The Judeo-Persian Carpets of Kashan: Zionist Art and Cultural Craft Manufactured in Iran1

STUDIA ROSENTHALIANA 45 (2014), 135-152 doi: 10.2143/SR.45.0.3021385

JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI

INCE 1966, THE JEWISH MUSEUM OF SWITZERLAND in Basle has a carpet in its collection, showing a typical Persian pattern that reflects S 2 the style of the city of Kashan in the northwestern part of Iran. This handmade silk and wool3 carpet has an extraordinary fine knotted pile containing typical Persian decorative borders within geometrical motifs and stylized floral forms alternating with cartouches with Hebrew inscriptions (fig. 1). With a size of 200 cm ≈ 138 cm, approximately 5,000 knots/dm2 and its high quality due to its material this carpet emphasizes its unique meaning as a pictorial carpet used as a wall hanging. As a traditional Oriental craft, it combines typical Persian art with Jewish iconography by presenting symbols and motifs of Zionist art as well as Hebrew inscriptions. Thus, this carpet plays a significant role in the transcultural context of Persian Jews and their participation in the international political movement of Zionism. On closer inspection of the iconography, this article will claim that this cultural craft serves not

1. This article is based on ‘“Vergesse ich dich, Jerusalem…” Die jüdisch-persischen Bild- teppiche Kashans als zionistisches Kulturgut’, which has been published in: Trumah, Jüdische Stu- dien und jüdische Identität, Zeitschrift der Hochschule für Jüdische Studien Heidelberg, Vl. 17, (Heidelberg 2008), pp. 193-219 and which is a variation on my MA thesis ‘Die jüdischen Kashan- Teppiche und ihre Ikonographie’ (Hochschule für Jüdische Studien Heidelberg, 2005), supervised by Prof. Annette Weber to whom I would like to express my thanks. 2. My thanks for providing information and for her support to publish this carpet example are given to Dr Katia Guth Dreyfus, former Director of the Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Basle. 3. The material, knot count, dyes and design of rugs defines the quality, while silk and wool refer to the finest fibres of knotted rugs. Cf. M. L. Eiland Jr. and, M. Eiland III, Oriental Rugs. A complete guide (London 1998), pp. 31-38. 136 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI

Figure 1. Judeo-Persian pictoral carpet from Kashan, Iran. The Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Basle. (Photo D. Widmer) THE JUDEO-PERSIAN CARPETS OF KASHAN 137 only as a carrier for symbols connected with Biblical times but also as a form of identification expressing Zionist messages. The central section of the carpet is divided in a tri-partite central field with depictions of the Dome of the Rock flanked by Moses and Aaron. Above it, the Zionist banners with blue white stripes and a Star of David are shown. Two messengers are holding these two flags. In the middle register we see the Binding of Isaac and the scene of the two servants accompanying Abraham and Isaac to Mount Moriah according to Gen 22:1-3. The lower register shows a depiction of the Western Wall. Each register contains biblical and liturgical Hebrew texts. As we can see in the upper register at the top of the Basle carpet, the four large letters present the name of the Almighty as a part of the Shiv- 4 is being continued in the לנדי שדי יהוה אל שויתי כמבא תמיד iti-text central shield in an abbreviated form of Psalms 16:8. Consequently, this carpet could have been used as a Shiviti in synagogues. As we can see in the arch above the Dome of the Rock and on either side of the Cupola, Psalm 67:1-5 is scrolled. The quotation of Psalm 67 in an ornamental shape of a Menorah, therefore so called the Menorah Psalm,5 can often be found on Shiviti-Plaques. This also indicates that the carpet could be considered as a Shiviti. It also should be mentioned that according to Elise and Eli Davis, Psalm 67 often appears in Persian judaica.6 The arch of the second register below continues with Psalm 67:5-7, thus we find the blessing of Numbers 6:24-26 at the top of the third register in the arched scroll. The cartouches on the borders contain the Ten Commandments in an abbreviated form. Starting from the top, not all of these ten cartouches contain a single Commandment at a time, but merely a compila- tion of them. Interestingly, the Second Commandment is missing. It seems to be left out on purpose. As these carpets were to be made for wall hangings and might have served as monumental Shiviti-Plaques in synagogues, on the one hand it is perhaps not surprising that a

