National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior
Alaska Regional Office Alaska Park Science Anchorage, Alaska
Volume 5, Issue 1 Table of Contents
Bridging Science and Education for the Future ______4 Ecological Overview of Denali National Park and Preserve ______6 K A PHYSICAL SCIENCE A S Air Quality Monitoring: L An Intercontinental Connection ______14 Norton Sound A Ecological Goldmine: The Denali Landcover Map and Denali Soil Inventory Denali National with Ecological Site Classification______18 Park and Preserve Soundscapes of Denali ______20 Earthquake and Seismic Monitoring ______23
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE Rutting Behavior of Moose ______26 Gulf of Alaska Tracking the Movement of Denali’s Wolves ______30 Interrelationships of Denali’s Bristol Bay Large Mammal Community ______36 Bear Management ______41 Long-Term Golden Eagle Studies ______42 Alaska Park Science http://www.nps.gov/akso/AKParkScience/index.htm Integrated Monitoring of Physical Environment, This project is made possible through funding from the Plant and Bird Communities in Denali ______46 Editor: Monica Shah National Park Foundation. Additional funding is provided Project Lead: Robert Winfree, Regional Science Advisor, Hardy as Chickadees: by the National Park Service and other contributors. email: [email protected] Denali’s Winter Citizen Scientists ______49 Alaska Park Science Journal Board: Alaska Park Science is published twice a year. Recent Jane Ahern, Public Affairs Specialist Ted Birkedal, Team Leader for Cultural Resources Medical Research Climbs Denali ______50 issues of Alaska Park Science are available for sale by the Don Callaway, Cultural Anthropologist Alaska Natural History Association (www.alaskanha.org). Terry DeBruyn, Regional Wildlife Biologist CULTURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE Charitable donations to help support this journal Joy Geiselman, Deputy Chief, Biological Science Office USGS Alaska Science Center Historic and Contemporary Ethnographic may be sent to: Alaska Natural History Association, Russ Kucinski, Team Leader for Natural Resources 750 West Second Avenue, Suite 100, Anchorage, AK 99501 Rachel Mason, Cultural Anthropologist Landscapes of Denali National Park ______54 John Morris, Education Coordinator ATTN: Alaska Park Science. Lisa Oakley, Alaska Natural History Association Scientific Legacy of Denali ______59 John Quinley, Assistant Regional Director for Communications Ralph Tingey, Associate Regional Director for Resource Protection Sled Dog Kennels of Denali ______62 Sara Wesser, Inventory and Monitoring Coordinator, Alaska Region Robert Winfree, Chair of Journal Board Published by Alaska Natural History Association, a nonprofit partner of the Alaska Region of the National Park Service, supporting educational Cover: Photograph courtesy of Robert Valarcher programs through publishing and operation of visitor center bookstores. ISSN 1545- 4967 May 2006 Pages 3 and 4: National Park Service photographs Printed on recycled paper with soy based ink 2 About the Authors
Layne Adams is a research biologist at the Karen Fortier is a kennels manager Thomas Meier is a wildlife biologist U.S. Geological Survey - Alaska Science Center. for Denali National Park and Preserve. at Denali National Park and Preserve. Guy Adema is a physical scientist Jess Grunblatt is a landcover mapping program manager Patricia Owen is a wildlife biologist at Denali National Park and Preserve. at the Alaska Support Office, National Park Service. at Denali National Park and Preserve.
Paul R. Anderson is the superintendent Roger A. Hansen is the state seismologist Gretchen Roffler is a wildlife biologist for Denali National Park and Preserve. for Alaska and a Professor of Geophysics at the at the U.S. Geological Survey - Alaska Science Center. University of Alaska Fairbanks. Andrea Blakesley is an environmental protection Carl Roland is a plant ecologist specialist at Denali National Park and Preserve. Terry Haynes is an anthropologist for the at Denali National Park and Preserve. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Phil Brease is a geologist Division of Wildlife Conservation. William Simeone is an anthropologist for the Alaska at Denali National Park and Preserve. Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. Philip Hooge is assistant superintendent John Burch is a wildlife biologist at Yukon-Charley for resources, science and learning Pam Sousanes is an environmental specialist for climate Rivers and Gates of the Arctic National Parks. at Denali National Park and Preserve. monitoring at Denali National Park and Preserve.
Shan Burson is an ecologist Chad Hults is a physical scientist Karen Steenhof is a research wildlife biologist at Grand Teton National Park. at Denali National Park and Preserve. at the Snake River Field Station, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey. Mark Clark is a soil scientist at the Natural Resources Ann Kain is a historian and cultural resource manager Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. at Denali National Park and Preserve. David Tomeo is the program director for the Alaska Natural History Institutes. Michael W. Collopy is a professor of environmental and Michael N. Kochert is a research wildlife biologist resource sciences, University of Nevada-Reno. at the Snake River Field Station, Forest and Rangeland Lucy Tyrrell is a research administrator Ecosystem Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey. at Denali National Park and Preserve. Nan Eagleson is the Denali Christmas Bird Count compiler and chief naturalist for the Denali Foundation. Carol McIntyre is a wildlife biologist Victor Van Ballenberghe is an affiliate professor of at Denali National Park and Preserve. biology and wildlife at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. 3
Bridging Science and Education for the Future
Created in 1917 and enlarged in 1980, Denali National wilderness; wildlife; sport and subsistence harvesting; air partnership between the National Park Service, the Alaska Park and Preserve offers excellent opportunities to study quality; fire; mining reclamation; and archeological and Natural History Institutes, the Denali Foundation, the Denalilarge natural systems in settings that are primarily historical preservation. U.S. Geological Survey, several universities, and the Denali undisturbed by humans. As one of the largest and longest Denali is also home to the Murie Science and Learning Borough School District. The MSLC promotes and facili- protected subarctic ecosystems in the world, Denali is Center (MSLC), whose mission creates a bridge between tates research on northern Alaska park ecosystems and recognized internationally as a biosphere reserve. The park science and education. The MSLC is a public, nonprofit shares scientific findings with park managers, visitors, protects world-class wildlife and geological resources. Visitors researchers, students, and the general public. It provides a N a
are able to witness a naturally functioning predator/prey t forum for examining issues relevant to northern Alaska i o n a l
ecosystem, while enjoying incredible vistas of North P parklands and serves as a center for promoting park pro- a r k
S
America’s highest peak. The accessibility, environmental e tection through education. r v i c e complexity, rapid tourism growth, and intense public p The park provides excellent opportunities to explore, h o t o g
interest in park management and development have led to r study, and learn about natural systems and processes, as a p a strong park science program. h well as area history and culture. We hope this issue of To support this program, we created the Denali Center for Alaska Park Science will help you better understand and Resources, Science and Learning. The center is a science- appreciate Denali. Through broad public understanding based organization comprised of professional and technical and appreciation of the importance and significance of staff with specialties in the biological and physical sciences, this park, we strive to preserve our heritage for ourselves, history, ethnography, archeology, interpretation and educa- our children, and generations yet to come. We welcome tion. Acquiring new knowledge through scientific research is you to join us! integral to the center’s programs. Equally important is effec- tively communicating that knowledge to park management, other scientists, academics, and the public. The Center pro- vides a strategic and interdisciplinary approach to address complex and sensitive management issues, challenges that Paul R. Anderson, Superintendent include: aircraft, off-road vehicle, and snowmachine use; Denali National Park and Preserve
5
N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e p
h Overview o t o g r a p h b y P a m e l a S o u s a n e s
Ecological Overview of Denali National Park and Preserve
By Philip Hooge, Guy Adema, Geologic History Thomas Meier, Carl Roland, Phil Brease, The oldest rocks in the park, collectively Pam Sousanes, Lucy Tyrrell called the Yukon-Tanana terrane, were ocean sediments deposited in shallow seas The landscapes of Denali National Park during the Paleozoic era some 300 to 500 and Preserve (Denali) are a legacy of the million years ago. Later in the Paleozoic region’s geological history and the advance and into the Early Mesozoic (100 to 300 and retreat of glaciers. One of the major million years ago), other terranes, fragments influences on Denali’s ecosystems is the of the larger continental plates, migrated Alaska Range, the massive wall of rock, gla- north on the Pacific Plate and attached to cial ice, and snow running from southwest the Yukon-Tanana terrane, creating the to northeast across the park’s six million current jigsaw puzzle of rocks from many acres (2.4 million hectares). It towers above depositional environments. Left: Interior subalpine ecosystem. and separates the Kuskokwim and Tanana During the last 100 million years, the river basins to the north and from the assembled terranes buckled from continu- Susitna River lowlands to the south (Figure 1). ous tectonic collision, uplifting to create This mountain barrier creates two major the present-day topography of the Alaska climate zones in the park and dramatic Range. About six million years ago, a “During the past two million years, elevation differences. As a result, the regional uplift that began in the Alaska ecosystems range from lowlands with taiga Range spread north to push up the Outer Denali’s history has been characterized forests, braided glacial stream floodplains, Range (Mts. Healy, Margaret, and Wright) by repeated advances and retreats of and meandering sloughs; to subalpine (Fitzgerald et al. 1993). a massive ice sheet .... Landforms such woodlands, meadows, and scrub tundra; Around 70 million years ago, alternating as sculpted valleys, terraces, moraines, to alpine low-shrub tundra slopes and warm, near-tropical conditions and cooler, and kettle ponds are common in the steep peaks, including Mt. McKinley at drier periods enhanced erosion and depo- northern river valleys.” 20,320 feet (6,194 m). sition in sedimentary basins such as the
7 Ecological Overview of Denali National Park and Preserve
Cantwell, where dinosaurs walked among ancestral lakes, braided streams, and alluvial fans. Volcanic eruptions dominated the scene 40 to 50 million years ago, creating the colorful rocks at Polychrome Pass. Subsurface magma cooled to become the granitic bulk of Mt. McKinley and Mt. Foraker (Cole 1999). Because the Pacific Plate continues to collide with and slide beneath Alaska, the buckling and uplift continues, creating a seismically active area around Mt. McKinley. Generally following the Alaska Range, the Denali fault system extends for about 750 miles (1200 km). In November of 2002, the magnitude 7.9 earthquake centered on the Denali fault east of the park ruptured the surface with up to 30 feet (9 m) of strike-slip offset. Seismic events of similar magnitude may occur in the park in the future.
Glacial History During the past two million years, Denali’s history has been characterized by repeated advances and retreats of a massive ice sheet. Over half of the park (Alaska Range and south) was intermittently cov- ered by an extension of the ice sheet in Canada (Figure 2). During glacial maxima, valley glaciers dominated the northern foothills of the Alaska Range, and ice lobes extended into the lowlands. As many as seven major glacial advances and several minor advance-retreat sequences have been identified on the north side of the range (Thorson 1986). Landforms such as sculpted valleys, terraces, moraines, and kettle ponds are common in the northern Figure 1. Satellite photo of Denali National Park and Preserve with political boundaries. river valleys.
8 Figure 2. (Left) Map of North America showing Figure 3. (Above) The two major climate zones in extent of glaciation in relation to Alaska and Denali. Denali National Park and Preserve.
During these Pleistocene glaciations, the of the park is covered by ice or perennial rain and snow. On the north side, an area of tional between the mild and moist condi- northern area of the park was part of snow fields. However, glaciers continue to Arctic high pressure generates continental tions near the Gulf of Alaska and the cold Beringia—a vast ice-free refuge for plants have a cooling effect near their termini climate conditions with high variations in and dry of Interior Alaska. The mean annual and animals, connected to northeastern and downstream. Glacial meltwaters affect temperature and low precipitation. precipitation at Talkeetna, southeast of the Asia by the Bering Land Bridge, and isolat- local weather conditions and reconfigure At park headquarters (north of the park border, is 28 inches (711 mm), nearly ed from the rest of North America by floodplains downstream. Glacial action has Alaska Range), daily weather observations double that at headquarters. The average the ice sheet. These areas in Denali were been a major factor in breaking down rocks have been recorded since 1925. Temperature daily high temperature in July is 68°F (20°C), probably colder and much drier than the to produce the soils on which Denali’s extremes range from 91°F (33°C) to -54°F and the average daily low temperature in present climate. Trees were essentially ecosystems depend (Clark and Duffy 2004). (-48°C). Summers are short and warm, and January is 1.4°F (-17°C). Along the southern absent, and the vegetation was more tundra- winters are long and cold. The average daily flanks of the Alaska Range, snowfall is high, like than today. Because of this history of Climate high temperature in July is 66°F (19°C), and and snowcover is often present through repeated land connections to northern There are two distinct climates in the the average daily low temperature in late spring. Permafrost is generally absent. Eurasia with isolation from the rest of park, separated by the Alaska Range. They January is -8°F (-22°C). Total precipitation North America, there is a high degree of differ not only in physical measurements, is relatively low at 15 inches (382 mm). The Natural Disturbance similarity of animals and plants between but also in the types of vegetation and land- sub-zero temperatures in winter coupled The local ecosystems are shaped by the interior Alaska and north Asia. scape features they produce (Figure 3). South with relatively low snowfall contribute to physical environment (geology, glaciers, Glacial ice has retreated significantly of the range, maritime air masses moderate the presence of widespread permafrost. climate). Interactions among these factors since the Pleistocene. Today, only about 16% air temperatures and bring considerable The climate south of the range is transi- and the habitat preferences of plants create
9 Ecological Overview of Denali National Park and Preserve N a t i
o the lowlands (Figure 5), particularly in the of Mount McKinley National Park in 1917 and the subalpine and alpine zones depend n a l P
a basins north of the Alaska Range that are (Brown 1993). The Alaska Railroad was on topography, site history, and local varia- r k S e
r characterized by low precipitation and hot completed through Broad Pass and the tions in climate. v i c e
p summers. The action of flowing water is Nenana Valley in 1923, providing tourist Currently, there are 39 species of mam- h o t o
g another important natural disturbance access to the park, and the park road to mals and 165 species of birds documented r a p h
b process in boreal lowlands. Large braided Kantishna was completed by 1938. Since in Denali, along with one amphibian (the y L a r i
s glacial rivers such as the McKinley, Toklat, 1972, visitors have had easy access to the wood frog), and 15 species of fish. More s a Y o
c Yentna, and Chulitna are constantly reshap- park by way of the George Parks Highway than 750 species of vascular plants grace u m ing the land by shifting channels, creating between Anchorage and Fairbanks. Today, the landscape, along with approximately an new floodplain deposits, and eroding old roughly 450,000 people visit the park yearly. equal number of nonvascular plant species terraces with established forests. Beavers (mosses, lichens and liverworts) (MacCluskie also have a considerable influence on the Ecology of Plants and Wildlife and Oakley 2004, Roland 2004). distribution of wetlands by impounding Denali is located in the northern boreal Many birds that breed in Denali migrate streams, especially in forested lowlands forest biome (Figure 6). The landscape is long distances to reach the park, some from of the Yentna, Susitna, Kantishna, and predominantly forested at elevations less as far away as South America, Asia, and Figure 4. A thermokarst is ground subsidence Kuskokwim river basins. than 2,500 feet (760 m), with scrub vegeta- Africa. Great numbers of sandhill cranes resulting from melting permafrost. tion and spruce woodland in the subalpine and trumpeter swans create a stirring sight Cultural Influences zone (2,500 to 3,500 feet, 760 to 1070 m) as they migrate in skeins above Denali. the mosaic of vegetation on the landscape. Humans have been present in the Denali and low tundra in the alpine zone (above Each year, king, silver, and chum salmon For example, stunted scattered spruce in area for at least 11,000 years, but the park 3,500 feet, 1070 m). Limits of local treeline migrate more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) northern areas of the park grow over represents a rare place where human influ- N a t i o
permafrost, while more lush vegetation is ence has never fundamentally altered the n a l P a
supported on permafrost-free areas. In natural ecosystems. From the end of the last r k S e r
addition, natural disturbances such as earth ice age until roughly 100 years ago, the v i c e p
movements, fire, and water flow alter the upland areas were occupied seasonally by h o t o g r
local landscape patterns. bands of hunters and gatherers who lived a p h b
The major processes on the landscape the rest of the year in forested areas near y E r i c
vary across ecological zones. Geomorphic the larger rivers. O l s o disturbances such as landslides, avalanches, Because none of the large navigable n and other mass movements predominate in rivers flowed near the high Alaska Range, the alpine region. Freeze-thaw conditions, the area that was to become the park was especially in the active layer above per- among the last parts of Alaska to be explored mafrost, often create landform features such by non-natives. Explorers, prospectors, and as slumps, gelifluction (creeping soil lobes), trappers trickled into the area in the 1890s, frost heaves, hummocks, and ice-wedge and a series of gold strikes between 1903 polygons. Thermokarst features (ground and 1906 briefly brought large numbers of subsidence from melting permafrost) are miners into the Kantishna area. found in isolated plateaus in the northeast Concern about market hunting in the portion of the park (Figure 4). game-rich Alaska Range foothills was one Fire plays a dominant role in modifying of the driving forces that led to the creation Figure 5. Fires are ignited by the frequent lightning strikes during summer storms.
