Station. Radar improved civil weather satellite, the TIROS-N. and optical techniques developed under ARPA sponsorship will not only be used to obtain diagnostic Space Surveillance information on our own satellites, but also will serve The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency as a prime source of technology for improvement of (ARPA) will develop and demonstrate new opti- the Space Surveillance and Detection Tracking cal techniques for Space Surveillance which will System (SPADATS) ability to obtain diagnostic data allow significant reductions in the costs of systems on space objects. which will search for and automatically detect Navigation Satellite Actizrity satellites. The program includes gathering data on The Navy Navigation Satellite System, referred to satellites using the ARPA (Maui) Hawaiian Island as TRANSIT, will have achieved a decade of opera-

43 515-666 0 - 15 - 4 tion in 1975. The system has served the Department two or three centimeters per second, and time infor- of Defense and the nation well in that time. The mation to an accuracy of a few nanoseconds. This purpose of developing TRANSIT was to provide the information will be continuously available worldwide. Navy with a worldwide, two dimensional system for If the NAVSTAR system is deployed the DoD position fixing to an accuracy of better than one envisions discontinuing its use of most other exter- tenth of a mile-primarily in support of submarines. nally referenced radio aids to navigation and position TRANSIT usage has been expanding both militarily fixing, including such systems as OMEGA, LORAN and commercially. It has been adapted for use in and TRANSIT. Investigations have indicated a such diverse activities as offshore oil exploration and significant savings may be possible through cost for measurement of the drift of ice over the poles. avoidance. Proliferation and maintenance of a num- The six satellites operating provide an opportunity at ber of navigation and position fixing equipment will least every two hours, depending upon the latitude, be halted by focusing on one basic system, NAV- for a user to take a position fix. STAR, for use by all. Since the early 1970’s, a TRANSIT improvement Space Boosters program has been underway. The improved satel- lites will provide stationkeeping in their orbital plans, The Atlas and Titan I11 standard launch vehicles improved anti-jamming characteristics and radiation and the surplus IRBM SM-75 Thor and surplus hardening. The first improved satellite was tested in ICBM Atlas E/F vehicles comprise the DoD family 1972. It is no longer operational; two more, now of space boosters. During 1974 there were a total under development, will be launched within the next of eight Titan I11 space launches including two year or so. Eventually at least three of the improved launches of NASA payloads on Titan I11 E, and one satellites will be a part of the operational constella- launch of a NASA payload on Titan I11 C. The tion. Titan I11 E carries a NASA Centaur upper stage. There were two SM-75 Thor launches this year, NAVSTAR Global Positioning System both successful, and one successful Atlas F space The objective of the NAVSTAR Global Position- launch. ing System is to increase weapon system effectiveness, Space Shuttle reduce positioning and navigation system prolifera- The DoD and NASA continued to work closely tion, and promote cost avoidance. this past year in their respective roles, with NASA Approval was given in December 1973 for the as the Shuttle developer and the DoD as an im- validation of the NAVSTAR satellite navigation portant future user of the Space Shuttle. The DoD concept. In June 1974, the contract was awarded strongly supports the development of this space for satellite development. In August 1974, a decision vehicle. The DoD program goals are (1) to insure was made to expand the initial set of orbiting satel- that NASA knows and understands DoD needs so lites from four to six in order to support range that the Space Shuttle will be of maximum utility tracking tests of priority Department of Defense for military payloads; (2) to provide data to sup- systems. In October 1974, the contract for the port decisions leading to future use of the Shuttle; satellite control segment and the user equipment and (3) to explore ways DoD can benefit most was awarded. The first technology support satellite from the Shuttle’s unique capabilities. The DoD for the program was launched this summer. Its pur- has agreed to develop a low cost Interim Upper pose is to confirm the design and operation of the Stage (IUS) for use with the Shuttle during the rubidium atomic clocks and provide signal propa- period starting in 1980 and continuing until the gation information to confirm theoretical predic- NASA upper stage (Space Tug) is developed in the tions for the system. mid-1980’s; to fly certain military payloads on the In 1976, the user equipment sets are scheduled Shuttle beginning in 1980 at the Kennedy Space to begin tests at a pseudo satellite test range in Center; and to plan a Shuttle launch and landing Arizona. During 1976 and 1977, the six satellites capability at Vandenberg AFB (VAFB) . Initial are scheduled to be launched for use in concept vali- Operational Capability at VAFB is expected to be dation. In early 1978, a decision is scheduled on not earlier than December 1982. It is expected that system deployment. This decision on deployment transition from the current expendable space depends on demonstration of system accuracy and boosters such as Atlas and Titan to the Space upon achieving low life cycle costs for user equip- Shuttle will be completed by the mid-1980’s. ment. An initial operational capability is planned for 1981 with a full operational capability by 1984. Aeronautics The system should provide three dimensional position data to an accuracy of less than ten meters; three In air superiority, the challenge is to provide dimensional velocity information to an accuracy of aircraft that can compete with a technically sophis-

44 ticated opponent; to provide less costly and sophis- The first of six preproduction aircraft, required ticated tactical aircraft for use in quantity; and to for the extensive test and evaluation effort necessary provide the most efficient means of air mobility to support a full production decision, is in final required in support of our forces. Air mobility is assembly and checkout for delivery in early 1975. an essential element of both tactical and strategic Production of the initial increment of 22 aircraft movement of combat forces and supplies. was approved in December 1974, and the first of these aircraft is scheduled for delivery in November 1975. C-5A Heavy Logistics Transport Aircraft The full-production decision will be made in late The C-5 Force continued to perform a variety 1975. of logistics missions, logging approximately 50,000 hours of flying time during the year. These missions B-1 Bomber Program included support of Operation NIMBUS STAR To maintain a viable manned bomber element which was conducted to reopen the Suez Canal. In of the strategic TRIAD in the 1980’s, the Air Force May, Military Airlift Command (MAC) began is developing the B-1 bomber. The B-1 has been qualification of C-5 aircrews in aerial refueling opera- under development since 1970. Roll-out occurred in tions and in August, a MAC C-5 flew nonstop from October 1974 and first flight on 23 December 1974. Dover AFB, Delaware, to Clark AFB, Philippines, a The first phase of flight testing, utilizing the first distance of over 10,000 miles, utilizing the fuel from of three Research, Development, Test and Evalua- two separate aerial refuelings. The flight demon- tion (RDT&E) aircraft, began in December. A pro- strated the increased operational flexibility and duction decision is scheduled for November 1976. global mobility provided to the airlift force by the During 1974, major aircraft sections completed static team of C-5 and SAC KC-135 tanker. testing and a second aircraft underwent proof load Advanced Medium STOL Transport Prototypes testing and a successful flight was concluded on 23 December 1974. The Advanced Medium Short Takeoff and Land- The B-1 engine completed its Preliminary Flight ing Transport (AMST) prototype program involves two contractors building two advanced technology Readiness Tests (PFRT) in April 1974 and com- prototypes each for test and evaluation as develop- patibility of the engine with the inlet was verified ment options for tactical airlift modernization. An with full-scale inlet/engine wind tunnel testing. FY 74 Congressional funding reduction limited con- Because of cost and technical considerations, a tractor efforts during the first half of the year. decision was reached in October 1974 to eliminate However, with Congressional approval of the full the crew escape capsule from the fourth and sub- FY 75 request, the program is now proceeding at a sequent aircraft in the B-1 program. Primary crew more rapid pace. Both contractors have almost escape from these aircraft will be by ejection seat completed the engineering effort and are proceeding with a bailout capability for additional personnel. with major assembly. A-6E All-Weather Attack Aircraft Flight test of one prototype is scheduled to begin in April 1976, and the other contractor will follow The newest member of the Intruder series is the in August 1976. The Army, Marines, and NASA A-6E All-Weather Attack Aircraft-the only true all- are participating with the Air Force and the two weather attack aircraft in the U.S. Navy and U.S. contractors in developing the flight test plan. Marine Corps force structures. The A-6E has a new attack system and is capable of close air support, A-10 Close Air Support Aircraft interdiction, and deep strike missions under adverse The development of the A-10 aircraft proceeded weather conditions, day or night. The A-6E’s in use without major difficulty. The two prototype aircraft today are significantly superior to the A-6A’s used have had over 1000 hours of flight test, including a in S.E. ASIA, and are achieving increased per- comparative flight evaluation with the A-7 in a formance with decreased maintenance and improved combat scenario. In the evaluation which included reliability. The A-6E has deployed to the U.S. an evaluation team and four combat-experienced SIXTH FLEET, is currently in the Fleet Marine tactical air command pilots who flew the missions. the Force Atlantic, and it is ready for deployment to the A-10 was judged the more effective aircraft in the U.S. SEVENTH FLEET. close air-support (CAS) role. The results from the flight tests and the com- F-14 Carrier-Based Tactical Fighter parative evaluation are being used to eliminate many In flight tests, as well as in the fleet training en- of the problems associated with the start-up of vironment, the F-14A continues to demonstrate its manufacturing, and thus insure a smooth transition multitrack, multishot Phoenix air-to-air missile from development to production. capability, compiling an unprecedented (88 percent)

45 hit ratio. By October 1974, 100 F-14 aircraft had ac- propulsion technologies. Two contractors each have cumulated over 18,000 flight hours. The first two two prototype aircraft participating in a joint USAF- squadrons were deployed on USS ENTERPRISE in contractor flight test. Because of the performance September 1974 and two additional squadrons are gains to be realized by these designs, coupled with operating at the Naval Air Station Oceana on the the potentially lower cost, the Department of De- East Coast. fense and the USAF will initiate full scale develop- ment of a mission version of the most promising Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) candidate, to be known as the Air Combat Fighter. The NACF is visualized as a fighter/attack air- This development is scheduled to commence after plane which will be superior to the bulk of threat source selection is made in January 1975. fighters in air fighting capability and will contribute The objective of the ACF program is to develop effectively to the air-to-ground missions through the an affordable, high performance air superiority use of precision guided munitions. A primary goal fighter aircraft. This program uses the lightweight is to produce a combat aircraft that will have an Fighter Prototype program as a base to evolve desired associated life cycle cost of less than half that of combinations of new technologies into a fighter ver- the F-14 in an effort to provide an alternative that sion of one of the two LWF prototypes. The resulting will permit us to arrest the decline of Navy and ACF will be an airplane designed for “dogfighting” Marine Corps force structure. It is visualized that to the degree that it should have a significant air the NACF will replace the F-4 and A-7 in the Navy combat maneuvering advantage over the 1980-1990 and Marine Corps. The final configuration and threat fighters. Further, it will provide a lower cost weapon suite of the airplane will be determined fighter choice to complement the F-15. The aircraft through trade-offs of capability versus cost. The to be selected will also compete as a replacement for Navy, by congressional direction is investigating the the F-104 aircraft now being used by European allies feasibility of using a variant of the USAF Air Com- and for other sales to friendly countries. bat Fighter (ACF) to satisfy NACF requirements. Fleet deliveries of the NACF are planned in the early Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System 1980’s. (UTTAS) F-15 Advanced Tactical Fighter The Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System (UTTAS) will be the Army’s first assault helicopter The F-15 Advanced Tactical Fighter program is capable of carrying a combat-equipped infantry proceeding on schedule. The first operational air- squad. It is designed to lift 11 infantrymen in a tac- craft was delivered to Tactical Air Command in tical troop assault and other related missions now November 1974. At the end of 1974 the twenty performed by the UH-1 series helicopter. Sizing and aircraft in the Air Force flight test program had other design parameters were chosen with a view accumulated over 3000 flight hours while conduct- towards reducing life cycle costs. The UTTAS will ing F- 15 systems tests and evaluating aircraft per- have an increased payload, thus reducing the num- formance. ber of troop-carrying helicopters required. The F-4 Wild Weasel ( WW)Anti-Radiation Auionics UTTAS will exhibit substantially improved The objective of the Air Force’s Wild Weasel maintainability, reliability, survivability and per- formance. The Army awarded contracts in August (WW) Research and Development program is to design, fabricate, and flight test a system which will 1972 for the production of prototypes by two man- provide designated strike aircraft the capability to ufacturers. Prototypes will participate in a competi- search out and destroy hostile radar systems. This tive fly-off during 1975-76. The UTTAS develop- development program will greatly improve the ment is essentially on schedule. Both aircraft are cur- combat effectiveness of our. tactical fdrces in the rently undergoing flight test. area of Defense Suppression. In 1974 a pilot Class Heavy Lift Helicopter (HLH) V modification program was implemented by the Air Force. The WWII is being designed to be The original Heavy Lift Helicopter (HLH) pro- capable of controlling the Navy’s next generation gram goal was to field a tandem rotor, three engine, anti-radiation mission-HARM. Plans are under way crane-type helicopter designed to carry externally to modify a significant number of the newer F-4’s bulk cargo, to off-load containerships, and to move with the advanced Wild Weasel avionics system. heavy tactical equipment. Development of advanced technology components for the HLH, such as the Lightweight Fighter and flight control system, rotor drive system, and cargo Air Combat Fighter Program handling system, has been under way since 1971. The Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program has The newly developed fly-by-wire flight control sys- explored the advantages of new aerodynamic and tem has been successfully demonstrated in flight, 46 and tests of the individual components will be com- Design-to-cost is being stringently applied to the pleted in March 1975. A single austere prototype AAH program. The design-to-cost goal is $1.7M aircraft will be built to validate these advancements (flyaway unit cost in FY 72 dollars). Contractors in the state-of-the-art and to verify the HLH tech- have been given unusual flexibility in trading off nology. First flight of this prototype is planned for performance, within certain limits, in order to hold April 1976. production costs down. CH-53E Helicopter The. program is proceeding well technically. First flight is scheduled for the Spring of 1975. R&D This improved version of the H-53 series heli- costs for phase 1 have risen above earlier estimates copter (currently in use by Navy, Marine Corps and due to both inflation and real cost increases includ- Air Force) will be utilized by the Navy and Marines ing an unexpectedly heavy effort on cost-performance in a variety of missions ranging from amphibious design tradeoffs. As a result of the increased phase 1 assault to Vertical On-Board Delivery (VOD) of costs, completion of this phase is expected to slip high priority fleet freight to both aircraft carriers five to six months. and ships not accompanied by a carrier. The 53E features a third engine, seven main rotor blades with E-2C Carrier-Based Airborne Warning ad an increased rotor diameter, and a newly designed Control System tail section. Payload performance will be more than double that of the CH-53D, increasing from 7.2 to The Hawkeye has completed its development over 16.1 tons, in either the internal or external mode stage and is in production. Initial deployment of this of lift. This helo will retain full shipboard com- new Airborne Early Warning/Command and Control patibility for basing and maintainability while re- (AEW/C&C) system began in September 1974. The quiring only a 10% increase in flight deck spot E-2C will eventually replace the earlier version factor. Extensive commonality (over 60%) with the E-2B on all Cv's and CVA's. Initial indications are current CH/RH-53s in Navy service reduces devel- that the E-2C has significant performance benefits opment, training and logistic support costs. One of as well as greatly increased reliability over the E-2B. these aircraft was lost in a catastrophic failure of In conjunction with the F-14 and the S-3A, the the rotor hub assembly. A new hub is being designed. E-2C will significantly upgrade fleet defense capa- bilities. COBRAITOW The Army COBRA/TOW program, a retrofit of E-3A Airborne Warning and Control System a portion of existing AH-1G COBRA helicopters (AWACS) and a purchase of new aircraft with the highly effective Tube Launched Optical Tracked Wire AWACS, officially designated E-3A, is a mobile, Guided (TOW) Missile, continued in 1974. Devel- fast moving, survivable command, control and sur- opmental and operational testing was conducted in veillance system mounted in a modified Boeing 1973 and 1974 with prototype aircraft. Delivery of 707-320B. Its distinguishing technical feature is the the COBRA/TOW begins in June of 1975. Testing ability to detect and track targets at a11 altitudes to upgrade the engine, transmission and dynamic over land and water. components to improve aircraft agility and maneu- The System Integration Demonstration (SID) for verability is continuing. A program has also been evaluating a representative set of mission avionics initiated to purchase additional quantities of the (identification friend or foe, computer, displays, AH-1 J twin-engine SEACOBRA attack helicopter radar, navigation, communication) was conducted for the Marine Corps, with modifications to improve from March through October 1974. The results of performance and ordnance load capability and to this demonstration, which included development and provide for installation of the TOW missile system. operational testing, were used to support a December 1974 decision on whether to produce the first six Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) AWACS. NATO established a Special Task Group The AAH is a two-phase development program. (STG) to study AWACS as a possible NATO funded The first phase is being conducted competitively with airborne early warning and backup control system. Bell and Hughes as the prime contractors. This phase A deployment of the SID prototype aircraft to is aimed at obtaining the best airframe and cul- Europe will occur during April-May 1975 to demon- minates in a fly-off between the two designs. The strate the AWACS' capabilities to NATO officials. development and integration of the full mission The STG is scheduled to submit a recommendation equipment (weapons, sensors and navigation) will in April 1975. Fabrication continued on three devel- be accomplished in the second phase with the win- opment test and evaluation systems, two of which ning contractor only. will be flown in 1975.

47 E-4AIB Advanced Airborne Command Post veloping the use of recoverable remotely piloted ( AABNCP) vehicles as substitutes for manned systems in per- The AABNCP will provide the National Com- forming various missions. mand Authorities (NCA) and Strategic Air Com- Aeronautical Propulsion Research and Technology mand (SAC) with a significantly improved and highly survivable airborne command, control and A major success of the Army’s aeronautical pro- communication (C3) center that will operate during pulsion research and exploratory development pro- all phases of a general war. At the end of 1974, gram has been the development of efficient analytical three 747 aircraft had been accepted by the Air Force methods for the design of small high-temperature for modification as E-4A interim National Emer- combustors. A combustor recently designed and gency Airborne Command Posts (NEACP) through fabricated on the basis of these new analytical tech- transfer of C3 equipment from present EC-135 com- niques immediately achieved almost all its design mand post aircraft. The contract for development of performance parameters. The significant improve- the advanced C3 equipment was awarded in January ments in combustion efficiency and demonstrated 1974 and Preliminary Design Review was completed compliance with 1975 proposed EPA regulations for in August 1974. The advanced C3 equipment will be this class of aircraft propulsion engines indicate tre- installed in the fourth 747 aircraft (EdB), now be- mendous potential for weight reduction and lower ing fabricated for use as a test bed aircraft. emissions. Comparable to the technological advance in combustor design, was the achievement of single- Air Traffic Management stage pressure-ratio of 10: 1 for the 3-5 lbs/sec class of compressors. The objective of this project is to perform engi- neering development of an Air Traffic Management Turbine Engine Development Automated Center and its associated Ground-Air- Engineering development of the 1500 shaft horse- Ground Digital Data Link (DDL). These subsystems power (SHP) UTTAS engine began in March 1972 of the Air Traffic Management System (ATMS) are as a derivative of the Army demonstrator gas tur- designed to facilitate the safe and orderly flow of bine engine program. The engine development is large numbers of Army aircraft under tactical con- proceeding on schedule. The preliminary flight rating ditions, and to provide an over-the-horizon digital test was completed in August 1974 and met the radio communications link between cooperating air- design power requirements. Emphasis upon the craft and the Air Traffic Management Automated human factors aspect of maintainability will sig Center (ATMAC). The program will include a nificantly reduce the maintenance man-hour costs concept formulation and redefinition of the flight over the life of this advanced technology engine. The operations center for the Air Traffic Management modular aspect of this new engine is proving ex- System. A recent review of the ATMS by the Army tremely helpful in test cell assembly and tear down. indicates a need for reducing the requirement for The small turbine advanced gas generator automation in the orderly and expeditious move- (STAGG) program was contracted for in Novem- ment of cooperative aircraft in the tactical area ber 1971 with four contractors competing in a 36- of operations. The concept formulation phase will month core-engine development. The configuration provide this redirection. Testing of the engineering design phase was completed in October 1972 and development model of the Position Location Report- initial gas generator tests commenced in September ing System will commence in January 1975. This is a 1973. This advanced development will integrate the joint USA/USMC operational evaluation program essential gas generator components for engine en- and tests will be completed in June 1975. If it is vironment tests. The initial test results indicate that determined to proceed into Phase I1 of the program, the increased power and reduced fuel consumption a contract for service test models of the Position objectives of 35% and 20%, respectively, over cur- Location Reporting System will be awarded jointly rent engines have been achieved. STAGG tech- with the USMC. nology will support future Army aircraft and auxiliary power plants in the 200-1000 SHP range. Aircraft Research and Technology Composite Aircraft Structures There are various facets of the research and de- The successful design, fabrication and test of a velopment programs that support the aeronautics group of graphite-epoxy composite components suit- programs. These include outstanding advancements able for flight on existing Navy aircraft have con- in engine development, aircraft structures, avionics, firmed weight savings and increased in projected and rotor systems engineering for helicopters. In production cost savings associated with composites addition, there has been considerable effort in de- use. Among the components which have been devel- 48 oped are an S-3 spoiler, F-14 overwing fairing, collision hazard within the Amy. The PWS warns F-14 main landing gear door and a wing for the a pilot by visual and aural means whenever one or BQM-34E supersonic target vehicle. The recent more aircraft are within a selectable range of 1,000, test flight of the graphite-epoxy wing on the BQM- 3,000, or 5,000 feet and within an altitude of 34E supersonic target marked the first flight of a & 300 feet of his aircraft. The system issues a visual composite aircraft wing. Advantages of the com- warning to the pilot and informs him that an “in- posite wing relative to the existing metal wing include truder” is above, below or at the same altitude as his a weight saving of 54% and estimated 40% lower “protected” aircraft. An audio warning is also gen- production costs. Fabrication of additional numbers erated and injected into the intercommunications of these components followed by their carefully system of the aircraft whenever an intruder pene- monitored placement on operational aircraft will trates the protected volume of airspace. provide long term Navy service experience with The Receiver-Transponder is designed to operate graphite composites. Critical technical and confi- a second, remotely located light for application in dence factors governing an extensive production com- tandem seat aircraft configurations. In addition mitment to composite structures include: (a) de- to the “Confidence Test Switch” to verify opera- velopment of confidence in the long term service tional readiness, each system has the provision durability of composites structures in an operational of testing by means of a ground transponder test ship based environment; (b) extension of coin- station. When the “Transponder Ground Test” posite design and fabrication technology to large switch is actuated, an unattended ground station is primary structures; (c) establishment of greater interrogated and responds with signals simulating confidence in acquisition and life cycle cost projec- an aircraft during changing altitudes. One ground tions for composite structures. station will serve the entire airfield. The Proximity Warning System is the first step Aircraft Structures and Material Technology toward eliminating the mid-air collision threat. The Army’s structures and materials program con- Follow-on technology will be closely monitored to tinues to demonstrate significant progress in the insure every available means is explored to provide feasibility of composite applications in primary and the best possible solution to this long recognized secondary aircraft structures. Progress has permitted problem. the design of a monocoque/sandwich aft fuselage for future tactical and utility helicopters. Design and Helicopter Noise Reduction fabrication of a composite rotor and tail boom for the AH-1 COBRA was initiated and testing is sched- Acoustic detectability is a major factor in heli- uled to commence in 1975. Indications are that copter survivability. An investigation to explore po- composite rotor blades and airframe structures can tential methods of noise reduction for a tilt-rotar provide significant system cost advantages in the aircraft indicates the need to determine aircraft 1980’s. Specifically, a 7% increase in productivity performance, weight, and far-field rotor acoustic and a 5% reduction in life-cycle cost are projected signature as a function of selected design character- istics. The Army will be able to establish the cost based on progress to date. It has also been demon- strated that the use of composites in rotor blades in performance and dollars of further reducing the can be used to absorb acquisition radar signals there- noise of the proposed tilt-rotor aircraft. A test by offering the potential of greatly reducing the facility is nearing completion, and once acoustic modifications are made, a unique facility will be radar cross section of helicopters. Progress has also available for research on basic mechanisms of rotary been made in the development of composite mater- wing aerodynamic sound generation. ials for aircraft windshields. Included are the development of hard-surface coated polycarbonates, Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft glass/polycarbonates and transparent crystallized glass. These advances will permit windshields that The Army and the National Aeronautics and are more abrasion and impact resistant and that have Space Administration (NASA) entered formal agree- improved ballistic properties. ment on 1 November 1971 jointly to develop and test a tilt rotor research aircraft. The research air- US Army Avionics craft will be used to advance the state-of-the-art of The Proximity Warning System (PWS) will soon the tilt rotor concept and to verify the technology become a reality at four mqjor installations where base heretofore established by DoD/NASA and in- the Army has its greatest concentration of aircraft. dustry. Bell Helicopter Company was awarded the Fort Rucker, Fort Hood, Fwt Campbell, and Fort contract in July 1973 for fabrication and flight test Bragg have undertaken a major aircraft retrofit of two research aircraft. The detail design was com- program designed to reduce significantly aircraft pleted in December 1974 with aircraft rollout scheduled for October 1975. First flight of the tilt compared to electromechanical stabilization systems rotor is scheduled for July 1976. currently in use. Plans are to install ten systems on OH-58 training aircraft at Fort Rucker, Alabama, Helicopter Rotor Dynamics to verify improved reliability and reduced main- Improvements in the responsiveness, efficiency, tenance requirements. and utility of Army helicopters are achieved through progress in the structural dynamics of rotor hlades. Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs) A sophisticated dynamics research model of a heli- An RPV is an unmanned aircraft which is flown copter rotor system has been completed and is now by a pilot from a remote location. The pilot may available for research testing. By selecting different control the aircraft continuously or at intervals of combinations of springs, rotor characteristics can be his choosing. varied from those representative of stiff, hingeless The Department of Defense’s current interest in rotors to those of fully articulated systems. Data RPVs is based essentially on two facts: First, mod- obtained from use of this research model will allow, ern air defenses could make many manned aircraft for the first time, comparison between theory and missions either impossible to accomplish or too ex- test data over a broad range of structural charac- pensive in trained manpower and resources; second, teristics. technological advances now permit the RPV concept to be developed through the use of very reliable and Advancing Blade Concept ( ABC) Demonstrator Vehicle very small electronic devices as well as more effi- cient airframes and engines. The ABC development program was initiated by The size of these unmanned aircraft now being the Army in December 1971. The program included developed, or under active consideration for develop- fabrication and flight test of two aircraft equipped ment, range from relatively large to very small with the ABC rotor to verify and demonstrate the “model” airplane size. However, since a pilot’s size, concept, The ABC incorporates two coaxial contra- weight, and life support systems do not have to be rotating rigid rotors, thereby allowing utilization of considered, the RPV is designed to be just large the full lift capability of the advancing blade. Flight enough to carry the necessary mission-required de- tests were initiated in July 1973 but were temporarily vices and fuel. This fact allows the designer to halted in August when the first of the two aircraft drastically reduce or eliminate system characteris- was damaged during a test flight. Additional wind tics that would aid an enemy to detect or attack the tunnel testing and redesign were completed in 1974. aircraft, and therefore increase the probability of Flight tests are expected to resume in 1975 to in- accomplishing the mission while penetrating enemy vestigate the low speed flight characteristics of the defended airspace. In other instances, the RPV may ABC rotor. The auxiliary thrust engines for high be employed behind our own lines for safety and use speed flight tests will be insta!led and tested after long range sensors to watch enemy activity. This type successful completion of the low speed tests. of RPV could stay aloft for more than a day at a Rotor Systems Research Aircraft ( RSRA ) time and would release personnel from this type of tedious flying to other important combat operations. This is a joint Army/NASA program initiated in Missions being considered for RPVs include: 1971 to design, fabricate and test two rotor systems research aircraft (RSRA) . The RSRA will provide Long range stand-off surveillance the government with the capability to conduct flight Deep penetration reconnaissance research of new rotor concepts, rotorcraft com- Shallow penetrations for target acquisition ponents and subsystems, and to accurately verify Laser designation for smart weapons performance of existing rotor systems on a common, Platforms for air-ground weapons fully instrumented test bed. Sikorsky Aircraft was Flying a warhead into a target awarded the contract in November 1973 and was Aerial communications relay nearing the final design review at the end of 1974. First flight and delivery are scheduled for 1976. Space Research and Technology Fluidic Stabilization System for Helicopters Space research and technology must invariably Flight tests of a three axis advanced hydrofluidic consider the environment within which and against stabilization system were initiated in August 1973. which satellites must function for years. Hence, not The system is being tested on a UH-1M and OH-58 only must the space environment be better monitored aircraft. Hydrofluidic controls offer the potential of and understood, but also the earth’s atmosphere improved reliability, lower cost, reduced maintenance and its impact on equipment basic to many of our requirements, and decreased system vulnerability space programs. 50 Solar Radiation (SOLRAD) Monitoring products which are used for direct fleet support Satellite Program such as : aircraft carrier operations, storm evasion, The objective of this program is to monitor the and submarine warfare and amphibious landings. space environment from a satellite system and thus The advent of satellite-borne sensors and supporting provide basis for identifying changes in solar activity ground systems which automatically provide measure- and the subsequent effect of such events will have on ments over broad ocean areas is a major technological communications systems and terrestrial environ- milestone for the environmental community. The mental phenomena. Eventually, the system will pro- Navy is establishing a Satellite Processing Center vide the capability to anticipate changes in solar (SPC) which will be part of the existing Fleet activity and predict subsequent impact in the near- Numerical Weather Central located at Monterey, earth space environment. The system consists of two California. The SPC objective is to obtain all avail- sun-oriented satellites which are deployed in 70,000 able satellite data, and process it automatically into mile circular earth-orbits with attendant ground refined numerical global models. The unique Navy facilities for data acquisition processing and dis- problem of measuring and forecasting sea surface semination. Spacecraft construction is nearly corn- temperature, sea state and wave spectrum will play plete with the total program on schedule for a launch a major role in the operation. Hardware and system date in November 1975. Both satellites will measure specifications have been completed. An Initial Oper- solar activity in the form of X-ray, ultra-violet and ating Capability is planned in FY 77. The SPC is particle emissions. SOLRAD will be launched on a designed to exploit data contributed from all present TITAN I11 missile along with several other multi- and planned environmental satellite systems (DoD, service experiments as part of the USAF-managed NOAA, NASA, experiments on NIMBUS series and Space Test Program. GOES). Upper Atmospheric Research Gamma Ray Spectrometer Experiments Army ballistic missile defense systems, long range A high resolution gamma ray spectrometer and Army communications systems, electronic warfare charged particle sensors were launched into orbit in techniques and Army long range missile design and October 1972 to survey the radiation background in testing require an accurate knowledge of the physical the upper atmosphere and near space environment and dynamic properties of the upper atmosphere. from a 400-nautical mile polar orbit. Preparations The objective of the Army upper atmosphere re- are in progress for the launch of a follow-on spec- search and development program is to develop tech- trometer to provide a long term monitoring capabil- niques, software, and equipment to increase the ity for radiation sources in this regime. The space effectiveness of weapon systems which must traverse background measurements accomplished in the ear- the upper atmosphere or whose success depends lier program will permit improved precision in the upon a knowledge of upper atmospheric effects on location of radiation sources and the calculation and energy propagation. measurement of nuclear explosion effects on the en- An extensive measurement program will continue vironment, and is expected to form the basis for the in the 10 to 100 Km region whereby solar ultra- design of sensors for operational space systems. Data violet flux, composition, thermal and wind measure- from these experiments will permit the location of ments will be made with balloon-borne, rocket-borne debris from nuclear tests at high altitudes, and will and ground based programs. assist in the estimation of potential environmental damage from wide-scale nuclear explosions. Space Ground Support Enwironmental Remote Sensing Department of Defense space activities are prin- Environmental data from the remote ocean areas cipally supported by the Air Force’s Eastern Test are essential to measuring accurately an initial state Range, Space and Missile Test Center, Satellite of the total environment as a function of time and Control Facility, and Arnold Engineering Develop- space. Modern methods for predicting changes to ment Center and by the Army’s White Sands Missile that initial condition utilize computerized models of Range and Kwajalein Missile Range. These facilities the earth’s atmosphere and interactive ocean sur- are available to other Government, industry and face which are critically limited by the initial international agencies that may require their support. measurement or observation. The Navy operates in the remote ocean areas of the world and thus has a Eastern Test Range (ETR) continuing need for precise environmental informa- In 1974 the ETR continued to support DoD space tion on a global basis. The Naval Weather Service and missile operations, NASA space programs, and provides a complete array of computer generated commercial and international satellites launched from the Cape Canaveral, Fla. area. This support ranging from basic R&D investigations to scale included launch, range safety, and data acquisition model testing to full scale flight hardware testing functions. Support for commercial communications covering the general areas of Propulsion, Aerody- satellite launches under the overall sponsorship of namics, Space Environment and ballistics. Programs NASA continued. Planning for FY 75/76 activities supported include F-15, Advanced Ballistic Reentry was initiated to support new DoD test programs and Systems (ABRES), Minuteman, Trident, Light the NASA Appollo-Soyuz test program to be con- Weight Fighter, Conventional Munitions, Rocket ducted in cooperation with the USSR. Instrumented Propulsion and Airspace Flight Dynamics. AEDC aircraft and ships assigned to the ETR were heavily also supported NASA Propulsion, Aerodynamics and used in support of DoD requirements on both the Shuttle testing. Eastern and Western Test Ranges. Improvement and White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) modernization of range instrumentation and asso- ciated supporting systems continued on schedule The Army WSMR continued to provide support with emphasis being placed upon improvements in to DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs. the radar tracking, range safety and real time data A full spectrum of launch, flight and recovery serv- distribution systems. The second Advanced Range ices was provided including ground and flight safety, Instrumentation Ship (ARIS) completed a major surveillance, command and control, and data acquisi- modification program. Two ARIS (USNS Vanden- tion and analysis. NASA program support included berg and VSNS Arnold) are now available for the Skylab calibration rocket program, R&D and worldwide support of missile and space programs. operational balloon and balloon payload programs, 1 an upper atmospheric rocket sounding program using Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC) the Aerobee rocket vehicle, numerous smaller rocket SAMTEC continued to operate the Western Test systems, and a variety of astronomical test programs. Range (WTR) in support of space and ballistic missile launches from Vandenberg Air Force Base, Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR) California. The last SAMTEC Range Instrumen- The Army’s KMR continued to provide, maintain tation Ship (USNS Huntsville) was deactivated; and operate a national range to support strategic future SAMTEC ship support will be provided by offensive and defensive system test programs and to the ETR Advanced Range Instrumentation Ships operate reentry radars to support all DoD reentry (ARIS). SAMTEC has continued to improve range programs. On 27 March 1974, the U.S. agreed with instrumentation to meet user requirements. An Un- Japan on the location at Kwajalein of a temporary attended Scoring System (USS) was placed in oper- down range tracking station to support two launches ation, providing a scoring capability in broad ocean in the Japanese space program. areas previously performed by an instrumentation ship. A new Telemetry Integrated Processing System International Cooperation is planned which will replace present systems and provide improved and more efficient support of new The United States continued giving close support requirements. SAMTEC also became increasingly to the United Kingdom in their implementation of active in the advanced planning for Space Shuttle. the military SKYNET I1 SATCOM Program. The cohmunications subsystems of the SKYNET I1 satel- Satellite Control Facility (SCF) lites were manufactured in the United States. On 18 During 1974 the SCF workload remained rela- January 1974 the National Aeronautics and Space tively stable, consisting of support to R&D and Administration daunched the SKYNET IIA com- operational satellites. This support included real- munications satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida; time telemetry, tracking and command/control, post however, the second stage of the rocket misfired and, pass and post flight data analysis, and payload re- as a result, the satellite could not achieve its proper covery. Interim wideband communications links from obit. Through use of its Satellite Control Facilities, the Guam and Hawaii Tracking Stations to the the USAF was to have placed the satellite in sta- Satellite Test Center in California became opera- tionary orbit over the Indian Ocean at which time tional. Actions continued to increase communications the operational and communications control of the capability from the other remote stations. satellite would have been turned over to the U.K. The follow-on SKYNET IIB communications satel- Arnold Engineering Development Center ( AEDC) lite was launched on 30 November 1974. AEDC provided environmental simuation testing In March 1973 NATO contracted with the for major aeronautical, missile, and space programs United States to develop, procure, and launch two under development as well as existing operational communications satellites in support of the NATO systems. AEDC supported a wide variety of testing Phase I11 SATCOM Program. Production efforts on 52 these satellites continued in the United States during intervention. Progress on the development of the 1974. The schedule is such that the first of the two improved DCL has been substantial during 1974. communications satellites should be ready for launch The U.S. has completed installation and testing at in late 1975. Some manufacture of the NATO space both earth stations, Ft. Detrick, Maryland and Etam, vehicle has been subcontracted by the United States West Virginia, and at associated terrestrial facilities. to the United Kingdom. In March 1974 NATO also Upon completion of work at the Soviet DCL facili- made the decision to space-qualify the engineering ties, U.S.A.-U.S.S.R. testing will begin, followed model, thus making a third satellite available for shortly by DCL system activation. the NATO Phase I11 SATCOM system. NASA will launch the NATO I11 satellite and the USAF will provide orbital services. The USAF has provided Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating technical support to the NATO SATCOM Program Board (AACB) since its inception. During 1974 several U.S., U.K. and NATO meetings were held to improve plans for The AACB is the principal formal coordinating more effective use of SATCOM systems in the event body between the Department of Defense and NASA of contingencies involving failures of communications in the aeronautics and space areas. The Board met satellites and to improve the interoperability capabili- three times over the past year. A National Aero- ties of the systems. The United States furnished nautical Facilities Program, consisting of large aero- technical expert assistance to NATO for develop- nautical facilities essential to future U.S. civil and ment of specifications for the procurement of NATO military aeronautical preminence, has been devel- Phase I11 satellite ground terminals (SGTs) and oped; and, at the Board’s direction an advocacy the improvement of Phase I1 STSs. Assistance was briefing has been provided to interested Committees also provided for developing standards and specifi- of Congress, various agencies in the Executive cations for interfacing the NATO SATCOM and Branch, and to appropriate industry organization. terrestrial communications systems. The Board has also identified a number of high An agreement was reached between the U.S.A. priority aeronautical R&D programs for inclusion in and the U.S.S.R. on 30 September 1971 to modify the budgets of the DoD and NASA. In the space the 20 June 1963 Memorandum of Understanding area, the AACB concentrated largely on reviewing (MOU) signed in Geneva, Switzerland, which called the Space Shuttle development, the DoD plans to for the establishment of a Direct Communications provide the low cost interim upper stage for use Link (DCL) between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. with the Shuttle at Kennedy Space Center, and the The September 1971 agreement to improve the minimum Shuttle launch facilities at Vandenberg DCL specified the use of two parallel satellite com- Air Force Base necessary to support high inclination munications circuits (via INTELSAT and Molniya space launches and full Shuttle utilization in the 2) to increase reliability and preclude third country 1980’s.