Other misspellings can also be found in the further .ידגנל Correctly it should be written as .4 inscriptions within the carpet. 5. Cf. S. Spero, ‘The Menorah Psalm’, in: Jewish Bible Quaterly, Vol. 37, Issue 1 (2009), pp. 11-16. 6. Cf. E. and E. Davis, Jewish folk art over the ages. A collector’s choice (Jerusalem 1977), p. 39. 138 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI

Commandment prohibiting the making of images is missing in a wall hanging carpet with pictoral and figurative representations referring to Biblical and modern times. On the other hand it seems to be contradic- tional, if inscriptions in synagogue interiors are lacking any depiction of the Biblical laws on purpose. Framing the central panel, two columns are decorated with various geometrical shapes and medaillons, showing various holy places and tombs in Israel. Following the depictions – and not according to the inscriptions – we see Rachel’s, Zachariah’s and Joseph’s tomb in the right column going down (fig. 2); in the left one, those of Rabbi Meir, Absalom and of Maimonides (fig. 3). The columns, the three registers in the main field and the cartouches of the borders are also filled with Hebrew inscriptions. The first part of the right column bears the well ,If I forget thee ,אם אשכ[חך]7 ירושל[ם] תשכח ימיני known Psalm 137: 5 O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning. And in the left column ,כי מציון תצא תורה ודבר יהוה מירוש[לם] we can see the text of Isaiah 2:3 …for out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem. As well as the depictions, the inscriptions reveal the very fine woven quality of this pictorial silk made carpet. The use of exquisite materials, a fine-knotted pile as well as depictions of persons or scenes relating to literary sources of Persian culture are common for Persian pictoral carpets woven in workshops of experienced weavers. But this Persian pictoral carpet is a rarity because of its explicit Zionist iconography, along with the extraordinary fine-knotted pile. While these symbols, motifs and the inscriptions have been popular in Jewish art and within the Zionist movement,8 they are quite uncommon for Iranian made arts and crafts. Thus, by combining the typical Persian patterns and ornaments – after all, a typical national and cultural craft of Persia – with elements of Jewish and Zionist iconography, the product itself repre- sents a rarity.

7. The letters set in brackets are not included in the inscriptions and might serve as addition to read the verses. 8. Cf. R. Arbel, Blue and White in Color. Visual Images of Zionism, 1897-1947, exhib. cat., Beith Ha-Tefusoth, Tel Aviv (Tel Aviv 1997). THE JUDEO-PERSIAN CARPETS OF KASHAN 139

Figure 2. Judeo-Persian pictoral carpet Figure 3. Judeo-Persian pictoral carpet from Kashan, Iran. The Jewish from Kashan, Iran. The Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Basle. Museum of Switzerland, Basle. Right column Left column 140 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI

In fact this pictoral Judeo-Persian carpet is not an exception, but it is a fine representative of a group of a dozen carpets (or probably even more)9 exhibited in some museums of Israel, two items in the Wolfson Museum in Jerusalem and one in the Jewish Museum in Amsterdam,10 while others were sold by auction houses like Sotheby’s and Christie’s,11 or are again belong to private collections.12 Nine almost identical Judeo- Persian carpets are known, all of them showing the same tri-partite field, the same motifs and inscriptions. Several minimal spelling mistakes help us to distinguish one carpet from another.