10 from the Bering Sea to spawn and die in rushes, grasses, forbs, and mosses. Denali’s rivers, providing an important An assortment of resident and migratory food source for many mammals and birds. birds lives in the lowland forests including northern goshawk, great-horned owl, Boreal Lowlands boreal owl, woodpeckers, black-capped Denali’s lowland zone includes black and boreal chickadees, ruby-crowned spruce forests and woodlands in areas kinglet, yellow-rumped warbler, and underlain by permafrost and white spruce white-winged crossbill. Wetlands are nest- and paper birch forests in well-drained ing grounds for sandhill cranes, trumpeter upland areas and river corridors (Figure 7). swans, common loons, many species of Forests have become established in the last waterfowl, arctic tern, northern water- 6,500 years, after the last glacial retreat, but thrush, and rusty blackbirds. probably also existed during earlier inter- The most noticeable mammal in spruce glacial periods. Recently disturbed and forests is often the red squirrel, due to that warmer south-facing slopes support stands species’ high numbers, bold behavior, and of trembling aspen and balsam poplar. daytime activity. But many other species River bars support early successional herbs with more secretive lifestyles, including scattered among groves of balsam poplar, voles, lemmings, shrews, snowshoe hares, aspen, and spruce. and flying squirrels, are also common in the Shrubs that grow slowly in the cold soils taiga forest. These small mammals provide of black spruce forests include alder, dwarf the food base for a variety of medium-sized birch, Labrador tea, shrub cinquefoil, several predators, including lynx, marten, and red species of willow, and blueberry. Black foxes. Several species of large mammals live spruce stands burn periodically, so trees at low densities throughout the lowland seldom reach ages beyond 120 years. areas but are more common in higher ele- Common shrubs in the more nutrient-rich vation areas. These include moose, wolves, spruce-birch forests are dwarf birch, rose, caribou, and grizzly bears. The black bear is willows, and high-bush cranberry. the only large mammal species that is more Figure 6. Satellite photo of Denali with overlay of major habitats. Interspersed in the forested areas are dry, common in the lowland areas of the park open sites, wetlands and kettle-hole ponds. than in the higher elevations. Dry sites often include a tangle of kinnikin- netted willow), grasses, and annual plants. the scenery and wildlife viewing that we nik, rose, and soapberry. The warmest, driest Subalpine Bird denizens of this zone include commonly associate with the park. It is sites on the north side of the Alaska Range In the subalpine zone, there is a mosaic willow ptarmigan, northern harrier, merlin, here that the park road provides not only are dry meadows of grasses, sagebrush, of scrub vegetation (dwarf birch, alder, upland sandpiper, northern hawk-owl, vistas of the Alaska Range, but unparalleled juniper shrubs, and herbaceous perennials. and willow), open spruce woodland, and arctic warbler, olive-sided flycatcher, opportunities for visitors to see grizzly Equivalent slopes on the south side can meadow (see photo page 6). Near treeline, gray-cheeked and Swainson’s thrushes, fox bears, caribou, Dall sheep, moose, and be lush meadows of grasses, lupine, gerani- the land cover shifts from open woodland sparrow, golden-crowned sparrow, black- wolves. Other commonly seen mammals um, and cow parsnip because even the to tundra shrubs (willow, blueberry, dwarf poll warbler, and orange-crowned warbler. in the subalpine zone are arctic ground dry slopes have more moisture. The wet- birch, rhododendron), dwarf shrubs (bear- The subalpine zone is the area most squirrels, snowshoe hares, porcupines, and land and riparian areas support sedges, berry, mountain avens, crowberry, and visited by humans today, and provides red foxes.
11 Ecological Overview of Denali National Park and Preserve N a t i
o Alpine Unvegetated High Alpine n a l P
a The species growing in Denali’s alpine Nearly one-third of the park is made r k S e
r tundra vary according to site characteris- up of high, glaciated mountains and bare v i c e p
h tics and geographic location. In areas of rock outcrops (Figure 9). The upper limit o t o g
r frequent landslides and avalanches, the of plant growth is about 7,500 feet (2290 a p h
b high slopes are barren or support only a m). Above 8,000 feet (2440 m), alpine y T h o
m few scattered herbaceous plants. Typically, areas are generally covered by glacial ice. a s M the alpine tundra includes mountain Only scattered traces of vegetation occur e i e r avens, dwarf willows, dwarf shrubs (such as there, mostly lichens on isolated patches of bearberry, cassiope, and crowberry), grass- bare rock. es, and forbs (Figure 8). No birds or mammals make their homes Where snowmelt is late, as on north- in these barren reaches, but wolverines, facing slopes, the alpine zone also includes wolves, and caribou occasionally negotiate spring beauty, mountain heather, mountain high mountain passes, ravens and redpolls sorrel, and buttercups. In sunny but moist are seen at very high elevations, and many areas, the vegetation is a mixture of dwarf species of birds migrate over the moun- shrubs and sedges. On windswept ridges, tains. More than 1,000 humans annually lichens add to the relatively sparse cover attempt to climb Mt. McKinley during the of mountain avens and grasses. Dry sites spring and early summer climbing season, can be variable (from scattered grasses to but for most of the year and for most of the complete plant cover) depending on the area, the mountains and icefields are nearly growing conditions, but harbor some of the devoid of life. rarer plants, including many species with evolutionary roots in the Beringian tundra The Future and ultimately in Asia. Despite being a wilderness park, Denali A diverse community of open-landscape faces threats from human activity on many birds lives in the alpine region including scales, including increased tourism and golden eagle, gyrfalcon, white-tailed ptar- development, introduction of exotic species, migan, American golden-plover, surfbird, increased hunting pressures, and accumu- long-tailed jaeger, horned lark, northern lation of trace amounts of global airborne wheatear, and gray-crowned rosy finch. Dall sheep are among the most obvious and spectacular residents of the alpine More than 1,000 humans annually habitats. Other large mammals, including attempt to climb Mt. McKinley during wolves, caribou, and grizzly bears, spend the spring and early summer climbing much of their time in the alpine zone. Pikas and hoary marmots are two of the season, but for most of the year and park’s mammal species that live only in for most of the area, the mountains Figure 7. Interior boreal lowlands, Bearpaw River. alpine areas. and icefields are nearly devoid of life.
12 N N a a t t i i o Typically, the alpine tundra o n n a a l l P P a includes mountain avens, a r r k k S S e e r r v dwarf willows, dwarf v i i c c e e p p h h o shrubs (such as bearberry, o t t o o g g r r a a p cassiope, and crowberry), p h h b b y y C T
grasses, and forbs. h a r o l m R a o s l a M n d e i e r Figure 8. (Left) Interior alpine.
Figure 9. (Right) Unvegetated high alpine.
contaminants. The retreat of glaciers and faces an increasing challenge to protect changes in vegetation due to climate change resources in the face of climate change and are easily seen in photographs taken only other human effects. decades apart. These influences and their effects are difficult to measure, but they The authors thank Barbara Brease, may dramatically alter the distribution and Jon Paynter and Laura Weaver for visibility of wildlife. Park management preparing maps for this article.
REFERENCES
Brown, W.E. 1993. Forbes, R.B., T.E. Smith, and D.L. Turner. 1974. Roland, C.A. 2004. Denali: Symbol of the Alaskan wild. An illustrated Comparative petrology and structure of the McKlaren, The vascular plant floristics of history of the Denali-Mount McKinley region, Alaska. Ruby Range, and Coast Range belts: Implications for Denali National Park and Preserve. The Donning Company. Virginia Beach, VA. offset along the Denali fault system. National Park Service, Central Alaska Network Geological Society of America Abstract Programs Inventory and Monitoring Program. Clark, M.H., and M.S. Duffy. 2004. (Cordilleran Section), Vol. 6(3):177. NPS Final Technical Report CAKN-04-01. Soil survey of Denali National Park and Preserve Area, Alaska. USDI-NPS. Fitzgerald, P.G., E. Stump, and T.F. Redfield. 1993. Thorson, R.M. 1986. Late Cenozoic Uplift of Denali and its Relation to Late Cenozoic Glaciation of the Cole, R.B. 1999. Relative Plate Motion and Fault Morphology. Northern Nenana Valley. In Glaciation in Alaska: The Co-magmatic ties between the Cantwell volcanics Science 259:497-499. Geologic Record, by Hamilton, Reed, and Thorson. and McKinley sequence plutons: Constraint on the Alaska Geologic Society. early Tertiary offset history of the McKinley fault, MacCluskie, M., and K. Oakley. 2004. central Alaska Range. Central Alaska Network Phase III monitoring plan draft Geological Society of America Abstract Programs, 31, 46. report. National Park Service. Fairbanks, Alaska.
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M O D I S R a p i d R e s p o n s e Physical Science T e a m , N A S A G o d d a r d S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r Air Quality Monitoring: An Intercontinental Connection
By Andrea Blakesley ecosystems. Some years, wildfire smoke blankets wide swaths of the state, a natural- On a clear day, Mount McKinley domi- ly occurring nuisance that can be seen from nates the landscape from the vantage point outer space. At ground level, the smoke can of Wonder Lake, impressively tall and sometimes make the mountains disappear, snowy, seemingly close enough to touch. causing eyes to sting and lungs to burn. But These are the days when people in like the troublesome mosquitoes, which Anchorage look out their windows 130 miles are an integral part of Denali’s food web, away to gaze at the mountain on the hori- the lightning-sparked wildfires and their zon, and the air quality monitoring instru- accompanying smoke play an important ments near park headquarters measure ecological role. As long as the fires are some of the cleanest air in the nationwide burning in areas where they do not threaten monitoring network. This is the Alaska that human life or valuable cultural resources, people expect to see when the weather the smoke must be tolerated or avoided, cooperates—clean, crisp views of distant not suppressed. snowy peaks, and deep blue skies above. With the availability of satellite imagery But some days, the view is obscured by today, it is fairly straightforward to deter- more than clouds. During the summer, mine which fires send smoke swirling into wildfires burn throughout Alaska, agents the park. In addition to smoke from fires of change and renewal in the state’s rela- in Denali and around the state, traces of tively undisturbed arctic and subarctic smoke from fires as far away as Canada, Russia, and Indonesia have been docu- mented in Denali. In 2004, the largest fire year on record in Alaska, wildfire smoke (Left) Wildfire smoke covers much of Alaska in this MODIS satellite image taken during from Alaska fires extended as far south as the 2005 fire season. the Mississippi River Delta. Since wildfire
15 Air Quality Monitoring: An Intercontinental Connection N a t i
o occurs during winter and early spring, n a l P
a when the arctic air mass covering the top of r k S e
r the globe expands into industrial areas and v i c e
p traps airborne contaminants within its h o t o
g circumpolar boundary. The arctic air mass r a p h is cold, stable, and relatively dry, so there is limited opportunity for pollution to be washed out of the air through rain or snow- fall. Sulfates and sulfur dioxide, two impor- tant components of arctic haze, demon- strate this strong seasonal pattern in Denali, though in relatively low concentrations. The second pathway brings airborne contaminants directly across the Pacific Ocean into western North America. At times, these air currents sweep across deserts in Asia before crossing the ocean, picking up soil particles along the way. Like wildfire smoke, dust storms can be seen in satellite photos, serving as tracers for the invisible pollutants carried along by the Mt. McKinley from Wonder Lake on a clear day. same winds. This is why dust is often found on Denali air quality monitoring filters in smoke is observed to travel such long monitoring station which was expected to that Denali is linked to the rest of the world springtime while the ground in Alaska is distances, is it reasonable to expect that measure air quality conditions close to pre- through atmospheric pathways that carry still frozen and covered with snow. human-caused pollution does not follow industrial values. The experts turned out to industrial and agricultural contaminants, as Although the amount of pollution some of the same pathways across and be not far off the mark. Through 25 years of well as smoke and dust, across the oceans reaching Denali from international sources between continents? The answer seems continuous air quality monitoring, Denali from one continent to another. Two path- is currently low, knowledge that the park’s obvious now, but before satellite imagery nearly always records the cleanest values in ways in particular carry airborne contami- air quality is affected by sources thousands was widely available, conventional wisdom the country. However, when the data are nants to Denali, each with a characteristic of miles away is a concern as well as held that pollution was primarily a local and analyzed for trends, some curious patterns seasonal pattern of transport. a reminder of the numerous connections regional phenomenon. Places like Denali, a emerge, leading to questions such as: a) why The first pathway brings industrial that exist between continents. Airborne six million acre wilderness tucked away in a do small amounts of sulfur compounds pollution over the North Pole into arctic contaminant pathways are like superhigh- vast, sparsely populated, sparsely industri- show up each winter, grow in concentration and subarctic regions around the world, ways in the sky, carrying the equivalent of alized state, seemed safe from pollution. until they peak in early spring, and diminish primarily from metal smelters and power either sparse or heavy traffic. If emission Therefore, when nationwide air quality again in the summer? and b) why does dust plants in Europe and Asia. The resulting levels increase in the source areas over monitoring networks were established to show up on the monitoring filters in spring- pollution is called arctic haze, named for time, pollution will increase in Denali. As address airborne contaminant issues such as time when there is still snow on the ground the visible haze layers first documented in the global human population continues to acid rain, reduced visibility, and smog, they in Interior Alaska? arctic Canada and Alaska, far from any grow, industrial and agricultural contami- included Denali as a “background” site, a The simple answer to both questions is known sources of pollution. Arctic haze nants are bound to increase as well.
16 N N a a t t i i o
The good news is that emission control o n n a a l l P P
technology is continually improving, a a r r k k S S e e r significantly decreasing emissions where r v v i i c c e e p control measures are in place. If we tackle p h h o o t t o o g international pollution problems as a species, g r r a a p p h rather than as members of particular h nations, regions, or continents, then remote wilderness areas like Denali will continue to inspire future generations with their crisp air and spectacular vistas.
For further information reference:
National Park Service Air Resources Division. 2002. Air Quality in the National Parks, Second Edition. National Park Service. Lakewood, Colorado.
Wilcox, Walter James II. 2001. The origin and composition of aerosols in the Alaskan airshed. Master of Science Thesis. Air quality monitoring shelter near park University of Alaska Fairbanks. headquarters. N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e p h o t o g r a p h
The Denali web camera, which runs on solar power, documents visibility conditions during the summer months. www2.nature.nps.gov/air/webcams/parks/denacam/denacam.cfm Wildfire smoke obscures the view from 17,200 feet on Mt. McKinley.