53 Department of Transportation

Introduction from a world aircraft fleet operating in the strato- sphere. The objective of the program is to determine The Department of Transportation (DOT) has a basis for regulatory constraints to assure that no the general responsibility within the government to adverse environmental effects would impact the world foster fast, safe, convenient and efficient transporta- population. tion for all citizens. It accomplishes that mission through a series of modal administrations, one for Accomplishments in 1974 each of several types of transportation. About half Achieved international collaboration and scien- of the Department’s employees belong to the Federal tific data exchange with some ten countries in Aviation Administration (FAA) which is responsible the area of stratospheric research. Included were for assuring the safe and efficient use of the nation’s United Kingdom, France, and USSR, which are airspace by both military and civil aviation, for foster- now operating supersonic transports. ing civil aeronautics and air commerce in the United Evaluated and integrated the scientific data from States and abroad, and for supporting the require- flight measurements and laboratory research ef- ments of national defense. While FAA therefore is the fort into six scientific documents. major element of the DOT to be concerned with The CIAP Report of Findings contains the an- aeronautics and space, other elements, particularly alysis of the collected data and identifies some the Office of the Secretary, also have a share in the areas in which future actions will be required. work of fostering and regulating the activities of The report was completed by the end of 1974 civilian aviation. This chapter begins with a series as originally committed to the Congress. of discussions of programs that are supported by the Initiated arrangements for publication of CIAP Office of the Secretary and continues with discussions documents for public distribution. of programs sponsored by FAA. Applications of the Initiated follow-on activity to monitor the at- technology generated by space research may be spon- mospheric composition over an extended period sored by any element of the Department; many of the to add further to the capability to regulate Department’s research and development efforts are operations and protect the environment. conducted by the Transportation Systems Center in Jet Noise Suppressiolz Program Cambridge, Massachusetts. Noise is judged to be the most critical constraint to the future growth of civil aviation. Substantial Office of the Secretary Programs progress has been made in noise abatement techniques Typical of the programs initiated or’ sponsored by for, approach and landing. Progress will continue, but, the Office of the Secretary are the Climatic Impact at the present time, aircraft noise during takeoff is Assessment Program (CIAP), the jet noise program, dominated by jet exhaust. the efforts in air transportation system evaluation, the DOT initiated a program to study the fundamental advanced air traffic management system, the search mechanisms of jet noise generation and abatement. and rescue electronics research program and others. The objective is to investigate suppression concepts Following are brief descriptions of the projects: for the various jet engine cycles that will result in the greatest noise attenuation with the least degradation The Climatic Impact Assessmelzt Program of performance. CIAP was established in the Office of the Secre- The investigation of the phenomena is directed tary in 1971. It is a congressionally sponsored pro- toward the following program goals: gram that represents the first comprehensive effort to 1. Understanding of the aero-acoustic mechanisms gather all the significant factors for a study of the of various jet noise suppressors, including scaling effects of propulsion effluents which would derive effects.

55 2. Development of analytical and experimental technology appear to be promising areas of develop- techniques to evaluate acoustic source distribu- ment work for future air traffic control system appli- tion in suppressors. cations. 3. Understanding of the aero-acoustic performance Search and Rescue Electronics of these suppressors in flight. Significant progress has been accomplished. Most A study sponsored by the Office of Safety Affairs of significant is the further development of a laser veloci- the Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety and meter to measure the mean and turbulence velocity in Consumer Affairs and conducted by the Transporta- high speed-high temperature flow. This development tion Systems Center reviewed current search and res- can also be used to study the flow around other cue electronic equipment and the existing and pro- aerodynamic machinery for purposes of improving posed locator systems in order to develop a program the efficiency and energy consumption through these plan for improving search and rescue techniques for techniques. A large scale eddy structure of the jet was distressed air and sea casualties. The study analyzed shown to exist. Results of this type give promise of various satellite monitoring systems and proposed new noise suppression devices. development plans which would make better use of space technology for future systems and avoid dupli- Air Transportation System Evaluation cation among interested agencies of the government. The past year produced several changes in the Department’s approach to long-range R&D planning Aviation Safety Research and Development for air transportation systems. The completion of the During 1974, as in previous years, FAA conducted Civil Aviation Research and Development (CARD) numerous research and development programs de- Implementation Plan in 1973 had signaled a need signed to make aviation safer. Broadly speaking, these to stimulate a number of joint DOT/NASA managed efforts sought ways to reduce or eliminate hazards and funded system evaluation studies. Although the incident to takeoff and landing operations and those Quiet Short Haul Air Transportation Project Office incident to en route operations. They also sought to of the FAA was dissolved at the beginning of the deal with the problem of aircraft security. year, continued follow-up was effected through co- operative R&D activities for short haul studies as Airport and Vicinity well as the evaluation of air cargo systems, lighter- Low Visibility Landing.-FAA continued research than-air technology, and a comprehensive approach and development efforts designed to provide in- to technology assessment of comparative intercity creased safety in terminal areas during low visibility transportation systems. A thorough evaluation of the conditions. Among these efforts was the initiation of air system development trends was incorporated in Category I11 weather flights using an Air Force C-141 the program evaluation of the Upgraded Third Gen- aircraft. (Category 111 refers to weather conditions eration Air Traffic Control System. In these studies, allowing no forward visibility.) These flights, con- the importance of augmenting the system perform- ducted under actual weather conditions, will even- ance by improved utilization of existing facilities was tually provide engincering data that will enable FAA highlighted. to evaluate operation concepts and functional char- acteristics of a totally integrated air-ground all- Advanced Air Trafic Management System weather landing system. The completion of the Advanced Air Traffic Man- The agency also initiated flight testing of a high- agement System (AATMS) Study described in last resolution-radar independent landing monitor (ILM). year’s report provided a conceptual basis for identify- These tests will make it possible for FAA to deter, ing research needs and defining development plans for mine the capability and rolc of the ILM in enhancing potential air traffic management applications in the safety during low visibility landing conditions. long-term future. The study was conducted in multi- Microzelauc Landing System (MLS).-A key ele- year phases and built upon the work of the DOT Air ment of the upgraded Third Generation Air Traffic Traffic Control Advisory Committee in 1969 which Control (ATC) system, which is expected to come highlighted the need for FAA work to upgrade the into use during the 1980’s, the microwave landing sys- air traffic control system. The AATMS study defined tem will replace the current instrument landing sys- potential means for further extending the planned tem, which falls short of meeting urgent tactical needs Upgraded Third Generation Air Traffic Control Sys- and does not provide highly accurate signals under all tem to meet long-range projections of aviation de- siting conditions because of the inherent limitations mands for service, safety and flexibility with cost con- of the VHF and UHF radio frequencies at which it sciousness. The results of the study indicate that high operates. The microwave system, however, will be levels of automation and the application of satellite designed to meet the needs of all aircraft, both civil 56 and military, and will have the modularity and flexi- Published a report on the performance and cost bility to serve sites that cannot be accommodated by effectiveness of weapon detectors used by airport the present ILS over the full range of weather con- security personnel. ditions and traffic densities. Continued work on an automatic weapon and The MLS development program, scheduled to end explosives detection system using each of two X- in 1977, is being conducted in three phases. Phase I, ray spectrums. technique analysis and contract definition, was com- pleted in 1973. Phase 11, feasibility demonstration, Other Terminal Area Safety Developments.-In calling for the testing of four feasibility models at the addition to the foregoing, FAA pursued a variety of National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center other programs designed to improve performance and (NAFEC), in Atlantic City, N. J., and Wallops Island, enhance safety in and around airports. Va., was completed in December 1974. Phase 111, These efforts included- prototype development and evaluation, is scheduled e Concluding an interagency agreement with the to begin in March 1975. US. Navy to evaluate the shape and configura- tion of grooves on airport runways as a means Wake Vortex Auoidaucc.-These vortices form in of minimizing hydroplaning on wet surfaces. the wake of all aircraft, but most severely in the wake e Issuing a technical report providing design and of widebodied jets, and present a serious potential construction criteria for (1) fibrous reinforced hazard-particularly on approach, landing, and take- off-to close-trailing smaller aircraft. In consequence, pavement concrete, (2) free drainage runway surface courses, (3) prestressed concrete pave- they have forced FAA to provide increased longitudi- ment, and (4) stabilized bases under airport nal separation between aircraft. This practice has had pavements. the effect of restricting both airspace and airport e Awarding a contract to study and develop tech- capacity. niques for the use of heated runways as a method Accordingly, FAA is attacking the problem on two of controlling snow and ice on airport pavements. fronts: (1) at the source, by studying airplane con- e Developing a Iow-impact absorbing support figurations and attempting to correct the problem by structure for approach lights that would collapse changes to the airframe; (2) by developing a wake and do minimum damage to aircraft in the event vortex avoidance system (WVAS) that would detect of accidcntal impact. and track vortices, based upon wind data measured e Designing a lighted wind cone for installation at near the touchdown area, and inform ATC con- the end of runways in an effort to provide better trollers when separations imposed by the vortex wind-cone visibility. phenomenon may be reduced. The first approach, e Comp!eting a survey of the electrostatic charging which is being investigated by NASA, is for the long tendency of fuel delivered at 10 major airports. term. As to the WVAS development program-thc This siirvry was part of an FAA-industry pro- short-term solution--FAA has detected and tracked gram to prevent explosions from electrostatic more than 20,000 vortices using new acoustic sensors discharges during aircraft fueling. at the John F. Kennedy International Airport in New e Testing high-capacity, long-range firefighting York and Stapleton Airport in Denver. This is the foam-dispensing systems to determine the ef- first step in characterizing vortex behavior and per- fectiveness of the larger types of firefighting mitting the development of a vortex avoidance sys- equipment and amass data useful in the develop- tem. A functional design of a wake vortex avoidance ment of Advisory Circulars and International system will be tested in the near future. Civil Aviation Organization recommended prac- tices. Aircraft Security.-In its continuing efforts to deter e Continuing the investigation of stall deterrent aircraft hijacking, sabotage, and other overt acts devices and flight characteristics criteria for against aircraft, FAA engaged in the following ac- avoidance of inadvertent stalls in terminal area tivities, among others, during the calendar year : maneuvers. Completed an explosives taggant feasibility study e Completing tests and data analysis documenting that provided information on taggants and be- the feasibility of the proposed Concorde SST came the basis of the government-wide inter- landing distance rule. agency explosive taggant program. e Testing chemical glycerine as a warm fog-dis- (Taggants are substances which, when added to persal agent in a series of fog seedings that em- explosives or explosive detonating devices, facili- ployed a small commercial helicopter as a fog- tate the detection of explosives or detonating seeding platform. The test revealed that while devices by dogs or other means.) some favorable increases in surface visibility

57 could be attributed to the coabined effects of bine engines. The data gathered by this program fog seeding and helicopter downwash, the over- will be used to establish criteria for engine fire all results were not sufficient to warrant con- protection and detection. tinued development of the technique. Undertaking with NASA analysis and test of the Continuing an in-house engineering study on the cashworthiness of light general aviation aircraft conceptual design of a thermal ground-based and human tolerance to crashes. This effort seeks fog-dispersal system for use at a major US. air- to develop structural design criteria that wiIl lead port that experiences a high frequency of fog. to light aircraft with a significantly improved capability to withstand crashes. and Post-Crash Safety En Route Developing data that establish the characteris- FAA’s calendar year 1974 research and develop- tics, capabilities, and effectiveness of ground ment efforts to improve safety during flight and in- trainers used in training pilots in specific crease the chances of survival in the event of an maneuvers. accident included- Developing techniques of structural dynamic * Continuing the investigation and development analysis for use in the certification of small gen- of means to reduce midair collisions. Flight tests eral aviation aircraft subjected to survival crash are planned for completion by summer of 1975 impacts. This effort was concerned with securing for three airborne Collision Avoidance System data for updating the airworthiness standards of (CAS) devices. In the area of separation assur- normal, utility, and acrobatic general aviation aircraft. ance, FAA is committed to the development of a Publishing a statistical summary of 8 years of well-reasoned and technically based recommen- general aviation accident data to be used in the dation on measures that provide the largest identification of design features that may have benefit for the cost, both to the aviation com- been causal factors in fatal accidents. munity and the Government. The activity specif- Continuing the study of psychosocial or “life- ically addresses the comparative performance, style” reconstructions as an aid in understanding costs, and benefits of CAS devices and alterna- the cause of aircraft accidents, especially acci- tive means of achieving comparable separation dents attributed to pilot error or poor judgment. capabilities. These include extensions of the Completing the testing of a propeller vibration manual ground-based ATC system as well as aug- measuring technique for general aviation aircraft mentation of the ground system by Intermittent to provide data for propeller certification stand- Positive Control (IPC). ards. Completing a series of feasibility studies on the Completing the evaluation of a U.S. Air Force on-board generation of nitrogen for use in fuel tnethod for detecting incipient turbine engine tank inerting. These studies looked to a more failure. viable technology for meeting improved fuel- Pursuing a program to confirm the values of system fire protection rules. Doppler radar techniques as a means of locat- Initiating toxic gas-emission tests of jet trans- ing dangerous thunderstorms. port cabin materials in order to develop a data Completing specifications for the procurement bank to support proposed rulemaking. of a video system to monitor the visibility in re- Completing full-scale cabin studies of the effect mote mountain passes used by general aviation on visual acuity of smoke emissions from burning aircraft. material. Conducting tests to establish safe oxygen levels Air Traffic Control and Navigation in fuel tanks for protection against explosions in ground fires. The tests sought to verify the In addition to its responsibilities in maintaining requirements for improved fuel-system fire pro- safety in the air, FAA is also charged with insuring tection rules and obtain data for evaluating the the efficient and equitable utilization of the nation’s Concorde fuel system. airspace and maintaining a common ATC system for Continuing tests on the flash-fire propensities both civil and military aircraft. Performing these of cabin-interior materials. These tests are being additional functions requires the application of the conducted in cooperation with the National most promising developments of a rapidly evolving Bureau of Standards. technology. Initiating a program to improve the fire safety characteristics of cabin flight attendant uniforms. National Airspace System Modernization Completing a program to determine the charac- The primary focus of FAA’s efforts to modernize teristics of flames from failed combustors in tur- the National Airspace System (NAS) has been con-

58 centrated on the introduction of two semi-automated Aeronautical Satellite (AEROSAT) Program--On air traffic control systems-namely, NAS En Route May 9, 1974, the United States signed a memoran- Stage A at the 20 air route traffic control centers dum of understanding-signed later by Canada and (ARTCC’s) in the contiguous 48 States and Auto- the European Space Research Organization (ES mated Radar Terminal System (ARTS) 111 at 61 RO), representing nine European nations-establish- of the Nation’s busiest terminal areas. ing a joint Aeronautical Satellite (AEROSAT) pro- The enroute program is being implemented in two gram. The joint program will provide two satellites phases. Phase I provides automatic flight data proc- in geostationary orbit over the Atlantic Ocean to be essing and interfacility data transfer; phase 11, digi- used for experimentation and evaluation of improved tal radar display and radar data processing. oceanic air traffic control and communication systems At the beginning of the calendar year, all 20 characterized by high quality voice and data trans- ARTCC s possessed an operational capability in auto- mission as well as dependent and independent sur- matic flight data processing and interfacility data veillance. The successful demonstration of a cost- transfer. They were also using computer updating effective oceanic air traffic control system based on equipment, which facilitates communications between satellites could eventually lead to the international the controller and the automated system. At this implementation of such a system to replace the writing, fourteen of the twenty ARTCC s are fully current high frequency radio circuits which suffer commissioned NAS En Route Stage A facilities, from serious propagation and operating deficiences. possessing digital radar display and radar data proces- In September 1974, the Communications Satellite sing. Six others were in various stages of testing Corp. (COMSAT) was selected to build and operate radar data processing. The second implementation the satellite segment of the AEROSAT system. phase is expected to be completed at the twentieth Discrete Address Beacon (DABS).-This improved center by mid-1975. ATC beacon system is intended to allow ground The terminal automation system reached a signifi- equipment to uniquely interrogate specific aircraft of cant landmark during the reporting period when, in interest. At the same time, it could significantly re- September 1974, the sixtieth ARTS I1 system became duce electronic interference in the beacon environ- operational at San Francisco/Oakland. The Dallas ment and provide an integral data link that can be /Ft. Worth system will be commissioned in February used with a ground-based anti-collision systems called 1975. With this development, all 61 ARTS I11 sys- IPC. During the year, the technical feasibility of tems will have reached operational status. DABS was demonstrated and verified using an experi- FAA plans to provide 30 of these 61 high density mental facility at Hanscom Field, Massachusetts. terminal facilities with primary tracking and con- With these results in hand, FAA expects to contract tinuous data recording. The research and develop- for three engineering-model ground sensors and ap- ment effort for these additions to the ARTS I11 proximately 30 airborne transponders in June 1975. system was completed in August 1973. Procurement specifications were prepared, and a contract award Intermittent Positiue Control (IPC).-This tech- is expected to be made August 1975. nique, initially developed by the DOT Air Traffic FAA also plans to introduce a less complex auto- Control Advisory Committee, would provide an inter- mation system-ARTS II-at 70 lower-density termi- mittent form of ground-based air traffic control ad- nal radar control facilities. Delivery of this system will visory and separation service to aircraft flying under begin in mid-1975. visual flight rules (VFR) . IPC, which would operate In addition, a variation of the ARTS I11 system in conjunction with the Discrete Address Beacon was purchased for installation at the Anchorage, System (DABS), would intervene whenever a VFR Alaska, ARTCC. This system which will use long aircraft was on a collision course with another VFR range radar inputs and en route plan view displays, or IFR aircraft. In 1974, FAA generated a plan for will provide the area now served by the Fairbanks, experimenting with the development of IPC service. Alaska, ARTCC, which is scheduled to close, with The plan, which sets forth an effort in two phases, remote radar service. Delivery of the new system calls for the use of the DABS Experimental Facility was made in late 1974. for the initial testing phase and for the final testing phase in a multisite ATC environment. Phase I is Upgraded Third Geaera:ioa ATC System scheduled for completion by April 1976; Phase 11, In addition to improving the performance and re- by November 1977. liability of the present ATC system, FAA is working toward an upgraded third generation ATC system Other Developments.-In addition to the fore- capable of handling the ATC requirements of the going, FAA- 1980’s and beyond. Significant calendar year de- @ Began testing the anti-mid-air collision capa- velopments in this effort follow. bility of Synchro-DABS. This equipment used

59 575-666 0 - 15 - 5 in conjunction with the DABS/IPC system, ing new facilities on 100 kHz spacing unless could provide aircraft with an on-board capa- frequency congestion necessitates use of a 50 bility for collision detection and warning at a kHz assignment. No existing facility channel minimum added cost. Aircraft equipped with assignments will be changed before January Synchro-DABS would be able to detect and 1976, which will minimize inconvenience to avoid all aircraft carrying a DABS transponder, users with radio equipment incapable of receiv- even if DABS ground-system coverage was un- ing the split channel frequencies. available. Synchro-DABS experimental equip- Contracted for the installation of an inertial ment was built by the Transportation System navigation system in its C-195 jet. The object, Center. Testing began at the Naval Weapons as announced in February 1974, was to demon- Center, China Lake, California, in late 1974. strate and test a satellite-supported oceanic ATC Designed and made available for installation on communications and surveillance system. The air traffic control radar beacon systems (ATC satellite to be used in the experiment was the RBS) a field retrofit package of a National NASA Applications Technology Satellite 6, an Facilities Experimental Center (NAFEC) Di- experimental unmanned spacecraft designed for pole Feed antenna. The retrofit package allows the conduct of meteorological, communication, beacon interrogation to be transmitted and scientific, and technological experiments. transponder replies received via the primary Completed plans for conducting at the Kansas radar antenna. The significantly improved ra- City ARTCC an operational evaluation of auto- diation pattern permits better target detection mated conflict alert for the en route system. The in cluttered environments, and reduces target conflict alert software would operate initially for fading due to vertical lobing. ATCRBS’s at 56 air traffic at high altitudes (24,000 feet and en route sites had been provided with this above). The computer would detect potential modification by the end of the reporting period. conflicts about two minutes in advance and sig- Developed a field modification kit to improve nal the controller by flashing the alphanumeric the reliability and performance of the agency’s data blocks of the aircraft involved directly on Airport Surface Detection Equipment ( ASDE to the controller’s radarscope. An additional dis- 11) radars. All the ASDE’s were to be modified play, identifying the aircraft, would also appear with the aid of the kit to improve their per- on one side of the scope, thereby further facili- formance. tating controller analysis of the situation. Developed and installed at the John F. Kennedy Conducted cockpit display tests at NAFEC for International Airport a new BRITE display for Data Link, a communication system designed to use with ASDE’s. The display made possible reduce the need for live voice messages by sub- better viewing of targets, even under the bright- stituting in their place message displays that est lighting. would be read by the pilot in the cockpit. The Incorporated the Service C teletypewriter tests were conducted in NAFEC’s cockpit simu- weather system, the only remaining unautomat- lator, and the messages-ATC and weather ad- ed weather network, into the Weather Message visories-were displayed in the form of paper Switching Center (WMSC) . This action com- printouts and alphanumerics readout devices. pleted the automation of the FAA’s three major Began work to define a system for integrating weather network-Services A, C, and 0. weather data into the National Airspace System. Reduced the channel spacing of its VHFIUHF The objective was the automatic transmission navaids by half, thereby doubling the number and display of weather data at appropriate ATC of channels available. FAA will continue assign- facilities.

60 V Department of Cornrnerce

Introduction cated space and aeronautics equipment; by installing, testing, and evaluating shipboard satellite equipment; Department of Commerce agencies that actively by conducting electromagnetic wave propagation utilize or contribute to aeronautics and space activi- studies for the improvement of space communications ties in carrying out their missions are the National and collision avoidance systems; and applying satellite Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Na- imagery to demographic studies. tional Bureau of Standards, the Office of Telecom- munications, the Maritime Administration, and the Bureau of the Census. Use of Satellites in Environmental Monitoring The broad goals of these agencies require programs and Prediction to assure that the environment and its resources are Environmental Satellite Operations wisely used; to develop and operate systems to mon- itor and predict environmental conditions ; to explore At the begining of 1974, the National Environ- the feasibility of beneficial environmental modifica- mental Satellite Service (NESS) of the National tion; to more rationally use and conserve our coastal Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) zone areas; to strengthen and advance the Nation’s was operating three polar-orbiting satellites: ESSA science and technology and to facilitate its effective 8 of the older TIROS Operational Satellite (TOS) application for the public benefit; to improve ship series and NOAA 2 and NOAA 3 of the Improved communications, navigation, safety, and management TOS (ITOS) series. NOAA 3 was used as the pri- techniques; to provide specialized engineering, man- mary global data-gathering satellite during most of agement, and advisory assistance to other federal 1974. However, from mid- July through mid-October agencies in telecommunications applications; and to NOAA 2 was returned to primary duty. Favorable provide information on population trends, urban spacecraft temperatures made it possible to use the growth, and internal structure of national land areas. NOAA 2 Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer These goals have been or are being accomplished (VTPR) for that period and thus to reserve the by establishing and maintaining an operational satel- NOAA 3 instrument for future use. ITOS G was lite system; by continuing to implement effective ma- successfully launched on November 15, 1974, and rine resources monitoring, assessment, and prediction named NOAA 4. Following the NASA post-launch programs; by continuing to monitor our marine en- systems checkout, NOAA 4 became the primary oper- vironment through improved and continued use of ational satellite on December 4, and NOAA 3 will sensors installed on ships, aircraft, and satellites ; by serve as its “in-orbit” backup. NOAA 4 has an instru- improving our weather observations and forecasts ment complement identical to that of NOAA 3, ex- through the establishment of automated observation cept that the VTPR on NOAA 4 has been modified stations, installation of improved radar systems, and by the addition of baffles to prevent an off field-of- continued atmospheric research programs such as the view light leak that was causing some contamination Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) in data acquired by the NOAA 2 and NOAA 3 Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) ; by con- instruments. ducting research in such areas as lightning suppres- On May 17, 1974, NASA launched the Synchron- sion, hurricane and precipitation control, and instru- ous Meteorological Satellite, SMS 1, the prototype mentation development; by improving data collec- spacecraft for the Geostationary Operational En- tion, processing, and dissemination techniques ; by vironmental Satellite (GOES) system. This satellite providing basic measurement and calibration methods is equipped with a Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan for operating technical systems and engineering data Radiometer (VISSR) for earth viewing, a Space needed in the design and construction of sophisti- Environment Monitor (SEM) for monitoring ener-

61 getic particles and geomagnetism, a Data Collection Microwave Spectrometer has been successfully de- System (DCS) for gathering environmental data veloped. This system obtains the best possible set of from a variety of remote earth platforms, and a sounding radiances which are then converted into Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) broadcast system to temperature profiles from the surface to 50 kilometers relay processed satellite and conventional weather and moisture profiles to 15 kilometers. An analysis data to a variety of national and international users of temperatures obtained with this system shows that equipped with Automatic Picture Transmission these profiles are superior to those obtained from any (APT) receivers. SMS 1 was placed in geostationary of the individual sounders. orbit at 45" West longitude, 35,903 kilometers above SMS 1 images are being used to derive wind vec- the equator. Its primary mission from June 25 tors from cloud motions. It now is possible to obtain through September 23 was to support the GATE. winds both day and night because of the availability Between September 23 and November 15, the space- of infrared images. The infrared data also are used craft was moved to its permanent operating station to determine cloud top temperatures. A new system, near 75" West longitude. At its permanent location, called the Man-Machine Interactive Processing Sys- the SMS/GOES VISSR provides near-continuous tem (MMIPS), has been developed for this purpose. viewing of a circular area extending from 70°N to MMIPS is a computer system used to display satellite 70"s and from 5"W to 145OW. Full disc pictures are imagery in static and animated forms. Using a rela- available at 30-minute intervals from the two VISSR tively simple program, which incorporates existing sensors. The visible sensor provides daytime viewing theories of infrared radiation, the system computes with a resolution of one kilometer, and the infrared the temperature of the observed cloud. From these sensor provides both day and night viewing with a temperatures it is possible to determine the cloud resolution of eight kilometers. The SEM monitors heights and thus assign wind vectors to their proper solar X-ray flux, solar proton flux, and variations in level in the atmosphere. This n2w procedure became the Earth's magnetic field. The DCS permits the col- operational August 19, 1974. NMC also uses these lection of environmental data from automatic sen- data as direct input to their numerical weather fore- sors in remote areas. Among the platforms to be moni- casts and these data are transmitted, together with tored by the DCS are river stage gauges, rainfall VTPR data, to other nations via the Global Tele- gauges, seismic and tsunami meters, automatic communications System. These wind vector data also weather stations, buoys, and ships at sea. The space- are an important part of the data base for research craft can accommodate data from 10,000 or more studies of atmospheric circulation. individual observing platforms every six hours. Evolving requirements and improved technology Environmental Warning Services have led to the start of planning and development of a SMS 1 became the primary warning service plat- new operational polar-orbiting satellite series. TIROS form upon reaching its permanent position near 75" N, the NASA prototype and subsequent operational West longitude. However, since SMS 1 WEFAX spacecraft, will carry advanced versions of instru- operates on S-band frequencies, both ATS 1 and ments now on the ITOS spacecraft and have a re- ATS 3 satellites will continue to provide WEFAX mote platform location and data collection capability. service on VHF frequencies for users who have not This satellite system will improve environmental pre- converted to S-band receivers. Photographic images dictions by providing atmospheric observations of in- from the VISSR, either full disc or sectors of the creased accuracy and coverage. TIROS N is sched- disc, are distributed to the Satellite Field Services uled for launch sometime in 1978. Stations (SFSS) . Sectors of the full disc picture then are sent to 16 Weather Service Forecast Offices Vertical Temperature and Wind Profiles (WSFO), the first increment of a planned network VTPR soundings are used routinely in the nu- of about 50 WSFO/GOES facilities. The WSFO's merical weather prediction program of the National receiving these data use them routinely to improve Meteorological Center (NMC) . Approximately 1,000 short-term forecast and advisory service to the public, vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature are de- aviation and shipping. rived daily from VTPR radiance data by NESS and Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) Sec- used by NMC in their upper-air analyses over the torizor Display Systems, which provide visible and World's oceans. infrared images with one kilometer resolution, have A data processing system that combines Nimbus 5 been installed at the Gilmore Creek, Alaska, and experimental environmental satellite observations Wallops, Virginia, Command and Data Acquisition from the Infrared Temperature Profile Radiometer, Stations and at the San Francisco SFSS. WSFO's in the Temperature Humidity Infrared Radiometer, the Alaska are equipped to receive and display the VHRK Selective Chopper Radiometer, and the Nimbus E sectors from Gilmore Creek, and selected WSFO's in the Western United States can receive the VHRR major ice features throughout the year. Significant sectors from San Francisco. These observations help ice boundaries, openings, and thin areas can be de- provide better environmental forecast and warning tected in the visible images, and improved estimates services to public and commercial users. The Wallops can be made of thickness and the physical state of the data are relayed to Suitland for processing. ice from surface temperature information contained D-uring July and August 1974, the National Weather in the infrared images. Satellite observations permit Service (NWS) and NESS conducted a short-range more efficient ice surveillance, which results in forecasting experiment on northern Chesapeake Bay economic savings and increased safety to shipping to determine if satellite data could be used to provide operations. detailed and timely weather warning and forecast Determining Lake Conditions services to the boating public. SMS 1 high resolution images were correlated with special reports of wind The NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research conditions from many private boaters and marinas in Laboratory (GLERL) is using both NOAA 2 and the Upper Bay to better understand how the local ERTS 1 images in its studies. Snow extent maps, pre- wind fields were inferred from the cloud images. In pared from NOAA 2 VHRR images for the southern addition, radar reports were obtained to correlate Ontario basin, have been compared with aircraft- precipitation with cloud images. Experiments were observed gamma ray data as a part of the Inter- conducted with various ways of wording the weather national Field Year of the Great Lakes (IFYGL) summaries and forecasts and displaying the data. The analysis program. This information is useful in de- information was carried by the NWS VHF continuous termining how much snow will melt and affect lake weather broadcast from Baltimore. levels. Determinations of surface water temperatures of Determining Ocean Conditions the Great Lakes have been made using NOAA 2 data. These measurements show close agreement with simi- NOAA 2 and 3 satellite images continued in use for lar data obtained from aircraft and ships. Upwelling developing improved methods of mapping oceano- of water along the shorelines of the Lakes also has graphic parameters. An experimental Gulf Stream been observed in both NOAA 2 and ERTS 1 satellite area thermal boundaries chart developed by NESS data. The ability to detect upwelling is important be- and based on interpretation of VHRR infrared (IR) cause it can cause rapid changes in surface water images is slated to become operational about the be- temperatures and mixing conditions. This action pro- ginning of 1975. NWS will use this product to initiate motes algae growth which may clog municipal water a Gulf Stream information service to the public. A intakes. cloud-free sequence of VHRR IR images revealed a Both VHRR and ERTS data have been used to large cold eddy along the edge of the Sargasso Sea determine ice formation, growth, movement, and and Gulf Stream in March 1974. Use of satellite data breakup in the Lakes as a part of the study to improve enabled a research vessel to proceed directly to the the ice forecasts for shipping and for the program to eddy and implant a special buoy to carry out research extend the navigation season on the Great Lakes. work. Satellite tracking of the buoy indicated a slow This is part of a GLERL program to study the geo- counterclockwise circulation in the eddy. Information graphical extent and physical properties of Lake ice. on the Gulf Stream is of special interest to the ship- Experimental charts of Great Lakes ice conditions, ping and fishing industries. Ships using East Coast based on interpretation of VHRR images, were de- routes try to stay in the Gulf Stream northbound and veloped by NESS and disseminated twice weekly via avoid it southbound to minimize transit times and the NWS facsimile network. This information, to- save fuel. Commercial fishermen use water mass gether with other efforts, has resulted in a favorable boundary data to increase the effic.iency of their economic impact on the shipping industry permitting operations. The nutrients on which fish feed accumu- extension of the Great Lakes shipping season by at late on boundaries between shelf, slope, and Gulf least 30 days annually. Stream waters, and large concentrations of fish are Determining Hydrological Conditions usually found in such areas. NESS continues to prepare experimental ice charts Quantitative estimates of snow cover derived from of Alaskan waters based on NOAA’s high resolution VHRR data were extended to include the Willamette satellite images and disseminates them over NWS River basin in the Pacific Northwest, increasing to facsimile circuits. To plan sea transport in these areas, four the number of river basins covered during the marine interests need to know of the existence and past year. The others are the Genesee River, the Red location of ice along sea routes, and whether the ice River of the North, and the American River. These is forming or breaking up. Infrared sensing systems estimates were sent to River Forecast Centers for use on the NOAA satellites permit the observation of in river and Aood potential forecasting. River and rainfall gauges, equipped with radio transceivers to Fisheries permit interrogation and data collection via the The Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission GOES DCS, are being installed at 44 remote loca- used NOAA 2 and 3 remotely sensed infrared data to tions in flood prone, Western river basins. Rainfall reveal the relationships of ocean thermal fronts to and river stage information from these remote observ- biological features, particularly to tuna fishing loca- ing sites will provide data to River Forecast Centers tions. for early assessment of storm rainfall, an important Final results of the Skylab Gamefish Experiment, factor in improving river forecasting and flood warn- conducted by the National Marine Fisheries Service ing services, and in estimating potential water supplies. (NMFS) in the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico, demon- It has been established that VHRR IR data can strated that satellite remote sensing may have poten- be used to identify areas of flooding from large rivers. tial for increasing the probability of gamefishing SUC- In the case of Mississippi River floods, a comparison cess. Using data acquired by private and professional of the flood extent using both NOAA 2 and ERTS 1 sportsfishermen and NASA and NMFS elements, it data showed the NOAA 2 measurements differed was possible to identify white marlin fishing areas from ERTS measurements by only 13 percent. This from significant oceanographic parameters. By cor- is surprisingly good considering that the resolution of relating fish catch with oceanographic data, predictive the VHRR images is 1,000 meters compared to 80 models were developed to identify areas of high meters for ERTS. productive capacity thus offering potential for signi- ficantly reducing the fisherman’s search time. The four Pollution Monitoring environmental parameters used in the models were Further analysis results based on the combined chlorophyll-a, sea-surface temperature, water tur- satellite, aircraft, and surface data collected in the bidity, and salinity which were determined from data New York Bight in April 1973 are now available. obtained by aircraft remote sensors and shipboard The ERTS 1 Multispectral Scanner data, together oceanographic instrumentation. To date, excessive with aircraft remote sensing and shipboard measure- cloud cover has prevented meaningful use of Skylab ments, have provided information which can be used data acquired during the study. to identify and to map major water masses and acid Other continuing NMFS efforts include the appli- dumping sites within the New York Bight. The opti- cation of aircraft remote sensing techniques to make cal properties of the water masses in the visible population estimates of Atlantic bluefin tuna re- spectrum result in spectral signatures sufficiently sources and to assess the populations of walrus, bow- characteristic to form a basis for classification and head whales, grey whales, and northern fur seals in mapping. Evidence also has been found that under the Beaufort Sea, the Bering Sea, and the Bering sunglint conditions large oil slicks in the ocean can Strait. be detected by means of the multispectral imagery from the ERTS. Meteorological Data The NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory Environmental Monitoring Using Data Buoys (NSSL) is participating in a joint program with The NOAA Data Buoy Office (NDBO) is develop- NASA and some universities on the establishment of ing and testing environmental data buoy systems and ground truth for satellites in the Atmospheric Va- components to measure oceanic and atmospheric riability Experiment. This experiment is designed to parameters. Buoy data are telemetered via earth test procedures for assessing the accuracy of satellite- satellites and shore stations. The basic objective is derived meteorological data. the development of several types of instrumented, unattended buoys, either moored or drifting, on the Other Satellite and Space Applications high seas or in the coastal zone, to collect and relay marine environmental data for operational and re- Weather Modifications. search use. The NOAA Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry The NDBO developed and tested six prototype Laboratory continued its experimental work in Buoy Transmit Terminals (BTT) and subsequently lightning suppression. For the first time, thunder- contracted for 75 production BTT units. These termi- storms were seeded with aluminum coated chaff from nals are intended for use with the Nimbus F satellite two aircraft flying at two different levels. The effect data collection and location system. Five Data Col- of the seeding was an immediate release on the chaff lection Platform Radio Sets (DCPRS), for use with of a corona discharge which was measured outside the the GOES satellite system, were acquired for test and storm by a special antenna on one of the aircraft. evaluation. Tests linking up several units with the This work has special application in the reduction of G.OES satellite system were successful. lightning induced forest fires and the suppression of 64 lightning at the Kennedy Space Center during space- tries. The countries involved, Afghanistan, Kenya and craft launches. Bolivia, were deliberately selected for their variety of The NOAA National Hurricane Research Labora- physical and cultural environments, and their dis- tory (NHRL) made extensive use of visual and in- parate histories of census taking and statistical devel- frared satellite information in evaluating results of opment. The willingness and ability of their hurricane modification experiments and in studying governments to participate in such a project also was the climatology of Pacific typhoons. In addition, the a determining factor. NHRL is conducting, on behalf of the NWS, NESS ERTS images are being used to develop new map- and the USAF Air Weather Service (AWS), a study ping processes, to plan the allocation of enumeration to determine the accuracy of locations and intensities resources, to evaluate census results, to monitor the of tropical cyclones derived from satellite pictures. extent of urban development, and to form a basis for This study is to aid in decisions about the extent to land use classification. Benefits to be derived from which satellites can replace aircraft reconnaissance of this effort are the production of better data on popu- tropical cyclones. lation numbers, trends, and locations and on urban growth in the three countries. Znternational Cooperation The Bureau of the Census also is investigating the GATE, the largest and most complex international applicability of satellite images to domestic census weather experiment in history, was conducted from programs. The major objective is to find a means of June 15 to September 23, 1974. Dakar, Senegal, was detecting and measuring the peripheral growth of the the field headquarters for this experiment. The experi- larger cities in the United States. The Bureau is mental area was located off the West African coast responsible for designating urbanized areas for meas- between 20° North and 10" South latitude and urement after each decennial census. These measure- Oo and 50" West longitude. Some 4,000 people from ments are for use in various Federal funding formulas 72 nations participated, and 40 ships, 13 instrumented and grant applications such as those used in the aircraft, 6 satellite systems, and other scientific equip- Revenue Sharing legislation. The Bureau has com- ment were used during this 100-day research pro- pleted imagery-derived urbanized area definitions for gram. Environmental satellites used were the United the first group of a representative selection of cities. States' NOAA 2 and 3, ATS 3, SMS 1, Nimbus 5, The results have been examined in detail and com- and the Defense Meteorological Satellite and the parisons have been made with urbanized area meas- USSR's Meteor 18. GATE was sponsored by the urements developed by conventional decennial census World Meteorological Organization ( WMO) and procedures and by Earth image procedures to deter- the International Council of Scientific Unions. The mine their relationship in terms of population, the United States effort was coordinated by NOAA. administrative status of component parts, land area, The vast amount of data assembled will be used to and geographic configuration; time and resources improve weather forecasts and to expand man's required for both methods of delineation also have understanding of the mechanisms which produce been compared. climate changes such as the drought now affecting Navigation1 Communications Satellite Africa's Sahelian belt. The Maritime Administration is continuing its October 1, 1974, marked the 10th anniversary of program to apply satellite technology to ship naviga- environmental satellite data exchange on the direct tion and radio-communication problems. Tests were circuit connecting Moscow and Washington. These conducted with merchant ships using NASA's ATS 5 data included visible and infrared photographs from and ATS 6 satellite communications to evaluate NOAA 2 and and the USSR Meteor 13 through 3 equipment, techniques, and various frequency bands. 18. Meteor 16, 17, and 18 were launched between The objective is to extend to shipping the communi- March and July 1974. Soviet satellites now are pro- cation services now provided between locations ashore viding experimental APT service over eastern Europe and to make available continuous, accurate ship and Soviet territories. location information to both ships and shore stations. Under the WMO Voluntary Assistance Program, Such capabilities will permit the use of improved the NWS installed APT ground stations in 19 coun- management techniques such as automation, more tries and ordered stations for installation in 6 others. efficient operations, and better control of ship move- Demographic Studies men ts. The Bureau of the Census, using Agency for Inter- Determination of the Earth's Shape and Gravity national Development funds, is studying the applica- Field bility of ERTS 1 images to demographic studies and The National Ocean Survey (NOS) plans to deter- other census operations in three developing coun- mine geoid and gravity conditions over the Earth's