According to the tradition of Persian carpet workshops, these carpets note their place of origin, and this is, in all cases, Kashan. We can read Kashan, Iran in the middle shape of the right column in/ כאשאן איראן the carpet from Basle (fig. 4) as well as in the other examples. This clearly points to the exact geographical region of the workshop13 and due to the border style its pattern and ornaments, this carpet belongs to the weaver’s tradition of Kashan. Besides the fact that the woven name Kashan Iran in the middle shape of the column indicates the provenience there is also another evidence to consider. The Basle carpet has on its backside

9. The Joods Historisch Museum of Amsterdam supposes -without any further explana- tions- that between twelve and eighteen virtually identical carpets of this group are known. Cf. D. M. Swetschinski in collaboration with J.-M. Cohen and S. Hartog, Orphans objects. Facets of the Textiles Collection of the Joods Historisch Museum, exhib. cat., Joods Historisch Museum Amsterdam (Amsterdam 1997), p. 50. 10. Further examples were exhibited in the Israel Museum, Kibbutz Hazorea und Wolfson Museum, Israel, published in: A. Felton, Jewish Carpets, (Woodbridge 1997), p. 154 f., Fig. No. 85, 86, 88, 89. H. Budde and A. Nechama (ed.), Die Reise nach Jerusalem. Eine kulturhistorische Exkur- sion in die Stadt der Städte. 3000 Jahre Davidsstadt (Berlin 1996), p. 255, 3/33, Fig. 262. Joods His- torisch Museum, Amsterdam (Inv.-No. JHM B 0394), in: D. M. Swetschinski in collaboration with J.-M. Cohen and S. Hartog, Orphans objects. Facets of the Textiles Collection of the Joods Historisch Museum, exhib. cat., Joods Historisch Museum Amsterdam (Amsterdam 1997), fig. p. 51. 11. Sotheby’s, Important Judaica, Auction: 15 April 1998, Tel Aviv, p. 28, Lot 166. Christie’s Amsterdam, Judaica. Books, manuscripts, works of art and pictures, 20 June 1990, p. 115, Lot 250. Parke-Bernet Galleries, Jewish ritual silver and other hebraica. Public auction sale. March 31 and April 1 1954, New York, p. 25, No. 136. 12. Cf. Felton, Jewish Carpets, p. 155, fig. No. 88, p. 62, fig. No. 2. See also M. Kaniel, Judaism. Jewish art and symbolism (London 1979), fig. p. 61. 13. Names of cities in Persian knotted-pile carpets specify the place of origin, the weaver’s tradition, the use of special materials, dyes and the designs, motifs and patterns. Normally the name is cited inside the borders and not, as in this case, inside the central field of the carpet. I am indepted for this information to Detlef Maltzahn, Rippon-Boswell & Co., Wiesbaden. THE JUDEO-PERSIAN CARPETS OF KASHAN 141

Figure 4. Judeo-Persian pictoral carpet from Kashan, Iran. The Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Basle. Detail of the right column (Photo J. Radjai)

Figure 5. Judeo-Persian pictoral carpet from Kashan, Iran. The Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Basle. Detail of the backside (Photo J. Radjai) 142 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI a label (fig. 5). As a common practice it sticks on the lower part of the carpet. Used on a single carpet this label signifies also a single import. And indeed, the last letters of the Farsi word Kashan can be read as well as the first letters in Hebrew for Tel Aviv. This label indicates that this carpet was definitely made in Kashan, Iran, and was imported to Israel. Interestingly, the Basle carpet offers not only Biblical inscriptions and abbreviated quotations, but, as the other eight carpets as well, also a colophon at the bottom (fig. 6). In my opinion, the first word stands for the Farsi and not only for the Hebrew word for date. The word after announcing the year is indeed Farsi written in Hebrew letters and could be read and translated as following: תאריך14 ששי בשבת ראשון לחודש טבת שנת התר פרמאייש15 ה׳ב׳א16 יוסף בר ה׳מ׳ר17 האגי מארי נ׳ע׳18 Date, Friday, the 1st of Tevet, in the year 5600, by order of the younger, Joseph bar Rabbi Haji Mari, may his soul rest in paradise The date corresponds to the 8th of December 1839. However, in the research so far the translation and interpretation of this date has been evaluated differently. A catalogue of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, edited by Yona Fischer, has been published and presented one of these carpets already in 1979.19 The colophon has been translated with the year 1840 and the carpet was compared to a lithograph from the artist Moshe Shah Mizrahi made in 1926,20 which we will discuss in the following pages. Although the date of origin has been put into question by the Israel Museum catalogue, it is Anton Felton, who offers most items of the Judeo-Persian Kashan carpets together in one group. He claims that a prototype of this group existed and was copied, while the date of the