17
Ecological Goldmine: The Denali Landcover Map and Denali Soil Inventory with Ecological Site Classification
By Guy Adema, Jess Grunblatt, a modified version of the Alaska species information. Mark Clark Vegetation Classification system. The While the landcover map provides an classification system was based primarily overall view of the plant cover types and The Inventory and Monitoring Program on vegetation structure (plant height) their distribution, the recently completed has recently produced two new tools and form (tree, shrub or herbaceous), soil inventory provides detailed mapping for natural resource monitoring and and to a lesser extent genera and species and site information, including compre- management of Denali National Park and information. Landsat Thematic Mapper hensive ecological site classifications for The Denali Soils Inventory allows users to generate Preserve: a comprehensive soil inventory multi-spectral imagery was the primary over 2,200 sites in Denali. The survey interpretive maps that display data at any desirable scale. This example illustrates the permafrost and ecological classification, and a land- data source, and SPOT XS data was the was a cooperative effort of the Natural distribution across Denali. cover map based on satellite imagery. The secondary source. Digital image process- Resources Conservation Service, the N a
t products provide researchers, educators, ing was refined through iterative model- National Park Service, and the University i o n a l
P and managers data that will allow for more ing using environmental and spectral data of Alaska Fairbanks. The final product, a a r k S
e informed research design, detection of layers such as slope, elevation, the result of fieldwork completed from 1997 r v i c e
p natural resource change at a park-wide Normalized Difference Vegetation Index to 2002, includes a 1:63,360 scale soils h o t o
g scale, more accurate and comprehensive (NDVI), and available field data. map with an attribute database and r a p h education material, and baseline infor- The landcover map allows users to metadata, a database containing detailed mation for park management. understand the distribution of vegeta- soil and ecological data, digital site The landcover mapping program was tion across the landscape and determine photographs, landtype and map unit completed by the NPS Alaska Support relative distribution of plant associations distribution maps, figures, illustrations, Office in collaboration with the Alaska across the park. The most dominant of soil temperature graphs, and a complete Natural Heritage Program (University of the 25 landcover classes are: snow-ice orthophoto mosaic of Denali. The data Alaska Anchorage) and Earth Satellite (16%), stunted spruce (14%), bare ground provide a comprehensive delineation of Corporation (Rockville, MD). The devel- (10%), low shrub birch-ericaceous- park ecosystems, including new discov- opment of the landcover map involved willow (10%), open-woodland spruce eries of range extensions and previously NRCS Soil Scientist Mark Clark, the primary field collection and analysis of field-verified (9%), shadow (7%), and dwarf shrub undocumented natural processes in the scientist for the soil inventory, shown here making datasets, and the analysis and interpreta- (6%). Plant associations were described park. The spatial database allows user- observations in the Toklat Basin. tion of remotely sensed imagery (satellite using the ground data and a literature defined interpretations, including per- (Left) The Denali Landcover Map delineates 23 and aerial photography). Landcover was review. Plant associations provide a mafrost extent, extent of potential natu- cover classes that allow visitors and researchers to quickly comprehend the scale and distribution of mapped at intermediate scales (1:63,360 hierarchical link between the coarse ral vegetation, landscape processes, and the primary vegetation classes. to 1:100,000) with 25 classes, following scale landcover classes and finer scale countless other queries.
19 Soundscapes of Denali National Park and Preserve
By Chad Hults and Shan Burson birds, frogs, and plants, create biological sounds, while forces such as wind, rock Soundscapes, the combined sounds fall, and rivers, create physical sounds. from natural and non-natural sources, are These two types of sounds can be used to recognized as an important resource in characterize different habitats. The specific national parks. The natural soundscape is soundscape characteristics are an impor- generally comprised of two main sound tant attribute of Denali National Park and categories—those from biological or those Preserve’s (Denali) natural systems, for from physical sources. Organisms such as non-natural sounds can obscure or disturb ecological functions, as well as adversely influence visitor experiences (NPS 1995). Natural soundscapes are components of “the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife” as protected by the Organic Act (Public Law 64-235). They were specifically recognized and protected by the National Parks Overflights Act of 1987 (Public Law 100-91). Due to ongoing concern about aircraft overflight noise, the National Parks Air Tour Management Act was established, which requires the Federal Aviation Administration and the National Park Service to cooperatively develop air tour management plans for any park where Figure 1. Sound monitoring locations in commercial air tour operations exist or are Denali National Park and Preserve, 2000-2005. proposed (Public Law 106-181). Although (Left) Sound station microphones at the Alaska parks were excluded from the act, Upper East Fork Toklat River location near they were not excluded from aircraft noise Sable Pass, July 2004. and other influences on the natural sound- scape and visitor experience.
20 Figure 2. Quantity and types of sounds audible at the Upper East Fork Toklat River Figure 3. Quantity and type of non-natural sounds audible at the Upper East Fork Toklat (UEFK in Figure 1) location, July-September 2004. Each bar represents the number of recording River location, July-September 2004. Each bar represents the number of recording samples samples for each type of identified sound. Days without sounds were not analyzed. for each type of identified sound.
By 2000, park managers recognized that acoustic conditions of all major habitats, use. Each sound station records sound areas, and aircraft overflights are the most the natural soundscape of Denali was air traffic corridors, and management levels every second and collects five-sec- common human-generated sound. increasingly affected by non-natural sounds. zones in Denali have begun and a prelimi- ond digital recordings every five minutes Soundscape data can be displayed in Because preserving the natural soundscape nary baseline study will be completed (288 samples per day). With this informa- many ways. For example, Figure 2 illus- also helps preserve the associated wilderness by 2008. Four automated sound stations tion we can identify the sound sources trates the number and types of sounds values and visitor experiences, a soundscape collect data every summer, with fewer present at each sampling location, the audible at the Upper East Fork Toklat program was initiated. The hope was to locations sampled during the winter. sound levels of each sound source, and River location. The biological sounds at this better understand, manage, and preserve Soundscape data has been collected at 16 calculate the number of times per day each site consist of bird song and insect sounds. the natural soundscape of Denali. In addi- locations (Figure 1). Representative areas sound is audible. These data are used to The physical sounds consist primarily of tion, soundscape measurements provide were chosen for sampling in the three compare the natural ambient sound levels wind, with some rain. The type and num- objective scientific data for future manage- major acoustical zones (alpine, alpine to the sound levels of non-natural sounds. ber of non-natural sounds recorded are ment decisions. tundra, and boreal forest/scrub), and to From the data analyzed to date, wind is shown in Figure 3. The Upper East Fork Systematic measurements of the current compare areas of low and high motorized the most widespread natural sound in all Toklat River sound station was placed
21 Soundscapes of Denali National Park and Preserve
along a popular flightseeing corridor in of the microphone, therefore we are not 2004. Most days analyzed had at least five able to calculate the absolute minimum aircraft with a maximum of twenty-five natural ambient levels presently. aircraft recorded on August 3 (Figure 4). Additional benefits of making audio Weather also influences the number of recordings over long time periods include motorized sounds heard. Strong wind can the capturing of animal sounds and estimat- mask other sources of motorized sound, ing species presence/absence, distribution, and aircraft often do not fly on days and number of times audible per day with inclement weather. For example, (Figure 5). As expected, animal sounds August 1 was windy and raining, and there gradually increase during the spring and are were no aircraft audible. The highest num- much less frequent during the fall. These ber of audible aircraft was two days later soundscape recordings are supplementing on August 3, and the number of aircraft ongoing bird surveys. overflights remained high for the next Soundscape studies are relatively new two weeks. for the National Park Service. The Denali The natural ambient sound level at the Soundscape Program is developing new Upper East Fork Toklat River location is techniques and important information 30 dBA ±5 (dBA is the sound level, in about soundscapes in Alaska parks. As Figure 4. The sound levels of aircraft overflights audible at the Upper East Fork Toklat River location, July-September 2004. The sound level of most overflights were between 30 and 45 decibels, weighted for human hearing), identified in a new draft management dBA, with a maximum of 65 dBA. calculated using the median sound level plan, soundscape measurements are an after removing motorized sound levels. important indicator of the level of human The natural ambient level at this site is influence on park resources (NPS 2005). higher than many other sites (typically Information provided through this pro- around 25 dBA) because of a small steep gram will help managers protect natural creek nearby. Many sites have sound levels soundscapes and preserve high quality lower than the 18 dBA detection minimum visitor experiences in Denali.
REFERENCES
National Park Service. 1995. Public Law 64-235. 1916. Report on effects of aircraft operations National Park Service Organic Act on the National Park System. (16 USC 1, 2, 3, 4). U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Washington, D.C. Public Law 100-91. 1987. National Parks Overflights Act. National Park Service. 2005. Revised Draft Backcountry Public Law 106-181. 2000. Figure 5. Daily number and type of animal sounds audible at the Stampede Airstrip Management Plan for Denali National National Parks Air Tour Management Act (STAM in Figure 1) location. Red = squirrel, yellow = bird, blue = mosquito. Park and Preserve. (49 USC 40128)
22 P h o t o g r a p h c o u r t e s y o f S t e v e E s t e s , A l a s k a E a r t h q u a k e I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r
Maintenance at the seismic site KTH (Kantishna Hills) in the autumn. Earthquake and Seismic Monitoring in Denali National Park
By Roger A. Hansen miles (4.2 km) beneath the ground surface. research program in Denali. Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. The sub- Though damage from this quake was The tectonics of Alaska is dominated by ducting Pacific plate makes a fairly sharp Denali lies in the heart of earthquake limited to a small area around the epicen- the processes associated with plate tectonics. bend directly under Mt. McKinley and is country, and visitors may be treated to a ter, it was only the beginning of a larger Earthquakes are caused by the movements particularly seismically active at that loca- ground shaking experience. Scientists, on sequence of events. Ten days later on of tectonic plates that form the earth’s crust tion. This seismicity is often referred to as the other hand, view the park as a natural November 3, a magnitude 7.9 earthquake and occur at the boundaries where the the McKinley Cluster. laboratory for studying earthquakes and began to the east of the Nenana Mountain plates meet. Along the southern coast of In addition to convergence by subduc- tectonics. This was never more evident than earthquake and ruptured for nearly 217 Alaska, the Pacific plate is colliding with tion, deformation of the continental plate in the fall of 2002, when two large earth- miles (350 km) to the east. The fact that Alaska (the North American plate), with a due to this collision extends far into the quakes occurred. On October 23, people of the Denali fault continues from the eastern convergence rate of 2-3 inches (5-7.5 cm) Interior creating a system of long crustal Interior Alaska were awakened to strong boundary of the park westward into the per year. This gives rise to the subduction faults. The Mt. McKinley massif is bounded shaking caused by a magnitude 6.7 earth- park is one of the many reasons that the zone (the sinking of the Pacific plate under- to the north by such a fault, the Denali fault, quake. The epicenter was located west of Alaska Earthquake Information Center neath Alaska) and the cause of the many where inferred right-lateral motions are Nenana Mountain on the Denali fault, 2.6 (AEIC) maintains an active monitoring and deep earthquakes that occur throughout ~0.5 in/yr (~1 cm/yr). This fault extends
23 Earthquake and Seismic Monitoring in Denali National Park P h o
t from Southeast Alaska, through the Alaska o g r a p Range and Denali National Park, and west h c o u
r towards the Bering Sea. The lateral hori- t e s y o
f zontal motion of this fault is a result of the S t e v
e Pacific plate pushing the Yakatat block E s t e s
, against North America in Southcentral A l a s k Alaska. The crustal material south of the a E a r
t fault is essentially rotating past the crust to h q u a
k the north with a pole of rotation near the e I n f o
r Kenai Peninsula. The question remains m a t i o when, not if, an earthquake will occur on n C e n
t sections of this fault not ruptured in 2002. e r Just north of Mt. McKinley, on the other side of the Denali fault, is a second cluster of seismic activity. Over the last several decades, the crustal seismicity in the Interior of Alaska has been dominated by the Kantishna cluster, located at the western end of Denali. Events in the Kantishna cluster are commonly felt by the people of Scouting trip for station PPLA, in the southwest corner of the park. Kantishna, the employees of the park, and P h
o the half-million or so tourists t o g r
a (Left) Installing station PPLA.
p that visit the park each year. h c o
u A seismic station near the r t
e (Right) Historic Regional Seismicity: s y
o The distribution of all recorded Eielson Visitor Center, at the f S t e
v earthquakes in Alaska between western end of the park, e E
s 1898 and 2004 (roughly 200,00 t e
s has recorded dozens of ,
A events). Of particular note l a s k is the orientation of deep small local earthquakes a E a
r earthquakes along the
t each day, earthquakes h q
u Alaska Subduction Zone a
k in the magnitude 2 e
I from the Aleutian Islands n f
o range nearly every r
m to Denali National Park, a t i
o and the concentration other day, and at n C
e of shallow earthquakes
n least one event t e
r in Southcentral and over magni- Interior Alaska. tude 4 each year. Over the last ten years over 2,700 events have been recorded
24 (about 270/year) with 163 each year greater observations of the earthquakes and asso- than or equal to magnitude 2. The largest ciated deformations. To accomplish this, earthquake to occur in the cluster was AEIC has been upgrading and expanding magnitude 5.2. the seismic network in Denali and the sur- While the Kantishna cluster is not on the rounding area. Currently, there are three visible trace of the Denali fault, it may be seismic stations installed in the park, with related to the Denali fault system. The another seven surrounding the park. In Kantishna cluster also lies along the south- order to observe the seismic wavefield from west extension of the Minto Flats Seismic an earthquake for advanced analysis we Zone, a northeast-southwest striking zone need stations every 6 to 12.5 miles (10-20 of earthquakes between the Tintina fault to km). Future plans are to move in this direc- the north and the Denali fault to the south. tion, particularly around the Kantishna It is clear that many earthquakes occur area and Denali fault. The first step is a new on structures (faults) that radiate from or station to be installed to the west of are parallel to the Denali fault. The more Kantishna in summer 2006. interesting question is to understand why Through the partnership between the the Kantishna cluster is more active than park and AEIC, much of the Denali Seismic the other major features in the area, includ- Network will be available for use in the ing the Denali fault. Is it possible that Murie Science and Learning Center. This motion associated with the Denali fault will create the opportunity for public edu- system is being redirected to other active cation on how seismic waves are recorded, features? How is this motion related to the analyzed, and used in research to study uplift associated with Mt. McKinley? The tectonics and earthquakes. Park staff have recent magnitude 7.9 Denali fault earth- already been instrumental in the deployment, quake provides additional motivation to maintenance, and telemetry of the seismic understand the seismicity in the region. stations and data, and continued interaction Will the rupture of the central segment of will expand public displays and presenta- the Denali fault have a noticeable effect on tions related to this ongoing research. the western section of the fault running through the park? Will the western section (Right-top) Locations of the existing and of the Denali fault rupture in the near future proposed seismic monitoring stations producing another large earthquake? in the vicinity of Denali National Park. Broader questions include: What factors Also included are the known faults and earthquake locations as color coded dots. contribute to the continued growth of Mt. McKinley? Is there a relationship between (Right-bottom) Denali Region 3-D Seismicity, the Kantishna cluster, the Minto Flats 1898-2004: A 3-d projection of all earthquakes Seismic Zone, and the McKinley cluster? in the region of Denali National Park between 1898 and 2004, showing both Answers to these questions will come shallow crustal events and deep events from careful analysis of the seismic associated with the Alaska subduction zone.