65 ocean regions, utilizing radar altimeter measurements scheduling Earth-sensing experiments from Skylab, from the GEOS C satellite. Pre-launch tests are under- supporting aircraft, and ERTS 1. Forecasts also were way using a simulated set of altimetry measurements made for the landing and recovery of the final Sky- and a mathematical model to determine station posi- lab flight. tions and the Earth's gravitational field. This model The Space Environment Laboratory (SEL) con- is based on Doppler data, surface gravity anomalies, tinued its support to the Skylab Apollo Telescope and geometrically obtained directions and distances. Mount (ATM) experiment. The Space Environment NOS surveyors are remeasuring the United States Services Center provided solar activity forecasts to with almost pinpoint accuracy. Using a system known the ATM principal investigators and to the mission as Doppler geodesy, the National Geodetic Survey is flight controller during the manned and unmanned making measurements at about 130 points in all 50 phases of Skylab. states at points approximately 150 miles apart. So far, NOS has determined the exact position of 35 stations Space Environment Services in the continental United States and 6 stations in A significant improvement was made in the quality Alaska. These determinations, based on Doppler of the space environment services provided by SEL measurements using geodetic receivers (Geoceiver) following the launch of the SMS 1 satellite in May. that receive signals from the Navy Transit Satellites, The SEL receives solar X-ray, solar proton, and measure the Doppler shift and precise time of satel- magnetic data at Boulder, Colorado, directly from lite signals with signals generated by the Geoceiver. the SMS 1 satellite. These data are used by the The survey will result in the more accurate location Space Environment Services Center forecasters and of survey markers, providing an extremely accurate also are relayed to the USAF AWS for use in their base for topographic mapping and navigational chart- operations. The SMS 1 satellite provided data that ing and for improving techniques for earthquake were critical for prompt and accurate evaluation of a prediction. series of major solar flares in July. A large geomag- Satellite Communications netic storm, following the larger flares in this series, produced disturbances in long-line telephone circuits, The Office of Telecommunications (OT) has de- electric power distribution systems, and the usual veloped a model to predict the interference and noise disruptions in ionospheric radio communications. that will be detected by the ATS 6 satellite during an experiment to monitor interference from terrestrial Cryogenic Technology communication systems operating near 6 GHz. This NBS is providing NASA with basic data and engi- model was used by NASA to design the experiment neering information on very low temperature (cryo- and to select areas on the Earth's surface to be moni- genic) fluids and systems for use in spacecraft appli- tored from the satellite. OT developed requirements cation. Measurements of the compressibility of para- for multiple, narrow beam satellite transmit and hydrogen have been extended to higher pressures and receive antenna patterns for the U. S. Postal Service temperatures. Work on cryogenic insulation and heat proposed Electronic Mail System. In developing these transfer in liquid oxygen systems also is being per- requirements, it was necessary to consider geographi- formed. An experimental radio frequency mass meas- cal coverage and electronic isolation of various an- uring facility has been completed for use in measur- tenna patterns in terms of different geostationary ing fuel levels in the zero gravity of space. This effort orbital positions and receive/transmit frequencies. is in direct support of the cryogenic life support and Lunar Ranging propellant systems of the Space Shuttle. The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) devel- Analysis of Apollo Lunar Samples oped the major components of a low-cost telescope NBS is determining the chemical and isotopic com- of special design and high light gathering power for position of lunar samples collected on the various use in lunar ranging. The system has been assembled Apollo missions. Recent work indicated that lunar and preliminary tests performed. Recent calculations soils show an isotopic abundance of potassium dis- have led to an improved knowledge of the lunar mass tinct from that of lunar rocks. Studies now in progress distribution and location of reflectors with respect to are analyzing additional lunar samples to determine the lunar center of mass if this condition is common to all parts of the lunar surface and to determine what additional data may Space Support Activities be required to further understand this phenomenon. Skylab and ERTS Support Space Shuttle Experiments NOAA support to the Skylab and ERTS programs NBS is assisting NASA in plans to utilize the included NWS forecasts of cloud cover for use in Space Shuttle as an orbital workshop for materials

66 science and manufacturing in a zero gravity, vacuum non-radial flow from the sun, which produced sur- environment. Projects involve research and develop- prising results in comparison with standard two- ment in crystal growth, purification of materials, dimensional solar wind models. Not only do the physical processes in fluids, and composite materials results explain the Pioneer 10 and 11 solar wind data preparation; these projects are expected to yield new at the planetary orbit distance of Jupiter better than and innovative materials processing methods of wide older models, but they also modify predictions of commercial importance. astrophysical models of stellar winds which are based on solar wind modeling. Meawrements and Calibrations NBS studies of Cassiopeia A, an astronomical Magnetospheric Physics electromagnetic source, now are providing a con- The distribution of electrons and protons in the venient means of routinely calibrating satellite com- Earth‘s radiation belts, and their variation with time, munications systems antennas. NBS continues to pro- are controlled by interactions between the particles vide new and improved radiometric standards and and low frequency electromagnetic (radio) and techniques for use in astrophysical observations of electrostatic waves. Recent theoretical work on these the sun and stars. Program accomplishments include interaction mechanisms by SEL has been able to use of the NASA Orbiting Astronomical Observatory account for the steady state character of the Earth’s (OAO 3) satellite for discovery of the first stellar radiation zones and has provided the first good ex- corona and for spectroscopic observation of soIar planation of the slot region between the inner and winds. outer Van Allen radiation belts. Time Services Ionospheric Physics Precision space navigation demands accurate and A major mystery of the northern lights has been dependable time-signal information. NBS provides the excessive number of low energy electrons which very accurate time and frequency signals by radio appear to enter the atmosphere, at times in numbers broadcast. NBS stations broadcasted ATM observa- too large to be explained as coming from any source tion program information and NOAA/NASA ex- in outer space. A recent theory by SEL postulates periment plans for the Skylab Mission. Experiments that these apparently excess electrons have been back- using the NASA ATS 3 satellite for disseminating scattered from the Earth’s atmosphere below and then time signals have verified the advantages of a satel- reflected downwards again by electric fields above the lite system to provide better than ten microsecond measuring instruments, to appear for the second time accuracy using simple low-cost techniques. This past as if originating from outer space. year, NBS began broadcasting time-of-day informa. The NOAA Aeronomy Laboratory is currently tion through NASA’s recently launched SMS 1 satel- examining radar echoes from E-region irregularities lite. The 468 MHz signal was receivable on relatively in the auroral ionosphere that are closely related to inexpensive equipment throughout most of North and the auroral electrojet current system. By obtaining South America and parts of Europe and Africa. The data on the location, intensity, and drift direction of signal accuracy and wide availability will find many the irregularities it will be possible to monitor the applications for communications and for monitoring location, intensity, and direction of the electrojet. seismic events at widely separated remote sites. Since data from a single radar cover a much greater range (approximately 1000 km) than a ground-based Atmospheric and Space Physics magnetometer, the information can eventually be used to supplement, or in some cases replace the Astrophysics magnetometer data. The Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, a Atmospheric Photochemistry cooperative effort of the NBS and the University of Colorado for the study of highly ionized gases, has NBS is providing data essential to determining the developed several models to explain chromospheric photochemical process behavior of pollutants in the networks, supergrandle cells, and spots in the solar Earth’s atmosphere. A new technique involving modu- chromosphere. Experiments aboard OAO 3 are lated laser excitation of molecular vibrational levels producing the first far ultraviolet data of cool stars is being applied to detection and measurement of with sufficient resolution to accurately model cool various atmospheric pollutants. Studies have yielded stellar atmospheres. valuable data on the reactions of ozone with nitric oxide, sulfur monoxide and molecular oxygen for use Znterplanetary Physics by the Department of Transportation (DOT) to SEL has developed a new theoretical three- assess the effect of supersonic aircraft effluents on dimensional description of the solar wind, including the stratospheric ozone layer. The NOAA Air Resources Laboratories are con- periment also included the sowing of metallized chaff tinuing efforts to measure nitric oxide from balloon in clear air to determine a three-dimensional wind and aircraft platforms in the atmosphere and to field by Doppler radar measurements. This work may develop instruments to measure nitrogen dioxide. contribute much toward improving warning to avia- NBS measurements of kinetic and photochemical tion interests of mechanical and clear air turbulence. processes including dissociation rates, ionization poten- Doppler radar has played a vital role in identifying tials, and collisional excitation rates of atmospheric various species of birds in flight. The size, shape, species are important to the understanding of plane- wing span, frequency of wingbeat, and body motion tary atmospheres. Photochemistry studies of the re- combine to form Doppler fingerprints of specific activity of methane and ammonia have provided a birds. So far Aeronomy Laboratory scientists, using better understanding of the atmospheres of Jupiter this technique, can distinguish between ducks and and Saturn. Measurements of the radiation extinction geese. These echoes can be plotted graphically or coefficients of nitrogen dioxide in the ultraviolet broadcast through a loudspeaker. The results of this region as a function of temperature are being used work may help air traffic controllers prevent danger- in assessing the impact of high altitude aircraft on ous collisions between birds and aircraft. the Earth’s atmosphere and to determine atmospheric The OT continued work on a model to predict transmissivity of solar energy. interference among collision avoidance, radar altim- The Aeronomy Laboratory, using night airglow eter, navigation and aeronautical/maritime satellite emission measurements, finds that major fluctuations systems. The model includes the effects of rain atten- in atmospheric temperature in the 80 to 100 kilometer uation and ducting on transmissions in the frequency region are evidence of large scale compressional spectrum from 100 MHz to 20 GHz. It is designed “gravity” waves propagated either from the tropo- to meet requirements for maximum frequency sphere or from auroral latitudes. utilization in air-to-air, air-to-satellite and satellite-to- earth systems.

Aeronautical Programs Aeronautical Charts NOS published a flight case size planning chart in Safety Services for Aeronautics response to a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) The NOAA Wave Propagation Laboratory in- requirement. This chart is designed for preflight and stalled and operated an acoustic Doppler wind meas- enroute planning for flights under Visual Flight uring system at Stapleton International Airport in Rules (VFR). It contains basically the same infor- Denver, Colorado. The system array covered the en- mation as the VFR/IFR Wall Size Planning Chart tire height range from 30 to 500 meters using a with the addition of lists of selected Flight Service bistatic or angular scattering approach. Comparisons Stations and Weather Service Offices located at air- of acoustic wind profiles with those obtained by port sites, a tabulation of Special Use Airspace, a radiosondes showed good agreement. The experiment mileage table listing distances, and a city/aerodrome demonstrated that acoustic sounders can operate suc- location index. cessfully in an airport noise environment, and that The first edition of the Alaska Terminal Publica- it should be possible to measure wind profiles by this tion (ATP), a joint civil/military aviation publica- remote sensor system to a height of 700 meters, with tion, was issued. The publication, to be produced accuracies that meet airport operational require- every 56 days, includes Instrument Approach Proce- ments. dures (IAP), Standard Instrument Departures NSSL continued its experimental work with thunder- (SID), Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STAR), storms and tornadoes in an effort to more accurately Taxi Charts, and other supplemental data. The predict the development, intensity, and location of Alaska SID and the Alaska IAP Charts were dis- these hazards to aircraft operations. An experiment continued as separate publications. In May 1974, the was conducted from April to June 1974 utilizing dual Alaska Enroute Charts and the Alaska Chart Supple- Doppler and conventional weather radars, and ex- ment revision cycle was changed from 28 days to perimental electronic tornado detectors, radiosondes, 56 days. instrumented aircraft, and ground cameras. Research- A study of the application of ERTS images showed ers have been able to identify characteristic Doppler that hydrographic features could be extracted effi- radar signatures of tornado producing thunder- ciently and effectively for use as update source data storms. In the two tornadic storms observed, the in the maintenance of aeronautical charts. This study parent circulation above the tornadoes extend to at is continuing with investigations of other applications least nine kilometers, which indicates that tornadoes to the aeronautical chart product and production are not just low level, surface phenomena. The ex- process. Environmental Data Programs science studies and for solar-terrestrial research and applications. NGSDC now has derived the auroral electrojet Satellite Data Service magnetic activity quantitative indices for 1966 The Environmental Data Service (EDS) and through 1972 and is making the data available on NESS have established a Satellite Data Services magnetic tapes. Summaries have been published by Branch at NESS Headquarters in Suitland, Md., to World Data Center A. The indices, which chart the manage distribution of most environmental satellite onset time and development of magnetic substorms, data after operational utilization is completed. This are used to study communication satellite failures, new unit also provides Earth Resources Technology telecommunications problems during magnetic dis- Satellite data to marine and meteorological users. turbances, and power failures. Their use for modeling the complex interactions between the solar wind and Ground-Based and Skylab Solar Data the Earth’s magnetosphere is being compared with The World Data Center A for Solar-Terrestrial the use of interplanetary field data for the same Physics collected reports on the times and the nature purpose. of observations of the sun made by ground-based lnternational Sea-Surface Temperature Data worldwide solar observatories that coincide with the Skylab solar observations of May 28, 1973 through The National Oceanographic Data Center and February 8, 1974. This information has been com- NESS have undertaken a joint, two-phase pilot study on the international exchange of sea-surface tempera- bined into a Catalog of Observation Times of Ground-Based Skylab Coordinated Solar Observing tures derived from satellite data. The purpose of the Programs; the catalog will permit investigators and study is to better identify specific user needs for the others to identify the collateral observations available satellite data and for data exchange and archiving. at the times interesting phenomena were noted by During Phase 1, sea-surface temperature data, de- Skylab. rived from the NOAA 2 and 3 VHRR instruments, were made available to interested participants of the 1974 field season of the Cooperative Investigation of Solar and Earth Space Data the Northern Part of the Eastern Central Atlantic SEM data from the SMS 1 satellite include changes (CINECA) in the form of unenhanced and enhanced in the Earth’s magnetic field and the flux of protons, IR images and in digital form. The data were used electrons, alpha particles, and solar X-rays on stand- by the CINECA investigators in conjunction with ard monitoring time scales. These data, available oceanographic and fisheries data collected from re- through the National Geophysical and Solar Terres- search vessels and aircraft. The field test portion of trial Data Center (NGSDC), serve as an important the pilot study has been completed and the evalua- space environment monitoring data base for space tion phase is now underway.

69 VI Department of the Interior

Introduction training courses and provides professional assistance, particularly in techniques for extraction of informa- The Department of the Interior seeks to use the tion from reniote-sensing data, to users. Approximate- most cost effective operational systems available to ly 200 individual scientists visited the Data Center inventory, develop, manage, and conserve these re- during the year to receive such assistance. EROS sources to the public benefit. The diversity of re- Applications Assistance Facilities are operated by the sources accounts for the breadth of interests of the Data Center in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, Denver, department for information with which to make Colorado, Phoenix, Arizona, Menlo Park, California, meaningful decisions. The needs of man for energy and Reston, Virginia, to meet the local needs for and power, food, water, mineral resources, recrea- remote-sensing technology transfer. At the Mississippi tional sites and activities, and a congenial environ- facility, for example, more than 830 requests for satel- ment must all be balanced. However, nature is lite and aircraft data were filled, more than 200 dynamic and its changes, be they subtle, catas- people attended 16 different remote-sensing training trophic, manmade, or natural must be monitored classes, and the staff completed uncontrolled ERTS to provide continuing accurate, up-to-date informa- mosaics of Mississippi and Louisiana. tion needed by the manager to make decisions and to see the effects of his decisions. The uses made of The Alaska Power Administration is now using aircraft and spacecraft, and the data acquired from satellite imagery in their planning studies. these platforms then contribute to these information A Bureau of Indian Affairs project to assist Alaska needs. Natives in their land selection program, used ERTS imagery as an interpretative base at a scale of Space 1 :250,000 to depict vegetation, landforms, hydrology, and indications of mineralization. A township and Operations range grid was added to the imagery to aid in the land selection. Earth Resources Observation Systems.-A primary objective of the Interior Department’s Earth Re- Natural Resources Information System.-The Bu- sources Observation Systems (EROS) program is to reau of Indian Affairs is implementing the Natural develop remote-sensing techniques and products and Resources Information System (NRIS) that was encourage their incorporation into operational aspects developed for the resource-oriented bureaus in the of departmental activities. Major strides have been Department of the Interior. The NRIS manipulates made in this effort during 1974. digitized graphics derived from satellite, aircraft, and The EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South ground data, with most of the interesting operations Dakota, is in its third year of operation as the primary centered around “area” maps, Le., maps that can be public sales outlet for spacecraft- and aircraft-acquired specified as a set of closed regions with a single remote-sensing data. These data include NASA attribute per region. Functions performed include aircraft remote-sensing data, aerial mapping scaling, translation, rectification to common base, photography obtained by the U.S. Geological Survey extraction by area or attribute criteria, extraction by (USGS), and satellite data from ERTS-1 and Skylab. geographic limits (windowing), inquiry of a point’s Data sales to Federal agencies, State and local gov- attribute, area calculations, and compositing (logical ernments, universities, private industry, and the gen- union) of two or more maps. The program is running eral public totaled $885,000 in FY 1974 and are on the Washington State University and Arizona projected at $1,750,000 for FY 1975. State Highways computers for the benefit of tribes The EROS Data Center also conducts formal in those states.

71 Use of Remote-Sensing Techniques for Planetary geology and to use the results to make environmental Exploration.-USGS provided NASA with guidance geologic and engineering interpretations. Details less on application of remote-sensing techniques to plane- than 3 m in size of arroyos and gullies in Arizona tary exploration, support on mission planning includ- were identifiable on S190B photographs. The ERTS ing the Viking Lander, and post-mission analysis. Geo- Data Collection System (DCS) has demonstrated logic analyses and mapping of lunar data from Apollo that a global volcano surveillance system is now tech- 15, 16, and 17 were completed. Analysis of the Mari- nologically and economically possible and that DCS ner data and production of Mars maps continued. has excellent potential for near real time water man- Mosaicking of images and mapping data from the agement purposes. Venus-Mercury flyby is proceeding. Analysis of POGO satellite data has resulted in a Satellite Navigation Aids.-Satellite navigation aids global magnetic anomaly map. Verification of several are being used in marine geology investigations and distinct anomalies was obtained by examining indi- cooperative activities including the International vidual satellite profiles of Project Magnet data. The Phase of Drilling cruise in the North Atlantic Ocean utility of satellite magnetometry for geologic and the the Institut FranGais du PCtrole research pro- geophysical mapping has been demonstrated. Com- gram on the Blake Plateau, Gulf of Alaska, and Beau- puter processing of digital tapes (CCT’s) of ERTS fort Sea. It will become increasingly important as data has resulted in considerably improved imagery coastal and oceanographic studies are accelerated, which can be enhanced or ratioed for specific geo- especially in the assessment and the development of logic studies. energy resources of the Outer Continental Shelf. Discovering Resources.-Preliminary examination Research on Application of Remote Sensing of space images in the Uniiat and Yukon-Tanana Upland areas of Alaska reveals short and intermediate from Space linear patterns which have a direct correlation with Geological Studies.-The USGS utilizes data from subsurface geology and/ or geophysics and suggest manned and unmanned spacecraft to improve remote- concealed structures of possible potential for oil or sensing techniques as a supplement to conventional gas accumulation. Norteast- and northwest-trending and airborne research methods. Objectives include : giant hears may have guided the localization of determination of variations of physical properties mineralized belts in Alaska; this hypothesis has been which can be used to discriminate materials or con- substantiated by the independent location of porphyry ditions, such as spectral reflectance or thermal inertia; copper-molybdenum deposits at the intersection of evaluation of the broad view supplied by satellite northwest- and northeast-trending faults in an area imagery to analysis of geomorphic and tectonic rela- predictable by the hypothesis, but not by the conven- tionships of regional or larger scope; identification tional localization of mineralization concept. and repetitive observation of features whose physical condition or detectibility vary with time, season, or Discovery of Active Faults.-Field examination of circumstance by use of satellite imagery or by ground faults on the Coastal Plain of eastern Maryland and monitoring through relay by satellite telemetry. Delaware, originally observed on ERTS-1 images, Some significant results of investigations include : has revealed that some of these faults are active. near-infrared reflectance anomalies associated with This faulting is thought to be due in part to com- some young volcanic rocks of southwestern US., paction of the Coastal Plain sediments, and as such which are at least as mafic as andesites, have been probably would not cause anything more than minor observed in the multispectral data from Skylab. earthquakes. However, the potential seismic activity Thermal-inertia maps obtained from Nimbus satellite is important in planning sites for nuclear powerplants data have been used in conjunctiop with ERTS which must be designed to withstand any anticipated images to resolve ambiguous rock-type identification ground movements. in the Arabian Peninsula. A theoretical model of the Control of Water Resources.-Using a combina- effects of volume scatterers on microwave emission tion of satellite images and ground sensed data re- has been used to explain the discrimination of older layed by satellite, an ecological predictive model has from new snow on Nimbus 5 (1.55 cm) images. been developed and used in Florida to enhance wood Visual and photographic observations from Skylab 4 stork rookery formation in the Everglades National show that the primary eruption cloud of the Sakura- Park by properly regulating water levels. The wood zima volcano, Japan, did not penetrate the tropo- stork is an endangered wildlife species. pause. Quality of the data from the Skylab multi- SMS/GOES satellite, launched in May 1974, has spectral photographic camera and especially the Earth the potential to provide more continuous radio relay Terrain Camera was adequate to map at 1 :250,000- of messages from data collection sites than ERTS, and scale geologic terrain, geomorphology, and surface testing has begun using six hydrologic platforms.

72 Data from ERTS, Skylab, and aircraft were used tion detail at a scale of 1: 24,000 are being produced as testimony in a court case to identify and summar- for direct comparison with existing line maps. Be- ize important hydrologic features. Portrayal of the cause the land use data are already digitized, the salient features on the imagery, acquired over the land areas are counted and measured almost immedi- Green Swamp, Florida, resulted in an out-of-court ately and reported by jurisdictional areas. settlement between the consortium of developers and Pollution Studies.-ERTS imagery of selected areas the State of Florida. of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio was ex- In collaboration with NASA, NOAA, and U.S. amined by the Bureau of Mines to evaluate its poten- Army Corps of Engineers, a seriei of related flood- tial for detecting air pollution effects in the environ- applications analyses employing ERTS, NOAA 2 and ment resulting from smoke plumes emanating from aircraft data were compiled and published as a com- coal-fired electric powerplants and coke ovens. De- pendium by the American Water Resources Asso- tection of specific point sources of pollution is POS- ciation. siblc if the plume emitted is of sufficient size, and Mapping.-The USGS has continued to examine more importantly, if the plume of condensed water cartographic applications of both ERTS-1 and Sky- vapor or solid material can be contrasted with its lab images. A color mosaic of Florida and a mono- background. Detection of specific vegetation damage chromatic mosaic of Arizona were prepared for from air pollutants was not accomplished. Though lithographic printing. The publication of satellite the area of primary interest did show variances in image maps has stimulated the development of new spectral reflectance, these areas did not form a procedures combining expertise in computational unique pattern over the different dates investigated. photogrammetry, image geometric control, photo- mechanical mosaicking, and color lithography. Evaluating Wildlife Habitats.-Evaluation of Following a technique developed by William Evans ERTS-1 imagery by the Fish and Wildlife Service of Stanford Research Institute, ,the USGS is con- for determining numbers, distribution and quality of ducting experiments with reflectors to explore the wetlands in North Dakota indicated that ponds and capability of the ERTS system to locate ground con- lakes larger than 1.6 hectares can be accurately trol points smaller than a resolution element of an mapped from a single near-infrared band of data. ERTS image. The control extension capability of The perimeter and the shape of water bodies also ERTS is also being investigated by testing the ac- could be determined, thus providing valuable infor- curacy of ground positions derived from a strip of mation regarding the quality of nesting habitat for ERTS images. Enhancement of ERTS imagery by waterfowl. The synoptic and temporal aspects of correlation of successive images of the same scene ERTS data and supporting aerial photpgraphy also using digital processing is being investigated. show promise in providing quantitative habitat data Parameters for printing ERTS images have been for determining the effects of water development redefined in cooperation with NASA, and ERTS-B projects on estuarine, riparian, and upland habitats. images will be printed out on the Space Oblique Digital processing of ERTS-1 data in combination Mercator projection as defined by the Geological with analysis of high-altitude aerial photography are Survey. The USGS has contracted for a study and being evaluated for use in a standardized habitat demonstration of a promising automated register evaluation system of the Fish and Wildlife Service. system for ERTS and other remote sensor images, Management Data for Indian Reservations.-The which will provide the technology to convert ERTS Burcau of Indian Affairs has coordinated an evalua- to an automated mapping system. tion by the State of Washington and the Northwest Land Use Studies.-Demonstrations by the USGS Indian Tribes of the use of high-altitude aircraft of the use of remote sensing to various land use photography and ERTS-1 imagery as monitoring tools evaluation problems continues; in the Central At- in the high-quality forest of the Pacific Northwest. lantic Regional Ecological Test Site where cost factors The repetitive coverage of ERTS imagery makes it are presented along wbth land use products produced potentially the tool needed by the manager; however, from different remote sensor source materials, SO the study showed that better interpretative informa- that potential users may determine appropriateness tion is needed either by automated interpretation of of mapping level and scale versus cost and benefits; the original digital data or better imagery resolution. in the Census Cities project where correlations of Review of a comparative analysis of ERTS inter- census data and aerial and satellite data are being pretations of land use with conventional aerial photo made 'to construct an urban spatial growth model; interpretations of the Crow-Northern Cheyenne and in the project directed toward direct computer Reservations, Montana, led the Colville Tribe to use recognition of land use patterns from ERTS digital ERTS imagery and the same land use classification data, where maps utilizing level I1 and I11 classifica- scheme for overall reservation resources delineations. Weather Modification.-The Bureau of Reclama- Aeronautics tion is continuing to use experimental ERTS-1 data in Project Skywater’s Colorado River Basin Pilot Aircraft Operations Project (CRBPP) the largest winter orographic , The Office of Aircraft Services (OAS) completed cloud-seeding experiment in the United States. The its first full year of operation this past June 30. The use of precipitation data transmitted via ERTS-1 Boise Headquarters is now fully staffed with a Divi- DCS has improved the quality of information avail- sion of Management Services and a Division of able for control of the CRBPP by helping to identify Technical Services, The regional office in Anchorage, periods of heavy snowfall during which project op- Alaska, consolidated departmental aircraft operations erations must be curtailed to avoid contributing to personnel and equipment into one entity in January, the avalanche hazard. The use of satellite data is be- and has coordinated aircraft use in Alaska among all ing initiated for the Project Skywater High Plains Bureaus and Offices since that time. Plans for the Cooperative Program involving weather modification role of OAS in the conterminous 48 States are being experimentation to better meet long-range water formulated based on the evaluation report of the problems in the semi-arid High Plains of the United pilot operation in Alaska. Some positive results have States. Preliminary testing of the system which will been obtained in all three purposes of OAS: raising include 64 precipitation gages was conducted during safety standards, increasing efficiency, and promoting the 1974 summer season. economical operation of departmental aircraft activities. Regional Planning.-ERTS- 1 data are also being The Southwestern, Bonneville, and Alaska Power used on the Rio Grande Regional Environmental Administrations, and the Bureau of Reclamation use Project, New Mexico-Texas, to provide information contract aircraft for various purposes, including for regional planning decisions. Under a Bureau con- transport of personnel to remote project sites, trans- tract: ERTS-1 digital data are being processed by mission line and water resource project maintenance computer to determine the time-varying spectral and inspection, and snow surveys. The Bureau of signatures of area crop species, thus providing spec- Land Management primarily uses aircraft to meet tral norms against which individual crop signatures the logistical requirements of wildland fire control, may be compared to identify automatically species, and to obtain color, color infrared, and black and type, distribution, and plant vigor conditions. In white aerial photography, and infrared scanner and addition, these techniques help to depict urban, radar imagery to locate and map fires. Bonneville suburban, and agricultural land use; mineral and Power Administration also performs for the U.S. Fish water resources; and cultural features required to and Wildlife Service aerotriangulation and photo- make more effective water-use projections for the grammetric mapping for the determination of tidal area. A similar activity involves computer processing boundaries, property ownerships, and contour maps of ERTS-1 digital data to produce land use maps to for construction site grading. monitor changes along portions of the Colorado River. The Bureau of Indian Affairs’ agreements with A major lineation identified on an ERTS mosaic NASA and the USGS to obtain high-altitude photog- of the Lower Colorado River may be significant to raphy over all reservations continued in effect. Re- the Bureau of Reclamation in relation to salinity sulting orthophoto base maps and natural resource control problems and the geothermal resources devel- overlays are used to develop and implement compre- opment potential in the area. hensive reservation planning, The maps project will The Bureau of Reclamation’s Upper Missouri Re- be completed for all reservations in FY 1976. As part gion is using ERTS-1 data in its planning programs, of the continuing operational comprehensive planning and to estimate various land uses for preparation of and environmental monitoring remote-sensing project the Garrison Diversion Unit Environmental Impact on the Salt River Indian Reservation, an amplification Statement. of the Anderson Land Use Classification was devel- ERTS imagery of the Western Dakotas is also oped for Indian lands in Arizona. being used to study several alternative pipeline routes This year, the USGS contracted for a record high for delivering industrial water to coal fields. ERTS volume of over 391,000 square miles of aerial photog- imagery is also being used to investigate major geo- raphy for its national topographic mapping program, logical features in and around construction sites of which almost 60% was high-altitude quad- (dams, canals, etc. ) . The resolution limitation, how- centered photography used in support of an accele- ever, restricts its use primarily to preliminary obser- rated orthophotoquad program. vation with large-scale aerial photographs required The USGS also utilized contract and other Federal for more detailed engineering geological investiga- aircraft to acquire photographic, other remote sensor tions. and geophysical data for the support of geological 74 and geophysical investigations. These include recon- data, preparing a thermatic atlas of the Anthracite naissance and detailed geologic mapping, exploration Region, preparing a report on potential areas for for and evaluation of mineral and energy sources, future strip mining in the region, and investigating monitoring volcanic activities, appraisal of resources and mapping entry/exit areas of ground water into in wildlife area, and environmental, engineering, and mines in the Southern Field. This information will land-use studies. Airborne sensors were used to acquire be used in the Bureau’s environmental programs in data for the compilation of aeromagnetic, gravity, the region. radioactivity, gamma-ray, INPUT, VLF (Very Low Research Using Aerial Data Frequency), and geochemical maps. A high sensitivity Source aeromagnetic survey of a 300,000 square mile area Mineral and Geothermal Prospecting.- of the continental shelf off the east coast of the The USGS continued to apply the interdisciplinary United States is underway, with a completion date approach of physics and geology to the development of fall 1975. The objectives are to assess the economic, and improvement of remote-sensing techniques by especially fuel, potential of the continental margin identifying the parameters by which rocks, soil, and moisture can be remotely discriminated and develop- and also to obtain new knowledge of its geologic ing models and methods to analyze and display structure and tectonic relationships. remote-sensor data. A thermal and reflectance image High-altitude aerial photography covering the of the Raft River, Idaho, area, acquired at a time State of Arizona has been obtained by NASA aircraft selected using a theoretical model, shows the pres- in support of the Arizona Land Use Experiment ence of warm geothermal anomalies which were ( ALUE) being conducted jointly by NASA/USDI/ confirmed by ground probe measurements. High- State of Arizona. The ALUE photography and the altitude thermal infrared images over the Colorado USGS-prepared orthophotoquads have been used Front Range display a previously unobserved circular extensively in regional planning projects and envi- feature that encompasses most of the area of gold ronmental studies for proposed electric generating mineralization at the Central City-Idaho Springs, plant and transmission line facilities throughout Ari- Colorado, mineral district. An aerial infrared survey of zona, to update county maps, for geologic, soils, and the Mount Baker volcano, Washington, shows that the vegetation mapping, and in water resources and wild- present activity is consolidated within and peripheral life studies. Other energy related applications by to the crater south of the main summit. An engineer- private and commercial users include photogeologic ing model Fraunhofer Line Discriminator (FLD) studies in connection with uranium and petroleum performed successfully from a helicopter and meas- exploration in northern Arizona. ured luminescence differences of pine trees growing The Bureau of Reclamation used aerial photog- on copper-rich and normal soils. Prospecting for raphy and scanner imagery for a woody vegetation mineral deposits through the determination of geo- identification and control study on reservoirs in chemical stress in plants is also continuing using Kansas, and for planning, development and manage- spectral reflectance data and analysis of multibavd ment of multipurpose water resource projects. photography. Feasibility studies using the VLF sys- The Fish and Wildlife Service continued to con- tem for bedrock mapping in hard rock areas and duct aerial surveys over large portions of the 50 for detecting geothermal anomalies are proceeding. States, Canada and Mexico to collect data for re- Water Resources.-The Office of Water Research search and management purposes. Assessment of the and Technology is supporting research on the opti- status of waterfowl habitat and the detection of mum aerial remote sensor for mapping fracture illegal dredge and fill operations along the Atlantic traces in the Piedmont region of South Carolina to and Gulf Coasts were dependent on remote sensing identify areas of high ground-water potential. At aircraft data. Lake Minnetonka, Minnesota, four Hasselblad Overflights of flood refuse dumps, begun in 1973 cameras for multispectral photography and specific by the Bureau of Mines, were completed in 1974. spectral analysis are being used in lake overflights to Early detection and determination of the aerial assess water quality trends. Aerial photographic extent of two fires allowed prompt extinguishment studies are continuing in Colorado on the determina- at a much lower cost than would have been the case tion of snow depth and water-equivalent volume in had the fires spread undetected into the nearby coal the San Juan Mountains. Other supported research deposits. Based on the success of this project and are the application of multispectral photography in earlier aerial infrared monitoring research, the the planning and management of North Carolina’s Bureau contracted to have the entire Anthracite water resources, and the use of low-altitude remote Region of Pennsylvania mapped with aerial infrared sensing for detection of water distribution and move- radiometry and aerial photography. Aerial data were ment in subsoils of Missouri. gathered in 1974, and the contractor is analyzing the Aerial data are being used in rangeland research