tarikh / تاريخ In Farsi .14 farmujeshi / فرمايشئى In Farsi .15 -Cf. G. Bader, Cyclopedia of Hebrew Abbrevia .הצעיר בבית אבי abbreviated form for ה׳ב׳א .16 tions, New York 1951. המאור הגדול for המה״ר .No exact identical abbreviation form matches to this acronym .17 .could be considered as a possible translation. Cf. Ibid רבי .Cf. Ibid נשמתו עדן .18 19. Cf. Y. Fischer, Omanut ve’umanut be-eretz yisrael ba-meah ha-tesha-esreh, exhib. cat., The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Jerusalem 1979), pp. 118-132, p. 124. 20. Cf. Ibid., p. 124. THE JUDEO-PERSIAN CARPETS OF KASHAN 143

Figure 6. Judeo-Persian pictoral carpet from Kashan, Iran. The Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Basle. Detail of the colophon (Photo D.Widmer)

colophon serves as an evidence for this earlier prototype.21 Without displaying the Hebrew transcription, he also translates the colophon with the 8th of December 1839.22 Another interpretation of the colophon is based on the catalogue of the Joods Historisch Museum Amsterdam that published one more example of this unique carpet group.23 Even though the data is decoded with 8th December 1839 as well, the transcription of the Hebrew text יום ארוך ששי בשבת ראשון לחודש טבת שנת התר פרשא ייש הב״א“ :differs Joseph bar Rabbi Hag’i Mari, Friday, 1 Tevet, in the ,יוסף בר המר הגי... year 5600 [= 8 December 1839].”24 The transcription probably results from a misinterpretation of these small adornment signs on each side and in the middle of the colophon, which are composed of three little dots in a shape of a triangle. These adornments can also be found in the cartouches of the Ten Commendments. The only accurate data tran- תאריך ששי“ scription has been provided by Shalom Sabar in 1998 with .even if only quoted in a footnote ,25”בשבת ראשון לחודש טבת שנת הת״ר יום ששי, א׳ טבת שנת“ Although for no reason revised in 2007 with Sabar conforms to the translation of Felton and the Joods 26”ה׳תר״מ Historisch Museum Amsterdam.

21. Cf. Felton, Jewish Carpets, p. 185, note 298. 22. Cf. Ibid., p. 154. 23. Cf. D. M. Swetschinski in collaboration with J.-M. Cohen and S. Hartog, Orphans objects. Facets of the Textiles Collection of the Joods Historisch Museum, exhib. cat., Joods Historisch Museum Amsterdam (Amsterdam 1997), fig. p. 51. 24. Ibid., p.50. 25. S. Sabar, ‘On the Difference in Attitudes Toward Visual Arts between Sephardim and Ashkenazim in Eretz Israel in the Late Ottoman Period’ (Hebrew), Pe}amim 56 (1993), p. 75-105. 26. S. Sabar, ‘The Binding of Isaac in the Works of Moshe Shah Mizrahi, One of the Pioneers of Folk Art in Eretz Israel’ (Hebrew), in H. Amit, A. Hacohen and H. Beer, Minha le-Menahem: Jubilee Book in Honor of Rabbi Menahem Hacohen (Tel Aviv 2002), p. 465-487, esp. p. 484. 144 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI

Three further examples of this carpet group are existing and can be considered as variations. One of them, published in Anton Felton’s work,27 is crafted in a more geometrical and stylized fashion, with only several Hebrew inscriptions showing Moses and Aaron next to a symbol for the Jewish Temple. Compared to the lower panel, the same motif appears on either side of the Western Wall, thus indicating being a symbol for the Holy Temple. The two other variations show two lions instead of the putti in the top panel. The figures of Moses and Aaron have disappeared here, as we can see in one of the two carpets in fig. 7.28 In each variation the two servants are both seated and smoking water pipes. Interestingly, their colophon under the last panel displays a differ- ent date: the first one mentions the place of origin, namely Kashan and the two other items, as we can see exemplarily in 1866,29/תרכו the year fig. 7, are both inscribed as being made by the Partners Yauda and Rafael .1892/התרנב in the year of We can almost certainly assume that the date of the colophon does not refer to the date of origin, particularly with regard to at least nine almost identical carpets, which could possibly not have been woven on the same day. As the nine virtually identical carpets are inscribed with the same colophon showing the same descriptions and the date of the 1st of Tevet 5600, indicating that they were to be dated within the 19th century according to their colophons. But their Zionist iconography leaves room for doubt if they were not in fact crafted in the 20th century as already supposed by the given literature about these carpets. Not only the Zionist banner, but also each depiction in the three panels of these carpets clearly shows that their primary intention was to illustrate a Zionist message. All images accompanied by biblical inscriptions set their focus on Jerusa- lem, with the Jewish Temple of Biblical times, the messianic Temple in the future, and the hope of a return to Zion as well. The depiction of the Dome of the Rock and its architecture acted as visualization of messianic hopes since the 16th century, as can be seen in several Italian ketubbot.30

27. Cf. Felton, Jewish Carpets, p. 62, Fig. No. 2. 28. One carpet was sold by Parke-Bernet Galleries in New York in 1954 and the other one by Christie’s in 1990. 29. Cf. Felton, Jewish Carpets, p. 62, fig. No. 2 30. Cf. I. Fishof, ‘Jerusalem above my chief joy: Depictions of Jerusalem in Italien ketubot’, in: Journal of Jewish Art 9 (1982), pp. 61-75, p. 70. THE JUDEO-PERSIAN CARPETS OF KASHAN 145

In this example, Moses and Aaron flanking the Dome of the Rock furthermore emphasizes its symbolization as the former place of the Holy Tablets in a reference to the ark in the Temple. Aaron as the first High Priest clearly points to the Temple cult. The Binding of Isaac is also related to the Temple. The place of the sacrifice is Mount Moriah, where according to 2nd Chronicles 3:1 King Solomon built the Holy Temple, which finally will be rebuilt on the Messiah’s arrival. Moreover the Bind- ing of Isaac evokes messianic hopes with its reference to Rosh Hashana. The Biblical story read in the Synagogue on the second day of Rosh Hashana indicates that the blow of the shofar is attributed to the ram, which was sacrificed in place of Isaac, and which signal will be sound when the Messiah arrives according to Zechariah 9:14. The depiction of the Western Wall with its architectural composition, the planting vegetation and the view of the Holy places has certainly been popular since the Italian manuscript made in Senigallia in 1722.31 The view of the Temple Mount and Jerusalem became a famous illustration since the printed version of Yehoseph Schwartz in 1836/37 in Germany and was recopied and sold to tourists.32 Resembling this typical image of souvenirs and gifts from Jerusalem since the 19th century.33 The scene on this carpet depicting the Western Wall and its surrounding buildings in the lower panel are inscribed with their Hebrew names: Beith Tiferet for King Solomon’s Palace, Kotel Ma’aravi for the Western Wall and Makom Miqdash for the Holy Temple. These images have often been connected with depictions of Holy Places in Eretz Israel, here compared with the Holy places and tombs on either side in the columns in the central field of the carpets. Thus, they symbolize the Zionists’ political and cultural goals to prepare the ground of Jewish life according to the tradition of biblical and post-Biblical times.