25
P h o t o g r a p h c o u r t e s y o Biological Science f V i c t o r V a n B a l l e n b e r g h e
Rutting Behavior of Moose at Denali National Park
By Victor Van Ballenberghe approach moose closely without disturbing them or placing ourselves in danger. In 1980, I began a long-term study of The studies of rutting behavior began moose ecology at Denali National Park and with descriptions of the behaviors that Preserve (Denali). One study component was moose displayed. After five years and about behavioral ecology—the interrelationships 1,000 hours of observation, we compiled a between behavior and ecological factors good catalog of rutting behavior—recording that moose experience. We were particu- the frequency of each behavior, and its larly interested in the behavioral ecology of duration. Separate categories for cows and the rutting (mating) season when moose bulls were established as their behaviors display behaviors not seen at any other time were vastly different, and bulls were of year. From late August to mid-October, grouped by size in order to test whether summer feeding gives way to increased the mature, largest males did most of the social behavior as moose are preoccupied mating, as we suspected. with reproducing. My colleagues and I were interested in At Denali we were able accomplish more than just describing moose behavior. more than other biologists had previously That was merely the first step. Much more because moose were abundant and observ- interesting was the next phase, to develop able in most habitats. In addition, we could and test hypotheses that explained the function of these behaviors. Moose evolved certain behaviors for definite reasons, and Aerial observations indicate that large bulls controlled groups of cows during the rut, they invested a lot of energy and time and smaller bulls wandered in search of performing them. As we observed moose cows away from groups or hung around the edges of groups hoping to mate when the during the rutting season, numerous ques- large bulls were distracted. tions arose. Why did large bulls cease feeding
27 Rutting Behavior of Moose at Denali National Park P h o
t At Denali we were able to spend large o g r a p amounts of time observing moose on the h c o u
r ground, for the moose had not been hunted t e s y
o for several decades, and there were large f V i c t o numbers of big bulls present. We tried to r V a n
B determine which bulls were most successful a l l e n
b at mating and which ones were not, and e r g h
e perhaps explain the difference. We also had radio-collared bulls that we could follow throughout their life, documenting changes in their mating success as they aged. Despite ideal opportunities to observe rutting moose, it took a long time to acquire enough observations to provide meaningful results. Over a 12-year period we observed mating 86 times. Mating began as early as September 24 and continued as late as October 8. As in other areas of North America, the peak mating for moose was centered on October 1. The rut occurred at the same time each year, evidently inde- pendent of differences in temperature or snowfall, suggesting that it was controlled by changes in day length, which remained constant from year to year. Ninety-eight percent of observed mat- ing involved females mating with only one During the rutting season in September and October, cows and bulls display distinct behaviors related to courtship. Here, a cow carefully male. Very rarely did females mate with two approaches a dominant bull in order to signal her interest in mating. males, and none mated with more than two. Large males performed 88% of all mating, for two weeks prior to mating? Which bulls mating success of individual bulls in relation groups hoping to mate when the large bulls and yearling males accounted for less than were most successful in mating, and what to age, size, and dominance rank. Before were distracted. Although I never saw fights two percent. Clearly, the largest, highest- factors determined their success? Why did studying moose at Denali, I had observed or mating from the air, some of the bulls ranking bulls were doing most of the mat- young males spend so much time sparring? many of them during the autumn rutting showed signs that they had fought, including ing. Field observations indicated that they Why did mature bulls risk death by fighting? season from airplanes. The aerial observa- broken antler tines, and mating was obvi- accomplished this by defending cows from After we catalogued rutting behavior, we tions indicated that large bulls controlled ously occurring. The brief amounts of time smaller bulls, aggressively chasing other set about conducting studies to answer groups of cows during the rut, and smaller that we spent circling moose, often only a bulls away, and by defeating challengers in these and other questions. bulls wandered in search of cows away few minutes each day, did not allow much fights. The lowest ranking animals, includ- One topic we were anxious to study was from groups or hung around the edges of opportunity to see important behaviors. ing yearlings, had very little success. Even
28 some older males that were small for their ing and about rivals, inexperienced bulls engage in all-out efforts to crush oppo- designed for fighting. Antlers have sharp age, or were poor fighters, could not com- should participate more than older bulls. nents. Sparring often consisted of little points attached to broad palms that can pete with the top ranking bulls. Field observations at Denali indicated just more than gentle antler contact and mild severely wound opponents, puncturing the We observed bulls mating up to three that: younger bulls sparred to excess at pushing. It did not escalate to fighting and body, injuring eyes, or bruising muscles. times per day, and estimated that some times, and older bulls rarely sparred. If spar- did not determine dominance or rank. The fights we observed always involved might mate up to 25 times per year if ring is merely practice fighting, it should Fights are another matter entirely. Bull only two opponents, never three or more they possessed large groups of cows. This lack preliminary threats and displays. moose are well-equipped to fight. At up to as sometimes seen in sparring. On occasion, was very rare, however, as bulls seldom Again, we observed this to be the case: 1,600 pounds they are enormously powerful. young bulls fought, but most fights were were able to control groups throughout the bulls sparred after feeding side-by-side or Their shoulders are huge, and during the between two mature bulls of approximately entire rut. Some groups had five or more engaging in some other harmless behavior. rut, their neck muscles expand to twice equal size. Prior to clashing antlers, fighting dominant males by the time the rut was Practice sparring should result in no their normal size. The skin on their fore- bulls engaged in intense displays including over, each in control for only a few days. winners or losers, and there should be no heads is thick providing armor against pawing the ground, thrashing their antlers Our results generated several questions serious efforts to wound opponents. Again, punctures by opponents. In addition, they against shrubs, and displaying their bodies about the importance of preserving large bulls observed in the field did not chase possess weapons and shields in the form of and antlers. Clashes were extraordinarily bulls in moose populations. In some areas each other after sparring, nor did they antlers—large, strong organs specifically violent in an attempt to twist an opponent’s hunting removes many bulls, and the ratio head, shove him backwards, cause him to of cows to bulls may be ten to one. At what fall, and gore him. Bulls in fights each ratio do some cows fail to mate during the sought tactical advantages including gaining P h main rutting period? If many cows conceive o the uphill position to maximize battering
t Bull moose are well-equipped o g r a
after the main rut, is the survival of calves p effects. Losers knew the dangers of remain-
h to fight. At up to 1,600 pounds c o affected? If small bulls do most of the u ing nearby and either left or were escorted r t
e they are enormously powerful. s y
mating, are there long-term effects? If most o out of the area by their rivals. Dominant f
V Their shoulders are huge, i c t
of the small males are successful at mating o bulls were willing to risk fighting since it r
V and during the rut, their neck a as opposed to only a few of the large males, n is the only way they could control female B a l
l muscles expand to twice their e how are the genetics of the population n groups, mate, and pass on their genes— b e r g normal size. The skin on their affected? These questions are unanswered h their evolutionary task, which they take e at present. foreheads is thick providing very seriously. We also studied sparring and fighting. armor against punctures by Twenty-five years after the study began Each is a distinctly different behavior. opponents. In addition, they we are still gathering data on these and Sparring is practice fighting that bulls use to possess weapons and shields other behavioral ecology questions. Data gain experience. It superficially resembles are slow to accumulate at times as the in the form of antlers—large, fighting as two or more bulls engage their moose population has declined, and field strong organs specifically antlers and push each other back and forth. observations are now much more difficult designed for fighting. Fighting is far more serious and violent. At to conduct. We have learned much but each worst, sparring results in minor breakage of research question generates several others. antlers or perhaps minor wounds inflicted In the coming years we will continue to by accident. Fights often result in serious uncover some of the biological mysteries of injuries, and at worst, result in death. this fascinating species that plays a major If sparring involves learning about fight- role in the ecology of Denali.
29 N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e p h o t o g r a p h b y T h o m a s
M Tracking the Movements e i e r of Denali’s Wolves
By Thomas Meier, John Burch, When the park was expanded into the and Layne Adams. present Denali National Park and Preserve in 1980, it incorporated the territories of The wolves of Denali National Park many more wolf packs. A complete survey (formerly Mount McKinley National Park) of the park’s wolf population was under- were the subject of some of the earliest taken in 1985 (Dalle-Molle and Van Horn research on wolf ecology. From 1939 to 1985), and in the course of that aerial 1941, Adolph Murie performed ground- survey, the remains of eight wolves that had breaking studies of wolves, observing been poached from aircraft were found in wolves and their prey and collecting wolf the park. Concern over the extent of wolf scats and prey remains. His work resulted poaching led the NPS to begin extensive in one of the first major scientific publica- wolf research in 1986, using radio collars to tions about wolves, The Wolves of Mount keep track of the packs (Mech et al. 1998). McKinley (Murie 1944). Continuing the With more than a dozen wolf packs roam- research started by Murie, the National ing over many thousands of square miles, Park Service (NPS) began using aircraft to radio collars have provided the means to locate and count wolves in the 1960s (Prasil study wolves throughout the park, and 1967, Singer 1986). Beginning in 1969, throughout the year. Gordon Haber used aircraft to make pro- longed observations of wolf packs, study- Techniques for ing their behavior and relations with prey Radio-Tracking Wolves species (Haber 1977). Wolves are a difficult species to monitor. They are inconspicuous and live at low density in a structured population of terri- torial packs (Mech and Boitani 2003). In
Figure 1. John Burch collaring McKinley Alaska, wolves live at particularly low den- Slough alpha female wolf 107, March 2005. sities, and in many areas, human access is limited to air travel. If wolf pack territories
30 N a t i
Darted wolves become immobilized which we attempt to tranquilize. Darted o n a l P in a few minutes, and remain down wolves become immobilized in a few min- a r k S e
utes, and remain down for an hour or two, r v
for an hour or two, while we weigh, i c e
while we weigh, measure, take a blood p h o
measure, take a blood sample, and t o
sample, and attach a radio collar (Figure 1). g r a p
attach a radio collar. h
Collared wolves are tracked from a small b y T h o
airplane equipped with wing-mounted m a s radio antennae (Figure 2). From such a plane, M e i e researchers are able to locate the collared r were regular and predictable, wolf surveys wolf, circle its location, and usually see would be much easier, but it is seldom pos- the wolf pack. This allows the counting of sible to predict the arrangement of pack wolves in a pack and observation of their territories from studying the terrain. Wolf behavior (Figures 3, 4). Collaring also allows pack territories overlap one another and researchers to collect other valuable data, change over time. Effective monitoring needs including den site use, pup production, to address not only wolf numbers but the predation patterns, dispersal, and wolf spatial structure of the population. Radio mortality. The basic unit of information is tracking of wolves in Denali has revealed the wolf’s location, usually described as that the park’s wolf population is made coordinates of latitude and longitude. It is up of a shifting mosaic of pack territories. these fragments of data, providing a point As packs die out and are replaced by new on a map or a few characters in a database, packs, territory boundaries and patterns of that make up the building blocks of wolf habitat use change. research (Figure 5). By obtaining enough The first step in radio-collaring wolves locations for a wolf pack, its territory is involves locating packs by tracking them in outlined. By outlining the territories of a the snow. This is usually done in November cluster of packs and counting the number
or March, when days are long. The best of wolves in each pack, we can describe N a t i o n conditions are a few days after a fresh the population. a l P a r snowfall, when wolf packs have left a trail. Figure 2. A Supercub k S e r
with telemetry antennae. v i Once a pack is located, researchers dart one Wolf Pack Territories c e p h o
or two wolves from a helicopter. Over the Wolf pack territories are typically drawn t Figure 3. The East Fork Pack o g r a years, we have learned the advantage of cap- by connecting the outermost locations of (19 wolves) crossing the p h b Muldrow Glacier. y turing the leading members of the pack. Wolf the pack’s known movements on a map T h o m a
packs are typically made up of a breeding (Figure 6). As more locations are added, the s M e i pair and their offspring. While most of territory gets bigger, until the collection of e r those offspring eventually leave the pack, locations includes all of the places where the breeding pair can be relied upon to stay. the pack is likely to go. Various studies As the wolf pack travels, the breeding pair have estimated that 30 to 150 locations are usually lead the way, and it is those two needed to adequately describe a wolf pack
31 Tracking the Movements of Denali’s Wolves N a t i
o territory. Burch et al. (2005) found that there n a l P
a was no “magic number” of radio locations r k S e
r guaranteed to adequately describe a wolf v i c e
p pack territory, but that monitoring a number h o t o
g of adjacent packs in a block allows territories r a p h
b to be defined with fewer locations. The y T h o
m crucial question is whether pack territories a s M are sufficiently defined to ensure that unde- e i e r tected wolf packs do not exist between the monitored packs. More sophisticated treatment of location data is possible, including kernel analyses that show the relative intensity with which different parts of the territory are used (Figure 6).
Wolf Dispersal In addition to describing pack territories, radio telemetry allows the study of wolves that leave their home territories. On average, 28% of wolves in Denali leave their packs each year. Most leave alone, but some pairs disperse, and in one case 11 wolves left together. Male and female wolves disperse in approximately equal numbers and for similar distances. At least 14 wolves have dispersed long distances away from Denali (Figure 7), and dozens more wolves dis- persed shorter distances, within the study area or just outside of it. The longest docu- mented dispersal was by a female wolf that left the Headquarters Pack and was shot by an Inupiat hunter near the Canning River, 40 miles from the Arctic Ocean and (in a straight line) 435 miles from Denali. Dispersing wolves seldom remain alone for long. In nearly 20 years of wolf research, only one territorial, solitary-living wolf has been found in the park. All other “lone” Figure 4: Wolves and sheep, Sanctuary River. wolves that survived for more than a few
32 Figure 5. (Left) Map showing 20 years of wolf locations in and around Denali. Figure 6: (Right) East Fork Pack territory, showing individual locations, minimum polygon, and kernel analysis of pack territory. Shading shows the likelihood of finding the wolves in any particular part of the territory. This map is based on nearly 20 years of tracking wolves in the East Fork territory. months either started new packs, joined there. We have observed many cases of new for new packs to be formed is for an Relationships Between existing packs, or dispersed far away and pair and pack formation in Denali. Many of existing pack to split in two. There have Pack Territories were lost from monitoring. A surprising them have been unsuccessful, when a pair been four cases where large wolf packs split The pack territories, as they existed in result of wolf studies in Denali has been of wolves sought to carve out a territory roughly in half, subdividing the territory spring 2005, form a sort of sloppy jigsaw the frequent observations of existing packs between existing wolf packs, or attempted into two new territories. The largest wolf puzzle, with overlap between packs in some adopting unrelated wolves (Meier et al. 1995). to live in an area without a year-round food packs in Denali have been just under 30 areas and spaces between packs in others supply. Most of these unsuccessful pairs wolves, and packs of more than 15 or 20 (Figure 8). These territories are based on a Wolf Pack Formation were killed by neighboring packs. Several wolves do not seem to last for long. Either limited number of wolf locations, and so Typically, a new wolf pack is formed new packs that did succeed were formed the pack splits, or members die or disperse they do not show the full extent of a pack’s when two or more dispersing wolves come when a large wolf pack killed off a away. A similar pattern has been seen as movements. If they did, overlap between together in an area that is not currently neighboring pack and colonized the vacant wolves become established in Yellowstone packs would be even more extensive. Some occupied by wolves and take up residence area with its own members. Another way (Smith et al. 2005). overlap is actually displacement over time,
33 Tracking the Movements of Denali’s Wolves
behavior, pack sizes, or pup production, it more complete data on wolf movements. not static, but have finite lifespans and are does provide enough location points to replaced by other packs. Most of this flux accurately depict a pack’s territory (Figure Conclusions results from strife between the various 9). By comparing conventional telemetry By tracking the movements of Denali’s packs. Most importantly, the more closely (locations from aircraft) with daily GPS wolves for 20 years, large contributions one observes a wolf pack or a wolf popula- locations, we see that the larger numbers of have been made to the study of wolves, tion, the more new phenomena and locations obtained from GPS collars result specifically those within the park bound- unique events are witnessed. Wolves and in significantly larger estimates of territory aries. The park’s wolf population is more wolf packs are dynamic. They demonstrate size (Figure 10). Combined with periodic fluid and dynamic than had been expected, their intelligence and impressive physical flights for visual observations of packs, GPS and wolf numbers vary two- or three-fold, abilities by occasionally doing something collars have the potential to provide much depending on food supply. The packs are that you least expect.
Figure 7. Map of Alaska showing long-range dispersals of 14 wolves from Denali.
as one pack takes over an area formerly occupied by another. But much of the over- lap between packs is real, and several packs have made forays that took them complete- ly across neighboring pack territories. This “trespassing” of one pack into another’s territory is not without risk. At least 60% of wolf deaths in Denali come from wolves being killed by other wolf packs. A further risk occurs when the wolves travel to places where it is legal to trap or shoot wolves. Nearly every winter, news stories docu- ment the killing of one or two park wolves outside of the park boundaries.
Using GPS Collars to Learn More About Wolf Movements There are presently seven wolves in the park wearing collars that allow researchers to determine location information with a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. The data is collected once per day and then uploaded through a satellite. While this method provides no information on wolf Figure 8: Denali wolf pack territory map, spring 2005.
34 Figure 9: (Near right) GPS collar locations of 10 wolf packs over a two-year period, 2003-2005.
Figure 10: (Far right) Comparison of home ranges determined by conventional (boundaries in black) and GPS telemetry (boundaries in red). 1 - Headquarters Pack; 2 - East Fork Pack; 3 - Chitsia Pack; 4 - Grant Creek Pack; 5 - Turtle Hill Pack; 6 - McKinley Slough Pack; 7 - Bearpaw Pack; 8 - Kantishna River Pack; 9 - 100 Mile Pack.