575-666 0 - 15 - 6 studies and in applications for property boundary mination of locations and magnitudes of hydraulic surveys by the Bureau of Land Management. bank storage. This is in addition to the continuing investigation of the suitability of infrared photog Mining.-An analysis of the geologic structure of raphy for providing resources and land use data the Buchanan County, Virginia, coal mining area utilized in facility location and environmental impact was made by the Bureau of Mines to evaluate air- evaluations. borne side-looking radar (SLAR) imagery for de- lineating structural features that may cause mining International Cooperation problems. The fault and joint systems, identified through lineament analysis of the imagery and con- The USGS effort in international remote sensing firmed by surface and in-mine observations, are included courses conducted in several countries and known to affect gas migration and accumulation and at the EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, South to weaken roof rock in mining workings. The investi- Dakota; international seminars and workshops; spe- gation demonstrated that SLAR surveys can be cial projects and pilot studies in various countries; useful in locating the best sites for drill holes to drain and feasible programs for warning, assessment, and off gas in advance of mining or for commercial gas monitoring natural disasters. production. Training in the Use of Remote Sensing Data The Bureau of Mines acquired 12 bands of aerial multispectral scanner imagery and four types of Fifty-eight scientists and resource managers from aerial photography at two altitudes of an experimen- 35 foreign countries completed training courses at tal underground coal gasification site in Princetown, the EROS Data Center in 1974. The basic theme for West Virginia. The imagery and photography will the two international workshop-seminars held in June be used along with ERTS-1 imagery to map potential and September was to apply ERTS data for monitor- vent zones for gas and to determine the usefulness ing and inventorying resources of each participant’s of overflights in preparing environmental impact country. Disciplines covered included geology, agri- statements for such projects. culture, forestry and rangeland, hydrology, geography, land use, and cartography. Hydrology and Other.-The Bureau of Reclama- An East African seminar and workshop was held tion used black and white, color, and color infrared in Nairobi, Kenya, during March-April. The semi- aerial photography in a variety of research projects, nar’s goals were to provide a background of funda- including monitoring flood conditions on the Trinity mental concepts in the application of remote-sensing River, California, and the Yellowstone River, Mon- technology to resource development and environmen- tana, where a 100-year flood occurred; to map flood tal protection using ERTS data; to familiarize par- plain vegetation on the James River in North and ticipants with optical data processing techniques South Dakota; to assess fish and wildlife habitat; in that could be performed in their own locales; and to a cooperative program with the Bureau of Land provide a basis for planning use of ERTS and Management, to study reclamation and rehabilitation accessory remote-sensing systems for national resources of strip mining sites; and to identify lands being irri- and environmental agency functions. The workshop gated in violation of water rights on the Truckee- sessions involvrd 33 participants from 10 African Carson Irrigation District, Nevada. Multispectral countries. photography and optical-mechanical scanner imagery A short course in remote sensing for scientists from are being used in demonstrating a relationship be- Indonesia was conducted on the island of Bali in tween crop reflectance or emission and the depth to January-February. The course served to train 22 near-surface ground water in irrigated agriculture. Indonesian students, and to develop and commence The Fish and Wildlife Service applied color infra- the study of multispectral aerial photography for red aerial photography to solving problems of water- selected sites in Bali. The project in research of appli- fowl census techniques. Preliminary findings indicate cations of remote sensing that began with the training that digital processing and computer analysis of course is continuing. photography may be a useful tool in the census and In the first year of the Thailand Remote Sensing inventory of specific waterfowl populations. In Min- Training Project 72 participants, 60 from Thailand nesota, multispectral photography was utilized to and 12 from Economic Commission for Asia and the identify wetlands as small as 6 m in diameter and to Far East and Mekong Secretariat countries, received map them according to the type of emergent vegeta- 6 weeks of intensive classroom instruction in funda- tion appearing in l : 16,000-scale photography. mentals of remote sensing and applications of ERTS Bonneville Power Administration has contracted data to problems in agriculture, forestry, land devel- for low-altitude infrared photography of some reser- opment, hydrology, geology, and oceangraphy. Con- voirs in the Pacific Northwest as an aid to the deter- sequent to the training program, at least six Thailand

76 Government departments have established programs tists was conducted in 1974. The project investigated in which ERTS and aerial remote-sensor data are relationships between structural and other geologic being applied experimentally in research and man- features as presently mapped and described, and agement subject areas. features and conditions as depicted by ERTS-1 data. The ERTS data provided new information that is Resource Development and Mapping immediately valuable for the review and editing of Feasibility studies relating to use of ERTS imagery geologic maps being compiled by the Government of in mapping and evaluating selected environmental Afghanistan. features of Mali, Upper Volta, and Niger were per- The USGS is cooperating with the Government formed by USGS hydrologists. ERTS imagery was of Yemen in a study of their mineral and water found to be a valuable source of information for resources problems. ERTS imagery will be applied mapping certain geohydrologic features, for the study where possible in the study. of problems of water resources, range utilization, tsetse fly infestation, and the occurrence of river Evaluating Natural Disasters blindness. Under a binational, multidisciplinary research proj- A project conducted through the Office of Foreign ect between the USGS and several Icelandic scien- Disaster Relief Coordination, called for a USGS tific organizations, a number of significant findings study of potential applications of ERTS and other were made in the study of the varied dynamic, envi- satellite data to determine the nature and extent of ronmental phenomena of Iceland using imagery from natural disasters, to planning of relief measures, and ERTS-1. Some areas of high-temperature geothermal to the development of warning procedures. The activity have been delineated on the basis of altered evaluation concluded that floods and fires can readily ground or snowmelt patterns. New lava flows and be monitored and analyzed and that suitable data depositional patterns of volcanic ash are mappable. analysis techniques are available at present. The ERTS imagery has recorded short-term glaciological ERTS DCS is also highly usable for flood warning changes, such as surging glaciers, and permitted and for warning of volcanic eruptions if ground planimetric revision of glaciological features on maps, sensors are properly emplaced and DCS reception and mapping of subglacial volcanic and structural stations are available. The techniques for assessment features. Of particular value to Iceland has been the of earthquake damage, drought, crop disasters, glacier small-scale mapping of regional vegetative cover, in- movement, and water quality are in varied states of cluding areas where active soil reclamation is being development. carried out. Flooding along approximately 300 river miles of USGS completed a 1-month advisory and guidance the Indus and Jhelum Rivers in Pakistan were de- mission to Companhia de Pesquisas de Recursos lineated in a matter of hours using techniques de- Minerais, which is initiating research demonstration veloped by the Mississippi River flood experiment, projects in remote sensing in Bahia and southern prompting the U.N. Food and Agricultural Orga- Brazil, and is working with the geological and re- nization to request technical assistance in evaluating sources agencies of South Vietnam and Bangladesh flood-related disasters. The USGS analysis of ERTS to develop remote-sensing programs applicable to imagery, in addition to delineating the extent of resource development and mapping. flooding, also revealed leakage under a dam, water A USGS project to demonstrate the application of loss from irrigation canals, areas of ponded waters ERTS-1 data to geologic analysis in Afghanistan in following the flood, locations of ground-water dis- collaboration with Afghanistan Government scien- charge, and correlative hydrologic information.

77 VI1 Department of State

Introduction implications of remote sensing of the earth from space. Growth of international space cooperation efforts Reviewing the work of the Scientific and Technical in support of foreign policy objectives and the goals Subcommittee, the Committee endorsed four studies it included in the National Aeronautics and Space Act had recommended on organizational and financial were a matter of high priority to the Department of aspects of alternative systems for dissemination of State during 1974. Attention continued to be focused remote sensing data. The Committee’s approval of both on cooperation with individual countries and on these studies was in line with the US. position that space endeavors with multilateral and international organizational and financial aspects should be ex- organizations. amined together with legal questions. Particular progress was obtained in the support of efforts toward a European community by the The Committee noted and endorsed the other cooperation of NASA with nine countries in their recommendations of its sub-groups, but was unable to developing a large space laboratory for use with the reach agreement on the question of possibly recon- US. Space Shuttle system. Support of bilateral rela- vening the Working Group on Direct Broadcast tions with the USSR continued through the Joint Satellites. Consideration of a proposal to hold all Apollo/Soyuz Test Project and scientific exchanges. meetings of the Legal Subcommittee in Geneva International cooperation for peaceful uses of space rather than alternating between New York and by all mankind was advanced in the communications Geneva was deferred until a comparative cost analy- satellite programs, the emerging maritime and aero- sis could be prepared. nautical satellite programs and the continued interest in space matters in the United Nations. The United General Assembly Nations, through its Outer Space Committee and The agenda of the 29th General Assembly had two various working groups, has continued to be a prime items on outer space: a draft convention on the reg- forum for the formalization of multinational view- istration of objects launched into outer space, and points and programs to advance cooperation in the the report of the Outer Space Committee. The uses of outer space. United States joined in cosponsoring a resolution commending the text of the Convention on Registra- tion of Objects Launched into Outer Space and Activities Within the United Nations requesting the UN Secretary-General to open the Convention for signature and ratification at the Outer Space Committee carliest possible date. This was passed unanimously Meeting in New York from July 1 to 12, the Com- by the First Committee in October and by the Gen- mittee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space adopted eral Assembly in November. The Outer Space Com- and decided to submit to the General Assembly the mittee report was approved by an omnibus resolu- draft convention on the registration of manmade tion, also adopted unanimously by the First Commit- objects in outer space forwarded to it by the Legal tee and the General Assembly, which recommended Subcommittee. The draft registration convention fully inter alia that the Legal Subcommittee consider with met US.objectives. equal high priority at its next session (a) a draft For the future work of the Legal Subcommittee, treaty relating to the Moon, (b) elaboration of prin- the Committee agreed that priority should be ac- ciples governing the use by States of artificial Earth corded to a draft treaty relating to the moon, the satellites for direct television broadcasting, and (c) elaboration of principles governing the use of satel- the legal implications of remote sensing of the Earth lites for direct television broadcasting, and the legal from space.

79 Legal Subcommittee availability of data obtained by remote sensing satel- lites in its experimental program. The United States Meeting in Geneva from May 6 to 31, the Legal has also consistently upheld the right of unrestricted Subcommittee completed work on a draft convention overflight by satellites for peaceful use of outer space on the registration of objects launched into outer in conformity with the Outer Space Treaty. space for the exploration or use of outer space. The convention converts the existing system of voluntary Working Group on Remote Sensing registration submissions by launching states to the U.N. Secretary-General into a mandatory regime. The deliberations of the Working Group denion- The United States played an active role in the draft- strated growing awareness of the possible uses and ing and negotiation of the convention. The final benefits of remote sensing from satellites of natural negotiations resolved the question of requiring resources and the environment. Meeting in New launching states to mark all space objects with an York in February and March, the Working Group international designator or registration number. The noted that in three years the number of countries US. maintained that such a requirement was un- with coordinating bodies for activities in the remote feasible on both technical and economic grounds. A sensing field had increased from six to 20, and that compromise forniulation provides that if a space imagery for maps of natural features was now avail- object is so marked, this fact shall be reported in the able for all major parts of the world’s land areas. registration submission ; however, the marking is not It noted that the United States, Brazil and France compulsory. had offered various training programs in this field. The Subcommittee again considered the subject of A number of Working Group members accepted a draft treaty relating to the moon but was unable the US. invitation to visit the Earth Resources Ob- to resolve the main outstanding issues: the scope of servation System (EROS) Data Center in Sioux the treaty (whether, as advocated by the United Falls, South Dakota. States, it should cover all bodies of the solar system), The Working Group devoted a great deal of at- furnishing of information on missions (whether cer- tention to possible future organizational schemes for tain information should be provided before launch), the reception, storage and dissemination of remote and provisions concerning exploitation of natural re- sensing data, examining the possibilties of national, sources of the celestial bodies to be covered by the regional and international systems. For practical and treaty. Discussion of these issues will therefore be other reasons, regional and national centers seemed continued at the Subcommittee’s next session in 1975. to hold more promise than a universal system with The Legal Subcommittee considered the report of all states participating in a single organization. the Working Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites, The Working Group noted that the most experi- including proposed principles on direct broadcasting ence from remote sensing had been obtained in the submitted by the United States and other countries. meteorological field, and wclcomed the launching in A working group of the Subcommittee began drafting 1974 of the NOAA Geostationary Operational En- a composite group of principles based on areas of vironmental Satellite (GOES), which will be coordi- agreement reflected in the Working Group’s report, nated with satellites from countries as part of the but was unable to reach consensus on any draft text. Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP) to Broad areas of disagreement persisted regarding pos- be initiated in 1977. The Working Group expected sible approaches to controls over international satel- that there would be growing emphasis on the use of lite direct broadcasting. The Subcommittee agreed remote sensing to study pollution, and noted that in that in view of the amount of work yet to be done this area, as well as that of sensing earth resources, the subject should be a priority item at its next only experimental projects have been conducted to session. date. Those projects have included the U.S. Earth The Subcommittee also considered the report of Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) and the the Working Group on Remote Sensing, which had Skylab Earth Resources Experimental Package requested it to take up the legal implications of such (EREP), and will include a second ERTS satellite activities. Certain countries had submitted draft in 1975. agreements or principles. However, the Legal Sub- A number of countries have submitted draft committee did not have the time to take the matter agreements or principles on the legal aspects of re- up in any depth, and therefore decided to continue mote sensing. The Working Group recognized that, work on this problem at its next session. In general in view of the different approaches to the legal discussion of the subject, a number of countries questions that have been suggested, there is a need advocated some form of control by a sensed state for further consideration of legal aspects and recom- over dissemination of data concerning its territory. mended that the Legal Subcommittee give high The United States has maintained a policy of open priority to this question.

80 Working Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites analyses of organizational and financial requirements (DBS) for the establishment of an international center, or The DBS Working Group held its fifth session of regional centers, for the storage and dissemination from March 11 to 22 at Geneva, continuing its con- of remote sensing data; and the possible establishment sideration of political-legal as well as technical and of educational and training facilities. economic aspects of this developing experimental technology. The Working Group’s attention again International Cooperation centered on the question of drafting principles to govern the use of direct broadcast satellites. The Cooperation with Europe United States has maintained that adoption of bind- Continued efforts on the European Space Research ing principles would be unwise and premature. How- Organization project to develop the Space Laboratory ever, taking into account the strong desire of many for use with NASA’s Space Shuttle have been fruitful other countries to move in this direction, the United in improving our abilities in international cooperation States submitted a set of draft voluntary guidelines on major space projects. This project, which will cost or principles which reflect common interests and the between $300 and $400 million makes it one of the most widely shared areas of understanding and most important cooperative programs in which the agreement on this subject. The United States’ draft U.S. has become involved. was well received, and considerable attention has In June agreements were signed with West Ger- been paid the Working Group and by the Outer by many and France for the reimbursable launch by US. proposals. Space Legal Subcommittee to the NASA of the Symphonie satellite. This is a com- Other proposals have been put before the Working munications experiment to be conducted by the two Group by the Soviet Union, by Canada and Sweden countries. Under the agreement NASA will furnish jointly, and by Argentina. launches and launch services for the satellite on a While tabling its own draft, the United States fully reimbursable basis. argued that the controversial question lies at the heart of restrictive proposals-whether or not each Cooperation with Japan state should have the right to prohibit, through with- Space cooperation between the United States and holding its prior consent, direct television broadcasts Japan during 1974 was dominated by a continued to its territory-should be carefully examined in all flow of space hardware and technology to Japan, its implications before any action is taken. as authorized under terms of the 1969 United States/ The United States also reviewed the progress of Japanese Space Cooperation Agreement. These ex- DBS experimentation, including in particular the ports arc being transferred under United States/ launch of the Applications Technology Satellite Japan industry arrangements subject to the approval ( ATS-6) for a period of experimental broadcasting of the Dcpartiiient of State’s Office of Munitions to community receivers in remote areas of the United Control and are to be used in Japanese efforts to States, to be followed by a year-long exprriment of develop a space launch vehicle and a number of the same kind over India beginning in 1975. scientific and practical applications satellites for launching starting in 1975. Scientific and Technical Subcommittee Negotiations were completed on an agreement for The Subcommittee gave priority in its proceedings NASA to furnish reimbursable launches to synchro- to the report of the Working Group on Remote nous orbit of three Japanese satellites. The first is a Sensing of the Earth by Satellites and to the U.N. meteorological satellite to participate in the inter- space applications program. The United States has national GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Pro- played a major role in both of these fields and was gram) to study wcather. The second is an experimen- able to cite many examples of cooperation with tal communications satellite and the third is an ex- other countries in various fields of space research and perimental broadcast satellite. application. Cooperation with the Soviet During the Subcommittee meetings, consideration Union was given to possible modes of international dissemi- Joint NASA/Soviet Academy of Sciences Working nation of data obtained by satellite remote sensing. Groups continued to implement the May 24, 1972 The United States suggested possible advantages in n US/USSR. Agreement Concerning Cooperation system of regional centers for distributing such data. in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. This The Subcommittee recommended that its parent agreement provides for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Proj- Committee request a series of studies under the ect, a joint experimental flight in 1975 to test com- auspices of the U.N. Secretary-General on the subject, patible rendezvous and docking systems, and for including a summary of cost-effectiveness studies; cooperation in space sciences and applications.

81 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP)-ASTP is the preparing the joint experiment involving the corre- joint US/USSR manned space flight provided for by lation of geomagnetic data through ATS-6 met in the US/USSR Agreement Concerning Cooperation the US in October for testing of breadboard equip- in Space which President Nixon and Chairman ment and technical coordination. The Space Biology Kosygin signed at the Moscow Summit in May 1972. and Medicine Working Group met in the USSR This experimental flight, on schedule for July 1975, last October to exchange biomedical rcsults of the is to test compatible rendezvous and docking systems Soyuz 13 and 14 and Skylab space flights. being developed for future US and USSR manned In the space applications area, the joint Working spacecraft. A successful mission will contribute to a Group on the Natural Environment agreed to (1) rescue capability for future manned space flights and continued analysis and exchange of ERTS/Cosmos broaden opportunities for US and USSR space microwave methods to determine moisture. In addi- cooperation in the years ahead. tion, the Working Group agreed on actions looking The ASTP mission plan calls for the Soyuz to be to the definition of coordinated studies in (1) geology launched first from the Soviet launch site at and geomorphology, (2) vegetation, soil, and land Baikonur. The first Apollo launch opportunity will use, and (3) hydrology. In connection with the pro- occur about 7% hours after Soyuz liftoff. Once in posed coordinated studies of vegetation, soil and orbit, the Apollo will perform the necessary rendez- land use, US scientists visited the Kursk test site vous maneuvers and then dock with the Soyuz. For in the Soviet Union. Also, US and USSR experi- about two days, the astronauts and the cosmonauts mental scientists met in Leningrad in May to present will exchange visits between vehicles and carry out the results of the final analyses of the data obtained joint activities, including experiments in space science during the joint Bering Sea Microwave sensing ex. and applications. There will be additional tests of periment. This was the first time two independent the compatible docking mechanisms, and after final research groups have made microwave radiometry separation, the Apollo spacecraft will conduct further measurements of sea ice and the ocean surface under independent activities before re-entry. the same conditions of varying surface roughness and The docking mechanisms to be used in the mission intervening atmospheric conditions with generally are separately developed by the two nations but are the same results. based on a single set of agreed design specifications Technology Transfer for components which must be compatible. Thus, while there is no transfer of manufacturing know- In 1974 the bulk of license requests for export of how, US and Soviet engineers are closely engaged in space-related hardware and technology processed by the solution of common problems. the Department of State’s Office of Munitions Con- With design and development essentially complete, trol involved transfer under the United States/ major progress in 1974 included joint compatibility Japanese Space Cooperation Agreement and exports tests of communications and docking systems and the to the European area. The Department continued to start of intensive joint flight crew and flight controller emphasize the export of hardware rather than the training. During the year, the Soviet side conducted technology necessary to produce the hardware. two unmanned flights of the Soyuz spacecraft to test new systems and equipment to be used in the joint Satellite Services mission and announced plans for an additional test flight of a manned Soyuz modified to an ASTP con. Communications Satellites figuration. Meanwhile, NASA and the Soviet Acad- The definitive agreements establishing the Inter- emy of Sciences approved flight information plans for national Telecommunications Satellite Organization both the pre-mission and flight phases of the project. (INTELSAT) entered into force February 12, 1973 Plans have been made for the conduot of pre-launch and membership in INTELSAT reached 88 as of and USSR launch sites, and a joint tests at the US December 31, 1974 with the completion of member- flight readiness review has been scheduled for May ship requirements during 1974 by Cyprus, Lebanon, 1975. Haiti and Bolivia. The definitive agreements consist Space Science and Applications.-In the space of an Inter-governmental Agreement and an Operat- science area, a joint NASA/Soviet Academy Con- ing Agreement. The U.S. Government is a party to ference on the Cosmochemistry of the Moon and the the former, and designated the Communications Planets was held in Moscow in June. During the Satellite Corporation (ComSat), a U.S. company, to Conference, a detailed Soviet briefing on the results be its Signatory to the latter. INTELSAT has a of their recent missions to Mars was provided for a structure consisting of an Assembly of Parties, a Meet- team of US specialists associated with the NASA ing of Signatories, a Board of Governors and an Viking Project. US and Soviet specialists who are Executive Organ under the direction of a Secretary

82 General responsible to the Board of Governors. The tion (FAA), the European Space Research Organi- first meeting of the Assembly of Parties took place zation (ESRO) and the Government of Canada. February 4-8, 1974, and dealt generally with matters The program to be undertaken is designed to test the primarily of interest to the Parties as sovereign states, use of communications satellites for air traffic control including consideration of the establishment by the and civil aviation purposes. ESRO has selected the U.S. of space segment facilities separate from the Communications Satellite Corporation (ComSat), a INTELSAT space segment, the selection of a Panel United States corporation, to be co-owner with it and of Experts from which Presidents of Arbitral Tri- Canada of the space segment to be provided; ComSat, bunals will be selected, and consideration of the in turn, will lease communications capabilities to the establishment of formal relations with several inter- FAA. It is planned to launch two satellites in the late national organizations. ComSat participated in the 1970’s. These will be placed in geostationary orbit second meeting of the Meeting of Signatories in April over the Atlantic Ocean. It is thought that an opera- 1974 and represented the United States at the bi- tional system could be in place by the mid-1980’s. monthly meetings of the Board of Governors. The Secretary-General made progress in organizing the Maritime Satellites Executive Organ which will provide financial, legal For a number of years the world’s maritime nations and administrative support. ComSat will provide have realized that a communications satellite system certain technical and operational management serv- might be the solution to the inadequacies of the ices to INTELSAT under contract until 1979. present system of communications with and between As of December 31, 1974 there were 81 INTEL- ships at sea. To this end the United States partici- SAT earth stations operating in 59 countries. In pated during 1974 in the efforts of the Intergovern- November 1974 the sixth satellite in the INTELSAT mental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) IV series was launched and the seventh satellite in to examine how a maritime communications satellite the series will be launched in early 1975 thus adding capabilitity might be developed and implemented. substantial capacity to the global communications Under IMCO sponsorship an international conference coverage. These satellites enable INTELSAT to pro- will be convened in 1975 to examine the establishment vide circuits for voice, data, teletype and facsimile as of an international maritime satellite system. well as television channels. Communications capa- bility will be further augmented by the launch during Support to Federal Agencies 1975 of the first of two INTELSAT IV-A satellites. Whereas the INTELSAT IV satellites each have a design capacity of 4,000 circuits, the IV-A’s will each NASA Spaceflight Support have a design capacity of 7,500 circuits. During 1974 The Department and its posts overseas continued design work was advanced on the next generation of in 1974 to support NASA manned space flight mis- satellites, the INTELSAT V series. sions, by arranging for the basing of recovery, track- ing and other mobile support forces at foreign in- Aeronautical Setellites stallations. Negotiations regarding the establishment of an Cooperatiow with the Department of Defense experimental aeronautical communications satellite During 1974 the Department of State continued to system (AEROSAT) culminated with the entry into work closely with the Department of Defense on force on August 2, 1974 of a Memorandum of Under- various military space issues having international standing between the Federal Aviation Administra- implications.

83 VIII P National Science Foundation

Introduction of technical difficulties, blind pointing and on-board data recording showed the entire disappearance and The National Science Foundation, established to reappearance of the nebula. The size and shape were promote the progress of science, supports research and observed to be somewhat different than expected. educational activities in many fields of science. Re- From X-rays of energy between 20 and 150 kilovolts, search activities carried out with NSF support are the size of the nebula was three times larger as it re- directed to improving our understanding of natural appeared at a different angle from behind the moving phenomena from which stem new opportunities for Moon than when it disappeared. The size is smaller further accomplishments in basic and applied science. than that measured during the last occultation in Programs in the Foundation related to aeronautics 1964, and its extension in shape is at a right angle to and space science are found in areas of astronomy, the visual extension direction. Observations at this atmospheric sciences, engineering, materials, chemis- and other occultations will allow construction of a try, polar studies, and applied research. Many NSF map of the sources which will help in understanding investigators use facilities at the National Research the physical makeup of this supernova remnant, still Centers, administered under contract with the Foun- in a very energetic state after 920 years. dation. Educational support includes grant funds for During the year there was increased ground-based institutional programs and individuals. support of NASA space missions through coordinated Astronomy observations by scientists using optical, infrared, and radio telescopes at university and National Center General observatories. Of special interest was the support to The comet Kohoutek, the most thoroughly ob- Skylab by solar astronomers, and to the Pioneer 10 served comet in history, was detected late last year and 11 missions to Jupiter and the Mariner Venus- in the radio range, and molecules of methyl cyanide, Mercury flight by planetary scientists. The ground- hydrogen cyanide, and other compounds were found. based observations help ensure the maximum return Detection of the water molecule, long suspected to be in the effort to better understand the physics of the present in comets, confirmed the icy model of comets. solar system. In September, what is believed to be a thirteenth Kitt Peak National Observatory satellite of the planet Jupiter was discovered. Further observations are being made to confirm the orbit. The primary mission of the Kitt Peak National From its retrograde motion, it is theorized that it Observatory (KPNO) is to provide facilities for could have been an asteroid that passed near the research in solar, planetary, stellar, and galactic as- giant planet and was captured. tronomy. Major ground-based telescopes, auxiliary Among the several new pulsar discoveries supported instrumentation, and related support facilities are by the Foundation, one pulsar was found to be also a available to observatory staff and visiting astronomers member of a double star system. In this double system, from research and educational institutions throughout the two stars revolve about each other in 7.75 hours. the United States and abroad. From the period of pulsation and its constancy, the The principal observing facilities of KPNO are age of the neutron star is estimated to be several located on Kitt Peak, 40 miles southwest of Tucson, thousand years. Ariz. These facilities include nine stellar telescopes. With X-ray detectors mounted on a balloon, MIT The most recent addition is the 4-meter Maya11 Tele- astronomers used the Moon as a shutter as it made scope, which was brought into full operation in Au- one of its rare passes last August in front of the Crab gust 1974. This powerful instrument with its fast Nebula, source of visible light and X-rays. In spite prime focus opens new fields of galactic and extra-

a5 galactic astronomy. The new Solar Vacuum Tele- structure of our own Milky Way galaxy as well as scope and Magnetograph provides full-disk, high res- delineating processes involved in star formation. TWO olution maps of the magnetic fields and gas motions new inteIstellar molecules have been discovered- on the Sun. It provided solar magnetograms as part dimethyl ether, the largest molecule yet detected in of the ground-based support for the NASA-Skylab space, and silicon monosulphide, the first interstellar Apollo Telescope Mount solar experiments. molecule composed only of elements with atomic In 1974, astronomers using the 1.5-meter McMath weight greater than 20. Very long baseline (VLB) Solar Telescope reported the discovery of two new observations, in cooperation with other radio as- organic molecules in the atmosphere of Jupiter: tronomy observatories, have been providing details of ethane and acetylene. While the discovery of simple the size and shape of the emitting regions of compact organic molecules is not indicative of life on Jupiter, radio sources, including quasars and pulsars. Radio evidence of their presence is important to under- measurements of the relativistic bending of electro- standing steps in the chemical evolution of that planet. magnetic radiation in the presence of strong gravi- Excellent data have been obtained in far larger tational fields are providing important new checks of amounts than originally expected from the ultraviolet general relativity theory. spectrometer designed and built by KPNO and placed National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center on board the NASA Mariner 10 spacecraft. Data ( NAZC ) from the Venus flyby indicate the presence of signifi- In 1974, the major upgrading of the 1,000-foot- cant concentrations of hydrogen, helium, carbon, and oxygen atoms in the upper atmosphere and indicate diameter radio/radar telescope was completed at the an exospheric temperature of 400” K. (260’ F.) Data NAIC observing site near Arecibo, P.R. This upgrad- ing will provide the world‘s most advanced research from the Mercury encounter indicate the presence of instrumentation for radio and radar astronomy and an atmosphere consisting largely of the gases argon ionospheric research. When final surveys and align- and neon, with some evidence of hydrogen and helium. ments are complete in early 1975, the new aluminum panels of the telescope will form a precision spherical National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) surface accurate to within 1/8 inch. This new surface broadens the frequency range available for scientific The National Radio Astronomy Observatory observations by a factor of 12. A 450-kilowatt 5-band (NRAO), with headquarters in Charlottesville, Va., planetary radar transmitter, sponsored by the National provides advanced facilities for research in radio Aeronautics and Space Administration and completed astronomy. The major observatory instruments, lo- in October 1974, increases the planetary ranging and cated at Green Bank, w. Va., include a 300-foot surface mapping capabilities of the Arecibo telescope meridian transit telescope, a 140-foot fully steerable by a thousandfold. telescope, a three-element interferometer consisting of One of many fruitful scientific programs at. NAIC 85-foot telescopes that can operate in conjunction with involves a search for new pulsars in the galactic plane. a remote portable 45-foot antenna, and a 36-foot milli- With a newly installed ultrasensitive receiver system, meter wave telescope. Observations at decimeter and 21 new pulsars were soon discovered. Examination of meter wavelengths are made with the 300-foot and the radiation coming from these pulsars enables radio 140-foot telescopes, and studies of the angular struc- astronomers to make more accurate estimates of pulsar ture of radio sources are made with the interfero- distances and to better understand the structure, meter. Extremely short wavelength observations re- origin, and evolution of our galaxy. quired for interstellar molecular spectroscopy are Cerro Tololo Znter-American Observatory ( CTZO ) made with a 36-foot radio telescope located on Kitt Peak, near Tucson, Ariz. The Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, An important new observing facility, the Very providing ground-based telescopes, auxiliary instru- Large Array (VLA), is under construction on the mentation, and support facilities for studies of astro- Plains of San Augustin near Socorro, New Mexico. nomical objects in the Southern Hemisphere, offers When completed in 1981, the VLA will have both what has been judged to be the best atmospheric radio image formation and spectral line analysis “seeing” conditions for astronomical research avail- capabilities. Partial operation is scheduled to begin able anywhere in the world. The observing facilities in November 1976. on Cerro Tololo include eight major telescopes. A Scientific programs in progress using the NRAO major new 4-meter telescope, installed in late 1974, major telescope systems include galactic studies, in- is scheduled to become fully operational in 1975. Op- vestigations of discrete radio sources, and tests of eration of the two similar 4-meter telescopes at CTIO general relativity. Observations of interstellar gas and and KPNO is an unprecedented step for optical dust clouds are providing details of the large-scale astronomy, providing the first opportunity for a

86 coordinated attack on “limit” problems in astronomy the atmosphere of other planets. Major attention is using advanced instruments that are located in both devoted to the Earth’s magnetosphere and particles the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Astron- and fields in it. Trapping and release of particles, omers at CTIO have accomplished outstanding re- wave-particle interactions, and currents and mag- sults. In studies of the clouds of hot ionized inter- netic fields are all associated with spectacular aurora, stellar hydrogen gas in the Magellanic Clouds, meas- magnetic storms, interferences with radio, long-line urements of Doppler shifts in the spectral line pro- telephonic communication, and with surges on large files confirmed that the Large Magellanic Cloud is a power networks. During the year progress continued thin rotating disk viewed face on, and that the clouds to be made in several research areas. For instance, surrounding some of the hot luminous stars exhibit analysis has been continuing on the fact that the violent internal motions. North American electric power grid is depositing Astronomers at CTIO have also pursued exten- small amounts of the electromagnetic energy in the sive studies of infrared sources associated with very near-Earth magnetosphere-a phenomenon that was young stars in dark clouds within our own galaxy. unexpectedly discovered in a study of radio waves Astronomers have been conducting searches for the transmitted from the Antarctic through the mag- youngest known astronomical objects, using an image netosphere and received in Canada. intensifier sensitive to infrared wavelengths that makes Aeronomy it possible to look through the shrouds of gas and The atmosphere of the Earth at high altitudes is dust surrounding the youngest stars. A number of generally taken as the domain of aeronomy. The objects were found that appear very bright in the Foundation supports theoretical and field studies of sky at infrared wavelengths of 1 micron but are in- phenomena that occur in this region and laboratory visible in the optical range. It is likely that many of investigations to provide insight into the atomic and these are young stars still deriving their energy from molecular processes taking place there. Phenomena the collapse of the clouds of dust and gas out of investigated include light of the night sky, aurora, which they were formed. ionospheric instabilities, and the dynamics of the A new computer-based data system, successfully normal ionosphere at all latitudes. The most intensive tested in 1974, forms an integral unit that makes it investigations, important to the International Mag possible for astronomers to secure a quick look at netospheric Study, involve the auroral zone in Alaska. large quantities of processed data on nearly a real- Some aeronomy research is being devoted to studies time basis. Expansion of the CTIO data system has of the chemistry of the atmosphere in the hope that made possible heavy use of new pieces of equipment the constitution of the “normal” stratosphere and that are greatly increasing the operational efficiency mesosphere (which extends beyond the stratosphere) and sensitivity of existing telescopes. can be determined. This work is particularly im- portant in order to have a reference against which to measure possible future alterations due to human Atmospheric Sciences activity. Meteorology Solar-Terrestrial Research NSF supports a broad range of investigations into The space physics of the Earth’s environment and the dynamical and physical behavior of the atmos- the interaction of this environment with the Earth’s phere, including field observations, laboratory ex- atmosphere are concerns of NSF’s Solar-Terrestrial periments, and theoretical and numerical analysis program. The Sun continuously forces out from its of the data together with the development of tech- surface a flow of charged particles-the solar wind. niques for remote sensing. Techniques are being de- Intermittently and by mechanisms not yet under- veloped for remote sensing of atmospheric motions, stood, much smaller numbers of particles in disturbed and of particulate and gaseous species. A variety of solar regions are accelerated to high energies and are studies on radar is supported, along with other in- hurled into space. A large part of NSF’s program is vestigations attempting to monitor the build-up of devoted to a study of these particles and their inter- carbon dioxide in the global atmosphere and changes actions. Optical and radio studies of the dynamics in concentrations of atmospheric particulates. Over of the atmosphere are supported, as well as investi- the past several years there has been an expanded gations using cosmic rays as a probing tool to study program of stratospheric research, supported in part the solar wind. Studies on the outer reaches of the by transfers of funds from the Department of Trans- solar atmosphere, the interplanetary plasma, and the portation. Balloon and aircraft measurements of trace Earth‘s magnetosphere are included ; also observa- constituents such as water vapor and nitric acid and tional and theoretical research on the interaction of numerical modeling of stratospheric dynamics are the solar wind with the Earth’s magnetosphere and included.