31. Cf. E. Reiner, ‘Traditions of Holy Places in Medieval Plaestine – Oral Versus Written’ (Hebrew), in: R. Sarfati (ed.), Offerings from Jerusalem. Portrayals of Holy Places by Jewish Artists, exhib. cat.,The Israel Museum Jerusalem (Jerusalem 2002), pp. 9-17, p. 15, fig.2. 32. Cf. D. Genachowski, ‘Pictures of Holy Places as a Fundraising Aid’, in: R. Sarfati (ed.), Offerings from Jerusalem. Portrayals of Holy Places by Jewish Artists, exhib. cat.,The Israel Museum Jerusalem (Jerusalem 2002), pp. 31-35, p. 33. 33. Cf. I. Fishof and N. Bar’am-Ben Yossef, Souvenirs aus dem heiligen Land für Pilger im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, exhib. cat., The Israel Museum Jerusalem (Jerusalem 1996), pp. 9-23. 146 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI

Figure 7. Variation of the Judeo-Persian Kashan carpets. Parke-Bernet Galleries, New York

The hope of returning to Zion is here obviously expressed by the depiction of the Star of David inscribed with the word Zion and by the flags as Zionist banners. They are held by two messengers, which are found above all the three scenes of the central field, quoting the two verses from Ps 137 and Isaiah 2 that were commonly added to many THE JUDEO-PERSIAN CARPETS OF KASHAN 147

Mizrach and Shiviti-Plaques in synagogue and private homes and were commercially available.34 The Zionist iconography and the flags, which were designed in the end of the 19th century and were displayed first in Rishon le-Zion in 1885,35 indicate a significantly later date than the colophon offers. It is safe to assume that the Judeo-Persian Carpets of Kashan as Zionist arts and crafts were produced in the early part of the 20th century or even later. The complementary iconographical composition of the three panels is focused on Jerusalem and its Temple Mount. Also the Hebrew inscriptions on the lithograph, produced by Moshe Shah Mizrahi and already mentioned above, with the Judeo-Persian carpet of Kashan will shed some light on the model and the date of origin.

It should be noted that pictoral Persian carpets were in general woven after a cartoon. The fine knotted pile and the high quality of these carpets clearly offer evidence for the use of a model. Also an almost identical lithograph that was used as a Mizrach was made by Moshe Shah ben Isaac Mizrahi in Jerusalem in 1926 (fig. 8).36 The lithograph contains the same tri-partite central field, the same iconography with the Dome of the Rock in the upper part, the Binding of Isaac in the middle, the two servants below – seated and smoking water pipes – and the depiction of the Western Wall and its surround- ings in the lower part. The striking similarities between the iconographical and compositional components may attest that this lithograph has served as a model for the carpets and it is safe to assume that Mizrahi was not influenced by the carpets37 but the design of the carpets by the lithograph. The carpets and the variations were copied from it, while some figures, like the putti, Moses and Aaron were added. From that we can conclude that the Judeo-Persian carpets were made after 1926.

34. Cf. D. Genachowski, ‘Pictures of Holy Places as a Fundraising Aid’, in: R. Sarfati (ed.), Offerings from Jerusalem. Portrayals of Holy Places by Jewish Artists, exhib. cat.,The Israel Museum Jerusalem (Jerusalem 2002), pp. 31-35, p. 33. See also: R. Arbel, Blue and White in Color. Visual Images of Zionism, 1897-1947, exhib. cat., Beith Ha-Tefusoth Tel Aviv (Tel Aviv 1997). 35. Cf. Encyclopaedia Judaica – CD-ROM Edition, Jerusalem 1997: FLAG. 36. Cf. Y. Fischer, Omanut ve’umanut be-eretz yisrael ba-meah ha-tesha-esreh, exhib. cat., The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Jerusalem 1979), pp. 118-132, p.124. 37. A. Felton claims that Mizrahi was influenced by one of these carpets examples and copied its iconographical components. Cf. A. Felton, Jewish Carpets (Woodbridge 1997), p. 185, note 298. 148 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI

Figure 8. Mizrach, Lithograph, Jerusalem 1926. Moshe Shah ben Isaac Mizrahi. National Library of Israel, Jerusalem THE JUDEO-PERSIAN CARPETS OF KASHAN 149