REFERENCES
Burch, J.W., L.G. Adams, E.H. Follmann, Mech, L.D., L.G. Adams, T.J. Meier, J.W. Burch, Murie, A. 1944. and E.A. Rexstad. 2005. and B.W. Dale. 1998. The wolves of Mount McKinley. Fauna Series No. 5. Evaluation of wolf density estimation from The Wolves of Denali. National Park Service. Washington, DC. radiotelemetry data. University of Minnesota Press. Minneapolis, MN. Wildlife Society Bulletin. in press. Prasil, R. 1967. Mech, L.D., and L. Boitani. 2003. Aerial wolf survey, Denali National Park, Dalle-Molle, J., and J. Van Horn. 1985. Wolf social ecology. In Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and March 1- 11 and April 20 – 23. Wolf survey 1985, Denali National Park and Preserve. Conservation, edited by L.D. Mech and L. Boitani. Denali National Park Files. Denali Park, Alaska. National Park Service survey and inventory University of Chicago Press. Pages 1-34. report AR-85-11. Singer, F.J. 1986. Meier, T.J., J.W. Burch, L.D. Mech, and L.G. Adams. 1995. History of caribou and wolves in Denali National Park Haber, G.C. 1977. Pack structure and genetic relatedness among wolf and Preserve – appendices. Socio-ecological dynamics of wolves and prey packs in a naturally regulated population. In Ecology U. S. National Park Service Research and Resource in a subarctic ecosystem. and Conservation of Wolves in a Changing World: Management Report AR-11. Anchorage, Alaska. Ph.D. dissertation, University of British Columbia, Proceedings of the Second North American Symposium Vancouver. on Wolves, edited by L.N. Carbyn, S.H. Fritts, Smith, D.W., D.W. Stahler, and D.S. Guernsey. 2005. and D.R. Seip. Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Yellowstone wolf project: Annual report, 2004. University of Alberta, Edmonton. Pages 293-302. National Park Service, Yellowstone Center for Resources, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming YCR-NR-2005-02.
35 N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e p h o t o g r a p h b y B r u c e D a l e
A wolf carries off a caribou calf it has killed. Interrelationships of Denali’s Large Mammal Community
By Layne Adams, Thomas Meier, Locally known as the “Big Five,” gray In addition to the opportunities for interactions of these species are driven Patricia Owen, and Gretchen Roffler wolves (Canis lupus), grizzly bears (Ursus viewing or photographing Interior Alaska’s largely by natural phenomena. arctos), moose (Alces alces), caribou (Rangifer large mammals, Denali is a great natural It is a common perception that large Along with its sweeping mountain tarandus) and Dall sheep (Ovis dalli) have laboratory to study the species and their mammals are “abundant” within the pro- landscapes, Denali National Park and coexisted in the region for millennia. While interrelationships. Unlike the rest of Inte- tected confines of the park boundaries, but Preserve (Denali) is probably best known many other animals occur in Denali, none rior Alaska, the Denali carnivore/ungulate that is not the case. Throughout much of for opportunities to observe the large are as readily associated with the park community has been little affected by Interior Alaska, large mammals occur at mammals common to Interior Alaska. environment as these species. human harvests for several decades, and low densities naturally, and Denali is no
36 exception. Although Denali encompasses et al. 1998). Since 1924, total winter snowfall over 6,600 square miles (17,100 km2) of measured at park headquarters has averaged suitable habitat, currently about 100 wolves, 80 inches (203 cm), but has varied from 350 grizzly bears, 2,000 caribou, 1,900 31 to 174 inches (79-442 cm), indicating an moose, and 1,800 Dall sheep occur there. extreme range of winter conditions experi- In comparison, areas of the Tanana Flats enced by wildlife in Denali. and northern Alaska Range adjacent to We know most about the effects of winter Denali on the east have long been managed snowfall on wolf and caribou populations for human harvests, and moose occur there in Denali because of intensive studies of at about six times the density of Denali. each species begun in 1986 (Adams 1996, Denali’s large mammals interact in an Mech et al. 1998). Those studies began near age-old drama in their roles as predators the end of more than a decade of winters and prey. While each species has a substan- with snowfalls that were well below average tially different role, each individual has the and continued through six consecutive same goals of survival and reproduction. winters of deep snows of 90 to 155 inches Predators must find and kill sufficient (229-394 cm), providing a powerful oppor- prey, while ungulates employ strategies to tunity to gain insights into effects of winter minimize their risks of becoming a meal. conditions on these two species. Population trends of caribou and wolves in Denali National Park and Preserve relative to For both predators and prey to persist, the In 1986, the Denali Caribou Herd severe winters. capabilities of predators must be roughly numbered about 2,600 animals and was P h o counteracted by the vigor and predation- increasing 7% per year. At the time, the t o g r a avoidance behaviors of the ungulates. wolf population in Denali included about p h c o u
However, the stage for this drama is con- 60 animals, a number lower than expected r t e s y stantly changing, providing challenges or based on the abundance of ungulates. Wolf o f R i c advantages to the participants, and affecting pup production was poor, and dispersal of k M c I n t the numbers that survive at any given time. young wolves was high. With severe winters y r e Winter snowfall is probably the most from 1988 to 1994, wolf numbers rapidly obvious factor that influences predator/prey increased, reaching 130 wolves by late winter relationships and population trends (Mech 1990 and staying high through the 1992-93 winter. The caribou herd reached 3,200 individuals by autumn 1989 but declined to about 2,000 by autumn 1993. Recruitment Denali’s large mammals interact in of calves was poor, averaging only 12 calves per 100 cows in fall 1990-93, compared to an age-old drama in their roles as 35 per 100 during 1984-89. Further, winter predators and prey. While each mortality rates of adult cows tripled from species has a substantially different about 5% to 15% annually. Winter snowfalls role, each individual has the same have returned to more average levels since goals of survival and reproduction. 1994. Wolf numbers declined to an average A wolf consumes a mature Dall sheep ram killed on the Toklat River.
37 Interrelationships of Denali’s Large Mammal Community P h o
t they must either forage on wind-blown natal packs (Meier et al.1995).Together these o g r a
p alpine ridges where little forage occurs or changes can result in big increases in wolf h c o u
r expend energy digging through deep or numbers over a short time period; Denali t e s y
o crusted snow. Deep snow can also impede wolves increased by 30% a year during f R i c k their ability to evade wolves. Although 1988-1990 as a result of severe winter con- M c I n t
y caribou prefer to feed on wind-blown areas ditions (Mech et al. 1998). r e like mountain ridges, such places are com- In addition to the direct effects monly surrounded by deep snow, and it is described above, we have also found indi- relatively easy for wolves to chase caribou rect effects of winter severity on caribou into the deep snow where they are highly calf production and survival resulting from vulnerable, regardless of their physical the nutritional restriction they experience condition. In particularly severe winters, in harsh winters. If winters are severe multiple kills of caribou are not uncommon enough, poor nutritional condition can in these situations, and selection for debili- carry through the summer to the fall breed- A wolf and a grizzly bear check each other out. tated individuals is less obvious (Mech et al. ing season, affecting pregnancy rates 1995). With food easier to acquire, wolves (Adams and Dale 1998a) and the timing of of 92 wolves during 1994-2005, and the As winter snowfalls increase, the balance can flourish. New packs form, and existing calving the next year (Adams and Dale caribou population leveled off at about 2,000 tips in favor of wolves. Caribou have more packs get bigger because more pups survive 1998b). Female calves that experience animals, with improvement in adult survival difficulty finding enough to eat because and fewer young wolves disperse from their severe winters are unlikely to breed until but continued poor recruitment of calves. they are 2 or 3 years old, whereas about half N a t
These trends in population size for i of those that have it easy their first winter o n a l
wolves and caribou resulted from several P breed as yearlings (Adams and Dale 1998a). a r k S cascading effects linked to changes in win- e Calves that are born following a severe win- r v i c e
ter conditions. With low snowfall, caribou p ter are lighter at birth (Adams 2005), grow h o t o
have large expanses of wind-blown, snow- g more slowly (Adams 2003), and experience r a p h
free terrain to seek forage, and they can b higher mortality in the weeks following y T h
maintain adequate nutritional condition to o birth (Adams et al. 1995a, 1995b). m a s make it through the winter in good shape. M Moose and Dall sheep are also affected e i e Additionally, with little snow most can r by the magnitude of winter snows, but each easily evade wolves by running from them. is influenced differently depending on its At the same time, wolves can find it difficult body size, food habits, and habitat selection. to acquire adequate prey when few ungu- It takes more snow to affect the nutritional lates are vulnerable, and they must focus status of moose because of their taller on killing individuals that are injured, old, stature and because their winter forage of otherwise debilitated, or unlucky (Mech et twigs and branches largely occurs above the al. 1995). With few vulnerable prey, wolf snowpack. However, moose calves begin to packs tend to be small in number because feel the effects of severe winters at lower of lower pup production or survival and snowdepths than do adults. Dall sheep increased dispersal of young wolves. Two wolves consume a Dall sheep ram on Stony Creek. winter on wind-blown mountain slopes
38 U S G
Unlike wolves, grizzly bears have low the landscape, so each wolf pack has a S p h o
different assemblage of prey to pursue. t reproductive rates, low survival of o g r a p
Moose are more numerous in the foothills h young, little dispersal, and can live for b y L
along the Alaska Range in winter and a y n over 30 years. With these life history e
relatively rare in the forested flatlands of A d a m traits and their limited reliance on the park. Sheep are found in some of the s ungulates in their diet, population mountainous areas of the park; they do not occur in the Kantishna Hills and are trends of grizzly bears are very rare in the foothills immediately north of loosely tied, if at all, to the status of Mt. McKinley. Caribou aggregate in only a ungulate populations. few areas in winter, and important winter- ing areas can change as winter progresses as well as from year to year. Therefore, caribou and sheep may be abundant in some wolf pack territories and absent from that provide forage and escape cover others. All of these factors complicate the among the rocky crags. These areas tend relationships between wolf predation and to be snow-free in all but the most severe the population dynamics of both wolves winters, but wet snow or rain in midwinter and their ungulate prey. can encase the forage on which sheep rely Grizzly bears add another degree of in a covering of ice. With their relatively complexity. While ungulates and wolves can short legs and reliance on rocky terrain for be neatly categorized as primary consumers security from predation, Dall sheep have (herbivores) and secondary consumers limited ability to move through deep snow (carnivores) in Denali’s food web, grizzlies to areas with better foraging conditions when fit in both categories. As omnivores, they icing occurs, and such movements make rely on plant material for part of their diet them highly vulnerable to wolf predation. and therefore are affected by growing Because moose, caribou, and Dall sheep season conditions, similar to the ungulates. are affected differently by winter conditions, In particular, berry production in late their relative vulnerability to predation by summer can greatly affect nutritional status wolves changes from year to year. Also, of bears as they enter dens for the winter. each ungulate population is made up of a Bears also are significant predators of variety of ages, and each sex/age class has young ungulates, particularly caribou and its own vulnerabilities. In general, the year’s moose, in the weeks following birth. Unlike young, older individuals, and mature males, wolves, grizzly bears have low reproductive worn out from the fall breeding season, rates, low survival of young, little dispersal, are more vulnerable to predation than and can live for over 30 years. With these prime-aged adult females. Further, these life history traits and their limited reliance Biologist Gretchen Roffler transports an immobilized wolf via helicopter to a location where ungulates are not equally distributed across on ungulates in their diet, population it will be radio-collared.
39 Interrelationships of Denali’s Large Mammal Community
trends of grizzly bears are very loosely weather may be the greatest driver for tied, if at all, to the status of ungulate fluctuations in the large mammal predator/ populations. As a result, their influences on prey community. Our understanding of this REFERENCES
ungulate population dynamics may be particular system has largely accumulated Adams, L.G. 1996. Adams, L.G., F.J. Singer, and B.W. Dale. diminished when those populations are as warming trends in global climate have Calf production and survival in the 1995b. high and increase as populations decline. become more recognizable in northern Denali Caribou Herd, Alaska. Caribou calf mortality in Denali Although we have focused on how latitudes. It is too early to tell how climate Ph.D. Thesis. University of Minnesota, National Park, Alaska. Journal of St. Paul. Wildlife Management 59:584-594. population trends and interactions of change will influence the large mammal Denali’s large mammals are affected by species in Denali. Given the complexities Adams, L.G. 2003. Mech, L.D., L.G. Adams, T.J. Meier, winter severity, other climatic factors are involved in the day-to-day interactions of Marrow fat deposition and skeletal J.W. Burch, and B.W. Dale. 1998. undoubtedly important in the dynamics of these species, we expect that many of the growth in caribou calves. The wolves of Denali. University of Journal of Wildlife Management Minnesota Press. this system, but their effects can be more effects will be difficult to predict, or down- 67(1):20-24. difficult to discern. In general, variability in right surprising. Mech, L.D., T.J. Meier, J.W. Burch, Adams, L.G. 2005. and L.G. Adams. 1995. P h
o Effects of maternal characteristics and Patterns of prey selection by wolves t o g r
a climatic variation on birth masses of in Denali National Park, Alaska. In p h
c Alaskan caribou. Ecology and conservation of wolves in o u r t
e Journal of Mammalogy 86(3):506-513. a changing world: proceedings of the s y o
f second North American symposium on L a
y Adams, L.G., and B.W. Dale. 1998a. n wolves, edited by L.N. Carbyn, e A
d Reproductive performance of female
a S.H. Fritts, and D.R. Seip. m s Alaskan caribou. Canadian Circumpolar Institute Journal of Wildlife Management Occasional Paper 35. University of 62:1184-1195. Alberta, Edmonton. Pages 231-244.
Adams, L.G., and B.W. Dale. 1998b. Meier, T.J., J.W. Burch, L.D. Mech, Timing and synchrony of parturition in and L.G. Adams. 1995. barrenground caribou. Pack structure and genetic relatedness Journal of Mammalogy 79:287-294. among wolf packs in a naturally regulated population. In Ecology and Adams, L.G., B.W. Dale, and L.D. Mech. conservation of wolves in a changing 1995a. world: proceedings of the second Wolf predation on caribou calves in North American symposium on wolves, Denali National Park, Alaska. In edited by L.N. Carbyn, S.H. Fritts, Ecology and conservation of wolves in and D.R. Seip. a changing world: proceedings of the Canadian Circumpolar Institute second North American symposium on Occasional Paper 35. University of wolves, edited by L.N. Carbyn, Alberta, Edmonton. Pages 293-302. S.H. Fritts, and D.R. Seip. Canadian Circumpolar Institute Occasional Paper 35. University of Alberta, Edmonton. Pages 245-260.
Researcher Layne Adams radio collars a wolf for studies in Denali National Park and Preserve.
40 P N h a o t i t o o n g a r l a p P a h r k c o S u e r r t v e i s c y e o p f h M o t i o c h g a r a e p l h C o b l y l o C p a y r o l M c I n t y r e
Long-Term Golden Eagle Studies in Denali National Park and Preserve
by Carol McIntyre, eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), visitors fre- golden eagles were integral components of Figure 1. (Top Left) All known nests in the Karen Steenhof, Michael N. Kochert, quently turn their eyes skyward in hopes this region’s fauna (Dixon 1938, Murie 1944). study area are on cliffs and rock outcrops. Nests range in size from 3.3 feet (1 m) to and Michael W. Collopy of seeing one of North America’s largest In 1987, Denali biologists conducted the 9.8 feet (3 m) wide and 3.3 feet (1 m) to aerial predators. With an abundance of first formal inventory of golden eagle nest- 9.8 feet (3 m) high. Viewing predators is one of the high- cliffs and rock outcroppings for nest sites, ing sites and found more than 50 occupied lights of a trip to Denali. Just a few years as well as a diversity of prey, the northern nesting territories in the northeastern region Figure 2. (Top Right) Broods of two nestlings are common in Denali in years ago, visitors generally fixed their gaze foothills of the towering Alaska Range are of Denali. This exciting discovery spurred when prey is abundant. on terra firma hoping to see a wolf or a well suited for this large aerial predator. the National Park Service to develop a grizzly bear. Now, thanks to results of our In the early twentieth century, Joseph long-term study of the nesting ecology and long-term monitoring program for golden Dixon and Adolph Murie recognized that reproductive success of golden eagles in
42 Denali. To make comparisons with other until October. A few hardy individuals may Figure 3. Our study study areas, Denali’s biologists modeled their spend the winter, especially when snowshoe area (within the dashed lines) contains new program after the long-term monitoring hare are abundant, but most return to their more than 365 nest program in the Snake River Birds of Prey territories in March and begin repairing sites in 85 golden National Conservation Area in southwest their nests. Nests range in size, but all nests eagle nesting territories (indicated Idaho (Steenhof et al. 1997, McIntyre and in our study area are built on cliffs or rock by the red circles). Adams 1999). This NPS study has provided outcroppings (Figure 1). The female com- internationally significant information on pletes her clutch of one to three eggs by golden eagles (Watson 1997, Kochert and mid-April. Incubation requires about 42 Steenhof 2002, Kochert et al. 2002) and some days, most hatching occurs by early June, of our results are highlighted in this article. and most nestlings fledge by early August. The eaglets grow rapidly during the 70-day Monitoring Reproductive Success nestling period, and successful pairs raise Denali’s golden eagles are migratory, from one to three nestlings (Figure 2). and the territorial population occupies the We monitor the reproductive success foothills of the Alaska Range from March of the eagles using two standardized aerial
Figure 4. The laying rate (left) and productivity (right) of golden eagles in relation to the abundance of snowshoe hare (an index based on the number of hares detected per field day).