87 National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) mosphere research in Antarctica takes place at MC- Murdo Station (cosmic ray observatory) and at the The National Center for Atmospheric Research geographic south pole (aurora studies). has two major objectives: to plan and conduct or participate in selected atmospheric programs, and to Engineering develop and operate major research facilities and services most needed by atmospheric scientists. Many NSF-funded research activities dealing with During the summer of 1974, NCAR scientists, fluid dynamic problems are directly applicable to ground measurement teams, and aircraft assisted with space and aeronautical problems. Some current areas the Global Atmospheric Research Program-Atlantic of support include unsteady viscous flows, near wake Tropical Experiment (GATE). This experiment studies, large-scale organized structure in turbulent- produced the most extensive data ever gathered on free shear flows, and gaseous separation processes. In tropical meteorological processes and their inter- all cases, research is focused on quantification of the action with global atmospheric circulations. These physical phenomena and provision of necessary data data gathered are of critical importance in develop- base for future designs. Research on stability as well ing and testing models of intermediate-scale tropical as the mechanics of laminar-turbulent transition re- weather and climate systems, as well as of worldwide ceives continuous support. Other aeronautics-related systems. investigations include work in numerical fluid me- In NCAR’s continuing research on hailstorms, de- chanics and vortex dynamics. tailed analyses of the airflow and moisture budget of a typical hailstorm are conducted. This work has Materials Research advanced the understanding required to improve the predictions of hailstorm severity, and to determine Research areas of significance to aerospace applica- the best approach for suppressing hail. tions include processing, structural aspects, and elec- Scientists at NCAR’s High Altitude Observatory tronic properties of technological materials. In the obtained about 35,000 photographs of the solar area of processing, cutting materials and machining corona over a 7-month period with equipment metals and alloys to yield desirable products are en- aboard the NASA manned spacecraft SKYAB. ormously expensive, from both materials resource and These reveal both persistent and many transient energy consumption perspectives. Research on ma- phenomena in the corona during seven rotations of terials for carbide tools and on oxide and diamond the Sun. Such photos were previously available only abrasive grains for grinding wheels has extensive during the rare and brief total eclipses of the Sun. support, as well as the study of basic mechanisms of chip removal during cutting and grinding. Through U.S. Antarctic Research Program periodic meetings of university grantees with mem- bers from the metal cutting industry, close correlation Most of the upper atmosphere physics studies of of effort is maintained between university research the multidisciplinary U.S. Antarctic Research Pro- and industrial demands on cutting materials. In the gram are done at Siple Station near the base of the area of composite materials, requirements of increased Antarctic Peninsula. Instrumentation includes a performance of materials used in aircraft engines unique 2 1.4-kilometer-long Very Low Frequency and air frames tax to the limit many conventional (VLF) dipole antenna, which serves as both a re- alloys and ceramic materials. Basic studies are sup- ceiver and a transmitter, and will be of importance ported involving solidification and fabrication of ma- in the International Magnetospheric Study, planned terials that yield controlled composite structures hav- for 1976-1979. Instrumented balloons are sent aloft ing desirable properties for particular applications. In every other year to detect particles precipitated from the semiconducting materials area, research topics trapped radiation through interaction with electro- receiving significant support include basic studies of magnetic waves; in situ VLF acti6ity is measured on compound semiconductors, including multi-compo- some flights. Measurements from these instruments nent systems, of potential use in new heterojunction contribute to investigation of how solar energy devices. Such devices include light-emitting diodes, crosses the boundaries separating the various mag- heterojunction lasers, picosecond infrared detectors, netic regimes and affects the terrestrial environment. and materials and junctions for solar voltaic con- Especially useful is the ability to compare particle version. measurements with wave measurements, allowing Materials research in the solid state sciences is investigation of wave-particle interactions as a func- active in a number of areas which will affect future tion of frequency. Many measurements are made aeronautic and space technologies. Investigations of simultaneously in Quebec, at the Northern Hemis- the fundamental mechanisms for defect formation phere conjugate of Siple Station. Other upper at. and migration in metals, insulators, and seniiconduct- ors have an obvious bearing on the future develop- Wind Energy Conversion ment of materials with structural, electronic, and The objective of NSF’s Wind Energy Conversion thermal properties suited to the extreme thermal and Systems program is to advance the technical and radiation environments encountered in space. Related economic performance of wind energy systems as a research on ionic diffusion in nonstochiometric solids viable alternative source of energy. The advances in bears on the development of solid state batteries and aeronautical technology, in recent years are being fuel cells for possible use in space vehicles. Research applied with the help of NASA to the design of in low temperature physics, on high temperature advanced wind energy systems. Aerodynamic research superconductors, and cryogenic coolers now in prog- is being undertaken in, or as part of, several projects ress point to possible future use of superconductors in to increase the performance and capability of wind space applications as sensors and microwave compo- energy systems. nents. Other research on new materials with unusual electronic and optical properties such as amorphous Photovoltaic Conversion semiconductors, organic charge transfer salts, and The Photovoltaic Energy Conversion program is liquid crystals may develop ways of using these ma- designed primarily to develop economically viable terials in electronic and electro-optical components for photovoltaic electric power systems capable of prov.id- space applications. ing a significant amount of the Nation’s energy re- quirements by the year 2000. While this program is geared for terrestrial applications of solar cells, many Chemistry of its achievements should readily find applications in the Nation’s space program. This program is being Although terrestrially based and aimed largely at carried through close collaboration with numerous solving Earthbound problems, NSF-supported re- Government laboratories, such as the NASA-Lewis Re- search in modern chemistry creates knowledge that is search Center, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the essential for progress in the aeronautics and space Goddard Space Flight Center. Examples of recent sciences. For example, the research in spectroscopy, program achievements include successful experiments reaction dynamics, and photochemistry provide signi- which have produced ribbons of crystalline silicon ficant input to the body of information required for with sufficient quality to be made into solar cells with modeling of the atmospheres that surround celestial efficiencies as high as 10 percent. Cadmium sulfide/ bodies, including the atmospheric pollution modeling copper sulfide solar cells have been prepared with up problems on Earth. This research also contributes to to 6 percent efficiency. Other experiments have shown the development of lasers. Research in chemical syn- the possibility of producing extremely low-cost solar thesis, structure, and reaction dynamics provides a sig- cells based on a semiconducting glass-silicon hetero- nificant component of background information from junction. There are strong indications that such cells which potential propellant systems can be evaluated. will have efficiencies up to 16 percent for single Research in chemical analysis and spectroscopy leads crystal silicon, and up to percent for polycrystalline to improved methods for characterizing and under- 8 silicon cells. standing matter, ranging from new materials for space vehicles to determining the chemical composition of interstellar space. The information gained from fun- Education Activities damental studies in chemistry is essential to the eluci- dation of how molecules are formed in space. In fiscal year 1974 the Foundation’s Education Directorate placed $740,392 in support of 47 awards for activities related to the aeronautic and space Research Applied to National Needs sciences. The greatest proportion of these funds sup- .. . ported the training of 27 graduate students in NSF’s Solar Thermal Conversion Graduate Fellowship program. Funds also helped up- Two types of selective coatings with high absorption grade the aeronautic and space sciences subject matter and low emission characteristics are being developed background of seven college and university faculty for use in solar collector systems. These coatings will members through the Faculty Research Participation efficiently convert solar energy to heat and minimize program. Also, projects helped 141 superior secondary subsequent heat loss. Since spacecraft require thermal school students and 28 undergraduate students obtain management systems to insure that no difficulties arise unusual independent study and research experiences from incident solar energy, from internally generated related to the aeronautic and space sciences. Eleven heat, and from excessive radiation of thermal energy projects designed to improve instructional programs to deep space, the two coatings may have important in these disciplines were supported at the under- applications in spacecraft design. graduate level of education. National Academy of Sciences IX National Academy of Engineering National Research Council

Introduction received and submitted to the Board for cross-ranking of priorities among the various disciplines. The Modern science and technology are sufficiently Board’s findings and recommendations will be issued complex and interwoven that continuing analysis of early in 1975. As a part of this exercise, a special their directions, problems, and interactions is neces- study on strategies for the exploration of Mars was sary to assure that they will properly serve society at carried out during the summer. Some 20 scientists appropriate cost. participated in the 8-day study. The charter of the National Academy of Sciences The Board‘s Exobiology Panel participated in the (NAS) , a Congressional Act of Incorporation signed priorities study by proposing strategies for the bio- by Abraham Lincoln in 1863, calls upon it to serve as logical exploration of Mars and other solar system an official adviser, upon request and without fee, to objects. In addition, the Panel addressed itself to the the Federal Government on any question of science or issue of the possible hazard to the earth of a sample technology. The National Academy of Engineering returned from Mars (back contamination) and the (NAE) was established in 1964, under the charter of possibility that earth organisms brought by spacecraft the NAS, as a parallel organization of distinguished might contaminate other planets (planetary quaran- engineers, sharing with the NAS its Federal advisory tine), responsibilities. Most of the activities undertaken by The Committee on Space Biology and Medicine the two Academies are carried out through the proposed directions for future life sciences research in National Research Council (NRC), which is repre- the space shuttle era based on an evaluation of experi- sentative of the major scientific and technical so- ence to date. The Committee on International Rela- cieties, and whose members are derived from univer- tions assisted the Board in carrying out its commit- sities, industry, and the scientific agencies of the ments as Academy representatives to the Committee Federal Government. on Space Research (COSPAR) of the International The advisory work of the Academies-Research Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). Council is normally carried out by individual com- mittees or through special studies. That related to Solar-Terrestrial Research aeronautics and space in 1974 is briefly described The Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research- below. (CSTR; NRC) reviews and makes recommendations on the national program in solar-terrestrial physics Aerospace Science and, through international bodies, participates in the organization and planning of international research SQace Science Priorities in solar physics, interplanetary medium, planetary The Space Science Board-(NRC) adopted as its atmospheres, and the magnetosphere. In April 1974, principal work in 1974 a study of priorities in space the President’s Science Adviser announced that the science. The study involved the year-long collabora- U.S. will participate in the International Magnetos- tion between the Board and three of its major com- pheric Study (IMS), an international cooperative mittees, Space Astronomy, Space Physics, and Planet- enterprise to be conducted in 1976-1978. This was a ary and Lunar Exploration, in a critical examination result of recommendations of a joint study by CSTR of space mission strategies on the basis of scientific and the Space Science Board in 1973 and a report merit. Preliminary reports containing mission models by a panel of CSTR in 1974 outlining a specific plan for the disciplines involved were prepared by the com- for U.S. participation in the IMS. The chief objective mittees and mailed to a representative segment of the of the IMS is to obtain a comprehensive quantitative scientific community for criticism and comment. The understanding of the dynamical processes operating reports were revised to accommodate the comments on plasmas in the geomagnetic field. The operational 91

575-666 0 - 75 - 7 basis of the IMS is an international plan of coordi- and expressing U.S. inputs to international plan- nated observations from spacecraft, ground-based ning and for assisting the government relative to U.S. facilities, aircraft, balloons, and research rockets. participation in the program. The Interdepartmental Committee on Atmospheric The first major GARP field observational programs Sciences of the Federal Council for Science and Tech- were executed during 1974. In the spring, the Air- nology in consultation with the CSTR panel is pre- Mass Transformation Experiment ( AMTEX) was paring to coordinate technical and procedural aspects conducted in the South China Sea to study air-sea of the US. participation. To this end a program interactions between the warm Kurochio current and office to coordinate U.S. activities in IMS has been cold Asian air masses. Although principally led by the established in the National Science Foundation. Japanese, a number of U.S. groups contributed. In the summer of 1974, the GARP Atlantic Tropical Atmospheric Sciences Experiment was conducted off the coast of Africa. The Committee on Atmospheric Sciences-( NRC) This field program, the largest such effort undertaken, encourages research and development that will pro- was designed to study the interaction between various vide a balanced national program in the atmospheric scales of dynamic weather stystems in the tropics with sciences. Recent studies in weather modification, at- a view to realistically incorporating these processes mospheric chemistry, air quality, and weather dangers in numerical models of the global atmosphere. Ships, have focused on the necessity to develop a system of aircraft, and over four thousand people from ten con- regional and global observations to cope with national tributing nations took part in the program. Geosta- needs for improved short- and long-term weather tionary and polar-orbiting satellites were indispensible predictions, improved understanding of the complex elements in both GATE and AMTEX, providing chemical and photochemical processes occurring in cloud imagery, wind estimates from cloud motions, the atmosphere, a greater understanding of the small- sea-surface temperature measurements, and vertical and large-scale interaction of the atmosphere with un- atmospheric temperature profiles. These experiments derlying surfaces-oceans, snow and ice fields, and were precursors to the First GARP Global Experi- mountains. Many of the needed observations for these ment now scheduled for 1978-79. This will be a 12- studies must be obtained by remote sensing devices, month period of intensive observation of the global through an integrated system of ground-based, satel- atmosphere and oceans by surface-based systems, satel- lite, and aircraft-borne sensors. Current studies by the lites, and special observing systems. Planning and Academy, the government, and research centers are preparation for U.S. participation in this program converging on the potential contributions that experi- will be a major concern of the USC-GARP for the mental and field studies in severe weather conditions next several years. can provide to the safety and welfare of our citizens. The Climatic Impact Committee-(CIC; NAS- Scientists, administrators, and public officials, now NAE) is a multi-disciplinary group concerned with more than ever before, recognize the need for the inadvertent climate modification that might result prompt application of observational measurement from those activities of man that affect the upper at- capabilities available to the nation for working on mosphere and particularly the stratosphere. The Com- these problems. Such programs also require the utili- mittee has been advisory to the Department of Trans- zation of advanced computers to allow theoretical and portation (DOT) and other federal agencies on re- experimental analyses and diagnoses to be carried out search priorities in this area. It is now preparing a in prompt and effective ways. report to assess the state of knowledge developed by The Global Atmospheric Research Program- DOT’S Climatic Impact Assessment Program (CIAP) (GARP) is an international research effort to de- and related studies around the world on possible velop an understanding of the atmosphere and oceans effects of stratospheric pollutants on the earth’s cli- in order to understand and to predict the transient mate, and the biological, social, and economic ramifi- behavior of weather and the statistical characteristics cations. The scope of problems considered by the of climate. The program stems from resolutions of CIC include possible hemispheric changes in ultra- the United Nations and is vigorously supported by violet light at the earth’s surface due to ozone de- the nations of the world. An international Joint Or- pletion from natural and man-made pollutants (e.g., ganizing Committee sets overall scientific objectives volcanoes, aircraft, space shuttle, atmospheric nuclear and defines subprograms of observation and research. testing, and chlorofluoromethanes used as aerosol pro- These are expanded and implemented within each pellants and in refrigeration systems) in the strato- participating country by groups in the scientific com- sphere and troposphere. Also considered are problems munity and the government. In the United States, of possible climate changes in temperature and pre- the US. Committee for GARP-((USC-GARP) and cipitation due to oxides of Nitrogen and particulates its panels are the principal mechanism for defining introduced into the stratosphere, corresponding bio- logical effects, and the economic and social costs of conduction, audiometric testing, longitudinal studies such changes. The study’s tasks include uncertainty of hearing, development of a test for speech recep- analyses for various climatic and agricultural models tion of aviators, principles for testing speech recep- and consideration of possible international regulatory tion, retirement standards based on speech reception constraints on high-altitude aircraft coupled with a in noise, transportation noise, military problems in geophysical and biological monitoring program to ear disease and hearing, criteria for hazardous ex- measure harmful effects. The conclusions of the 1974 posures to impulse and continuous noise, permissible study will be published as an NAS-NAE report in noise for vibration levels in aircraft cabins and cock- early 1975. pits, adoption of a single noise scale, airport noise survey instruments, and speech reception as affected L;f e Sciences by aging. The Committee has published the follow- The Advisory Center on Toxicology-(NRC) ing aerospace-related report. Research Facilities in serves as a central source of information and technical Audition within the Armed Forces. staff to enable the Committee on Toxicology to an- swer the specific questions of a toxicologic nature Space Applications presented by its ten sponsoring agencies, one of which The Space Applications Board-( NAE-NRC) is the National Aeronautics and Space Administra- provides advice and recommendations to the Federal tion. The Committee is continuing its study of the Government on applications of space techniques and potential environmental health effects associated with capabilities and stimulates collaboration among the the use of a mercury ion engine in the Solar Electric pertinent components of the government and indus- Propulsion System. Attention is being focused on try. The Board’s membership is extremely broad, en- the consequences of a remotely possible on-pad or compassing natural and social sciences, public affairs early-launch abort. The study should be completed and communications. During 1974, the Board con- around the first of the year and is intended for use tinued to investigate institutional inhibitions to in preparing the environmental impact statement. achieving widespread benefits from space applica- The Committee has recently undertaken an evalu- tions. In addition, the Board interviewed a number ation of the health hazards from fires involving various of government and private organizations to gain an materials of construction (plastics) for aircraft, to understanding of the implications of the phase-down serve as a basis for material selection. Following last of NASA’s activities in satellites communications year’s study of the health effects of ozone on flight crews of high altitude aircraft, the Committee is now research and development. directing its attention to the effects on the general During the summer of 1974, the Board conducted public, including aircraft passengers, of short ex- a two-week study of space applications. The study posures to ozone. This report, to be completed in was organized around use-oriented panels whose as- 1974, will indicate the extent, if any, of public health signments included reviewing progress in space ap- hazards. The Director of the Center will discuss the plications and defining user needs capable of being health hazards of hydrazine type rocket fuels at the met by the application of space systems. Potential Annual Conference of NASA Clinical Directors, En- users drawn from federal, state, and local govern- vironmental Health Officials, and Medical Program ments and from business and industry were im- Advisors. panelled in the fields of weather and climate, uses of communications, land use, agricultural re- The Committee on Vision-(NRC) has written sources, water resources, extractable resources, en- reports on the following aerospace-related problems : vironmental quality, maritime activities, and materials visual elements in flight simulation, air-to-air visual processing in space. The user panelists were unani- detection, visual problems in head-;p and element- mous in their conclusion that practical uses of space mounted displays, loss of distant vision in pilots, systems ofer significant potential benefits and that misleading visual information in night landings, these benefits could be very large. A summary report visual evaluation of light-emitting diode displays, and and reports of the summer study panels are expected visual problems in certification of pilots. In addition, to be released by the NRC early in 1975. a report is in progress on procedures for testing color vision. A symposium was held during the year on The Committee on Remote Sensing Programs for psychological aspects of eye movements. Earth Resource Surveys-(CORSPERS; NRC) is an advisory committee on the use of remote sensing The Committee on Hearing, Bioacoustics, and Bio- from spacecraft and aircraft to survey earth resources mechanics-(NRC) is working on the following and to monitor the environment. The Departments aerospace-related problems : evaluation of environ- of Interior (USGS), Commerce (NOAA), Agricul- mental impact of noise, guidelines for pure-tone, air- ture, Navy, and Army (Civil Works, US Army

93 Corps of Engineers), the Environmental Protection viewing the international radio regulations and are Agency, the Agency for International Development, preparing recommendations on allocations of fre- and the National Science Foundation are sponsors quencies for space research and radio astronomy for for the Committee. CORSPERS has completed an submission to the Federal Communication Cornmis- 18-month study of the results obtained by the Earth sion for use in preparing the U.S. position for the Resources Technology Satellites, ERTS-1. The Com- 1979 World Administrative Radio Conference. mittee was impressed by the significant resource and The Panel on the Geochemical Environment in environmental information that the investigators were Relation to Health and Disease-is aware of a pos- able to extract from the ERTS data. This was in sible usefulness of remote sensing technology in study- spite of the fact that the ERTS sensors and the ing trace elements distribution in plants and as a data handling facilities now in use are not repre- consequence in man’s food chain. The ERTS pro- sentative of what could be done with current tech- gram is making it possible for hydrologists around nology. The Committee concluded that the tech- the world to realize the usefulness of remote sensing nology used in the ERTS program is readily extend- imagery and provide new insights into how it can able to optimized operational systems that can satisfy be used in water resources studies. Remote sensing major data requirements of many difierent categories information continues to be useful for geodetic work of resource managers and environmental monitors. and offers possible techniques that will be useful in During the course of this review it became evident earthquake hazard studies. to the Committee that the operational user com- munity was quite often reluctant to commit itself Aerospace Engi.neering to using the ERTS data. There were two basic rea- The Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board- sons for this. First, there is no assurance that the (ASEB; NAE) in 1974 concentrated its efforts on program will be continued beyond the technology NASA’s proposed aeronautical research and develop- demonstration phase. Any major investment in per- ment programs and systems. An ASEB ad hoc Com- sonnel training, specialized equipment, decision mittee on Alternative Aircraft Fuels was established model changes, etc., needed to shift to the use of to consider possible alternatives to current jet fuels space imagery must be viewed as speculative until now in common use by commercial and military air- there is assurance of continuity of data. The second craft. A great amount of effort has been expended reason is that the strength of repetitive synoptic space also in the Board’s consideration of V/STOL tech- imagery, with selective spectral range and resolution nology, advanced transport technology, and the long- but with relatively low spatial resolution, does not range practicability of hydrogen as a future fuel for readily fit into the information process and decision aircraft. In space engineering, Board efforts have models currently used by many operational managers. been focused on NASA’s progress in engineering and A joint effort by the user community and remote sens- management of the space shuttle program. An ad ing technologists is needed to bridge this gap. The hoc committee was established to review one of the Committee endorses the recent efforts by the user important planetary programs under way in NASA agencies and NASA to initiate joint quasi-operational in an effort to determine how cost effectiveness in or demonstration projects. this and similar programs could be improved. The Committee on Radio Frequencies-(CORF; To ensure optimum utilization of funds allocated NRC) and its Subcommittees on Space Science, by Congress to the nation’s space research, engineer- Radio Astronomy, and Earth and Life Sciences, co- ing, and applications activities, the Chairman and ordinate the views of the U.S. scientific and engi- staff of the ASEB expend continuing effort to co- neering communities regarding the radio frequencies ordinate activities with the NRC’s Space Science needed for research. CORF worked closely with and Space Applications Boards. As an example of Study Group 2 of the U.S. National Committee for this cooperation, the Chairman of the ASEB served the International Radio Consultative Committee as Deputy Director of Systems Implications during (CCIR) in preparing documents on space research the Space Applications Board’s two-week Summer and radio astronomy for the CCIR Study Group 2 Study of Space Applications (see above). The Board meeting held in Geneva in March 1974. will continue its emphasis on research and develop- Upon CORF’s recommendations, tests were con- ment activities critical to the achievement of na- ducted by several radio astronomy observatories to tional aeronautical and space engineering programs study the interference to the observatories by trans- oriented well into the future. missions from ATS-6 and determine what measures The National Materials Advisory Board- can be taken to protect radio astronomy from broad- (NMAB; NRC) is concerned with the advancement cast satellites. CORF and its subcommittees are re- of materials science and engineering in the national

94 interest. The scope of the activity covers the entire NMAB has a long-term study to address multi- life-cycle from raw material through finished product agency interests in the fire safety aspects of polymeric and the recycle of the spent product into the process- materials. The first volume of the committee’s report ing system. A significant portion of the Board’s ac- (NMAB-318) was published this year. It addresses tivities pertains to aerospace materials. The NMAB the fire safety aspects of polymeric materials in the completed several studies in 1974 which address spe- furnishings of aircraft (civil and military) . Late in cific problems in aerospace materials technology and the year, the ad hoc Committee on Structural Ad- propose potential solutions. In February a two-day hesives for Aerospace Use completed its report workshop was conducted on Nondestructive Evalua- (NMAB-300) in which consideration was given to tion (NDE) of Composites. The objective was to the state of the art and future needs in the synthesis identify technology gaps, problems, and opportunities and formulation of adhesives. Recommendations in- in the NDE of composites. The problems associated cluded the need for an improved data base, the ex- with inspecting advanced composites were placed in tension of research in the application of fracture perspective by the invited presentations. In the pro- mechanics, development of nondestructive test meth- ceedings of the workshop (NMAB-316) the com- ods, and better techniques for design and analysis mittee made four principal recommendations con- of adhesive-bonded joints. cerning flaw detection, measurement of strength, standardization, and further research. The report of the ad hoc Committee on Ma- Education terials for Radiation Detection (NMAB-287) sur- veyed the available information on detectors for the electromagnetic radiation spectrum in four wave- The Commission on Human Resources-(NRC), length groups: x and gamma rays; ultraviolet, vis- formerly the Office of Scientific Personnel, admini- ible, and near-infrared ; infrared radiation from 2 sters on behalf of NASA the NRC-NASA Resident to 200 micrometers; and far-infrared and millimeter Research Associateship program of postdoctoral and wavelength radiation. Recommendations included the senior postdoctoral awards. In this program, need for fundamental studies and further research awardees conduct scientific or engineering research on selected materials for specific applications. An- in NASA laboratories as visiting investigators. The other NMAB ad hoc committee completed its study activity of the postdoctoral Associates contributes to of metal matrix composites (NMAB-313). The ob- the research effort of the NASA Centers. Publica- jective was to review all aspects in the design and tion of the results of the Associates’ research is en- production of advanced composite parts with the couraged, and thus research results from NASA are view of making them cost-competitive so that the made available to the general scientific and tech- full advantage of their superior performance can nical communities of the United States. On August be realized. 31, 1974, there were 179 Associates on tenure.

95 575-666 0 - 15 - 8 X Office of Telecommunications Policy

Introduction cured since the time the original legislation was enacted into law. The Office of Telecommunications Policy (OTP) The potential future use of communication satel- is an independent agency within the Executive Office lites to broadcast television transmissions directly of the President. As establised by Reorganization to home receivers is a subject which has continued Plan No. 1 of 1970 and further specified by Execu- to generate debate within the United Nations. At tive Order 11556, OTP has three major functions: the Fifth Session of the U.N. Working Group on (1) to serve as the President’s principal adviser on Direct Broadcast Satellites held in Geneva in March communications policy; (2) to establish policies and of 1974, the United States tabled draft principles provide coordination for the Federal Government’s on direct broadcast satellites in the interest of identi- communication systems; and (3) to serve as spokes- fying and building on areas of common agreement. man for the Executive Branch on communication Although some progress was made in this regard, matters, enabling the President to act as a more there nevertheless continues to be wide differences effective partner in discussions of communications of opinion on the principles which should govern policy with the Congress, the Federal Communi- the use of direct broadcast satellites. cation Commission and the public at large. In fur- An integral6 part of OTP‘s mandate is the therance of its charter, OTP develops plans, pol- continuing review of the space telecommunica- icies, and programs with respect to communications tions demands for use of the radio spectrum which that are designed to promote the public interest, sup- is a limited natural resource. This goal is accom- port national security, contribute to the economy plished through the frequency management program and world trade, promote the interests of the within the office. During 1974, the Office partici- United States in its relations with foreign nations, pated in the World Maritime Administrative Radio and foster effective and innovative communication Conference of the International Telecommunication technology. Union held in Geneva. OTP, along with the Federal During 1974, OTP was active with a range of Communications Commission and the Department communication matters involving the application of of State, is involved with the preparation of the space technology. International discussion on mo- US. position for the 1977 Broadcast Satellite Con- bile satellite communication services continued to ference of the International Telecommunication focus on aeronautical and maritime programs. In Union for the use of the frequency band 11.7- accord with OTP policy guidance, a Memorandum 12.2GHz. Also during the year, the Office, continued of Understanding was signed by the US. Federal to monitor development on the question of insurance Aviation Administration, the European Space Re- coverage for the launch of communications satellites. search organization (ESRO) and the Government of Canada for an experimental aeronautical satel- Aeronautical Satellite Experiment lite system to serve international civil aviation flights over the Atlantic. Policy guidelines were issued by OTP in early Talks continued during the year, primarily within 1971 for the development of a national program the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Or- on satellite communications for international civil ganization (IMCO) Panel of Experts, regarding the aviation operations. Operating within the OTP pol- need for establishing an international maritime satel- icy framework, extensive negotiation with foreign lite service designed to improve communication to authorities have been carried out by the Department ships at sea. The Office also forwarded to Congress of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration proposed amendments to the Communications Satel- (DOT/FAA) and the Department of State. After lite Act of 1962 to reflect changes that have oc- three years of negotiation, a Memorandum of Under- 97 standing was signed in 1974 by the DOT/FAA and Proposed Amendment to Communications Canada concerning a joint program to test the use of Satellite Act of 1962 satellites for improving air traffic control. The experi- mental AEROSAT program will explore ways of OTP submitted legislation to Congress that would using satellite capabilities to improve the cost effec- amend the Communications Satellite Act of 1962. tiveness of oceanic en route services, including the The 1962 Act called for the creation of a commercial possibility of combining or reducing air traffic con- communications satellite system as part of an im- trol facilities The planned experimental system will proved global communication network, and it cre- consist of two geosynchronous satellites over the At- ated the Communications Satellite Corporation lantic Ocean and two ground stations in Europe and (COMSAT) as the chosen instrument of the United North America. Each satellite will contain five L States for accomplishing the purposes of the Act. Band communication channels, and two VHF chan- The amendments are designed to update the Act nels. The space segment will be jointly owned by to reflect current conditions in international com- ESRO and Comsat (the US. private sector partici- munications but do not change the basic policy pant) each owning 47 percent, and Canada owning premises underlying the original legislation. In 1962 6 percent. Consistent with U.S. policy guidelines, there were a number of technical and operational the space segment will not be government owned uncertainties regarding the creation of COMSAT and the FAA as a systems user will lease circuits to serve as the chosen instrument of the United from COMSAT, a private commercial carrier. The States in a global system. These uncertainties gave first satellite is scheduled for launching in the rise to the inclusion of several provisions in the Act 1977-78 time period and the second will follow at relating to COMSAT’s ownership and the conduct a later date. of its affairs, provisions not normally associated with a private communications common carrier enterprise. Maritime Mobile Satellite Service With the successful establishment of the Interna- tional Telecommunications Satellite Organization’s The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative (INTELSAT) global communications satellite sys- Organization (IMCO) continues to be the principal tem and the emergence of COMSAT as an estab- international forum for discussions concerning the lished and mature corporation, it is appropriate to provision of international satellite telecommunica- remove a number of these special provisions. Such tions to merchant ships at sea. The Panel of Ex- changes would : perts of IMCO met again in London in September 1974 to review the economic, technical, and insti- ( 1 ) Eliminate the requirement that COMSAT tutional issues that the creation of such a system incorporate in the District of Columbia. raises. The U.S. continues to analyze user require- (2) Repeal the provision calling for Presidentially ments in relation to the establishment of maritime appointed and common carrier elected directors. satellite telecommunications services while at the (3) Eliminate the special class of common car- same time reserving judgment on the institutional rier stock. means of providing such service. A world conference (4) Reduce permissible common carrier share- initiated by IMCO is scheduled for April 1975 to holdings to five percent. consider the desirability of creating a new interna- (5) Permit COMSAT to issue par value stock. tional organizational structure to provide maritime (6) Repeal the requirement for COMSAT to satellite services. OTP is coordinating the develop- obtain FCC approval prior to obtaining additional ment of the U.S. Government’s position for this con- capital. ference and, in concert with other interested parties, In addition, the possible emergence of specialized is formulating the Administration’s maritime com- international satellite systems that would be separate munications satellite policy. from the INTELSAT system is also recognized. One As a related matter, the development of a man- amendment would make explicit that COMSAT time satellite system (MARISAT), designed to meet could participate in such new international systems, the needs of the U.S. Navy between 1974-76, con- on a non-exclusive basis, thus legislatively affirming tinues to be an area of policy review by OTP. The an FCC rule-making decision to the same effect in MARISAT program which has a five year design the context of domestic satellite systems. Another lifetime, will also provide limited commercial serv- amendment clarifies the Executive Branch role in ices for maritime users during the initial years of the planing, implementation, and operation of new use. Later when Navy use is terminated, the entire international satellite systems that are developed satellite will be capable of providing commercial pursuant to international agreement in which the maritime service. United States is a party.