This conclusion can be confirmed for two reasons. Firstly, the inscriptions of the lithograph were set consciously and properly in all their compositional components. There are no misspellings in the inscriptions and the names of the depictions of the tombs in the lithograph were all set correctly in comparison to the carpets. Secondly, the birth- place of the artist Moshe Shah ben Isaac Mizrahi: he was born in Tehe- ran in 1870.38 According to Yona Fischer, he lived from 1890 until his death around 1935 in Jerusalem, where he was bestowed with the title Shah in addition to his name.39 This additional name emphasizes his Persian origin.40 As a Persian Jew, as an artist for Mizrach-Plaques, amuletts and miniuatures, producing picture frames, we can assume that Shah Mizrahi has been a commissioner, who designed and sold these carpets. His Persian roots and his knowledge of the commercial taste of art at that time would have allowed him to act as a dealer between weavers of Iran and customers from Eretz Israel. He certainly knew what kind of devotional objects were sold in these days and he hit the customer’s taste with his own art objects. Made after 1926, the Judeo-Persian carpets of Kashan have to be compared with the carpet production of the Bezalel School in Jerusalem. One of the first workshops opened in 1906 of the Bezalel Arts and Crafts School founded by Boris Schatz was the carpet-weaving department.41 Closely following the manufacture of Persian style carpets and using the typical Persian patterns, the carpet-weaving department became one of

38. Cf. Y. Fischer, Omanut ve’umanut be-eretz yisrael ba-meah ha-tesha-esreh, exhib. cat., The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Jerusalem 1979), pp. 118-132, p.118. See also: I. Shahar, Jewish tradition in art. The Feuchtwanger Collection of Judaica, exhib. cat., The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Jerusalem 1981), p. 54. I am grateful to Naomi Feuchtwanger for the remark that Heinrich Feuchtwanger mentioned the artist Moshe Mizrahi due to his collection. This article, published in 1957, could be considered as one of the first reference about Mizrahi. 39. Cf. Ibid. For further information about the artist Moshe Shah Mizrahi see also: Sabar, ‘Binding of Isaac’, p. 465-487. 40. This title can be translated with king and belongs to the tradition of Persian kingship and became famous since Reza Pahlawi (1925-1941) called himself Shah to set his leadership in a dynasty again. His son, Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlawi (1941-1978) bestowed himself as Shah-in-Shah, king of kings. Moreover, this title was often given to dervish, members of Sufism, who added proudly it to their surnames. Cf. K. Schlamminger/ P. Lamborn Wilson, Persische Bildteppiche (München 1980), p. 14. 41. Cf. I. Oltuski, Kunst und Ideologie des Bezalels in Jerusalem. Ein Versuch zur jüdischen Identitätsfindung (Frankfurt am Main 1988), p. 24. 150 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI the most famous workshops and Schatz’s particular pride.42 The objects of the Bezalel School were widely known due to exhibitions, which were held around the world, and of course due to sales. Despite their popularity as compared to the Judeo-Persian carpets, it is definitely not their pile and their quality that could serve as a connection between both. It is their iconography, which is comparable to several items of the Bezalel workshops. Their carpet productions display the same depictions of the holy places and tombs, the Temple Mount, the Western Wall as well as Biblical inscriptions.43 Indeed, the iconography of the Jewish-Persian carpets and thus of the lithograph match to the style and to the typical motifs and symbols of the objects from the Bezalel Zionist Arts and Crafts School.44 Both carpet-groups attest to a common visual sign language. Thus, these carpets mark the visual tradition of biblical events, the holy places of Eretz Israel as well as motifs of flora and fauna and their meaning to become national symbols during that time. It is safe to assume that Mizrahi must have known the iconography of Bezalel and might have intended to use it, taking Bezalel-objects as a visual model for the design of a commercial object. As wall hangings these carpets are primarily objects of value, but at the same time they also become carrier of the Zionist sign language that can be understood only by a person, who is able to decipher the true Zionist meaning from the iconography and the inscriptions of these objects. Such considerations also touch on the question of their meaning and their value for their customers. The production of these items was in Iran and not in Eretz Israel, although carpets with a comparable iconography have been woven by the Bezalel School. Thus, we can assume that the customers demanded these significant pieces of Persian arts and craft. On the one hand they serve as material forms of identification and one the other hand they fulfil a function within Zionist art.