43 Long-Term Golden Eagle Studies in Denali National Park and Preserve
surveys annually from a small helicopter. In late April, after most clutches of eggs are completed, we observe all nesting territories to determine their occupancy and breeding status. We know that a terri- tory is occupied if we observe a newly repaired nest or a pair of eagles engaged in territorial or reproductive activities. Observation of an incubating eagle or eggs in a nest tells us that a laying pair is present. In late July, we count the number of nestlings and successful pairs (pairs that raise at least one fledgling) (Steenhof 1987). Data from these two surveys allows us to monitor nesting territory occupancy and reproductive success of golden eagles in Denali.
Providing New Information on Golden Eagles Several of our studies have yielded excit- ing information about golden eagle nesting ecology. The results highlight the impor- tance of the park to nesting golden eagles, and the importance of the eagles to visitors’ experiences. Nesting densities are higher for golden eagles in Denali than anywhere else in North America (Figure 3) (Kochert et al. 2002). Occupancy rates are stable, and the territorial population consists mostly of adults. This suggests either that survival of territorial eagles is high or that sufficient numbers of non-territorial eagles (or floaters) are avail- able to fill voids left by birds that die. Like many other northern predators, breeding golden eagles in Denali respond to the Figure 5. Results of the National Park Service banding and satellite telemetry programs indicate than many of Denali’s golden eagles winter snowshoe hare cycle—more eagles lay eggs across southwestern Canada, the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains regions in the United States, and northern Mexico. and raise more fledglings in years when
44 snowshoe hares are abundant (Figure 4) in most temperate study areas (McIntyre and profound effects on Denali’s landscape thrive in landscapes altered by human activ- (McIntyre and Adams 1999). Still, some pairs Adams 1999). Additionally, the post-fledging and its entire fauna. For example, climate ities (Watson 1997, Kochert and Steenhof of eagles produce substantially more fledg- dependence period is shorter and survival change could cause regional changes in veg- 2002). Long-term monitoring programs in lings than others (McIntyre 2002), and of juveniles is lower for Denali’s golden etation patterns (Rupp et al. 2000, Sturm et the Snake River and in Denali provide valu- productivity is significantly lower in areas eagles than for resident populations at al. 2001), potentially affecting the habitat of able data to investigate responses of golden with more closed-canopy vegetation lower latitudes (McIntyre and Collopy 2006, many species of golden eagle prey (McIntyre eagles to different environmental issues (McIntyre 2004). McIntyre et al. 2006). 2004). across diverse geographical areas (Kochert Our studies are particularly useful for We live in a rapidly changing world. and Steenhof 2002). Will golden eagles thrive comparing life history characteristics The Future of Denali’s Golden Eagles Humans have substantially altered much in Denali in the next century? Results of our between migratory populations in north- Although Denali’s landscapes are rela- of the habitat in migration corridors and long-term monitoring program in Denali, ern latitudes and resident populations in tively free from habitat alteration directly winter ranges of Denali’s golden eagles now a component of the Central Alaska southern latitudes in North America attributed to humans, landscapes are (Figure 5). Further, habitat alteration in areas Network Vital Signs Monitoring Program (McIntyre and Adams 1999, Kochert et al. dynamic and major perturbations will con- bordering the park is also increasing. Long- (MacCluskie and Oakley 2005), should pro- 2002). For instance, mean brood size and tinue to shape their future. The cascading lived, wide-ranging, slow reproducing ani- vide answers to this and other questions. overall productivity in Denali is lower than effects of global climate change may have mals such as golden eagles generally do not
REFERENCES
Dixon, J.S. 1938. McIntyre, C.L. 2004. Rupp, S.T., F. S. Chapin III, and A.M. Starfield. 2000. Fauna of the National Parks of the United States. Golden Eagles in Denali National Park and Preserve: Response of subarctic vegetation to transient climatic Birds and mammals of Mt. McKinley National Park. Productivity and survival in relation to landscape change on the Seward Peninsula in north-west Alaska. Fauna Series No. 3. U.S. Government Printing Office. characteristics of nesting territories. Ph.D. dissertation. Global Climate Change Biology 6:541-555. Washington, D.C. Oregon State University. Corvallis, Oregon. Steenhof, K. 1987. Kochert, M.N., and K. Steenhof. 2002. McIntyre, C.L., and L.G. Adams. 1999. Assessing raptor reproductive success and productivity. Golden eagles in the U.S. and Canada; status, trends, Reproductive characteristics of migratory golden eagles In Raptor Management Techniques Manual, edited by and conservation challenges. in Denali National Park, Alaska. Condor 101:115-123. B.A. Giron Pendleton, B.A. Millsap, K.W. Cline, and Journal of Raptor Research 36 (1 Supplement):32-40. D.M. Bird. Scientific Technical Series No. 10. National McIntyre, C.L. and M.W. Collopy. 2006. Wildlife Federation. Washington, D.C. 157-170. Kochert, M.N., K. Steenhof, C.L. McIntyre, The post-fledging dependence period of migratory and E.H. Craig. 2002. golden eagles in Denali National Park and Preserve, Steenhof, K., M.N. Kochert, and T.L. McDonald. 1997. Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). In The Birds of North Alaska. Auk, in press. Interactive effects of prey and weather on America, No. 684, edited by A. Poole and F. Gill. golden eagle reproduction. The Birds of North America, Inc. Philadelphia. McIntyre, C.L., M.W. Collopy, and M.S. Lindberg. 2006. Journal of Animal Ecology 66:350-362. Survival probability and mortality of migratory juvenile MacCluskie, M., and K. Oakley. 2005. golden eagles from Interior Alaska. Sturm, M., C. Racine, and K. Tape. 2001. Vital Signs Monitoring Plan, Central Alaska Network, Journal of Wildlife Management, in press. Increasing shrub abundance in the Arctic. August 1, 2005. National Park Service. Fairbanks, Alaska. Nature 411 (6837):546-547. Murie, A. 1944. McIntyre, C.L. 2002. The wolves of Mt. McKinley. Watson, J. 1997. Patterns in nesting area occupancy and reproductive Mt. McKinley Natural History Association. The golden eagle. success of golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in Denali Mt. McKinley, Alaska. T & AD Poyser. London. National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 1988-99. Journal of Raptor Research 36 (1 Supplement): 50-54.
45 N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e p h o t o g r a p h b y C a r l
R Integrated Monitoring of o l a n d Physical Environment, Plant, and Bird Communities in Denali
By Carl Roland and Carol McIntyre One focus of data collection was the Toklat Basin in the northeastern region of The physical environment strongly affects Denali (Figure 1). We collected data on the vegetation patterns in Alaska, and songbird physical environment, vegetation, and passer- communities are tied to vegetation patterns. ine birds on nearly 200 plots in eight mini-grids In designing a long-term monitoring pro- in this region from 2001 to 2003. This data set gram for Denali, we saw an opportunity to has allowed us to establish a baseline of eco- collect integrated data to better understand logical conditions for this area and to quantify how the ecosystem functions as a whole and some of the primary ecological dynamics in to delineate the specific relationships among these elements of the biota. We developed a sampling design where repeated observations of the physical environ- ment, vegetation and birds are made at randomly selected points (Roland et al. 2003). This design will allow detection of changes in the ecosystem at a landscape scale, for long periods of time. The sampling design is comprised of five rows of five plots, all 547 yards (500 m) apart, arranged in a grid pattern at each study area. These “mini-grids” are themselves arranged on a macro-grid with 6.2 miles (10 km) spacing. By utilizing a randomized site selection pro- cedure, the program provided unbiased data Figure 1. Map showing the location of the Toklat Basin study area (cross-hatched area) A long-tailed Jaeger sits atop a wind-pruned white spruce tree in the open permafrost about the status and trend of park resources and sampling locations (red dots) for the data landscape of the Toklat Basin in Denali National Park. over large spatial scales. cited in this article.
46 Figure 2. A comparison of the active layer depth of plots Figure 3. Variation in mean tree density for different active Figure 4. The percent of live plant cover (above 6.6 feet or from two study regions, those in the Toklat Basin region and layer depths and elevations observed in the Toklat Basin 2 m in height) for different active layer depths and elevations all others in Denali. All plots included in this analysis were study area. Tree density is nearly 30 times higher in the low in the Toklat Basin study area. Plant biomass is nearly 30 located below 3,600 feet (1,100 m) in elevation. Note the elevation, deep active layer category as compared to the times greater in deeply thawed sites in the lowlands as higher percentage of plots in the shallow active layer cate- high elevation, shallow active layer category. compared to shallow active layer sites at high elevation. gories for Toklat Basin in contrast to plots outside this region, where the higher percentage is in the deep depth categories. this ecosystem. In this article, we highlight cold to penetrate and freeze soils deeply. layer depth, the depth to which the soil Basin plots was 38.1°F ±1.6°F (3.4°C our research by presenting one example of During fieldwork, it was noted that active thaws in the summer. The deeper the thawed ±0.9°C), whereas for all other low-eleva- the benefits of integrated data collection layer depth and elevation were strong or active layer, the greater the amount of tion plots the mean soil temperature was of physical attributes, vegetation, and birds predictors of the vegetation patterns in the substrate available for plant roots to colonize, 46.2°F ±3.8°F (7.9°C ±2.1°C). Mean active for understanding ecological dynamics. Toklat Basin. Many predictions concerning to draw nutrients from, and to support layer depth in the Toklat Basin plots was 13 the nature of landscape change focus on life functions. Sites with deeper active layers inches ±2.2 (33 cm ±5.7), whereas in low An Example of Integrating vegetation changes along elevation gradi- often have warmer soils that are more elevation plots outside of this study area, Monitoring at a Landscape Scale ents and on interrelationships between favorable to plant growth and the micro- mean active layer depth was 16.5 inches A main attribute of the Toklat Basin warming, permafrost degradation, and bial activity that frees nutrients for plants ±3.8 (42 cm ±9.7). The soil temperature region is permanently frozen ground (or resulting vegetation change. The integrated to use. and active layer depth values are lower in permafrost), which affects many aspects of monitoring program allows us to quantify To illustrate the importance of per- the Toklat Basin, as compared to other low the ecosystem. The basin slopes to the north and monitor these dynamics through time, mafrost in the Toklat Basin relative to other elevation sample locations (Figure 2). and lies in the shadow of the Alaska Range. providing insight into the relationships areas of Denali, we compared the data Thus, solar energy inputs in this area are among permafrost, vegetation structure, from plots in this region to all of the low Tree Density and Live Plant Cover low compared to areas with southerly and bird distribution. elevation plots (<1100 m in elevation) that Many important vegetation attributes in aspects, or those not in the shadow of the we measured in Denali. We observed some the Toklat Basin varied in response to the Alaska Range. In addition, strong winter Physical Environment differences in soil temperature and active active layer depth and elevation. These two winds often blow away the insulating blan- One measure of the intensity of per- layer depth values between these two data physical factors influence the microclimate ket of snow, allowing the subarctic winter mafrost in an area is the summer active sets. Mean soil temperature for the Toklat of a site, and thus the conditions for plant
47 Integrated Monitoring of Physical Environment, Plant, and Bird Communities in Denali
scientific literature suggests that vegetation change along these two environmental gra- dients may be very pronounced in Alaska in the coming decades (Camill 2005, Calef et al. 2005). Our data show that any changes in the active layer depth resulting from thawing permafrost could lead to major changes in vegetation patterns, which in turn could profoundly alter bird habitats over large regions of the park. This program was specifically designed to monitor the interrelationships between physical attributes of the ecosystem, vegeta- tion patterns, and bird distribution at large spatial scales. We co-located our sampling Figure 5. Mean number of detections of non-forest (left) and forest-associated (right) songbird species for different active layer depths and elevations in the Toklat Basin study area. activities to maximize the information gained about a diverse cross-section of growth. Here we focus on the responses of data reflected predicted variation in ciated with forests (boreal chickadee, ruby- the park biota and to help understand the two vegetation parameters that are relevant response to important environmental vari- crowned kinglet, American robin, and complex interactions among species and to bird habitat selection: the quantity of ables. At sites with shallow active layers, yellow-rumped warbler), more individuals their environments. By collecting baseline vegetative cover at specific heights off the the vegetation was generally low with little were detected where the active layer was data using a rigorous sampling design, we ground (percent cover of live vegetation), plant cover over 6.6 feet (2 m) in height and deep, and there was more vegetative bio- are establishing a foundation for effective and tree density. very few, scattered trees. With increasing mass. The mean number of detections of long-term monitoring of resources that will The data showed that percent of plant active layer depth, plant cover increased in these species was substantially higher at allow us to better understand and manage cover higher than 6.6 feet (2 m) and density higher height strata, and generally, the veg- plots where the active layer was greater park resources in a changing world. of trees varied in response to the active etation was more productive with a greater than 9.8 inches (25 cm) (Figure 5). layer depth and elevation. Specifically, tree density of trees. density was very low in plots that were Discussion REFERENCES most highly permafrosted in both elevation Songbirds Two goals of the integrated monitoring categories (Figure 3) and was highest in low For species associated with open, non- program are to quantify the relationships Camill, Peter. 2005. Permafrost Thaw Accelerates in elevation sites with deeply thawed soils. forested landscapes (e.g., horned lark, between environment, vegetation, and song- Boreal Peatlands During Late-20th Intermediate positions along this gradient American tree sparrow, white-crowned bird distributions across Denali’s landscape Century Climate Warming. had intermediate values for tree density, as sparrow) more individuals were detected and to detect changes in these distributions Climatic Change 68(1-2):135-152. did sites at high elevation. Plant cover greater in plots where there was permafrost closer in response to ecological changes over time. Calef, Monica, A. David McGuire, Howard than 6.6 feet (2 m) showed essentially the to the surface and consequently less vege- Many complex factors influence the distri- Epstein, T. Scott Rupp, and Herman H. same response to this set of gradients, with tative cover. The mean number of detec- bution of both vegetation and songbirds; Shugart. 2005. highest biomass in deeply thawed soils at tions of these species was substantially however, our analysis suggests that we can Analysis of vegetation distribution in Interior Alaska and sensitivity to low elevation and lowest biomass in sites higher at plots where the active layer was partially explain the distribution of boreal climate change using a logistic with thin active layers (Figure 4). less than 9.8 inches (<25 cm) (Figure 5). vegetation and songbird populations using regression approach. Overall, at this large spatial scale, the Correspondingly, for species strongly asso- active layer depth and elevation. Current Journal of Biogeography 32: 863-878
48
Hardy as Chickadees: Denali’s Winter Citizen Scientists P h o
By Carol McIntyre, Nan Eagleson, ranged from 71 to 935. The boom comes in t o g r a and David Tomeo years when seed-eating redpolls and white- p h c o u
winged crossbills take advantage of massive r t e s y
The Christmas Bird Count (CBC) is the crops of viable white spruce seeds. These o f M a r longest-running and most widespread bird finches accounted for 64% to 76% of birds t h a T o
survey in the Western Hemisphere (Dunn et detected in the years with the highest counts. m e al. 2005). With nearly 50,000 volunteers Scientists are using the CBC data on mul- o participating in 2,000 CBCs across North tiple scales to monitor bird populations. On a America annually, the CBC is a shining exam- hemispheric scale, CBC data are valuable for ple of how the public can contribute to scien- monitoring broad-scale trends of bird species tific research. The Denali CBC is conducted abundance and distribution. Statewide, CBC by volunteers that are as hardy as the birds data are valuable for monitoring numbers of they seek. With temperatures rarely rising birds wintering in Alaska. Locally, CBC data above –20º F (–29º C) and the sun barely are valuable for monitoring the presence and peeking over the Alaska Range, these volun- relative abundance of winter birds in this area teers travel via dog sled, skis, and snowshoes and for monitoring changes in the ecosystem. searching for birds. While enjoying this cele- You can learn more about the Christmas Bird bration of birds, these volunteers are provid- Count at http://www.audubon.org/bird/cbc/ ing park scientists with a valuable data set. index.html Twenty-six species were recorded in the Denali CBC between 1992 and 2004 (Table 1). REFERENCES Spruce grouse, gray jay, black-billed magpie, Dunn, E.H., C.M. Francis, P.J. Blancher, common raven, black-capped and boreal S.R. Drennan, M.A. Howe, D.Lepage, C.S. chickadees, pine grosbeak, and redpoll were Robbins, K.V. Rosenberg, J.R. Sauer, and detected in most years. The count in Denali K.G. Smith. 2005. Enhancing the scientific value tends to be a boom-or-bust experience; the of the Christmas Bird Count. number of individual birds counted annually Auk 122:338-346.