98 Direct Broadcast Satellites Frequency Management The possibility of the use of telecommunications The radio spectrum consists of that portion of the satellites for broadcast of television programs directly electro-magnetic spectrum by which radio communi- into home receivers continues to generate interest, cations are conducted. This resource, shared by all particularly in the United Nations. The United Na- countries of the world, requires coordination, not tions Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer only on a national basis but also on an international Space and its two subcommittees have been study- basis to ensure mutual compatibility of radio fre- ing this question for a number of years. quency usage. Although there are international legal instruments National spectrum planning, known as frequency which impact on the question of direct broadcast management, is carried out by the staffs of the satellites already, for example, the United Nations OTP and the Federal Communications Commission Charter, the Outer Space Treaty, applicable provi- (FCC) with assistance from the Interdepartment sions of the International Telecommunications Con- Radio Advisory Committee (IRAC), the latter being vention and Regulations, certain relevant principles made up of representatives of major Federal Gov- expressed in the Universal Declaration of Human ernment departments and agencies using radio. In- Rights and Resolutions of the General Assembly, ternational spectrum planning is done under the the desirability of a particular convention to govern auspices of the International Telecommunication this type of direct broadcast has been expressed. Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the United The United Nations General Assembly has called Nations located in Geneva, Switzerland, and com- for the elaboration of principles to govern states posed of 148 member Administrations. using satellites for direct television broadcasting. Satellite systems are dependent upon access to Among the many problems involved in creating radio frequencies for their successful operation. such an agreement, the most crucial one is related Spectrum management procedures referred to in the to the principle of freedom of information. Two paragraph above have been refined to accommodate opposing views emerged in the debates on this issue. the unique requirements of satellite and space serv- One view, shared by the United States, stresses the ices. The system review procedure established over concept of the free flow of information; the other a year ago is proving itself as the number of satellite view stresses the concept of prior consent, that is, systems increase, each competing for spectrum in the notion that no state should be allowed to engage which to operate. Considerable experience has now in such broadcasting without the prior approval of been gained with this review procedure whereby each the state which may be the intentional or uninten- new proposed satellite system is studied to ensure tional recipient. The United States voted against the the availability of spectrum prior to the expenditure resolution calling for creation of a Convention to of funds for development and procurement. This govern states using satellites for direct television same review procedure is used to assess the coni- broadcasting, and is fundamentally opposed to any patibility of satellite systems proposed by other coun- legal regime inhibiting the free flow of information. tries with those of the U.S.A. The United States, however, has been receptive Under OTP guidance, the IRAC, including a to discussing general principles that could appro- liaison representative of the FCC, completed the priately apply to the use of direct broadcast satel- development of US. proposals for the ITU World lites. The United States tabled a set of voluntary Maritime Administrative Radio Conference that was principles in March 1974 at the fifth session of the held in Geneva, Switzerland, from April 22 to June U.N. working group on Direct Broadcast Satellites 9, 1974. Also proposed were position papers for in Geneva. While some support for US. views was use by the US. Delegation to that Conference in evidenced, there nevertheless continues to be wide considering the proposals of other countries. The differences of opinion over the formulation and appli- Final Acts of the Conference included several addi- cation of appropriate principles to govern the use tions to the International Radio Regulations to of this technology. These differences continued to permit the orderly introduction of maritime satellite be apparent when the Legal Subcommittee failed to communications. achieve agreement on principles at a subsequent meeting in May 1974. Debate continues on this issue, Satellite Launch Insurance and the matter is unresolved. OTP participated in the deliberations of both the The financial costs associated with the launch of U.N. working group of Direct Broadcast Satellites communication satellites is a significant factor in the and the Legal Subcommittee, and will continue to development of operational systems. Experience has work with other interested US. agencies in formu- shown that the possibility of launch failure poses lating and presenting US.policy views on this issue. considerable business risks to private communications companies interested in deploying commercial sys- at reasonable rates, is commercially available from tems. In 1974, OTP surveyed both prospective sys- the private sector. Recent experience has been ex- tem operators and the insurance industry to deter- ceptionally encouraging, with insurance coverage be- mine whether the availability of commercial insur- ing initiated in 1974 for the first launch of a multi- ance against launch failure is a significant barrier launch program. Consequently, it appears that alter- to entry by potential suppliers of service. Limited native arrangements for providing suitable insurance experience to date indicates that insurance coverage, coverage will not be necessary.

100 XI Federal Communications Commission

Introduction growing reliance on satellites for international com- munications. The objective to provide the new and expanded Domestic Satellites telecommunications services offered by the global satellite system to all countries and areas of ,the world The interim domestic satellite system of RCA is continually being furthered with the increase of Global Communications, Inc. and RCA Alaska Com- membership in INTELSAT. An addition of three munications, Inc., using Telesat Canada Anik satel- countries in 1974 has brought the total membership lites on a temporary basis until RCA’s domestic of this international organization to 86. Three of satellites are placed in orbit during 1975, was placed the five domestic satellite systems authorized by the into service in late December 1973. By the end of Commission under the domestic satellite policies 1974, the RCA companies plan to have six earth adopted during 1972 were placed into commercial stations operational in Alaska and three earth sta- operation during 1974. Arrangements were made to tions operational in the lower 48 states. Additionally, establish an experimental satellite system in the in a comprehensive Alaska service plan filed this North Atlantic Area for the provision of an aero- year, RCA Alaska Communications indicates its in- nautical mobile satellite service. The first of three tention to construct a total of 38 major (10-meter) maritime satellites ordered in 1973 is scheduled for and 38 minor (5-meter) earth stations by 1980 to a late 1974 delivery for launch early in 1975. provide message telephone service and television service to 284 communities in Alaska with popula- Communications Satellites tions greater than 25 persons. The first United States domestic satellite, the INTELSAT. Westar I of the Western Union Telegraph Company, The INTELSAT system presently consists was successfully launched into the geostationary of three INTELSAT IV satellites (two opera- satellite orbit on April 13, 1974 2nd commercial tional and one spare) in the Atlantic Ocean Region, service using this satellite was begun by Western two INTELSAT IV satellites (one operational and Union on July 26, 1974. The second Western Union one spare) in the Pacific Ocean Region and one IN- satellite, Westar 11, was launched October 10, 1974. TELSAT IV satellite in the Indian Ocean Region. A Five earth stations, with nominal 50-foot diameter spare INTELSAT IV satellite in both the Pacific and antennas, are now in operation serving the New Indian Ocean Regions is scheduled to be launched in York, Texas, California, Chicago and Atlanta areas. early 1975. The “Follow-on” program to the IV series The third domestic satellite system placed into is planned for use in the Atlantic Ocean Region and commercial operation during this year was the Amer- is scheduled for operation in 1975. ican Satellite Corporation’s system using the Western The worldwide network of earth stations has Union’s Westar satellite. Commercial service was grown to 94 antennas at 74 station sites in 55 coun- begun in early August 1974, between earth stations tries. Additional stations are planned for comple- in California, New York and Texas, with another tion by end-1974 for a total of 108 antennas at 86 earth station in the Chicago area planned to be station sites in 62 countries. Additional earth sta- placed into service later in the year. In addition, tion antennas were authorized in 1973 and are under another five earth stations will be in operation by construction at two earth station sites (Etam, West the end of 1974 to provide digital, high-speed chan- Virginia and Andover, Maine) on the east coast of nel service to the Defense Communications Agency. the United States. The continued construction of The American Telephone & Telegraph Company earth station facilities around the world indicate the (AT&T) domestic satellite system authorized in

101 1973 using satellites owned by Comsat General Cor- to the Navy as well as to maritime users beginning in poration is under construction and should be placed early 1975. One satellite is planned for deployment into service by late 1975 or 1976. In addition, a over the Atlantic and another over the Pacific with proposal filed in 1974 by GTE Satellite Corporation the third held as a spare on the ground. In August, to use these satellites together with AT&T instead the Commission authorized a consortium of four car- of the system using satellites authorized in 1973 to riers to participate in this Navy/Maritime system. National Satellite Services (a subsidiary of Hughes The Navy communications services will be pro- Aircraft Company) was set for hearing. vided in the UHF band on a lease basis for a period Although no new domestic satellite systems were of years beginning in 1975. The satellite capacity proposed to the Commission during 1974, a proposal used by the Navy will be under its control and will for a major restructuring of the CML Satellite Cor- be used to provide fleet communications. The satel- poration, who has domestic satellite applications lite design is such that during the period of the Navy pending before the Commission, was received. The service, most of the satellite power will be required proposal, if approved by the Commission, would to meet the Navy service requirements; only limited result in an ownership of CML by Comsat Gen- power will be available for commercial maritime use. eral of 45% and by IBM of 55%. When the Navy service is completed, however, the Another major issue before the Commission is the entire satellite power can be utilized to provide com- use of small earth terminals, i.e., earth stations with mercial maritime service. antennas of diameters less than about 10 meters, and the impact on orbit utilization. Proposals with re- Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service gard to two specific types of applications of such In the fall of 1974, a memorandum of under- terminals, on offshore drilling platforms in the Gulf standing was signed by the Department of Trans- of Mexico and in small communities in Alaska, were portation/Federal Aviation Administration, the pending before the Commission at the end of 1974. European Space Research Organization (ESRO) , Studies on orbit spacing requirements for the pres- and the Canadian Government on the basic arrange- ently authorized domestic satellite systems should be ments for the establishment of an experimental satel. completed during the first half of 1975, with definite lite system in the North Atlantic Area. Comsat orbital location assignments made soon thereafter. General Corporation has been chosen as the US. partner in the joint system which is expected to be Specialized Satellite Services operational in early 1978. The objectives of the program are to gain experi- Maritime Mobile Satellite Service ence and to evaluate and experiment with the use of The Commission is continuing to work both na- satellite capacity in providing voice and data com- tionally and internationally to further the develop- munications between aircraft and land stations. ment of a maritime mobile satellite service. Such a The system will use frequencies at C-band for service will significantly improve maritime communi- comm.unications between ground stations and satel- cations in terms of accuracy, reliability, speed and lites. Between satellite and aircraft, it is anticipated variety of transmission modes, which will, in turn, that this initial system will provide limited VHF enhance maritime safety and management. capability (the frequencies now used by aircraft over Internationally, the Intergovernmental Maritime land) in addition to an L-band capability. Consultative Organization (IMCO), through the Panel of Experts on Maritime Satellites, completed International Telecommunications Union its final meeting in September 1974, looking toward the establishment of an international maritime mo- During 1974, Commission personnel served as bile satellite service. Operational requirements have members of the U.S. Delegation to the World Ad- been stated and initial economical, technical and ministrative Radio Conference on Maritime matters financial studies have been completed. An initial convened in Geneva, Switzerland. That Conference meeting of the governments is planned early in 1975 continued to provide the necessary guidance and to consider the report of the Panel of Experts. In planning, building on that which was already in preparation for this meeting, the Commission insti- progresss for an international maritime mobile satel- tuted in December 1974 an inquiry to help formulate lite service along many of the lines proposed by the the U.S. position on the establishment of an interna- United States. tional maritime satellite system. The Administrative Council of the International In April 1973, the Commission issued waivers al- Telecommunication Union, which met during the lowing the construction of three satellites that will be summer of 1974, agreed to the convening of a Gen- part of a five-year system intended to provide service eral World Administrative Radio Conference be- tween 1979 and 1980. This major conference will Frequency Allocation and Coordination deal with overall revisions to the current interna- tional Radio Regulations governing all radio services, The Federal Communications Commission, including the aeronautical and space services. through an informal working group of technical per- The last such conference was held in Geneva in sonnel from government and industry, sponsored the 1959, lasting over four months. ITU World Admini- development of computer programs for calculating strative Radio Conferences held since that date have the coordination areas, and for determining the like- been limited to considerations involving only one lihood of precipitation scatter interference between radio service. proposed earth stations for satellites and conventional Because of the wide scope of the forthcoming microwave terrestrial stations using the same fre- General Radio Conference, the very extensive pre- quencies. Employment of these computer programs paratory work required is already under way, taking will enhance the ability to share the crowded radio into account the frequency requirements of all radio frequency spectrum between space and terrestrial services and the many other international technical radio services. and operating regulations which will be involved. In response to the radio astronomy community’s The Commission expects to initiate a proceeding to concern of possible harmful interference from ad- obtain public comments on the various US. pro- jacent band space-operations, a new US. footnote to posals as they are developed. the Table of Frequency Allocations has been pro- Preparatory work was initiated for the 1977 Broad- posed in a Notice of Proposed Rule Making released casting World Administrative Radio Conference August 30, 1974. The new footnote would urge the scheduled to plan for the use of the frequency band radio astronomy community and planners to mini- 11.7-12.2 GHz now allocated for use by terrestrial mize potential interference to the radio astronomy radio services and direct satellite broadcasting. operations.

103 XII The Srnithsonian Institution

Introduction earthquake Hazard Assessment and Alleviation (EHA) model and system by 1983. Necessarily, a The Smithsonian Institution continued its unique basic goal of this program is to create the vast data support of national aeronautics and space goals base required to define the kinematics, bulk dynam- through basic research in diverse fields of modern ics, and mass distribution of the Earth. astronomy combined with far-reaching programs of Observational data is provided by laser ranging on education and information designed to heighten pub- satellites, as well as from photographic and visual lic awareness and understanding of the role of space observations of satellite motion, and other precision science and exploration in the advancement and tracking techniques. SAO’s own globaI network of betterment of human life. satellite tracking stations supports the geophysical During the past year, Smithsonian observing sta- investigations and analyses, as well as related re- tions gathered astrophysical and geophysical data search on the physics of the upper atmosphere. For to describe the Earth as a planet and to define the example, detailed studies of satellite motion are used space environment in which it exists. Laboratory to investigate the density and temperature of the analyses of extraterrestrial materials continued in upper atmosphere, leading to an improvement in the search for clues to the origin of the Earth and mathematical models for predicting atmospheric con- the evolution of the solar system. Experiments aboard ditions based on solar and geomagnetic parameters satellites, balloons, and rockets observed celestial observed on the ground. sources unattainable from the ground in an attempt Mapping of major structures of the African rift to understand the basic physical processes underly- system based on ERTS-1 imagery is essentially com- ing the generation of energy and the creation of pleted. Features such as faults, lineaments, volcanic matter, including life itself. craters, and lithological boundaries for an area in- The complex story of life’s emergence on Earth cluding Ethiopia, Somalia, and Yemen are shown on and the search for its possible existence elsewhere in a composition map of 1 :5 million scale. The studies the universe was presented in a new museum exhibit have revealed both unsuspected crustal features and prepared for general audiences. new geological activity that may provide clues to the region’s formation. Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory Extraterrestrial Materials The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO), in cooperation with the Harvard College Various investigations continued on lunar rock Observatory, continued to pursue a broad program and soil samples returned from Apollo and Luna of investigations designed to increase man’s under- sites. Techniques employed included optical micro- standing of the universe. Specifically, this program scopy, x-ray diffraction, and isotopic measurements. included participation in international studies of One important goal was the detection and identi- earth dynamics, the analyses of extraterrestrial ma- fication of the composition and textural relation- terials, and active participation in space flight ships of the minerals and glasses of lunar crustal missions. rocks as an aid to eventual deductions about the original and subsequent history of these materials. Geoastronomy. To this same end, a special investigation of an Smithsonian’s research in Earth dynamics is an Apollo 17 breccia boulder is being carried out by integral part of NASA’s Earth and Ocean Physics a large consortium of scientists led by a Smithsonian Applications Program (EOPAP) , and has as its pri- geologist. A second aim of the consortium is to learn mary objective the definition of an operational more about the large-scale processes involved in the

105 generation of these breccias (rocks consisting of to the detection of Circinus X-1, a second possible sharp fragments embedded in a fine-grained matrix). “black hole” (a collapsed star of such overpowering Similar investigations were begun on 46 selected density that its gravity field will not allow light to particles from the Allende Meteorite, recovered from escape). northern Mexico, in an attempt to understand bet- SA0 prepared the United States experiment ter the distribution of elements in the early solar aboard the Astronomy Netherlands Satellite system. launched August 30, 1974, to measure energy spec- During the early months of the past year, SA0 tra of the stronger x-ray sources, to detect the silicon served as a major clearinghouse for information re- line emission, to observe the time variability of lated to the international program to observe and stronger sources, to improve the position measure- study Comet Kohoutek. Ground-based radio obser- ments of selected intermediate strength sources, to vations conducted by a Smithsonian-Harvard team observe the surface brightness of extended sources, detected the presence of organic molecules in the and to observe x-ray sources simultaneously with tail of this comet. ground-based radio and optical instruments. SA0 experiments now being prepared for the Space Flight Experiments NASA HEAO-A and B missions, are designed as the first precision x-ray observatories in space. The first In February, a balloon-borne 40-inch lens diameter experiment will locate x-ray sources to a precision telescope constructed by SA0 in collaboration with of 5 arsec as an aid in their identification with op- Harvard College Observatory and the University of tical and radio sources. The experiment will also Arizona was successfully flown from Palestine, Texas. measure the size and spatial structure of the sources It was carried to an altitude of 90,000 feet, where, in three x-ray energy bands. by remote command, it mapped the intensity of far- The second experiment (HEAO-B, scheduled for infrared radiation of selected regions of the Milky launch in June 1978) will produce high-resolution Way, including NGC 7538, Mars, Orion and A, spatial, spectral, and temporal observations of gal- W3. The observations represent the highest resolu- actic and extragalactic x-ray sources, as well as of tion (0.5 arcmin) ever obtained at these wave- the diffuse x-ray background. That experiment will lengths. be a collaborative effort among five research insti- Smithsonian scientists were involved in observa- tutions including SAO. tions from the Harvard-designed Extreme Ultravio- Smithsonian is also conducting x-ray studies from let Spectrometer on Skylab to study physical condi- rockets. One experiment has observed the structure tions in the solar chromosphere and corona. Analysis of the Vela-Puppis region in x-rays, another ob- of the resultant data has led to the discovery of served the Perseus Cluster and determined the loca- coronal holes as well as contributing to a better tion of a high-galactic-latitude source so far uniden- understanding of sunspots, prominences, flares and tified. the Sun’s basic energy-generation processes. A second rocket experiment carrying a high-resolu- Solar studies also continued with the analysis of tion x-ray telescope with an x-ray image intensifier far-ultraviolet spectrum data obtained by a series of will be flown in mid-1975 to observe the x-ray source rocket-borne Ebert spectrometers. The fifth success- Cas A, a supernova remnant. ful flight in May 1974, aboard an Aerobee 200 rocket, yielded very high spectral resolution at the center of the disk and near the solar limb. National Museum of Natural History High-Energy Astrophysics Research on extraterrestrial materials, particularly the relationship between recovered meteorites and The field of x-ray astronomy continues its rapid returned lunar soil samples, continued in the Mu- development as one of the most promising areas for seum’s Department of Mineral Sciences. Analysis of potential understanding of basic physical processes. lunar material concentrated on Apollo 17 samples, SA0 programs in this field represent major contri- while meteoritical research concerned the analysis and butions to understanding the extraordinary cosmic description of several recently fallen objects. sources of energy that appear to be greater than nuclear. Analysis of data obtained by the UHURU Center for Short-Lived Phenomena satellite continued in an effort to complete an in- depth survey of the x-ray sky. Studies of the time The Smithsonian Center for Short-Lived Phe- variation, size, and spectrum of x-ray sources, as nomena receives and rapidly disseminates news of well as their luminosity and spatial distributions and transient geophysical, biological, and astrophysical correlation with other astrophysical phenomena, led events of major scientific importance. The Center

106 is a facility of the Office of International and En- Lunar research focused on the geological mapping vironmental Programs. of the Moon using Apollo photographs. In coopera- The Center’s participation in astrophysical and tion with the U.S. Geological Survey, a geological space activities in 1974 included the reporting of map of the east side of the Moon was completed six fireballs observed in Austria, Germany, Ireland, and mapping was begun of ridges and arches in the Minnesota, Ohio, and Wales; and three meteorite Angstrom region, sinuous rilles in the Prinz region, falls in Connecticut, Iran, and the U.S.S.R. The and unique multi-ringed craters in Mare Smythii. Center assisted in efforts to recover the meteoritical An atlas of Apollo photography, to be published in material and to distribute samples to the scientific cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey and community. NASA, is in preparation. During the flight of SKYLAB 4, the Center co- In a related project, global stratigraphic units of ordinated a “Short-Lived Event Alert Program’’ by the Moon were correlated with results of the orbital which the orbiting astronauts were notified of major, geochemical sensors and geophysical experiments, in- on-going, natural earth events with potential visi- cluding the Lunar Sounder. bility from the spacecraft. Among the events reported Center personnel participated in a joint US-USSR by the program were volcanic eruptions, insect ir- meeting in Moscow to study possible cooperation be- ruptions, oil spills, earthquakes, and forest fires. tween NASA and the USSR Academy of Sciences in lunar cartography. Subsequent to this meeting, materials were prepared for the exchange of tech- National Air and Space Museum nical opinions regarding: a) the basic principles for compiling lunar maps; In addition to serving as both the repository and b) establishment of a unified selenodetic control display center for this country’s artifacts on space ex- system; and c) a joint production of a map of the ploration, the National Air and Space Museum Moon at 1 :5,000,000 scale. (NASM) supports programs of active research In cooperation with the International Astronom- through its Center for Earth and Planetary Studies. ical Union, a revision of the lunar nomenclature A major part of the Center’s research this year system was undertaken. Names were assigned to concerned Earth-oriented studies in support of the craters and other lunar features on lunar maps at Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) . The Center 1 : 250,000 and larger scales that serve as a base for will coordinate the visual and photographic observa- geological studies of the Moon. tions from space designed to yield basic information Construction on the new Air and Space Museum in the fields of geology (mineral resources), oceanog- facility proceeded on schedule. In preparation for its raphy, hydrology (including deserts and drought opening July 4, 1976, a new exhibit entitled “Life areas), and meteoroIogy. Activities included plan- in the Universe”, describing the origin of life on ning and execution of a training program for the this planet and the search for its existence elsewhere American astronauts, establishment of observational in the universe, was completed. Among other diverse requirements, and selection of potential sites for ob- education and information activities, the Director of servation and photography based on a review of all the Earth and Planetary Center conducted a lecture available data from the Skylab and the ERTS pro- tour of five Arab nations in cooperation with the grams. USIA.

107 Introduction Recognizing that it is presently impossible for re- mote sensors to quantify pollution levels sufficiently The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is for enforcement actions, the EPA is involved in ex- involved in an extensive program to identify critical haustive tests on photographic systems, lasers, multi- monitoring requirements and the aerospace tech- spectral scanners and spectrometers to identify nology which can fulfill these requests. A compre- trends, quantify specific pollutants and evaluate com- hensive series of plans and programs have been un- pliance to standards, in air, water and land environ- dertaken in 1974 which will cause proven technology ments for the environmental decision maker. It is to be focused on the problems at hand and provide anticipated that the program will lead to a full environmental decision makers with data and infor- appreciation of the technology required to monitor mation which represents the practical state-of-the- the 3.5 million square mile area of the United States. art in overhead remote sensing monitoring systems. The goals and requirements of the EPA program Organization of Remote Sensing Activities to provide Regions, States and local agencies with a comprehensive monitoring program are : The direction and management of the EPA air- borne and satellite monitoring program is provided Goals- by the Office of Research and Development Provision of information and records for defini- . (OR&D), EPA. The primary organization conduct- tion and establishment of an environmental quality ing monitoring research and applications for OR&D data base; is the National Environmental Research Center 0 Provision of data to support enforcement stand- (NERC) in Las Vegas, Nevada. The facility, along ards; with the Environmental Photographic Interpretation Fulfillment of other statutory requirements, in- Center (EPIC), Warrenton, Virginia, is responsible cluding examination and substantiation of environ- for the test and demonstration of new sensors and mental impact statements; for the demonstration of applications to the EPA Alerting the public, the academic community, Regions and State and local environmental organi- and industry to environmental hazards; zations. During 1974 the two organizations were in- Assuming the role of a reliable source for corn- volved in more than 40 projects: prehensive environmental data; Examples include : Providing point source and non-point source Test and development of multi-spectral scan- data to demonstrate and evaluate the results of EPA ner, laser and camera systems to detect and monitor programs ; point and non-point pollution sources; Requirements- 0 Emergency oil spill response to locate oil spills 0 Identification of pollutants and categorization and other hazardous spill materials; of important components and interactions of selected 0 Test and evaluate techniques, methods and subsystems within the study areas; sensors required to support enforcement of Regions; Conduct of pilot investigations at representative 0 Identify, locate and track and identify pollu- locations within critical study areas to establish tion from landfills, mine drainage and thermal power "ground truth" to verify remote sensing data; plants; Plans for area wide collection of environmental Perform inventories of water discharge sites data; and other industrial and urban pollution sources; Initiation of a system for acquisition and stor- 0 Monitor land degradation and land use activi- age of environmental data related to individual eco- ties of energy related extractive and processing indus- systems or large geographical areas. tries.

109 The resources within EPA to demonstrate new tions for their application to EPA operations as a sensors and applications are limited. Therefore, EPA contractual service. has undertaken a series of interagency agreements 2. Aerial surveillance by EPA was utilized by the with mutually interested Federal agencies. The ob- State of Illinois to show how heated water spread jective of this program is for EPA to gain an ac- into Lake Michigan from Indiana Harbor. Through celerated position by realizing some of the scientific the use of camera systems, infrared scanner data and technological achievements of the participating and skylab imagery, EPA scientists identified and organizations. This approach is derived from Fed- traced a heated plume of polluted water into an eral statutes which direct the Administrator to pur- area of Lake Michigan where the city of Chicago sue coordinated activities with other agencies that draws its drinking water supplies. The case is signi- will improve the development of techniques for moni- ficant because it is the first use of infrared data in toring environmental quality. an enforcement action by EPA. Formal agreements have been established with the 3. A 2,500 square mile area of southwestern LOU- National Aeronautics and Space Administration isiana was studied and a series of thematic overlays (NASA), the Departments of Interior and Army, were keyed to topographic maps to depict potential the Air Force Systems Command, Naval Ordnance pollution sources associated with industrial com- Laboratory and the Corps of Engineers. In addition, plexes, solid and liquid waste dumps, petroleum programs with several universities and with the Iowa fields, urban landfills, car dumps and industrial Geological Survey have been undertaken to expand landfill areas. the Agency scope. The data utilized were taken from existing files An interagency program of specific interest is now of other government agencies and analyzed from being formulated between EPA and NASA. The pur- the EPA viewpoint and needs. In addition, aerial pose of the project is to encourage NASA to demon- photography of selected areas was obtained and the strate its developed remote sensing and data manage- data incorporated into the final product. ment technology and capabilities which may signifi- It is envisoned that products similar in scope and cantly assist Region V, Chicago, in its mission to size can be prepared for all Regions on a priority monitor the water quality of the Great Lakes. The basis to meet water and air discharge permit re- pilot project will enable EPA and NASA to demon- quirements. Such programs can be prepared on an strate, by project application, the type of support emergency basis by EPA or routinely by private capability that could be derived by interagency firms under contract. agreements. It is envisioned that the project will 4. NERC/Las Vegas, EPIC and Region VIII, assist in the refinement of management and inter- Denver, are participating in a major program to agency cordination and enable the two agencies to obtain photographic records of 30 mining sites and expand the plan to aid other EPA Regions. the majority of the oil shale lease lands of the West- ern United States. The objective of the program Aircraft Oriented Research and Applications is, to provide, for public review, data that allows for visual evaluation of disturbed areas and the During 1974 a number of significant programs environmental conditions involved with the strip were undertaken and important advances were mine areas in the northern Great Plains. The pro- made. A summary of the most important aircraft gram will provide color and color infrared photog- oriented projects follows: raphy of all sites and termal imagery of selected 1. The NERC at Las Vegas is involved in a major power plant sites. The Region envisions that the research program to utilize new and existing data existing data base and newly acquired data will be to detect, locate and analyze the significant spectral invaluable in its enforcement and discharge permit signatures of the major pollution sources in the programs and for planning and monitoring purposes. United States. It is expected that the program will In conjunction with the High Plains Project, the result in the development of an operational data NERC at Corvallis, Oregon and EPIC are involved collection, processing and analysis capability at the in a project to monitor, over a period of four years, NERC at Las Vegas and at the EPIC. The facilities a major coal mine and an associated power plant will be available to EPA Regions for special require- to ascertain. what effects development and expan- ments, Le., enforcement documentation and emer- sion have on the environment. The task involves de- gency response where outside contracts are not feasi- tailed analysis and ambient monitoring of vegeta- ble. The other major result of this program will be the tion, water and air and an analysis of effects on formulation of a set of procedures and a system of groundwater. technology transfer to private industrial organiza- 5. EPIC, Region VII, Kansas City, and the Iowa

110 Geological Survey are involved in a joint program Great Lakes drainage basin. The project calls for to inventory an eleven county area of south central the mapping, through digital processing, of seven Iowa. The inventory was specifically designed to categories of land use. The data will be ground identify feedlot operations, all existing waste disposal checked and correlated with aircraft acquired data. sites and all surface water resources. The data will The program was undertaken after feasibility was be presented on overlays keyed to uncontrolled photo shown in a pilot project produced by the EPA Of- mosaics. fice of Research and Development and the NASA The results of this cooperative effort will be uti- University Affairs Office. lized by the Region for its outfall permit program, 2. The EPA has been involved in a three year by the State for its inventory of surface and sub- program to ascertain and monitor the physical stat: surface water resources and by the Office of Research of 1000 lakes in the United States. During the past and Development in its research program for mon- year, the NERC at Corvallis, has performed inten- itoring of groundwater pollution and the direct ef- sive research with ERTS computer compatible tapes fects that land use has on the quality of ground- to determine possible monitoring applications. The water. program is attempting to determine if ERTS data 6. EPIC, Cornell University, the New York De- are useful in locating and estimating lake surface partment of Conservation and the New York EPA area and determining if correlation exists between Regional Office are participating in a joint program the red band data and chlorphyll A; the IR bands to determine the application of camera systems and and chlorphyll A, and the green band and the clarity infrared sensors to detect, and track effluents from of the water. In addition, regression models are being landfills. The project is comprised of 16 sites located developed for estimating the physical state of a num- in central New York. The program will take six ber of lakes and attempts have been made to map months to complete and require 14 flights at varying major occurrences of surface and sub-surface micro- altitudes in three seasons with a series of film-filter organisms. combinations. 3. In the summer of 1974, EPA scientists and 7. Other programs of interest include two surveys managers participated in the “Summer Study of of thermal power plants in New England and Iowa Space Applications” originating from a request by and a project to determine to what extent aircraft Dr. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, and sponsored by acquired data can be utilized to establish evidence the Space Applications Board of the National for enforcement cases. Academy of Engineering. The EPA personnel were not formal members of the various panels, but were Space Programs and Applications consultants to the following: a. Environmental Quality Panel The EPA has an active program to establish the b. Marine/Maritime Panel use of Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) c. Land Use Planning Panel and Skylab data in its research and applications d. Inland Water Resources Panel programs. A number of EPA scentists have been ac- The needs and requirements of the EPA were tive in the program since its inception. In particular, stressed in particular the timely organization and the Director of EPIC acts as a principle investigator delivery of data and the concern for higher resolu- for both the ERTS and Skylab programs in EPA. tion. Topics of concern to the EPA were land use Under his guidance a number of applications have planning as a critical tool in environmental enhance- been made available to the Regional EPA user or- ment; the monitoring of pollutants in surface and ganizations and data have been provided to research- groundwater resources ; the agricultural impact ers at the NERC at Corvallis and EPIC. The most (pesticides, fertilizers, feedlot wastes, irrigation) on significant programs of 1974 are: surface and groundwater; the development of suit- 1. The EPA Region V, acting as coordinator for able means to measure, monitor and record environ- the Great Lakes Commission, contracted with the mental effects from space; and a means to monitor Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing, Pur- ocean dumping and its effects on the dynamic ocean due University, to map 133,000 square miles of the environment.

111

515-666 0 - 15 - 9 XIV Atomic Energy Commission

Introduction development of the generators for these six space- craft and on the technology for future, more sophis- With termination of the nuclear propulsion pro- sticated applications. Progress was also made towards gram in 1973, the AEC’s space nuclear program expanding and applying the technology base gen- has been concentrated on the development of nuclear erated in the space program to terrestrial energy space electric power generators. These nuclear power related applications. generators have made possible many of the past major United States scientific accomplishments in lunar and interplanetary exploration and they will Jupiter Spacecraft be essential elements in enabling the future explora- On 3 December 1974, the Pioneer 10 isotopically tion of the solar system to be accomplished. The (nuclear heat source) powered spacecraft completed Apollo lunar surface and Pioneer Jupiter missions its 18 month journey and passed by the planet of the recent past are notable examples of nuclear Jupiter. It followed its predecessor, Pioneer 10, in electric power as a major and critical element of the providing close range scientific observations of the success of space programs. In the next few years largest planet in our solar system. Unlike Pioneer nuclear electric power will make possible the first 10, however, the trajectory of Pioneer 11 has been scientific exploration of the surface of Mars, the targeted to carry it close by the planet Saturn, as the first spacecraft journey to the planet Saturn and spacecraft continues on its celestial journey out into beyond, and the testing of a defense satellite where interstellar space. The Pioneer 10 and 11 missions compact and reliable power is a principal determin- have been important milestones in the continuous ing factor in mission viability. Additional highly search for knowledge concerning the history and sophisticated missions are anticipated in the origin of our solar system. 1970’s and 1980’s and higher performance, lower- Both the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft are pow- cost technology is being pursued to prepare for the ered by four plutonium 238 isotopically fueled ther- increased performance demands of these missions. moelectric generators. Each generator was designed In each of these applications, it is the unique to provide a minimum of 30 watts or a total of 120 characteristic of nuclear energy to operate for long watts per spacecraft during the nearly 2-year jour- periods of time without relying on the sun, along ney to the planet Jupiter. All of the generators have with related attributes such as small size, low weight exceeded this design goal by several watts and are and long lifetime, which has resulted in the need continuing to operate in excess of the 30 watt mini- for nuclear power sources. It is these characteristics mum. At the end of 1974 the Pioneer 10 spacecraft which will make possible the exploration of the outer was about 700 million miles from earth and the planets. Without nuclear power, exploration of these Pioneer 11 spacecraft was well on its way to its planets cannot take place as solar power is inade- extended journey by the planet Saturn. quate at such distances. Likewise, nuclear power sources will make possible and economically prac- Lincoln Experimental Satellite tical many high powered missions in Earth orbit which require minimum size but maximum free- As a part of its program to develop a survivable dom from any sun orientation restrictions. defense communications network, the DOD will Specifically, fourteen spacecraft powered totally or launch in late 1975 two experimental satellites pow- in part with nuclear power have been successfully ered by thermoelectric radioisotope generators launched in the past, and six more spacecraft are (RTG’s). These satellites, designated LES 8 and scheduled for launch during the next three years. LES 9, will each be powered by two multi-hundred During 1974, significant progress was made on the watt (MHW) generators providing a minimum total 113 power reqiurement of 250 watts, or 125 watts per plete understanding of the atmospheres, surface fea- generator, after five years. tures and physical properties of these two large Thermoelectric degradation problems were en- planets. countered during tests in late 1973 and a major effort Each spacecraft will be powered by three MHW during the first half of 1974 was directed towards un- isotopic generators providing a minimum of 385 derstanding the degradation mechanisms and watts at the time the spacecraft reaches Saturn ap- towards design changes to alleviate the problem. proximately four years after launch. The 1974 ef- The basic problem was a continual decrease in the fort was directed towards analytical and design shunt resistance between the thermoelectric cou- studies to optimize the basic MHW/LES design for ples and the surrounding insulation foils. Based on the MJS mission. The principal changes involved accelerated module tests, the selected design fix removal of the heat source can in order to reduce was to coat the thermoelectric couples with a silicon weight and the substitution of a different graphite nitride coating. Fabrication of flight hardware was to improve reentry protection. With the incorpora- reinitiated during the early part of the summer on tion of the required design modifications and the the thermoelectric couples for the four flight and freezing of the design, fabrication of test hardware one spare RTG’s. Thermocouple fabrication for all was initiated. of the generators was nearing completion by the end of the year and assembly of the first three RTG’s was also nearly complete. Generator Technology Projected missions of the late 1970’s and 1980’s Viking Mars Lander will impose increased performance requirements on During the late summer of 1975, NASA will the nuclear power sources. Weight and overall sys- launch two Viking spacecraft with the goal of tem unit cost will become extremely important, par- travelling to Mars, orbiting the planet and descend- ticularly on repetitive DOD missions. Also, power ing for a soft landing on the Martian surface. The levels on several missions are anticipated to increase lander vehicles will each be powered by two Pioneer- into the low kilowatt range where dynamic con- type isotopicaly fueled thermoelectric generators. version systems rather than static (no moving parts) Each generator will provide a minimum of 35 watts systems are most applicable. Current emphasis is or a total of 70 watts after 90 days on the Martian directed towards the Selenide thermoelectric ma- surface. The ability of these isotopicaly fueled gen- terials for the lower power static systems and towards erators to operate in the harsh environments postu- the Brayton or Organic Rankine cycles for the higher lated for the surface of Mars will enable the extended power dynamic systems. operation of scientific experiments aimed at under- As with all thermoelectric conversion systems, the standing the composition and history of our closest Selenide technology involves the development of two planetary neighbor. A major goal is to try to answer thermoelectric legs (parallel heatflow path for con- questions concerning the presence of life. verting heat to electricity). One of these has been The modified Pioneer-type generators are being under development for several years and significant developed by the AEC laboratory and industrial progress was made during 1974 on the development of contractors organizations. Three electrically heated the other leg. Several thermo-couples using both legs test generators were delivered to NASA for systems were placed on test early in the year. A 20-watt testing during the year. Effort was also completed module will be tested during 1975 to help identify on the Final Safety Analysis Report; on the final and understand any technology problems which design freeze of the flight generators; and on fabri- might exist in flight system applications. Related cation of the flight units except for final assembly effort was also carried out on a heat source which and system testing. would be compatible with this Selenide module. Effort on the dynamic technologies will be initi- MarinerIJupiter Saturn (MJS) ated early in 1975. Procurement actions for system contractors for dynamic conversion system tech- The next major program to extend man’s explora- nologies were nearing completion at the end of the tion out into the solar system will involve launching year. two Mariner spacecraft in the late summer of 1977 to fly past the planets Jupiter and Saturn. These Terrestrial Power spacecraft will be relatively sophisticated in com- parison to the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft and Wherever possible, technology is being applied or will enable scientists to gain a much more com- considered for terrestrial energy related applications.