Table 1. Species observed on the Denali Christmas Bird Count, 1992 to 2004
Bald eagle Northern hawk owl Boreal chickadee Northern goshawk Downy woodpecker Red-breasted nuthatch Golden eagle Hairy woodpecker American dipper Ruffed grouse Three-toed woodpecker Dark-eyed junco Spruce grouse Northern shrike Pine grosbeak Willow ptarmigan Gray jay White-winged crossbill Rock ptarmigan Black-billed magpie Common redpoll White-tailed ptarmigan Common raven Hoary redpoll Great horned owl Black-capped chickadee David Tomeo and daughter Emma participating in the 2004 Denali Christmas Bird Count.
49 P h o t o g r a p h c o u r t e s y o f A s h l e y F e e r e r
50 P h o t o g r a
p Medical Research Climbs Denali h c o u r t e s y o
f By Lucy Tyrrell are part survey (questioning climbers about climbers (13%) tested positive for CO C l a y
R activities or symptoms) and part assay exposure. While 20 climbers (13.7%) met o s c o
e Late spring sunlight glows through a tent (assessing chemical or physiological status the criteria for AMS, contrary to hypothe- at the 14,200-foot (4328 m) camp. Dr. Caitlin from blood samples). Below and in the sized results, there was no significant Gustafson is taking 0.3 cc of blood from a caption at left are brief synopses of four of relationship between elevated COHb and climber who wears a wool hat, her turtle- these studies. AMS. However, Roscoe still thinks there neck pushed up to the elbow, and a grin. may be an important link. Climbers with Dr. Clay Roscoe stands by, ready to Do climbers exposed to carbon symptoms of AMS did report operating insert a cuvette into a portable cooximeter monoxide have higher risk of stoves longer than those without AMS, a that measures the amount of carboxyhe- Acute Mountain Sickness? finding that Roscoe thinks supports the moglobin (COHb): carbon monoxide (CO) The woman volunteering a blood sample hypothesis that some individuals who bound with hemoglobin in the blood. The in the first aid tent was one of 146 climbers believe they have AMS may also be affected level of COHb indicates exposure to CO that Roscoe and Gustafson, both of by CO exposure. Dr. Caitlin Gustafson and climber in the from heaters or cooking stoves in poorly the Family Medicine Residency of Idaho, heated first aid tent at 14,200 feet. ventilated tents. enlisted in 2004 to assess CO exposure It is another day of research on the risk in climbers (Roscoe et al.). To test the “Your tent partner complains of nausea, A result Roscoe was not expecting vomiting, and headache. He also cannot mountain. relationship between elevated COHb and figure out which boot is right or left. Which Among those who ascend the slopes of Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS), Roscoe was that descending climbers had of the following may cause these symptoms?” Denali (Mt. McKinley) are physicians and and Gustafson took blood samples in higher CO exposure compared to Dr. Julianna Montooth, of the Alaska Family health care professionals who conduct addition to asking climbers about exposure Practice Residency, was interested in ascending climbers. These results raise climbers’ knowledge of Acute Mountain research on the common maladies of to CO, past history of AMS, and symptoms questions about how long COHb Sickness (AMS) and frostbite, and asked mountaineers—carbon monoxide expo- of AMS (headache, nausea, fatigue, dizzi- this question and others to 82 climbers at sure, frostbite, diarrhea, dehydration, and ness, and sleeping difficulty). persists in climbers at high elevations Kahiltna Base Camp (photo at left) in 2002 and if CO toxicity is cumulative while (King 2002). Montooth found that climbers high altitude illness, which can plague even The majority (97%) of climbers reported are well informed about AMS and frostbite. the fittest climber. These research projects ventilating their cooking space, yet 18 climbers are on Denali.
51 Medical Research Climbs Denali
A result Roscoe was not expecting was long COHb persists in climbers at high than 75% of the climbing rangers who were possibly with cumulative impacts from that descending climbers had higher CO elevations and if CO toxicity is cumulative tested had elevated COHb levels. The long intervals in tents. Although the study exposure compared to ascending climbers. while climbers are on Denali. elevated COHb levels may be correlated does not confirm causes, it does suggest These results raise questions about how Another important result was that more with insufficient ventilation of tents or hypotheses and future research needs. P h o t o
g What are the major risk factors r a p h
c for getting diarrhea while o u r t e climbing Denali? s y o f
C Following reports of a possible outbreak l a y R
o of diarrheal illness among climbers on s c o e Denali in May 2002, epidemiologists from the Alaska Division of Public Heath flew to the Kahiltna Base Camp at 7,200 feet (2195 m) to conduct a survey of climbers. Their mission was to determine the extent of diarrhea and what factors put climbers at risk (McLaughlin et al. 2005). Health workers learned that 27% of the 132 surveyed climbers experienced diarrhea after arriving on the mountain. At high camps with no latrine, 69% of climbers saw feces near their camp. More than 10% of climbers had defecated directly on snow, rather than using a waste disposal bag or latrine. Most climbers (78%) collected snow for consumption within 30 feet (9 m) of camp, and most (67%) rarely or never boiled their snow- water. In addition, about 30% of climbers rarely or never washed their hands with a disinfectant after defecating. Based on the collected data, the factors that appeared to place climbers most at risk were spending eight or more days at the 17,200-foot (5243 m) camp, being a mem- ber of a climbing party in which at least one other person had diarrhea, and not receiv- Medical research at 14,200 feet is of special interest because some high altitude physiological factors related to lower barometric pressure ing education about disease risk-reduction and resulting hypoxia are compounded because of Denali’s location at high latitude (63º N). from a guide. The two most likely causes
52 N a t i
of infectious diarrhea among climbers m), severe pooling in the lungs causes High o n a l P
were consumption of fecally-contaminated Altitude Pulmonary Edema, and persistent a r k S e
snow and lack of personal hygiene. brain-swelling produces life-threatening r v i c e
High Altitude Cerebral Edema. p h o t o
To explore how capillaries become g
Are levels of a blood serum r a p compound known as VEGF leaky at high altitudes, Dr. Eric Nilles, then h correlated with AMS? at Yale University School of Medicine, At high elevations, capillaries become studied whether levels of a blood chemical leaky. As the leaking plasma fluids pool in believed to cause leakiness in vascular the brain, the resulting headache is a key tissue (vascular endothelial growth factor symptom of AMS. Above 10,000 feet (3048 or VEGF) was higher in climbers with AMS (Nilles 2005). In 2002, Nilles enlisted ascending climbers who had been accli- mating at 14,200 feet (4328 m). Climbers self-assessed whether they were experi- encing AMS, and their blood samples were tested for levels of plasma VEGF. Of the 51 climbers recruited in the study, 14 experienced AMS. Climbers with AMS had higher levels of VEGF than Research projects are not only interesting to science, but also valuable to the health and safety of both climbers and climbing rangers on the high peaks in Denali. non-AMS climbers (79 versus 58 m pg/mL), but the difference was not significant statistically. Nilles wonders if his study failed to show a significant relationship because the VEGF responsible for brain REFERENCES capillary permeability is an intra-cerebral Denali Mountaineering Staff and Medical Advisors. 2005. VEGF and not the VEGF he sampled in Mountaineering in Denali National Park and Preserve. National Park Service, Alaska. venous blood. King, Julianna. 2002. Unpublished data, Alaska Family Practice Residency. Application of mountain research Each of the approximately 1,200 moun- McLaughlin, Josepth B., Bradford D. Gessner, and Ann Marie Bailey. 2005. taineers who attempt a summit of Denali Gastroenteritis outbreak among mountaineers climbing the West Buttress Route of Denali—Denali National Park, Alaska, June 2002. each year is a potential subject for research Research findings are put to practical use. Wilderness and Environmental Medicine 16: 92-96. on medical aspects of high altitude climbs. Beginning in 1982, Dr. Peter Hackett directed research on high altitude topics for more Research results are more than interesting Nilles, Eric. 2005. than a decade. Now, medical issues of high to science. They lead to improvements in Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor and Acute Mountain Sickness. Unpublished report. altitude arctic climbs are covered in this the health and safety of climbers and new booklet for Denali mountaineers Roscoe, Clay, Ed Baker, Caitlin Gustafson, Todd Arndt, and Jennifer Dow. In review. (Denali Mountaineering Staff and Medical climbing rangers on the high peaks Investigating carbon monoxide exposure on Denali. Advisors 2005). of Denali. Submitted to Wilderness and Environmental Medicine.
53
P h o t o g r a p h f r o m S t e p h Cultural & Social e n F o s t e r C o l l e c t i o n , 6 9 - 9 2 - 3 3 4 . A l a s k a a n d Historic and Contemporary P o l a r R e g i o
n Ethnographic Landscapes s D e p a r t m e
n of Denali National Park t , A r c h i v e s a n d
M By Terry Haynes and William Simeone area by these five groups is confirmed by a n u s
c examining the areas to which they assigned r i p t s
U Management directives for Denali place names. The linguist James Kari (1999) n i t ,
U National Park and Preserve (Denali) stipu- assembled more than 1,650 names that these n i v e r s late that traditional lifeways and historic groups gave to geographic features within a i t y o f
A and contemporary activities of Alaska 100-200 mile (161-322 km) radius of the l a s k a Native peoples be considered in the decision- summit of Mt. McKinley. Many of these F a i r b
a making process. This article illustrates the names are associated with landmarks locat- n k s
A types of information documented in recent ed on or near rivers and streams (Figure 1). r c h i v e research that can assist park officials in s . fulfilling this important mandate. Sociopolitical Organization The area in and around Denali comprises Like most hunter-gatherer peoples, part of the aboriginal homeland of five Denali area Athabascans lived in small, Northern Athabascan Indian groups— autonomous groups comprised of close rel- Dena’ina, Koyukon, Lower Tanana, Upper atives. Political organization was decentral- Kuskokwim, and Western Ahtna. The affili- ized and informal; most decisions affecting ation of five Native groups with one national the group were reached by consensus. An park is unique and illustrates the rich and exceptional man might exert his authority diverse cultural heritage of the Denali area. over the group, but people followed his The long-term use and occupancy of the decisions only if they considered doing so to be in their best interests. Kinship ties extended beyond the imme- diate group and provided people with a (Left) “April 12, 1919. Indians network of relatives from which assistance at Lake Minchuminai.” could be obtained when resources were
55 Historic and Contemporary Ethnographic Landscapes of Denali National Park
scarce. Descent was matrilineal so a child preferred because such alliances created belonged to their mother’s clan. Households bonds between widely dispersed groups. typically consisted of two related families who shared a dwelling and functioned as a Making a Living single economic unit. For much of the year, Prior to European contact, Athabascan people lived in small aggregates referred to groups in Alaska moved seasonally within a as the local band, which was a large extended defined territory to procure food resources family centered around a core group of and materials to make tools, clothing, and siblings, their spouses, children, and other shelter. Because starvation was always a close relatives. Band size varied but usually possibility, flexibility and specialization numbered from 20-75 people. Two or more characterized the Athabascan bands that local bands in the same area often joined sought resources in the Denali area. If one forces to harvest fish and wildlife. This resource was in short supply, efforts were larger group, or regional band, had as many redoubled to find alternatives. as 200-300 members who were linked by The annual cycle of Upper Kuskokwim kinship ties and language dialect. bands illustrates the importance of the Denali area for survival. People traveled by Band Territories in the Denali Area Figure 1. Athabascan language areas in Denali National Park and Preserve and adjoining areas. toboggan from winter camps to the Alaska Regional bands were associated with a Range foothills and Lake Minchumina areas specific territory shaped by the drainage Life Cycle demanding training, which began with a in the early spring to harvest caribou, moose, pattern of a major waterway. On the south An Athabascan child was educated to year of isolation from the family dwelling bear, sheep, waterfowl, and fish. Two or side of the Alaska Range a Dena’ina band become a skilled hunter or an industrious at the onset of menses. During this time more bands often collaborated to drive cari- called the Susitnuht’ana or Susitna River and accomplished housewife. Rigorous female relatives provided food and instruc- bou into fences or surrounds, where they people, used an area extending north training began at puberty and included the tion in sewing and proper behavior. then dispatched the animals. Some of the from the mouth of the Susitna River to the strict observation of rules to ensure good Following a year of seclusion, young harvest was cached and in the late fall Alaska Range and Talkeetna Mountains, health and a long life. Compliance, espe- women were eligible for marriage and transported by skin boats back to winter while a mixed band of Dena’ina and cially by young women during their first frequently married older men. A wealthy encampments. Winter activities included Ahtna, called the “mountain people,” menses, also protected the community by man might have more than one wife, the ice fishing, harvesting beaver, hare, game exploited the Talkeetna River drainage. assuring good luck and removing pollution eldest of whom usually had seniority and birds, and hunting hibernating bears. The home territory of the Western Ahtna that would drive away game animals. supervised the younger wives. Some band members remained at the included the Broad Pass area and upper Training for young men focused on People usually married outside of their winter camps throughout the year, where Nenana River corridor. One Lower Tanana physical conditioning and acquiring prac- local band but within the regional band. they harvested and processed wild foods. In band had a territory that included most tical skills, spiritual power, and values Among the Ahtna, a wealthy man reinforced the spring and summer, they caught several of the drainages of the Nenana and Toklat necessary to become a good provider. his political standing by marrying women species of whitefish. Waterfowl eggs were rivers. Several Upper Koyukon bands Fathers initially trained their sons, but from different family groups; in doing so, gathered and birds captured in nets or killed inhabited the Kantishna River drainage this responsibility eventually shifted to the he attracted followers—and especially by bow and arrow. Grizzly bears were taken from the Tanana River south to Denali maternal uncle because children belonged brothers-in-law, who acted as his retain- with spears in the late fall near salmon and from the Toklat River east to Lake to the mother’s clan. ers. Marriage between cross-cousins (i.e., spawning sites on the upper reaches of Minchumina. Young women experienced equally children of a brother and of a sister) was tributary streams.
56 Contemporary Subsistence hibition against using a fish trap, and forced whitefish, moose, and black bear. miles north of Anchorage and 28 miles As resident zone communities, Nikolai, use of rod and reel are reasons given for Residents say that moose are plentiful south of the entrance to Denali. In 2000, Telida, Lake Minchumina, and Cantwell are the decrease in salmon harvests. Residents but changes in the lake may have long-term Cantwell had a population of 222 people and authorized to conduct subsistence activities attribute declining chinook salmon stocks consequences for the community. Following was 27% Alaska Native. Almost 69% of the in some areas of Denali by virtue of having to falling water levels and warmer water the 1964 earthquake, the water level in Lake adult population was employed sometime significant concentrations of residents who temperatures. Some Nikolai elders believe Minchumina dropped eight feet, and the in 2000, but only 46% worked year-round. have customarily and traditionally used that lower chinook harvests are also related wetlands surrounding Lake Minchumina Cantwell residents harvested 135 pounds of these lands for subsistence purposes. to a loss of respect for animals and a decline drained. The water level fell another two subsistence resources per person. Moose Nikolai become a permanent settlement in sharing and working together. While feet in 2002, but it is uncertain whether this are the largest component of the harvest, after a school was established at its present Nikolai elders believe that not upholding decline is related directly to the large 2002 followed by caribou and sockeye salmon. location in the late 1940s. More families traditional values influences wildlife abun- earthquake, since little precipitation was Cantwell residents harvest freshwater moved there after the school in nearby dance, they also understand that the current recorded during the winter of 2002-2003 fish and black and brown bear in the early Telida closed in the mid-1990s. In 2002, the scarcity of moose is a multifaceted problem and the following summer. Coupled with spring. Freshwater fishing continues in the population of Nikolai was 96 people and tied to factors such as predation and com- the drop in water level, shifting channels summer, as does salmon fishing outside the predominately Alaska Native. Only a quar- petition from sport hunters and subsistence in the Foraker River caused large amounts local area. Berry-picking and hunting for ter of the adult population was employed hunters downriver. of silt to be deposited into the lake. In Dall sheep and moose begin in mid-August. year-round. Today, Nikolai families harvest Historically, Lake Minchumina was a 2001, the river shifted back to its normal Caribou hunting begins in the fall and primarily chinook salmon in June and July, seasonal camp for staging caribou and sheep channel and the lake cleared, but silt continues in winter and early spring. Other and moose in the fall and winter. They also hunts in the Alaska Range foothills and for deposits created thicker weed beds, which fall activities include hunting for grouse, harvest chum and coho salmon, northern harvesting freshwater fish. In 2002, the can benefit some species but can reduce ptarmigan, and ducks, and silver salmon pike, whitefish and grayling, along with population was 25 people, 12% of whom oxygen levels in the water and kill fish or fishing outside the region. During the win- game birds and fur-bearing animals such were Alaska Native. The per capita harvest convert productive areas into dead habitat. ter, residents continue to hunt game birds, as beaver. Trapping once provided cash of wild resources totaled 296 pounds, Cantwell is located at the junction of trap fur-bearing animals, and ice fish for income, but changes in habitat have consisting primarily of northern pike, the George Parks and Denali highways, 211 trout and burbot. reduced the abundance of fur-bearing animals, and low fur prices and the cost of gasoline have made trapping uneconom- ical. Caribou are scarce and seldom hunted, and changes in hunting regulations have made Dall sheep hunting difficult. In 2002 the per capita harvest of wild resources in Nikolai was 401 pounds (Figure 2), half of what it was in 1984. Local people attribute this decline to environ- mental change, competition from non-local hunters, predation by wolves and bears, a change in values, and the high cost of gasoline. Increased competition from sport and commercial fisheries, regulatory pro- Figure 2. Per capita harvest levels in pounds of wild renewable resources by resident zone communities.
57 Historic and Contemporary Ethnographic Landscapes of Denali National Park P h o t o g r a p h f r o m S t e p h e n F o s t e r C o l l e c t i o n , 6 9 - 9 2 - 3 5 4 . A l a s k a a n d P o l a r R e g i o n s D e p a r t m e n t , U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a s k a F a i r b a n k s
Figure 3. “Indians home and chief’s house – Tolovana. July 30, 1919.”
Feeling squeezed between urban by the NPS to extend its influence Alaska and the National Park Service, beyond park boundaries and create more REFERENCES Cantwell residents believe that pressure environmental regulation. from urban hunters has caused game Haynes, Terry L., David B. Andersen, and William E. Simeone. 2001. Denali National Park and Preserve: Ethnographic Overview and Assessment. populations to decline, especially in Summary Report prepared by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, areas that locals used traditionally. As a This article has summarized selected Division of Subsistence, Cooperative Agreement CA 9910-7-0040. result, many residents now hunt almost information presented in an ethnographic Holen, Davin L., William E. Simeone, and Liz Williams. 2005. exclusively in Denali. Cantwell people overview and assessment written for the Wild Resource Harvests and Uses by Residents of Lake Minchumina emphasize their dependence on hunting National Park Service (Haynes et al. 2001) and Nikolai, Alaska, 2001 – 2002. and fishing to provide for their families. and in baseline studies describing contem- Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. Technical Paper No. 296. They consider themselves stewards of porary subsistence practices in communi- Kari, James. 1999. the land with knowledge that should ties affiliated with Denali National Park Draft Final Report: Native Place Names Mapping in Denali National Park and Preserve. Revised draft report prepared for the National Park Service. be utilized in wildlife management. and Preserve (Simeone 2002, Holen et al. There is also the view that Cantwell is 2005, Williams et al. 2005). These reports Simeone, William E. 2002. Wild Resource Harvests and Uses by Residents of Cantwell, Alaska 2000. not wilderness; therefore, Denali and should be consulted for more detailed Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. Technical Paper No. 272. adjacent lands should be managed for information on the topics discussed here. tourism rather than as wilderness. Some Williams, Liz, Chelsie Venechuk, Davin L. Holen, and William E. Simeone. 2005. Lake Minchumina, Telida, Nikolai, and local people perceive the concept of Cantwell Subsistence Community Use Profiles and Traditional Fisheries Use. ecosystem management as an excuse Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. Technical Paper No. 295.
58 U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y p h o t o g r a p h , P o r t r a i t s # 2 4 6
Scientific Legacy of Denali
By Ann Kain of game animals were being taken by market hunters, supporting the conserva- Denali National Park and Preserve has tion argument of Charles Sheldon and a long and interesting history of scientific others. Geological studies and reports of research. Beginning with research by the the Kantishna Hills by the USGS continued U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), scientific until the 1970s. studies have been carried out for over 100 Wildlife studies and observations by years, helping officials manage the park and Charles Sheldon in 1907-08 began the educating the public about park resources. long tradition of wildlife research and As early as 1902, USGS geologist Alfred conservation in the park. Sheldon’s work Brooks began studies of the northern foot- resulted in the identification of 23 different hills of Mt. McKinley. With the discovery mammals and 32 species of birds. His diary, of gold in the Kantishna Hills, the USGS published as The Wilderness of Denali, was intensified its efforts in the region with the earliest study of the natural habitat in geological surveys. Geologist Stephen R. Denali (Dixon 1938). Capps spent many seasons in Kantishna, Wildlife research in the park began in studying and reporting on mining activity. earnest when Dr. Olaus Murie of the U.S. He was instrumental in the movement to Biological Survey arrived in the early 1920s establish Mt. McKinley National Park when to study caribou. In 1922, Adolph Murie he wrote an article for the January 1917 joined his brother, researching and writing issue of National Geographic Magazine. about the mammals and birds, as well as His article reported that large numbers many other aspects of the ecology. Adolph’s association and work in the park would continue until the early 1970s. Figure 1: Dr. Alfred Hulse Brooks. Other scientists arrived in 1926 to conduct animal population surveys and
59 Scientific Legacy of Denali N P examine the dynamics between the various S essence of wilderness spirit...” (Murie 1981). p h o t animals in the park. Research by George o The observation of grizzlies in their natural g r a p h
Wright and Joseph Dixon comprised the , habitat continues to be a main attraction in D e n
first “comprehensive, ecologically based a Denali. Although the most noted wildlife l i N a t i
survey of the park” (Brown 1991). Wright o studies centered around wolves, sheep, n a l P
and Dixon recorded 86 species of birds a caribou, and bears, scientists studied these r k a
and 25 different mammals. Their research n large mammals in the context of the entire d P r e s
collections included 168 bird specimens, e ecosystem. Observations and information r v e
83 mammal study skins, 350 photographs, A gathered on moose, small mammals, birds, r c h i v and 280 pages of field notes (Dixon 1938). e insects, and plants all add to our under- s # 4 Dixon returned to the park in 1932 to . standing of the natural dynamics. In 1980, complete the 1926 study, resulting in his Victor Van Ballenberghe began studying book, Birds and Mammals of Mount McKinley the moose population, a study that con- National Park, Alaska (1938). tinues to the present (see article this issue). During the first 20 years of the park’s In the last 20 years, wildlife research has existence, studies of large mammals con- expanded to include studies of small mam- centrated on caribou, Dall sheep, and mals, such as voles and ground squirrels, wolves. The early studies investigated the Figure 2. Dr. Adolph Murie at old trapper cabin near the Toklat River, 1941. and bird research also increased. effects of interbreeding between caribou Wolf studies have continued, with and local reindeer populations, as well as surveys were used to study seasonal move- communities and in order to avoid legisla- Gordon Haber studying and observing the size and movement of caribou herds. ment and record population statistics. tion forcing rigid wolf control, the NPS two wolf packs from 1966 to 1974. Wildlife Adolph Murie continued the caribou These survey practices increasingly were instituted a limited wolf control program biologists L. David Mech, Layne Adams, studies in the late 1930s and early 1940s, supplemented with radio collaring, which in 1945 and suspended the program by John W. Burch, Thomas J. Meier, and when he recorded rutting and calving is the technique used today. 1952 when the sheep population recovered. Bruce W. Dale began a comprehensive behavior and the sex and age composition Results of these important studies of Murie’s study of the predator/prey relation- wolf study in 1986 (see Meier et al. article, of the herds. He tracked caribou numbers the caribou population led to studies of ship, published in 1944 as The Wolves of this issue). This team detailed their wolf- through 1965. In the late 1960s, aerial other mammals in the park. A significant Mount McKinley, provides detailed infor- caribou findings in The Wolves of Denali, decline in the Dall sheep population in the mation on wolves, and also includes Dall published in 1998. Observations and infor- late 1920s and early 1930s led the NPS to sheep, caribou, moose, grizzly bears, fox, mation gathered by many of the wildlife institute a limited wolf control program. In and eagles. scientists included data on the flora of the 1939, Murie began to study the predator/ In the late 1950s, Murie began a focused park. In addition, several focused botanical (Adolf Murie’s) observation and study prey relationship of wolves and Dall sheep, study of the grizzly bear population in the studies have occurred. The first study of of the grizzly bear prompted him to and he determined that the decline resulted park that would last ten years. Murie gath- vegetation took place when Inez Mexia comment that “...wild grizzlies in from unusually harsh winters, rather than ered data regarding the life cycle, feeding and Frances Payne of the University of McKinley National Park, conducting wolf predation. Murie’s conclusion led the habits, and range of the grizzly bear. His California collected wildflowers and shrubs their affairs undisturbed, are the NPS to end the wolf control program at observation and study of the grizzly bear in 1927. The best known vegetation study Denali. However, by 1945 the sheep popu- prompted him to comment that “...wild occurred in the 1930s when Dr. Aven Nelson essence of wilderness spirit...” lation was again very low. With the support grizzlies in McKinley National Park, con- and Ruth Ashton Nelson of the University of the scientific and wildlife conservation ducting their affairs undisturbed, are the of Wyoming collected and classified plant
60 N P In more recent years, the Inventory S
worked to develop the Alaska vegetation mountain. These research projects and p h o t o and Monitoring Program has carried classification system and published Alaska current medical research provide a wealth g r a p h
Trees and Shrubs in 1972. of scientific information both about the , out systematic studies of the plant and D e n a
Vegetation studies continued in the 1970s mountain and the effects of high altitude l i animal populations in the park. Results N a t i
and 1980s. Frederick C. Dean’s botanical and cold (see Tyrrell article, this issue). o n a
of some of these research projects are l P
work was part of the studies conducted Independent investigations early on a r k presented in this issue, some are in a n
concerning the effects of development on provided a foundation for development of d P r e
progress, and some are just beginning. s
the Denali wilderness. Dean provided the the ecosystem study framework that allows e r v e
park with a mapping study of vegetation for more accurate interpretation of scientific A r c h i v e
and an analysis of the effects of trampling data. In more recent years, the Inventory s # 1 9 6
on park vegetation (Dean 1979, 1982). and Monitoring Program has carried out 6 Mt. McKinley itself was and is the site systematic studies of the plant and animal growth for the Museum of London and the for numerous research projects. As early populations in the park. Results of some Smithsonian Institution. Their significant as 1932, scientific research on Mount of these research projects are presented in contribution regarding the study of vege- McKinley began with the study of cosmic this issue, some are in progress, and some tation resulted in the NPS identifying hun- radiation at high altitudes. Following this are just beginning. Research conducted dreds of plants within the park boundary. work, the U.S. Army tested cold weather in Denali National Park and Preserve over Botanist Leslie A. Viereck studied plant equipment on the mountain. Studies of gla- many years has greatly expanded our succession and soil development on the cier movement, geological specimens, and knowledge and understanding of the outwash of the Muldrow Glacier in the weather data are a few of the other research physical, biological, and cultural history of early 1960s. The plots used by Viereck are projects undertaken on the mountain. Even the park region. currently being revisited and studied by testing the effect of high altitude and NPS botanists as part of a comparative, extreme cold on photographic and motion long-range study. Viereck and others picture equipment has taken place on the Figure 3: Charles Sheldon
REFERENCES
Brown, William E. 1991. Dean, Frederick C. 1982. Dixon, Joseph H. 1938. A History of the Denali—Mount McKinley Region, Landsat-Based Vegetation Mapping of Mount McKinley Birds and Mammals of Alaska: Historic Resource Study of Denali National National Park Region, Alaska. Mount McKinley National Park, Alaska. Park and Preserve, Vol. 1. Biology and Resource Management Program, Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. National Park Service, Southwest Regional Office. Alaska Cooperative Park Studies Unit, Santa Fe, NM. University of Alaska. Fairbanks, Alaska. Murie, Adolph. 1981. The Grizzlies of Mount McKinley. Dean, Frederick C. 1979. University of Washington Press. Seattle, WA. Vegetation Trampling Effects Analysis: 1975 plots, Mount McKinley National Park, Alaska. Biology and Resource Management Program, Alaska Cooperative Park Studies Unit, University of Alaska. Fairbanks, Alaska.
61 n a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e p h o t o g r a p h s
Sled Dog Kennels of Denali
By Karen Fortier Denali’s sled dogs have been assisting park A U.S. National Weather Service Coopera- during winter months. This approach staff with a variety of research projects. tive Weather station located at the kennels helps to minimize use of helicopters and is A unique relationship between sled Park dog teams were used extensively has collected weather and climatological more aesthetically compatible with the dogs and scientific research has been during the mid-1980s by park biologists data daily for over 80 years, making it one philosophy of wilderness (as defined by occurring in Denali since before the lands studying predator/prey relationships of of the most prized climate data sets avail- the Wilderness Act) than motorized vehi- were set aside as a national park in 1917. wolves. In recent years the teams have able in Alaska. In addition, the sled dogs cles. Though dog team travel to remote Charles Sheldon, known as the “Father hauled sound monitoring equipment to have made it possible to conduct ground locations will often mean a much slower of Denali National Park,” employed Harry various backcountry locations (see Hults based censuses of golden eagles returning means of access to research locations, and Karstens, who later became the park’s first and Burson article, this issue) and have to nesting locations (see McIntyre et al. will likely incorporate a new set of chal- superintendent, and his team of sled dogs collected snow sampling data. They are article, this issue). lenges, the continued use of dog teams as a to assist in wildlife studies during the win- also used to help in the historical restora- Sled dogs provide a perfect tool for viable research tool is a priority for park ters of 1907-1908. Since the early 1920s, tion of some of the backcountry cabins. researchers accessing wilderness areas management.
62
Denali National Park and Preserve
For an accompanying DVD volume including data sets, photos, reports, and other resources, contact:
Denali National Park and Preserve Center for Resources, Science and Learning Denali Ecosystem DVD P.O. Box 9, Denali Park, AK 99755 (907) 683-2294 [email protected]
www.nps.gov/dena/home Photograph courtesy of Stephen Krasemann
.nps.gov/akso/Symposium
Alaska Park Science Symposium Science Park Alaska 12-14, 2006 September & Preserve Park National Denali
Boundaries in a Changing Environment” Boundaries
Information available at: http://www “Park Science in Central Alaska: Crossing Alaska: in Central Science “Park http://www.nps.gov/akso/AKParkScience/index.htm Anchorage, Alaska 99501 Anchorage, 240 West 5th Avenue 240 West Alaska Regional Office Alaska Regional National Park Service National Alaska Park Science Alaska Park