114 The following two examples are illustrative of the gram to terrestrial energy-related applications. The effort in this area. space technology was optimized for weight and otheiJ parameters rather than- efficiency so that efficiencies The Department Of Defense has requested of 10-15% were adequate. However, for terrestrial support of a lower power (< I watt) Pu-238 iso- applications, efficiency is a primary criteria. The ulti- topic generator which would involve multiple units mate goal is thermionic efficiencies in the range of in an operational system. The generator is being de- 3040% which, if achieved, could provide the tech- signed by contractors and the pro- nological basis for topping cycles to increase the vide the heat source-including the isotopic fuel. central station electric power plant efficiencies up to Several prototype heat sources were fabricated dur- the range of 50%. The 1974 effort has made signi- ing the year and be provided to the u’s*Navy ficant progress in improving the diode parameters for generator system evaluation testing. Additional which control efficiency. Parameters associated with heat sources will be fabricated in 1975. 20 % efficient thermionic devices were experimently A concerted effort is being pursued to apply the demonstrated during the year and actual efficiency thermionic technology developed in the space pro- tests will be conducted during 1975.

115 I I

Department of Agriculture

Introduction A related study over the Great Plains wheat-pro- ducing region, will utilize spacecraft-acquired data During 1974 the U.S. Department of Agriculture in a statistical sampling experiment. This Large Area (USDA) continued its efforts in the development Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE), involving and evaluation of aerospace remote sensing tech- the joint efforts of NASA, NOAA, and the USDA, nology for the improvement of its agricultural and will determine whether computer-analyzed satellite forestry programs concomitant with national pri- data can improve the accuracy and timeliness of orities. This involved additional research on the fea- crop forecasts. Initially, wheat will be the test crop, sibility and operational utility of utilizing aerospace- and if the results prove successful the experiment acquired data to accomplish more accurate quantita- will be extended to other regional crops. tive predictions of food and fiber resources, along with better evaluations of land productivity; and to The results of these investigations may eventually further monitor changes affecting the total production prove the feasibility of utilizing remote sensing tech- and quality of our natural resources and environ- nology for more accurate and timely inventories of ment, including man-environment interactions. worldwide crop acreages and yield estimations, a PO- tential development of considerable import in light of the world food problem. Remote Sensing Activity Another investigative study is being conducted by the Forest Service to test the feasibility of utilizing Remote sensing is viewed by the USDA as basic- multispectral data with multistage sampling and ally a potential tool that may further assist in address- computer processing. This may result in the ability ing its agriculture, forestry, wildlife, and other re- to generate useful thematic overlays for such prob- quirements mandated by Federal charter. The De- lems as urban encroachment, agricultural inventory, partment also has a substantial interest in the ulti- recreation impact, water pollution, geologic hazards, mate operational use of remote sensing data for bet- and natural resource location. ter resource and inventory management, environ- In cooperation with NASA, a Forestry Applica- mental controls, and crop, forest, and range protec- tions Project (FAP) is investigating the application tion. The current state-of-the-art, with respect to of remote sensing technology for the inventory of USDA mission responsibilities, is presently limited forest resources. The project addresses data collection to research and development. A large part of the re- and interpretation in the categories of timber, soils, search is continually being devoted to a better under- and range. standing of the interaction of radiant energy with ERTS Follow-on-Investigationsby USDA will in- plant tissue, soil, and water parameters. This re- volve studies on: (1) the spectral measurement of search is in continued collaboration with NASA and watershed runoff coefficients in the southern Great other Federal and State agencies. Plains, (2) soil, water, and vegetation condition in south Texas, (3) monitoring forest and range re- Research and Development sources in Georgia, and (4) development of an area An experimental feasibility, long-range study to sampling technique for an agricultural information develop automated techniques for estimating system in Nicaragua. wheat acreages, yield, and crop vigor from ERTS Significant work is continuing in establishing the data, is being conducted by a joint effort with the capability of using small and large scale color in- Canadian Department of Agriculture and the Agri- frared photography to detect and correctly identify cultural Stabilization and Conservation Service of incipient crop, forest, and wildland vegetation infes- USDA. tations due to diseases, insects, and other pests. 117 AQQlicatiom The results of a study have shown that ERTS reso- The compilation of a cloud-free ERTS mosaic of lution is sufficient for practical applications in the conterminous United States and Alaska, at a scale detection of chlorotic sorghum in otherwise uniform of 1 :1,000,000, by the Soil Conservation Service fields at least 1.1 hectares (2.8 acrcs) in size. (SCS) in collaboration with NASA, has generated considerable interest and sales from Federal and State agencies, academia, and numerous private con- Providing Expertise to Other Nations cerns. Over 970 orders, totalling more than $90,000 have been received. The SCS in collaboration with The potential of agricultural aerospace remote the Department of the Interior will soon make avail- sensing techniques has been recognized internation- able inexpensive lithographs of these mosaics. ally and the USDA continued to provide expertise Ground surveys made in conjunction with ERTS to the international community. In addition to parti- data provided a replicated sample that permitted cipating in various symposia and workshops, brief- calculation of Hidalgo County, Texas, acreage es- ings were provided to visitors from Australia, Bel- timates, and standard errors of estimate, for 18 veg- gium, Canada, Gambia, Germany, Indonesia, Israel, etable crops produced in that county. Utilizing Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Peru, South Africa, remote sensing techniques, a first classification map Thailand, and Turkey. Briefings were also given to of the county with significant land use discrimina- numerous students at a two-day international work- tion capability has been produced. shop sponsored by the Bureau of the Census.

118 Arms Control and XVI Disarmament Agency

The interest and involvement of the Arms Con- Soviet governments so important for peacekeeping trol and Disarmament Agency in space activities is and crisis defuzing. ACDA is interested and involved threefold. First, and foremost is ACDA’s interest in in this utilization of space for the transmission of maintaining space as an environment in which no urgent information, notifications and requests for weapons and military forces are emplaced. Second, information in situations requiring prompt clarifica- ACDA is interested and involved in preserving the tion. The secure, spacebased communications link free use of space for purposes related to peacekeep- between the two governments exploits the capabili- ing, crisis defuzing and treaty monitoring. Third, ties of the Intelsat and Molniya communication ACDA seeks to discourage other countries from uti- satellite systems. ACDA’s interest in utilizing space lizing space technology and equipment to develop for monitoring compliance with Treaty obligations strategic offensive weapons and to improve wea- is based on the provisions of the strategic arms limi- ponry. In each of these areas ACDA participates tation agreements with the USSR. These provisions in the formulation of US policy, in the negotiations specify that neither country will interfere with the required to reach international agreement, and in national technical means of verification of the other. monitoring the effects of such policies and agree- ments on arms control and disarmament issues. ACDA is active in the formulation of U.S. policy on bilateral and multilateral international programs The Outer Space Treaty bans the emplacement of for the peaceful use of space. ACDA seeks to dis- “weapons of mass destruction” in space, on celestial courage other countries from utilizing space tech- bodies, or in earth orbit and bans military bases, nology and hardware for the development of stra- forces, maneuvers, and weapons testing on celestial tegic offensive weaponry. ACDA participates in the bodies. The Treaty was opened for signature in reviews which precede the export of U.S. space 1967. As of the end of 1974 69 countries have technology and hardware as well as those concerned ratified it and 34 have signed but not yet ratified. with the export of U.S. avionics systems. In the iat- ter case, ACDA is particularly concerned with sys- Preserving and protecting the use of space for tems such as inertial navigation systems which could peace-keeping activities such as crisis defuzing and be used in strategic weapons. ACDA seeks to insti- treaty monitoring are ACDA interests embodied in tute and maintain safeguards which will minimize several international agreements. The “Hotline” the possible exploitation of such technology and modernization agreement and the technical activities hardware for undesirable military applications but associated with this agreement provide the secure, will not curtail legitimate trade or discourage inter- direct communication link between the US and national cooperation.

119 XVII United States Information Agency

Introduction Press and Publications The United States Information Agency (USIA) Space as a new resource for man’s welfare and took advantage of the continued high level of interest advancement was the theme of much of the output abroad to review and assess recent U.S. space projects of the Press and Publications Service. and to preview and analyze those for which prepara- In words and pictures, the Agency dramatically tions were underway during the year. depicted the technical sophistication and human in- Every indicator showed that the appetite re- genuity involved in space exploration, and the grow- mained nearly undiminished abroad for media ma- ing impact of space developments upon everyday terials explaining and interpreting U.S. space acti- life. vities and objectives. For many foreign audiences After the return to earth of the last Skylab crew, US. space projects continued to symbolize both the a 5,000-word, 16-page illustrated color pamphlet potential and the excellence of U.S. science and entitled “Skylab: What It Did and What It Means,” technology. Thus information about U.S. space op- was sent to the field. The pamphlet described the U.S. space station as a highly instrumented modern erations continued to exert a strong influence on the image the United States projects abroad. research laboratory in orbit, and called the mission “by far the most comprehensive project for finding As in earlier years, USIA used speakers, exhibits, what uses man can and cannot make of outer space films, radio, television, photos and the printed word in the foreseeable future.” to reach target audiences with the U.S. space story. Skylab, it was pointed out, “confirmed and ex- This story began for USIA with its interpretation tended two key findings of earlier space exporations: of the final operations of Skylab, the U.S. space sta- 1) That the resources of space may indeed offer new tion, which were already underway when 1974 ar- approaches to some of mankind’s most pressing prob- rived. The story continued with the analysis of visits lems and 2) that living conditions on the earth can by automated Mariner-10 spacecraft to the vicinity be improved through space operations.” The pamph- of Venus and Mercury, and the launching and early let, which explained in detail the potential benefits operation in orbit of new types of advanced satellites. from Skylab’s pioneering experiments, was distrib- These new satellites were of particular interest to uted in English, Spanish, French and Arabic. USIA because they are potentially very powerful Another pamphlet on major aspects of the space tools for the economic and social advancement of program was prepared from the wrap-around four- hundreds of millions of persons. One of these was color cover and five articles on space which had the Applications Technology Satellite-6 (ATS-6) , appeared in A1 Majal, the Agency’s Arabic magazine. which could well be the forerunner of communica- This pamphlet was distributed at the Damascus tion satellite systems offering health care and edu- Trade Fair (78,000 copies). cation in regions where opportunities for these serv- Two major feature articles mailed to posts focused ices are scarce or absent. on significant contributions to non-space activities of Another such system was the first stationary wea- the space program. “The Great Invisible Legacy ther observation satellite-the Synchronous Mete- of the U.S. Manned Space Program” explained the orological Satellite (SMS)-which almost at once successful use of new management techniques de- commenced around-the-clock observations of the veloped in Apollo moon-landing preparations in Western hemisphere and surrounding areas. managing large scale business and social projects. Most of the year’s USIA space output was devoted The second article, “What We Learned: Science to analytical summaries of past accomplishments and and the Manned Space Program,” analyzed the “ex- of others in the making. plosion” of scientific information that has resulted

121 from space exploration. In three articles entitled tronomical discoveries that throw new light on the “A People’s Satellite,” the experience and potential origin and probable fate of the universe. of the ATS-6 for bringing educational and medical The Magazine Reprint unit obtained reprint rights services to underprivileged regions was emphasized. for posts of three articles: Cornel1 University Astron- Much of the space output was carried on the wire- omer Carl Sagan’s “Space Exploration as a Human less file, the Agency’s radioteletype system that con- Enterprise,” predicting a wealth of practical benefits nects USIA’s headquarters in Washington with its from space; Edward Edelson’s “The Outer Limits 189 USIS (United States Information Service) of Space” on how the most distant reaches of space posts in 110 countries. The file transmitted interpre- permit astronomers and cosmologists to look back tive articles on all major U.S. space events for re- to the beginning and ahead to the end of the uni- production in foreign newspapers and magazines or verse, and “Space Garden,” an interview with space Agency-produced publications. pioneer and theoretician Dr. Kraft A. Ehricke, who These headlines from the file indicate the range sees space exploration as preserving the planet Earth and treatment of subjects: for a future garden of the solar system. “New U.S. Satellite Promises Social Changes in Developing Nations” (for an article on ATS-6’s edu- Radio cational and medical-care potential) . The Agency’s Voice of America broadcasted fully “Satellite Users Assess the ‘Teacher-in-the-Sky,’ ” 1,151 different reports and feature programs on (also on ATS-6). space subjects. Space received a total of 374 hours “New U.S. Satellite to Expand Commercial Use of air time, providing an estimated 50 million weekly of Space” (on Westar, the first domestic U.S. com- listeners a comprehensive understanding of the activi- munications satellite) . ties, plans and purposes of the U.S. space com- “Second Look at Mercury and a New Moon for munity. Jupiter” (on scientific discoveries resulting from the These reports and features were broadcast in first close visit by spacecraft to these planets). addition to news accounts on current space develop- “A Pause to Remember: Five Years Ago Man ments, such as newscasts during space missions. First Stepped on the Moon” (an anniversary story A large portion of the VOA broadcasts were de- on one of the great events of all time), and “The voted to covering the final Skylab mission. There was Moonmen: Where Are They Now” (a look at yes- also heavy concentration on the Mariner mission to terday’s astronauts). Venus and Mercury, international cooperation in The wireless file transmitted a total of 18 articles space science, and preparations for the joint U.S.- on space. The Pictures Branch supplied posts with Soviet manned spaceflight : the “Apollo-Soyuz Test 20 pictures of the Skylab mission and sent 129 ter- Project” (ASTP), planned for July 1975. rain views photographed in color by Skylab crews The variety of the coverage is indicated by these to 64 countries. The Pictures Branch shipped more sample broadcast titles: “Project Viking” (on the than 250 views, selected from the many thousands automated craft which is to land on Mars and search radioed to earth by the Earth Resources Technology for life there in 1976), “Rendezvous With Venus,” Satellite (ERTS-1). These were distributed to 21 “Envoy to Mercury,” “Skylab Situation Report,” countries requesting photos showing their territories. “Highlights of Skylab,” “Skylab I11 Crew the The Branch magnified ERTS-1 views to 30-by-30 Healthiest Yet,” “Space Plans Through the Year inches for presentation by US ambassadors to chiefs 2000,” “Discovery Supports Life-on-Jupiter Theory,” of state of host countries. “NASA’s New Flying Observatory,” “Women as Horizons, the Agency’s bimonthly general mag- Shuttle Passengers,” U.S. Space Team at Soviet azine appearing in English and 16 other languages, Center,” “Space Shuttle Progress Report,” “Space published “Countdown .for the 1980’s”, an article Technology Aids Heart Research,” and “Space and outlining the Space Shuttle program. the American Spirit.” Economic Impact, an Agency quarterly published Employing the realism, intimacy and immediacy in English and Spanish, ran an article on ERTS-1, that are unique to radio, the Voice transmitted live “Exploring World Resources From Space.” Dialogue, and recorded interviews with key space officials and the Agency’s quarterly journal of opinion, published with astronauts on Earth and in space. Also trans- two articles, “The Ultimate Speed Limit,” by the mitted were live broadcasts from launch sites, and distinguished science writer, Isaac Asimov, specu- from spacecraft in flight. lating on how fast a body can move through space, Voices of astronauts were heard by listeners in and “News About the Universe,” by Edward Edel- “Skylab Crew Reports”, “Skylab News Conference,” son, award-winning science journalist, on recent as- and “Interview with Skylab Pilot Bill Pogue.”

122 Among interviews aired was one with Dr. George M. veloped miniaturization techniques that have helped Low, NASA deputy administrator, and another with make possible quartz wrist-watches and improved Dr. James Dunne, chief scientist for Mariner 10. electronic heart-pacemakers. In response to post requests for space film ma- Motion Pictures and Television terials fitting their local needs, the Motion Pictures and Television Service produced or obtained nine Films, television programs and TV news clips, ac- films on space subjects. Three of them were half- quired from outside sources or made by the Agency’s hour interviews in color with leading space figures: Motion Pictures and Television Service, were used science-fiction writer Isaac Asimov on “Science Fic- in a wide variety of ways. tion and Space;” astronaut-geologist Harrison A 17-minute color documentary film, “Skylab Schmitt on “What We Have Learned from the Outpost in Space,” was produced by the Service Moon,” and NASA Associate Administrator Rocco and distributed to 116 countries for use by local Petrone on “The Future of Space.” The films were TV stations immediately after the return to Earth shown in conection with the opening of a new of the third Skylab crew. The film focused chiefly United States Consulate at Cracow, Poland, where on research performed by the astronauts in orbit, NASA’s “Eyewitness to Space” exhibit of space art particularly their experiments in medicine, metal- was also shown. lurgy, and solar physics. A 30-minute color docu- All USIS posts with television outlets were sup- mentary film, “Apollo Decade,” reviewing highlights plied with six sets of 85 space-feature slides. The of the U.S. Apollo moon-landing program and the sets told the story of the Space Shuttle, Space Sta- meaning of the program for mankind, was produced tion, Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, Man on the Moon, by the Agency for world-wide distribution. Johnson Space Center, and Cape Kennedy. The Agency-produced TV series, “Science Re- The Agency also provided posts with TV news port,” devoted seven of its twice-monthly 15-minute clips on events of special interest to posts. Thus, news segments to space subjects. “Science Report,” is re- clips of the Indian ambassador inspecting the ATS-6 leased by the Agency in over 100 countries and is satellite and viewing its launch were sent to India broadcast in 22 languages from over 600 television which in mid-1975 will use the satellite for a year stations abroad. of extensive educational broadcasting to Indian vil- Among its productions related to space were lages. News clips on the visit of Soviet cosmonauts “Man’s Longest Journey Into Space” (on the third to Washington, D.C. were sent to Moscow. News Skylab mission), “The First Mission to Investigate clips on Skylab and on the fifth-anniversary observ- the Planet Mercury,” “Medical Spinoffs From ance at Cape Kennedy of the first manned moon Space,” “The Space Shuttle and the European landing were distributed to practically all posts. Space Lab,” and “U.S. and USSR Move Closer to Twenty-three USIS posts received, on their re- Historic Cooperation in Manned Spaceflight.” quest, a 43-minute videotaped interview with experts The monthly TV series, “Realidades,” in which on the use of space photography in developing and Brazilian correspondents interview American spe- conserving Earth resources. Two films made for the cialists, included four programs on space. The series Damascus Fair--one containing scenes of Apollo as- is specially produced for the 22-station Tupi net- tronauts on the moon, the other on the organization work which has outlets in all major Brazilian cities of the Apollo program-were reduced to 8mm cass- and reaches 1,500,000 viewers. Featured were two ettes for continuous showings at the fair. programs on communications satellites, a third on The Agency itself participated in the telecasting Skylab’s observations of the comet Kohoutek, and via satellite of 14 programs to countries abroad. a final program commemorating the first landing Among them was a 12-minute program reporting by men on the moon. the visit of Ivory Coast President Felix Houphouet- “Now,” the Arabic version of the highly popular Boigny to Washington that was transmitted to the Spanish-language “Ahora” TV series, used “Wind- Ivory Coast, and a 30-minute program to Romania fall From Space,” a half-hour production on the showing the welcoming ceremonies in Washington practical benefits of space exploration, and “Crusade for the Romanian President, Nicholae Ceausescu. Against Cancer,” a documentary on the contribu- Through the U.S. Mission to International Or- tions of space exploration to the fight against the ganizations in Geneva, three NASA films were of- disease. “Now” is distributed to 15 USIS posts where fered to European and Aisan television networks. Arabic is spoken. Agency facilities were used to transmit the remarks “Vision,” a monthly pictorial review of American by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher to a personalities and events, offered segments featuring regional seminar on use of the Earth Resources Earth resources technology satellites, and space-de- Technology satellite by Southeast Asian countries,

123 sponsored by USIS in Bangkok. The Washington Asia” brought together scientists from five nations in studios were also used by foreign newsmen and com- that region and two NASA experts, Dr. Nicholas mentators for telecasts and production of various Short, NASA’s senior geologist, and Mr. John documentaries on space subjects. Boeckel, Assistant Director for Operations in the The Agency selected and entered 11 U.S. films Applications Directorate of the Goddard Space on space subjects in 30 international exhibits and Flight Center. film festivals. Thus, USIA’s “Skylab-Outpost in At the first of the seminars, in Bangkok, the two Space” was seen at film festivals in Australia, New NASA representatives met with 60 delegates from Zealand, Milan, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Rome, and Thailand and 11 from Laos, Singapore, Malaysia Trieste. and Indonesia. The three-day seminar was jointly sponsored by the USIS Bangkok, the Thai National Information Centers and Exhibits Research Council and the Applied Scientific Re- search Corporation of Thailand. U.S. astronauts continued to enjoy overwhelniing The NASA experts used numerous color slides to popularity abroad. So did exhibits built around space explain the many aspects of ERTS applications. Del- accomplishments. egates from Thailand and Indonesia, which have Astronaut Russell L. Schweickart quickly became extensive ERTS programs, also used space photos the principal presence at a regional fair at Marseille, to report on the benefits derived and expected from France. He was seen at the fair by several hundred ERTS. These include include measurements of in- thousand persons, and over a million Frenchmen sect infestations, and cartographic interpretations were aware of his presence through press coverage. that have already led to important revisions in His appearance added luster to the exhibit of Sky- regional maps. lab hardware and a model of the Lunar Rover at the The Bangkok seminar was followed up by a two- Fair. day syposium on ERTS in Jakarta in which 150 Two almost identical exhibits of important space officials participated. In addition to the two NASA artifacts, traveling under the title of “Treasures of representatives, speakers included three Indonesians Space,” were bolstered at science and trade fairs who showed how ERTS data could help in that in North Africa, the Near East and Latin America country’s current efforts to inventory national re- by the appearance of prominent space personalities. sources. At a one-day seminar in Kuala Lumpur, the The exhibit items, all on loan from the National two NASA representatives addressed 70 scientists, Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institu- technicians, government administrators and business tion, consisted of a space suit, a lunar rock, lunar executives on the use and potential of ERTS. hand-tools, a reproduction of the Pioneer-10 plaque Ten titles on space subjects were carried in the addressed to inhabitants of other planets, and models monthly “Current Books” lists which recommend of ERTS-1, Skylab, the Space Shuttle, and the acquisition for USIS libraries. Apollo-Soyuz in docked configuration. One set of “Dividends From Space” by Frederick I. Ordway these artifacts was shown at the Damascus Fair, the and his associates was published by the Agency in Cairo Student Fair, and in Jidda, Kuwait, Tunis, English for Malagasy and Kannada. John Noble and Algiers, while the other was exhibited at the Wilford’s “We Reach the Moon” was published in Bogota Fair, the Asuncion Trade Fair, and in Buenos the Lao language. A variety of NASA publications Aires, Lima and Quito. were distributed by USIA to posts, libraries, and A series of seminars on “ERTS-1 and Southeast target audiences.

124 Appendixes APPENDIXA-1 U.S. Spacecraft Record

Earth orbit Earth escape Earth orbit Earth escape Year Year Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure

1957...... 0 1 0 0 1966...... 95 12 5 '1 1958...... 5 8 0 4 I 1967...... 78 4 10 0 1959...... 9. 9 1 2 1968...... 61 ~.15 3 0 1960...... 16 12 1 2 1969...... 58 1 8 i 1961...... 35 12 0 0 I 1970...... 36 1 3 0 1962...... 54 12 4 1 I 1971...... 45 2 8 1 1963...... 60 11 0 0 1972...... 33 2 8 0 1964...... 69 8 4 0 1973...... 23 2 3 0 1965...... 94 8 3 0 I 1974...... 29 2 1 0 I Total ...... 800 122 62 12

'This earth escape failure did attain earth orbit and there- tainment of earth orbit or earth escape rather than a judg- fore is included in the earth-orbit success totals. ment of mission success. This tabulation includes spacecraft from cooperating coun- NOTES:The criterion of success or failure used is the at- tries which were launched by U.S. launch vehicles.

APPENDIXA-2 World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond United Chinese

Year States U.S.S.R. France Italy. I-Tauai1 Peoples United Republic Australia Kingdom 1957 ...... 2 ...... 1958 1 ...... n 1959 ...... IU 0 ...... 1960 3 ...... 1961 6 .~...... En nn 1962 ...... JL LU ...... 1963 ...... 38 17 ...... 1964 ...... 57 30 ...... 1965 ...... 63 48 ...... 1966 ...... 73 44 1 ...... 1967 ...... 57 66 1968 ...... 45 74 ...... 1969 ...... 40 70 ...... 1970 ...... 28 81 2 '1 1 1 ...... 1971 ...... 1972 ...... 1973 ...... 23 86 ...... 1974 ...... 22 81 ...... '2 1 ...... Total ...... 618 789 ...... 7 7 7 2 1 1

Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft. spacecraft. Some launches did successfully orbit multiple NOTE:This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft.

125 APPENDIXA-3

Successful U.S. Launches4974 Apogee and perigee (in kilometers) - Launch date (G.m.t.) Period Spacecraft name Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks Cospar designation Inclination to Launch vehicle equator (degrees)

Jan. 19 Objective: To be placed in geostationary equa- 3,406 First of two U.K. second genera- Skynet IIA torial orbit over the Indian Ocean to provide 95 tion operational communications 2A in orbit x-band military communications for 121.6 satellites. Launched into ex- Thorad-Delta British forces. 37.6 tremely low eccentric orbit by SDacecraft : Drum-shaDed satellite 209-cm high NASA. Failure in Delta second 'and 190-cm in dianieter; 6 solar panels cover stage electronics package placed fiberglass outer shell; two batteries. Contains S- spacecraft in deteriorating low band circular array antenna; 17-watt communi- orbit. A second firing of third cations transponder and horn antenna system ; stage on Jan. 24 failed to boost attitude and orbit control subsystem; thermal spacecraft into higher orbit and control system ; monopropellant hydrazine re- it decayed over the southwestern action control unit; apogee boost TE-M-604-1 Pacific Jan. 25, 1974. solid fuel motor. Weight at liftoff: 435 kg. Feb. 13 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 404 Decayed March 17, 1974. Defense and technology. 128 7A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.8 Titan IIIB-Agena 110.4 Feb. 18 Objective: To obtain measurements of the diurnal 917 Fourth spacecraft in joint Italian- San Marco 4 variations of the equatorial neutral atmosphere 244 U.S. cooperative space program. 9A density, composition, and temperature. 96.3 Italian-built satellite launched scout Spacecraft: Sphere 70 cm in diameter with 4 2.9 successfully with NASA Scout canted 48.5 monopole antennas for telemetry vehicle by an Italian launch and command. Series of mica windows is pro- crew from Indian Ocean plat- vided on the equator of the outer shell for solar form off coast of Kenya. Two cells; 2 nickel-cadmium batteries. Spacecraft U.S. experiments korking prop- structure forms an integral part of the air density erly;. Italian atmospheric drag balance. Contains 3 experiments: neutral mass density experiment malfunc- spectrometer, omegatron mass spectrometer, and tioned. atmospheric drag density accelerometer. Weight: 170 kg. Mar. 9 Objective: To test the development of a three-axis 918 U.K.-built satellite launched suc- UK X-4 (Miranda) gas stabilization system ; to measure the perform- 712 cessfully by NASA. Spacecraft 13A ance of silicon type solar cells. 101.1 performing satisfactorily except scout Spacecraft: Rectangular structure 83.5 cm high 97.8 for malfunctioning regulator in and 66.5 cm wide; two deployable solar array the propane gas control system. panels extend from the main body sides and in- crease spacecraft span to 250 cm. Floor and side panels of the rectangular body are made of aluminum honeycomb sandwich construction. Solar array contains 1800 solar cells and consists of four panels stowed in a folded accordian form during launch and deployed by nitrogen gas- operated telescopic booms. Four antennas, each 46.5 cm long, fold out at the comers of the satellite facing earth. Contains five experiments: attitude control system, infrared horizon sensor, single-axis star sensor, albedo horizon sensor, and silicon solar cells. Weight: 93 kg. Mar. 16 Objective: Practical applications of space-based 878 Still in orbit. Defense technology. 78 1 15A Spacecraft: Not announced. 101.4 Thor-Burner I1 98.9 Apr. 10 Objective : Development of space flight techniques 288 Decayed July 28, 1974. Defense and technology. 152 20A Spacecraft: Not announced. 88.0 Titan IIID 94.0 Apr. 10 Objective: Development of space flight techniques Still in orbit. 829 Defense and technology. 783 20B Spacecraft: Not announced. loll0 Titan IIID 94.0 126 APPENDIXA-3--Continued Successful U.S. Lau nches-1974

Apogee and perigee (in kilometers) - Launch date (G.rn.t.1 Period Spacecraft name Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks Cospar designation Inclination to Launch vehicle equator (degrees)

Apr. 10 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 528 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 502 20c Spacecraft: Not announced. 94.0 Titan IIID 94.0 Apr. 13 Objective: To provide transmission of television, 35,950 Launched by NASA for Western Westar 1 voice, and other data throughout the United 35,553 Union Telegraph Company into 22A States. 1,434.3 transfer orbit. Apogee kick motor Thorad-Delta Spacecraft: Cylindrical 1.8- diameter and 3.7-m 0.0 fired April 16 and spacecraft high including 1.5-m optically transparent an- placed in stationary equatorial tenna affixed to top of spacecraft; spin stabilized. synchronous orbit just west of Provides 12 color TV channels or up to 14 Galapagos Islands in Pacific 400 one-way telephone circuits; 20,500 solar (99" west longitude). First in cells, Weight at launch: 572 kg.; weight in a series of three; spacecraft be- orbit: 300 kg. came first U.S. commercial do- mestic communications satellite. Commercial operations began July 16, 1974. Made first U.S. mail delivery via satellite Sept. 5, 1974. May 17 Objective: To launch spacecraft into a synchronous 35,5 19 First meteorological satellite to be SMS 1 orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable the space- 35,455 placed in synchronous prbit. Will 33A craft to accomplish its operational mission re- 1,420.8 provide continuous images of Thorad-Delta quirements, conduct an in-orbit evaluation and 2.0 cloud cover over the U.S. and checkout of the spacecraft and, upon completion Atlantic Ocean both day and of this evaluation, turn the operational control night for the first time. After of the spacecraft over to NOAA/NESS, to pro- launch into transfer orbit by vide regular and useful daytime and nighttime NASA, apogee boost motor fired meteorological observations in support of the na- and spacecraft placed in station- tional operational meteorological satellite system. ary equatorial synchronous orbit Spacecraft: Cylindricai 190.5 cm in diameter and off coast of Brazil (45" west Ion- 344 cm long from the top of the magnetometer gitude) . Spacecraft remained at to the bottom of the apogee boost motor. Thrust 45" until September to partici- tube located in center supports radiometer/tele- pate in GARP's (Global At- scope instrument. Scanning mirror looks out mospheric Research Program) through an opening in cylindrical solar array Atlantic Tropical Experiment; whose panels cover outer walls of spacecraft. moved to 75" west longitude by Instrumentation consists of a visible infrared mid-November to become part spin-scan radiometer (VISSR) to provide high of NOAA system. Has produced quality day/night cloud cover data and to meas- most highly resolved weather ure radiance temperatures of the earth/atmos- pictures ever taken from space. phere system, a meteorological data collection and transmission system, and a space environ- mental monitor (SEM) system to measure pro- ton, electron, and solar x-ray fluxes and magnetic fields. Spin stabilized. Weight at launch: 628 kg; weight in orbit: 272 kg.

127 575-666 0 - 75 - 10 APPENDIXA-3-Continued Successful U.S. Launches-1974

Apogee and perigee (in kilometers) - Launch date (G.m.t.) Period Spacecraft name Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks Cospar designation Inclination to Launch vehicle equator (degrees) May 30 Objective: To inject the spacecraft into a near 35,818 Most complex, versatile, and pow- ATS 6 geostationary orbit; to erect a large antenna 35,763 erful of ATS series. High power 39A structure (nominally 9.14 m) in orbit which, 1,436.3 receiver/transmitter can relay Titan IIIC with its associated communications system is 1.8 color TV and other signals to a capable of providing a good quality TV signal large number of small inexpen- to small, inexpensive ground receivers, and to sive stations over a large area. measure and evaluate the performance of such Placed in synchronous orbit by a system; to stabilize the spacecraft using a NASA at 94” west longitude three axis control system, with a slewing capa- over Galapagos Islands. Began bility in roll and pitch, permitting antenna point- beaming educational programs ing with an accuracy commensurate with the an- to eight Appalachian states July tenna characteristics ; to support and demon- 1974. Also broadcast educational strate user oriented applications experiments util- and medical programs to Alaska izing the spacecraft capabilities. and Rocky Mountain states. Spacecraft: Consists of a rectangular Earth View- Spacecraft will finish domestic ing Module (EVM) 137 cm wide and 160 cm program by end of school year high connected by a 4 m long tubular truss (May 1975) and will be moved support to a 9 m diameter deployable parabolic eastward to second station 35” reflector. Two structural booms each supporting east longitude over Lake Vic- a solar array are mounted horizontally on the toria, Kenya to beam programs top of the parabolic reflector and measure 16 m to 5000 villages in northern end to end. The spacecraft, in its orbital con- India. Move will take about 45 figuration, is 8.5 m high from the top of the days. Spacecraft will be on sec- magnetometer boom to the bottom of the EVM. ond station about beginning of The communications system is a multi-frequency July 1975; will also support transponder, a redundant transmitting/receiving ASTP mission. device containing six receivers and nine trans- mitters. Attitude control system uses hydrazine monopropellant thrusters. Two solar panels con- tain 21,600 solar cells covering a total area of 20 sq m. Carries more than 20 technological and scientific experiments. Weight: 1402 kg.

June 3 Objective: To study the plasma properties of the 126,793 Sixth in “Injun” Explorer series, Hawkeye 1 magnetosphere in the vicinity of the magnetic 638 satellite was designed and built (Explorer 52) neutral point over the earth’s north polar cap. 3,078.1 by the University of Iowa which 40A Spacecraft: Eight-sided truncated cone with 75-cm 89.8 tracks and controls the space- scout dia base, 25-cm dia top, and 75-cm high con- craft during flight. Launched by tains solar cells mounted on sides and bottom NASA into highly elliptical orbit of outer shell. Spin stabilized spacecraft contains using first five-stage Scout ve- a magnetometer boom which extends 1.6 m from hicle. All spacecraft booms and the spacecraft’s center line; two electric field an- antennas deployed in orbit and tenna booms, each extendable to 23 m, through all experiments turned on and which VLF-ELF receivers will measure frequen- operating satisfactorily. cies; and a search coil mounted on a 1.6-m boom. Orbiting configuration is 46-m tip-to-tip of the electric field antennas and 3.2-m tip-to-tip of the telescopic booms. Orbital weight: 27 kg.

June 6 Objective : Development of space flight techniques 410 Decayed July 23, 1974. Defense and technology. 120 42A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.8 Titan IIIB-Agena 110.4 July 14 Objective: Practical applications of space-based 13,762 Navigation Technology Satellite NTS 1 technology. 13,440 originally was known as Tima- 54A Spacecraft: Not announced. 468.4 tion 3. Still in orbit. Atlas F 125.1

128 APPENDIXA-3-Continued Successful U.S. Launches-1974 Apogee and perigee (in kilometers)- Launch date (G.m.t.) Period Spacecraft name Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks Cospar designation Inclination to Launch vehicle equator (degrees) July 16 Objective: To measure the main aeronomic para- 853 West G e r m an - b u i 1 t satellite Aeros 2 meters of the upper atmosphere and the solar 220 launched by NASA into nearly 55A_.~~ ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength- band of 95.3 polar orbit. All experiments scout main absorption. 97.4 turned on but spacecraft operat- Spacecraft: Circular cylindrical shell welded to a ing in real-time mode only be- bottom conical shell to form a structural unit cause of tape recorder failure. 916 cm in diameter and 710 cm high. Flat Returning; good data. honeycomb solar cell arrav lid is attached to spacecraft cylinder top. Carries five scientific instruments: Mass Spectrometer (MS), Retard- ing Potential Analyzer (RPA), Impedence Probe (IP), EUV-Spectrometer (EUV), and Neutral Atmosphere Temperature Experiment (NATE) . Spin stabilized; four telemetry antennas; two batteries. Weight: 127 kg. Aua. 9 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 875 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 805 63A Spacecraft: Not announced. 101.6 Thor-Burner I1 98.8 Aug. 14 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 407 Decayed Sept. 29, 1974. Defense and technology. 123 65A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.8 Titan IIIB-Agena 110.4 Aug. 30 Objective: To increase the scientific knowledge of 1,167 First Netherlands/U.S. cooperative ANS stellar ultraviolet (UV) and x-ray sources. 254 satellite launched by NASA 7 OA Spacecraft : Rectangular double bar configuration 99.0 Scout vehicle into polar orbit. scout 123 cm high and 61 cm wide; measures 144 cm 98.1 Scout guidance package anomaly wide with wing-like solar paddles deployed. Co? placed spacecraft into highly tains three scientific experiments: a cassegrain elliptical rather than near-circu- type telescope with a spectrometer and five UV- lar orbit. All experiments turned sensitive photomultipliers for a range of 1500 on and returning data. to 3000 Angstroms; a two detector soft x-ray instrument for the spectral range of 0.2 to 5 kev; and a two detector hard x-ray instrument sensi- tive in the spectral range of 2 to 15 kev and a Bragg Crystal spectrometer sensitive for x-ray live radiation around 2 kev. Three-axis stabilized satellite contains 2,050 solar cells, one nickel- cadmium battery, and four antennas. Weight: 130 kg. Oct. 10 Objective: To provide transmission of television, 35,766 Launched by NASA for Western Westar 2 voice, and other data throughout the United 35,244 Union Telegraph Company into 75A States. 1,42 1.7 transfer orbit. Apogee kick mo- Thorad-Delta Spacecraft: Cylindrical 1.8-m diameter and 3.7-m 0.5 tor fired Oct. 13 and placed high including 1.5-m optically transparent an- spacecraft in stationary equa- tenna affixed to top of spacecraft; spin stabilized. torial synchronous orbit over Provides 12 color TV channels or up to 14, Pacific Ocean (90" west longi- 400 one-way telephone circuits ; 20,500 solar tude). Second in a series of cells. Weight at launch: 572 kg.; weight in three satellites in U.S. commer- orbit: 300 kg. cial domestic communications satellite system. Oct. 15 Objective: To investigate the galactic and extra- 557 Fifth satellite in cooperative US./ Ariel 5 galactic x-ray sources. 512 U.K. series. Mission involved 77A Spacecraft: 16-sided cylinder 86.4 cm high and 95.3 three nations-U.K.-built satel- scout 95.8 cm in diameter consists of an assembly of 2.9 lite carrying five U.K. experi- aluminum honeycomb panels which house ex- ments and one U.S. experiment periments and control instruments. Spin stabi- was launched by an Italian crew lized spacecraft has four 54.4-cm long telemetry from the San Marco platform off antennas; 4536 silicon solar cells are mounted the coast of Kenya using a on the outside panels which cover 14 of 16 sides. NASA Scout launch vehicle. All Carries six x-ray experiments, four designed for experiments are operating and pointing and two for scanning information. spacecraft is performing well in Weight: 130 kg. near-circular orbit. 129 APPENDIXA-3-Continued Successful US. Launches-1974

Apogee and perigee (in kilometers)- Launch date (G.m.t.) Period Spacecraft name Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks Cospar designation Inclination to Launch vehicle equator (degrees)

Oct. 29 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 279 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 152 85A Spacecraft: Not announced. 88.8 Titan IIID 96.7 Oct. 29 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 542 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 540 85C Spacecraft : Not announced. 95.3 Titan IIID 96.1 Oct. 29 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 3,711 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 147 85D Spacecraft : Not announced. 125.4 Titan IIID 97.0 Nov. 15 Objective: To place spacecraft in a Sun-synchron- 1,457 Fourth operational satellite of a NOAA 4 (ITOS G) ous orbit having a local equator crossing time of 1,443 series of second generation me- 89A approximately 8:40 am, descending to permit 114.9 teorological satellites launched Thorad-Delta regular and dependable daytime and nighttime 101.7 by NASA. Part of NOAA global meteorological observations in both direct read- weather watch program. Space- out and stored modes of operation. craft functioning normally and Spacecraft: Rectangular, box-shaped spacecraft turned over to NOAA on Dec. with a deployable 3-panel solar array: The base 4 for operational use. of the main body is about 102 cm by 102 cm and the overall height is about 122 cm. The total area of the array is 4.5 sq m with each of the 3 panels measuring 93 cm by 162 cm. 3-axis sta- bilized, Earth-oriented satellite carries primary sensor complement of 2 Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) instruments and 2 Scan- ning Radiometer (SR) sensors for daytime and nighttime coverage, 2 Vertical Temperature Pro- file Radiometers (VTPR) which permit determi- nation of the Earth’s vertical temperature profile over every part of the Earth’s surface at least twice daily, and 1 secondary sensor, the Solar Proton Monitor (SPM) which provides continu- ous measurements of proton and electron flux activity near the Earth. Thermal control system; 4 antennas. Weight: 345 kg. Nov. 15 Objective : To provide noncommercial public serv- 1,459 Built by American, Australian, OSCAR 7 ice and educational use by the amateur radio 1,445 Canadian, and German amateur 89B community; to conduct an experimental program 114.9 groups working through the Thorad-Delta of multiple-access communications techniques 101.7 Radio Amateur Satellite Corpo- using a large number of relatively low-powered ration (AMSAT). Launched by earth terminals. NASA as secondary payload. Spacecraft: 8-sided cylindrical configuration with Spacecraft functioning normally solar cells covering the exterior; 42.4 cm in di- and used heavily by amateurs ameter and 43.4 cm high. Carries a 2-to 10- around the world. meter repeater with input frequency between 145.85 and 145.95 MHz and output frequency between 29.40 and 29.50 MHz; also carries a second repeater with input frequency between 432.125 and 432.175 MHz and output frequency between 145.975 and 145.925 MHz. Each re- peater operational on alternate days. Weight: 29.5 kg.

130 APPENDIXA-3-Continued

Su c cessf u I U.S , La u nc h es-1974 Apogee and perigee (in kilometers)- Launch date (G.m.t.) Period Spacecraft name Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks Cospar designation Inclination to Launch vehicle equator (degrees)

Nov. 15 Objective : To obtain measurements of ionospheric 1,457 First Spanish satellite, carries bea- Intasat total electron content, ionospheric irregularities, 1,440 con experiment for ionospheric 89C and ionospheric scintillations. 114.9 study. Launched by NASA as Thorad-Delta Spacecraft: 12-sided cylindrical body measures 41 101.7 secondary payload, magnetically cm high and 44.2 cm in diameter; antenna ar- stabilized spacecraft is function- ray consists of 4 monopoles (49 cm each) mount- ing normally. ed on spacecraft bottom; beacon antenna goes through center of spacecraft and measures 4 m from end-to-end. 660 solar cells are mounted on the spacecraft's 12 side panels; nickel-cadmium battery. Magnet stabilized. Weight: 15 kg. Nov. 21 Objective: To provide equivalent of 3,000 to 9,000 35,780 Launched by NASA for Comsat Intelsat IV F-8 telephone circuits simultaneously or 12 color TV 35,630 Corp., manager of Intelsat. 6th 93A channels or a combination of telephone, TV, and 1,43 1.9 satellite in improved Intelsat IV A tlas-Centaur other forms of communications traffic. 1.8 series. Apogee motor fired by Spacecraft: Cylindrical 2.38-meter diameter and Comsat on Nov. 23 and satellite 5.28-meter high ; spin stabilized; 12 communica- stationed at 174" east longitude tions repeaters (transponders) ; 6 antennas (2 over Pacific Ocean. Commercial global transmit antennas, 2 global receive an- operations began Dec. 18, 1974. tennas, and 2 steerable spot-beam antennas) ; 45,012 solar cells. Weight at liftoff: 1387 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 700 kg. Nov. 3 Objective: To be placed in geostationary equatorial 36,5,, Second of two U.K. second genera- Skynet IIB orbit over the Indian Ocean to provide in orbit 35,896 tion operational comunications 94A x-band military communications for British 1,459.4 satellites. Launched by NASA Thorad-Delta forces. 2.2 for U.K. Apogee motor fired Spacecraft: Drum-shaped satellite 209-cm high Nov. 24 and satellite stationed and 190-cm in diameter; 6 solar panels cover in synchronous orbit above the fiberglass outer shell ; two batteries. Contains Indian Ocean. S-band circular array antenna; 17-watt commu- nications transponder and horn antenna system ; attitude and orbit control subsystem; thermal control system ; monopropellant hydrazine reac- tion control unit; apogee boost TE-M-604-1 solid fuel motor. Weight at liftoff: 435 kg.

131 APPENDIXA-3-Continued Successf uI U.S. Launc hes-1974

~ Apogee and perigee (in kilometers)- Launch date (G.m.t.) Period Spacecraft name Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks Cospar designation Inclination to Launch vehicle equator (degrees)

Dec. 10 Objective: To investigate the fundamental solar Helio- First operational use by NASA of Helios 1 processes and solar terrestrial relationships by the centric Titan - Centaur configuration. 97A study of phenomena such as solar wind, mag- orbit West German-built satellite suc- Titan IIIE- netic and electric fields, cosmic rays, and cosmic cessfully launched by NASA into Centaur-TE- dust. The basic mission extends from launch to elliptical solar orbit. spacecraft M-364-4 the first perihelion (approximately 0.31 A.U. orbit will take it closer to Sun and 90 days after launch). than any man-made object has Spacecraft : Spool-shaped satellite formed by two achieved to date (45 million conical solar arrays attached to a 16-sided cylin- km). Results will contribute ma- drical central body; the central compartment is jor new information on the dy- 1.75 m in diameter and 0.55 m high. Largest namics of the solar corona and diameter of the solar arrays is 2.77 m and satel- physical processes active on the lite height without antenna mast is 2.12 m; with Sun. the antenna mast protruding above the solar ! array, spacecraft height is 4.20 m. Two deploy- able booms attached to the central body measure 32 m tip-to-tip when extended and are used as antennas for a radiowave experiment; two other deployable booms, attached to the central body and perpendicular to the antenna booms, carry three magnetometer experiments. Solar cells lo- cated on the solar arrays above and below space- craft body; second surface mirrors are inter- spersed among the solar cells to radiate excess heat; silver zinc batteries. Active and passive thermal control subsystem; attitude control sub- system; three antennas for communications and telemetry; carries 12 experiments. Weight: 370 kg. Dec. 19 Objective: To test and demonstrate communica- 40,918 First of two experimental commu- Symphonie 1 tions equipment for TV, radio, telephone, tele- 38,705 nications satellites developed by IOlA graph, and data transmission ; to provide equiva- 1,646.6 France and Germany. Launched Thorad-Delta lent of 2 color TV channels and 8 voice channels, 1.2 successfully by NASA into trans- or 1.200 teleuhone circuits between EuroDe. Af- fer orbit. Apogee motor was fired rica,’ and Soith America. by Germany on Dec. 21 and Payload: Flat hexagonal cylinder 1.85 m in di- placed spacecraft in synchronous ameter and 0.5 m hish. Three solar Dane1 winas equatorial orbit over the Atlantic folded against satellite body are deployed rn off the west coast of Africa. geosynchronous orbit and extend 2.5 m from spacecraft. Apogee motor engine and nozzle, super high frequency antenna feed and reflectors, reception horn, and solar sensors are mounted on spacecraft top; VHF antennas are on under- side. Three axis stabilized by cold gas system; 2 nickel-cadmium batteries. Weight: 402 kg.

132 APPENDIXB-1 U.S. Applications Satellites 1970-1974

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks COMMUNICATIONS Jan. 15, 1970 Intelsat I11 (F-6) Thor-Delta (TAT) Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the United States, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East. Jan. 23, 1970 Oscar V (Australis) Thor-Delta (TAT) Ham radio satellite built by amateur radio operators at Mel- bourne University, Melbourne, Australia. Mar. 20,1970 NATOSAT-I Thor-Delta (TAT) First NATO satellite, stationed over Atlantic to carry military (NATO-A) traffic between the United States and other NATO countries. Apr. 23, 1970 Intelsat I11 (F-7) Thor-Delta (TAT) Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the United States, Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Jul. 23, 1970 Intelsat I11 (F-8) Thor-Delta (TAT) Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Not usable. Last launch of Intelsat I11 series. Aug. 22,1970 Skynet I1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement (IDCSP-B) to augment the IDCSP program. Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Jan. 26, 1971 Intelsat IV (F-2) Atlas Centaur First in Intelsat IV series of spacecraft; 3-9,000, 2-way voice circuits or 12-color TV channels. Positioned over the Atlantic. Feb. 3, 1971 NATOSAT-I1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Second NATO satellite, stationed over the Atlantic to carry (NATO-B) military traffic. NOV.3,1971 DSCS 2-1,2 Titan IIIC Operational defense communications satellites launched as a pair to 24-hour synchronous orbits to provide high capacity voice, digital, and secure voice communications for military networks. Dec. 19, 1971 Intelsat IV (F-3) Atlas Centaur Second in new high-capacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. Jan. 22, 1972 Intelsat IV (F-4) Atlas Centaur Third in new high capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. June 13,1972 Intelsat IV (F-5) Atlas Centaur Fourth in new high capacity series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. Oct. 15, 1972 Oscar VI Thor-Delta (TAT) Amateur radio relay. Nov. 9, 1972 Anik 1 (Telesat 1) Thor-Delta f TAT) Launched for Canada. Apr. 20, 1973 Anik 2 (Telesat 2) Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for Canada. Aug. 24, 1973 Intelsat IV (F-7) Atlas Centaur Fifth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. Dec. 13,1973 DSCS 2-3,4 Titan IIIC Follow-on to DSCS 2-1, 2. Jan. 19, 1974 Skynet 2A Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Apr. 13, 1974 Westar 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the Western Union Co. to establish a domestic communications link. May 30,1974 ATS-6 Titan IIIC Multipurpose experimental satellite especially designed for re- gional services in North America and later India. Oct. 10, 1974 Westar 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the Western Union Co. as part of their domestic communications links. Nov. 21, 1974 Intelsat IV (F-8) Atlas Centaur Sixth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. Nov. 23,1974 Skynet 2B Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft positioned over Indian Ocean. Dec. 19,1974 Symphonie 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) First of two experimental satellites for France and West Ger- many. Spacecraft positioned over Atlantic.

133 APPENDIXEl-Continued U.S. Applications Satellites 1970-1974

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

WEATHER OBSERVATION Jan. 23, 1970 ITOS I (Tiros M) Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. Apr. 8,1970 Nimbus IV Thor-Agena Fifth in a series of 7 advanced research and development weather satellites. Dec. 11.1970 NOAA-1 Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. (ITOS-A) Aug. 16,1971 Eole (CAS-1) scout French satellite to gather data from constant density surface balloons relaying meteorological data for the study of the characteristics and movements of air masses. New balloons are released daily from 3 sites in Argentina, for this coopera- tive French/United States project. Oct. 15,1972 NOAA-2 ITOS D) Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. Dec. 11,1972 Nimbus V Thor-Delta Provided the first atmospheric vertical temperature profile measurements through clouds. NOV.6.1973 NOAA-3 ITOS F) Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. May 17,1974 SMS 1 Thor-Delta First full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. NOV.15,1974 NOAA-4 (ITOS G) Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite.

EARTH OBSERVATION July 23,1972 ERTS-1 Thor-Delta Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving useful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry resources, mineral and land resources, land use, water re- sources, marine resources, mapping and charting, and the environment. GEODESY Apr. 8,1970 Top0 I Thor-Agena D

NAVIGATION Aug. 27,1970 NavSat 0-19 scout Sept. 2,1972 Triad 01-1 scout First experimental station keeping Transit navigation satellite. Oct. 30,1973 NavSat 0-20 scout Jul. 14,1974 NTS 1 Atlas F Navigation- techno1o.w-. satellite. Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites which are not individually identified by launch.

134 APPENDIXE2 U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 1970-1974 Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks . Nov. 9,1970 OF0 1 scout Measure vestibular nerve activity of two frogs, otolith system. Nov. 9,1970 RMS scout Radiation meteoroid measurements, pickaback to OF0 1. Nov. 30,1970 OAO Atlas Centaur Orbiting astronomical observatory Shroud did not separate, failed to reach orbit. Dec. 11,1970 CEPE Thor Delta Cylindrical Electrostatic Probe Experiment, pickaback to NOAA 1. Dec. 12, 1970 SAS (Explorer 42 ) scout Study of celestial x-ray sources. (Italian launched.) Mar. 13, 1971 IMP 8 (Explorer 43) Thor Delta Study of solar-lunar-terrestrial relationships in the radiation en- vironment of the interplanetary magnetic field. Apr. 1, 1971 ISIS 2 Thor Delta Electron production and loss, and large scale transport of ioniza- tion. (Canadian payload.) June 8, 1971 SESP 1 Thor Burner I1 Defense scientific experiments. June 8,1971 Solrad 10 scout Monitor sun's x-ray and UV emissions. (Explorer 44) Aug. 7,197 1 ov-. 1-20- -~ Atlas Satar Defense scientific experiment. Aug. 7,1971 ov 1-21 Atlas Satar Defense scientific experiment. Aug. 7,1971 AVL 802 Atlas Satar Defense scientific experiment. Sen. 29. 1971 os0 7 Thor Delta Observe active physical processes on the sun. dit. i7: 1971 STP (SESP 71-2) Thor Agena Defense scientific experiments. Nov. 15,1971 SSS (Explorer 45) scout Investigate ring current and magnetic storms, acceleration of charged particles (Italian launched.) Dec. 11,1971 Ariel 4 scout Investigate interactions among the plasma, charged particle streams, electromagnetic waves. (United Kingdom payload.) Jan. 31,1972 HEOS A-2 Thor Delta Investigate interplanetary space and high latitude magneto- sphere. (International cooperative payload.) Mar. 12, 1972 Thor Delta Seven ESRO experiments. Aug. 13,1972 scout Meteoroid penetration rate study. AUE.21.1972 Atlas Centaur Precise astronomical observation from above the atmosphere. SeG 23,'1972 Thor Delta Study cislunar space radiation environment, plus magnetic data. Oct. 2, 1972 Radcat ' Atlas Burner I1 Defense scientific experiment. Oct. 2, 1972 Radsat Atlas Burner I1 Defense scientific experiment. Nov. 15,1972 SAS B (Explorer 48) scout Survey of high energy gamma radiation including point sources. (Italian launched.) Nov. 22,1972 ESRO 4 scout Polar ionosphere studies. (ESRO payload.) Dec. 16,1972 Aeros 1 scout Study of upper atmosphere and ionospheric F region. (German payload. ) June 10,1973 Radio Astronomy 2 Thor Delta Measure galactic and solar radio noise shielded from earth by (Explorer 49) the moon, by use of lunar orbit. Oct. 26, 1973 IMP 10 (Explorer 50) Thor Delta Study of interplanetary environment particle and field inter- actions in the distant magneto tail. Dec. 16,1973 Atmosphere Thor Delta Photochemical processes in absorption of solar UV. (Explorer 5 1 ) Feb. 18,1974 San Marco 4 scout Diurnal variations in equatorial neutral atmosphere. (Italian payload and launch.) Mar. 9, 1974 UK X-4 (Miranda) scout Measure density of sun reflecting particles near the spacecraft, and test engineering systems. (United Kingdom payload.) June 3,1974 Hawkeye scout Plasma properties of the magnetosphere over the nortlf polar cap. (Explorer 52) July 16, 1974 Aeros 2 scout Measure aeronomic parameters of upper atmosphere and solar UV. (German payload.) Aug. 30,1974 ANS scout Study steller UV and x-ray sources. (Netherlands payload.) Oct. 15, 1974 Ariel 5 scout Study galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. (United King- dom payload.) Nov. 15. 1974 INTASAT Thor Delta Measure ionospheric total electron content, ionospheric irregu- larities and scintillation. Spanish payload.

135 APPENDIXEL3 U.S.-Launched Space Probes 1970-1974

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks May 8,1971 Mariner 8 Atlas Centaur Mars orbital photographic mission. Launch failure. May 30, 1971 Mariner 9 Atlas Centaur Mars orbital photographic mission. Entered orbit of Mars Nov. 13, 1971. Returned 6,876 pictures and data on temperatures, elevations, and water vapor. Mar. 3, 1972 Pioneer 10 Atlas Centaur Jupiter flyby mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 3, 1973, returned color pictures and data on radiation, temperatures, and mag- netic fields. Accelerated toward solar system escape. Apr. 6, 1973 Pioneer 11 Atlas Centaur Jupiter fiyby mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 2, 1974, returning pictures and data and headed for a similar pass by Saturn before accelerating out of the solar system. Nov. 3, 1973 Mariner 10 Atlas Centaur Venus and Mercury flyby mission. Passed Venus on Feb. 5, 1974, returning 3,7 12 pictures in several wavelengths. Passed Mercury on Mar. 29, 1974 returning good quality pictures. Passed Mercury again on Sep. 21, 1974, returning 500-600 good quality pictures. Will pass Mercury again on Mar. 16, 1975. Other data were also returned. Dec. 10, 1974 Helios 1 Titan IIIE-Centaur Investigate properties of interstellar space close to Sun. W. German payload.

136 APPENDIXC History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights

Vostok 1 Apr. 12, 1961 Yuri A. Gagarin 1 h 48 min. First nianned flight. Mercury- May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 15 min. First U.S.flight; suborbital. Redstone 3 Mercury- July 21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 16 min. Suborbital; capsule sank after landing. Redstone 4 Vostok 2 Aug. 6, 1961 Gherman S. Titov 25 h 18 min. First flight exceeding 24 h. Mercury- Feb. 20, 1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 4 h 55 min. First American to orbit. Atlas 6 Mercury-Atlas May 24, 1962 M. Scott Carpenter 4 h 56 min. Landed 250 mi from target. 7 Vostok 3 Aug. 11, 1962 Andrian G. Nikolayev 94 h 22 min. First dual mission (with Vostok 4). Vostok 4 Aug. 12, 1962 Pavel R. Popovich 70 h 57 min. Came within 4 mi of Vostok 3. Mercury-Atlas Oct. 3, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 9 h 13 min. Landed 5 mi from target. 8 Mercury- Atlas May 15, 1963 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 34 h 20 min. First long U.S. flight. 9 Vostok 5 June 14, 1963 Valery F. Bykovsky 119 h 6 min. Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). Vostok 6 June 16, 1963 Valentina V. Tereshkova 70 h 50 min. First woman in space; within 3 mi of Vostok 5. Voskhod 1 Oct. 12, 1964 Vladimir M. Komarov 24 h 17 min. First 3-man crew. Konstantin P. Feoktistov Dr. Boris G. Yegorov Voskhod 2 Mar. 18, 1965 Aleksei A. Leonov 26 h 2 min. First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 Pavel I. Belyayev min) . Gemini 3 Mar. 23, 1965 Virgil I. Grissom 4 h 53 min. First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual ma- ..Tohn - W. Young neuvers in orbit. Gemini 4 June 3, 1965 James A. McDYvitt 97 h 56 min. 21-min. extravehicular activity (White). Edward H. White, 2d Gemini 5 Aug. 21, 1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 190 h 55 min. Longest-duration manned flight to date. Charles Conrad, Jr. Gemini 7 Dec. 4, 1965 Frank Borman 330 h 35 min. Longest-duration manned flight to date. James A. Lovell, Jr. Gemini 6-A Dec. 15, 1965 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 25 h 51 min. Rendezvous within 1 ft of Gemini 7. Thomas P. Stafford Gemini 8 Mar. 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong 10 h 41 min. First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gem- David R. Scott ini 8 with Agena target rocket). Gemini 9-A June 3, 1966 Thomas P. Stafford 72 h 21 min. Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. Eugene A. Cernan Gemini 10 July 18, 1966 John W. Young 70 h 47 min. First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Michael Collins Agena 10, then Agena 8). Gemini 11 Sept. 12, 1966 Charles Conrad, Jr. 71 h 17 min. First initial-orbit rendezvous ; first tethered Richard F. Gordon, Jr. flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (853 mi). Gemini 12 Nov. 11, 1966 James A. Lovell, Jr. 94 h 35 min. Longest extravehicular activity to date (Al- Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. drin, 5 h 37 min). soyuz 1 Apr. 23, 1967 Vladimir M. Komarov 26 h 37 min. Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. Apollo 7 Oct. 11, 1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 260 h 9 min. First U.S. 3-man mission. Donn F. Eisele R. Walter Cunningham soyuz 3 Oct. 26, 1968 Georgi Beregovoy 94 h 51 min. Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. Apollo 8 Dec. 21, 1968 Frank Borman 147 h 1 min. First manned orbit (s) of Moon ; first manned James A. Lovell, Jr. departure from Earth’s sphere of influence; William A. Anders highest speed ever attained in manned flight. soyuz 4 Jan. 14, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 71 h 23 min. Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 soyuz 5 Jan. 15, 1969 Boris Volynov 72 h 56 min. Cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. Aleksey Yeliseyev Yevgeniy Khrunov Apollo 9 Mar. 3, 1969 James A. McDivitt 241 h 1 min. Successfully simulated in Earth orbit opera- David R. Scott tion of lunar module to landing and take- Russell L. Schweickart off from lunar surface and rejoining with command module. Apollo 10 May 18, 1969 Thomas P. Stafford 192 h 3 min. Successfully demonstrated complete system John W. Young including lunar midule descent to 47,000 Euqene A. Cernan ft from the lunar surface. Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 Neil A. Armstrong 195 h 19 min. First manned landing on lunar surface and Michael Collins safe return to Earth. First return of rock Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. and soil samples to Earth, and manned de- ployment of experiments on lunar surface.

137 APPENDXXCLContinued History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights

Soyuz 6 Oct. 11, 1969 Georgiy Shonin 118 h 42 min. Soyuz 6, 7 and 8 operated as a group flight Valeriy Kubasov without actually docking. Each conducted soyuz 7 Oct. 12, 1969 Anatoliy Filipchenko 118 h 41 min. certain experiments, including welding and Vladislav Volkov Earth and celestial observations. Viktor Gorbatko soyuz 8 Oct. 13, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 118 h 50 min. Aleksey Yeliseyev Apollo 12 Nov. 4, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 244 hr 36 min. Second manned lunar landing. Continued Richard F. Gordon, Jr. manned exploration and retrieved parts of Alan L. Bean Surveyor I11 spacecraft which landed in Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. Apollo 13 Apr. 1, 1970 James A. Lovell, Jr. 142 h 55 min. Mission aborted due to explosion in the Fred W.Haise, Jr. service module. Ship circled Moon, with John L. Swigert, Jr. crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just prior to reentry. soyuz 9 June 1, 1970 Andrian G. Nikolayev 424 h 59 min. Longest manned space flight to date, lasting Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 17 days 16 h 59 min. Apollo 14 Jan. 31, 1971 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 216 h 2 min. Third manned lunar landing. Mission dem- Stuart A. Roosa onstrated pin-point landing capability and Edgar D. Mitchell continued manned exploration. soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971 Vladimir Shatalov 47 h 46 min. Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not Aleksey Yeliseyev board space station launched Apr. 19. Nikolai Rukavishnikov Crew recovered Apr. 24, 1971. soyuz 11 June 6, 1971 Georgiy Timofeyevich 570 h 22 min. Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew Dobrovolskiy occupied space station for 22 days. Crew Vladislov Nikolavevich perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 Volkov capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 David R. Scott 295 h 12 min. Fourth manned lunar landing and first Alfred M. Worden Apollo “J” series mission which carry the James Bensen Irwin Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight EVA of 38 rnin 12 s was performed during return trip. Apollo 16 Apr. 16, 1972 John W. Young 265 h 51 min. Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Charls M. Duke, Jr. Roving Vehicle. Thomas K. Mattingly, 11 Apollo 17 Dec. 7, 1972 Eugene A. Cernan 301 hr 52 min. Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar land- Harrison H. Schmitt ing, with roving vehicle. Ronald E. Evans Skylab 2 May 25, 1973 Charles Conrad, Jr. 672 h 50 min. Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired Joseph P. Kerwin damaged station. Paul J. Weitz Skylab 3 July 28, 1973 Alan L. Bean 1,427 h 9 min. Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. Jack R. Lousma Owen K. Garriott soyuz 12 Sept. 27, 1973 Vasiliy Lazarev 47 h 16 min. Checkout of improved Soyuz. Oleg Makarov Skylab 4 Nov. 16, 1973 Gerald P. Carr 2,017 h 16 min. Docked with Skylab 1 in continuing long Edward G. Gibson duration mission. William R. Pogue Soyuz 13 Dec. 18, 1973 Petr Klimuk 188 h 55 min. Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources Valentin Lebedev experiments. Soyuz 14 July 3, 1974 Pave1 Popovich 377 h 30 min. Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew Yuriy Artyukhin occupied space station for over 14 days. Soyuz 15 Aug. 26, 1974 Gennadiy Sarafanov 48 h 12 min. Rendezvoused but did not dock with Sal- Lev Demin yut 3. Soyuz 16 Dec. 2, 1974 Anatoliy Filipchenko 142 h 24 min. Test of ASTP configuration. Nikolai Rukavishnikov

138 APPENDIXD U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

Thrust Max. Max. Payload (Ib) ~ (in thou- dia. Height ~ Vehicle Stages Propellant ' sandsof (ft) (ft) 300NM Escape First

Scout.. ..1. AlgolIIIA ...... Solid ...... 108.3 3.67 72.0 '410 '85 '1972(60) 2. Castor IIA ...... Solid ...... 63.2 28.5 5.9 Thor:Delta 2900 1. Thor plus 205 8 116 '3,900 '1,050 1973(60) series. nine TX 354-5 ...Solid ...... 99 10.3 15 Atlas-Agena...... 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP-1 ...... 503 10 133 '7,700 '1,430 1968(60) sustainer (SLV/JA). 2. Agena...... IRFNA/UDMH .... 16 Titan IIIB-Agena ...... 1. LR-87 ...... NzO'/Aerozine ...... 464 10 159 '7,200 '1,500 1966 2. LR-91 ...... NnOl/Aerozine ...... 102 3. Agena...... IRFN/UDMH...... 16 Titan IIIC...... 1. Two 5-segment Solid ...... 2,400 10x30 133 '27,700 ' 6,900 1965 120-in diameter. 2. LR-87 ...... NzO,/Aerozine ...... 520 3. LR-91 ...... NzOJAerozine ...... 102 4. Transtage...... NpO4;Aerozine ...... 15.7 Titan IIID ...... 1. Two 5-segment Solid ...... 2,400 10x30 154 10,500 ...... 1971 120-in diameter.. 2. LR-87 ...... NDJAerozine...... 520 3. LR-91 ...... N~O'/Aerozine...... 102 Titan IIIE-Centaur .... 1. Two 5-segment Solid ...... 2,400 10x30 160 ...... ' 11,300 1974 120-in diameter.. 2. LR-87 ...... NpOl/Aerozine ...... 520 3. LR-9 1 ...... NzO4/Aerozine...... 102 4. Centaur (Two LOX/LH ...... 30 RL-IO). Atlas-Centaur ...... 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP ...... 503 10 131 '10,300 '2,500 1967(62) sustainer. 2. Centaur (Two LOX/LH ...... 30 RL-10). Saturn IB ...... 1. S-IB (eight H-1 ) ...LOX/RP ...... 1,640 21.6 181 ' 34,000 ...... 1966 2. S-IVB (one 1-21 ... LOX/LH ...... 230

'The date of first launch applies to this latest modification Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Di- with a date in parentheses for the initial version. methylhydrazine-IRFN/UDMH ; Nitrogen Tetroxide and 'Set of 3. UDMH/NzH&-NzOJAerozine ; Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Propellant abbreviations used are as follows : Liquid Oxy- Hydrogen-LOX/LH. gen and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP; Solid propellant 'Due east launch. combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid; Polar launch.

139 APPENDIXE-1

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 18-YEAR BUDGETSUMMARY-NEW FISCAL YEAR OBLIGATIONAL AUTHORITY [Irrmillions of dollars (may not add due to rounding)]

NASA Department Total Total Space' of Defense AEC Commerce Interior Aariculture NSF mace 1959 ...... 305.4 235.4 489.5 34.3 ...... 759.2 1960 ...... 523.6 461.5 560.9 .1 1,065.8 1961 ...... 964.0 926.0 813.9 .6 1.808.2 1962 ...... 1,824.9 1,796.8 1,298.2 147.8 1.3 3i294.8 1963 ...... 3,673.0 3,626.0 1,549.9 213.9 43.2 ...... 1.5 5,434.5 1964 ...... 5,099.7 5,046.3 1,599.3 210.0 2.8 ...... 3.0 6,861.4 1965 _.._ ...... 5.249.7 5.167.6 1.573.9 228.6 12.2 ...... 3.2 6.985.5 1966 ...... 5;174.9 5i094.5 1i688.8 186.8 26.5 ...... 3.2 6:999.8 .._ 4,967.6 4,862.2 1,663.6 183.6 29.3 ...... 2.8 6,741.5 .... 4,588.8 4,452.5 1,921.8 145.1 28.1 0.2 0.5 3.2 6.55 1.4 1969 ...... 3,990.9 3,822.0 2,013.0 118.0 20.0 0.2 0.7 1.9 5i975.8 1970 ...... 3,745.8 3,547.0 1,678.4. 102.8 8.0 1.1 0.8 2.4 5,340.5 1971 ...... 3,311.2 3,101.3 1,512.3 94.8 27.4 1.9 0.8 2.4 4,7 4 0.9 1972 ...... 31306.6 3:071.0 11407.0 55.2 31.3 5.8 1.6 2.8 4,5 74.7 1973 ...... 31406.2 3i093.2 1,623.0 54.2 39.7 10.3 1.9 2.6 4,824.8 1974 ...... I ...... 3,036.9 2,758.5 1,766.0 41.7 60.2 9.0 3.1 1.8 4,640.3 1975Est...... 3.228.8 2.920.3 2.011.0 40.2 64.6 8.3 3.9 2.0 5,050.3 1976 Est...... 3i536.6 3i222.4 2i191.0 43.8 73.7 8.3 5.8 2.4 5,547.4 Excludes amounts for air transportation. Source: Office of Management and Budget.

U.S. Space Budget-New Obligational Authority-1964-1976

BILLIONS OF DOLLARS

V."

7.0

6.0 - 5.5

5.0 -

4.0 -

3.0 -

2.0 -

1.0 -

- 1976 FISCAL YEAR EST. EST.

OTHER 'EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR AVIATION TECHNOLOGY = ...... DEFENSE SOURCE OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET I1NASA'

140 APPENDIXE-2

Space Activities Budget (In millions of dollars)

New obligational authority Outlays 1974 1975 1976 1974 1975 1976 actual estimate estimate actual estimate estimate Federal space programs : NASA ' ...... 2,758.5 2,920.3 3,222.4 2,960.4 2,903.1 3,181.7 Defense ...... 1,766.0 2,011.0 2,191.0 1,777.0 1,904.0 2,133.0 AEC ...... 41.7 40.2 43.8 38.8 43.6 46.8 Commerce ...... 60.2 64.6 73.7 64.0 67.3 68.9 Interior ...... 9.0 8.3 8.3 9.3 7.8 8.2 NSF ...... 1.8 2.0 2.4 1.3 1.7 1.8 Agriculture ...... 3.1 3.9 5.8 3.1 3.9 5.8 Total ...... 4.640.3 5.050.3 5,547.4 4,853.9 4,931.4 5,446.2 NASA: Manned space flight ...... 1,408.9 1,505.8 1,781.5 1,473.1 1,537.6 1,705.4 Space science, applications and technology ... 1,020.6 1,084.2 1,118.8 1,168.1 1,040.5 1,127.3 Air tranmortaion ...... 278.4 308.5 314.2 291.9 304.4 316.3 Supporting operations ...... 334.3 334.2 325.0 324.6 328.6 351.9 Less receipts ...... -5.3 -3.9 -2.9 -5.3 -3.9 -2.9 Total NASA ' ...... 3.036.9 3.228.8 3.536.6 3.252.3 3,207.2 3,498.0 * Excludes amounts for Air transportation. Source: Office of Management and Budget 'The detail shown for NASA reflects a change in the budget functional classification used in previous years, and is con- sistent with NASA's FY 1976 budget documents.

Aeronautics Budget (In millions of dollars)

New obligational authority 1974 1975 1976 actual estimate estimate Federal aeronautics programs: NASA ...... 278.4 308.5 314.2 Department of Defense ' ...... 1,677.5 1,615.5 2,123.3 Department of Transportation ...... 73.6 70.4 97.9 Total ...... 2,029.5 1,994.4 2,535.4 ' Rrsearch and Development, Construction of Facilities, Re- Office of Secretary of Transportation and Federal Aviation search and Program Management. Administration Research and Development. ' Research, Development, Testing, and Equipment of air- Source: Office of Management and Budget. craft and related equipment.

141

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