42. Cf. G. Ofrat-Fiedlander, ‘The Periods of Bezalel’, in: N. Shilo-Cohen(ed.), Bezalel 1906 – 1929, exhib.cat., The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Jerusalem 1983), pp.31-99, p.44. 43. Several Bezalel carpets are shown in: A. Felton, Jewish Carpets (Woodbridge 1997), p. 94, p.99, 102 ff. See also: N. Shilo-Cohen (ed.), Bezalel 1906 – 1929, exhib.cat., Israel Museum, Jerusa- lem (Jerusalem 1983), p. 160ff. 44. Interestingly, there is also a significant similarity between the carpets, the lithograph and several Mizrach-Plaques which were made in Germany in the 19th and 20th century, exhibited in the Judah L. Magnes Museum, Berkeley, USA. I am grateful for this information and the correspond- ence about these plaques to Elayne Grossbard. THE JUDEO-PERSIAN CARPETS OF KASHAN 151

The elaborated workmanship, the use of precious material (particularly silk) and of course the iconographical components of the carpets indicate that these items have been prestige commissions. The colophon offers the names of two persons. According to the Farsi word for ordered by45 we can take it that the name of the customer was Joseph, the younger son of Rabbi Haji Mari who had already died. If Joseph the younger had been the customer, it would be improbable to order at least nine of almost identical carpets with the same date. Concering the date, it is also confusing that the 1st of Tevet of 5600 had not been refers to the definition ששי בשבת a Friday but a Sunday.46 But the term of the Talmudic week and conforms to Friday.47 Finally two points have to be mentioned to unravel the mystery of this colophon: Firstly, the dates in Persian pictoral carpets can be considered as memorials for important events and not only as a reference to the date of origin.48 The quotation of a date specification clearly points to an occasion that should be esteemed. Dates in carpets therefore do not point necessarily to the date of origin. Secondly, the word Haji was often used by Orien- tal Jews in a similar fashion to the Muslim practice to designate a pilgrim who has travelled the Holy Land and Jerusalem. Thus, it is possible to assume that Rabbi Mari was a pilgrim during the month of Tevet and probably reached Jerusalem around the 1st and that his pilgrimage should have been honoured. In the same way, the dates and the descriptions of the variations might hint to further pilgrimage of other members or commissioners of the Jewish-Persian community. Manufactured after 1926 or even later during the 40’s, these Judeo- Persian carpets were made during the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi or after his dethroning in 1941. The Zionist Judeo-Persian carpets do not contra- dict with the Judeo-Persian history at that time. And it is not surprising that they were made in Kashan, one of the most famous cities for silk carpets and not far away from the centre of the first Zionist organisation in Persia, which was established in 1912 in the city of Hamadan. In 1919,

farmujeshi/ یشيامرف In Farsi .45 46. Cf. Sabar, ‘Difference in Attitudes’, p. 101. 47. My thanks for this remark to Sylvia Lösking, Hochschule für Jüdische Studien Heidel- berg. 48. I am grateful for this information to Detlef Maltzahn Rippon-Boswell & Co., Wies- baden. 152 JIHAN-JENNIFER RADJAI several Zionist organisations were united and the establishment of Ha-histadrut ha-tzionit was announced and the first Zionist Congress was held in Persia.49 Although Zionism gained popularity during the first half of the 20th century, it was the occupation of Iran by the Allied Forces from 1941 to 1946 that allowed for the renewal of Zionist activities. According to Avi Davidi the 1950s became Iran’s most active period for Zionism.50 Thus, the political circumstances clearly emphasize that these precious pieces with their Zionist iconography and the inscriptions were manufactured in Iran after 1926. Therefore these carpets are one more example for Jewish arts and crafts made abroad, which represent, quoting Michael Berkowitz “conscious forms of identification with, and participation in, the Zionist movement.”51 These Judeo-Persian Carpets are a unique group of Persian pictoral carpets as well as examples of Zionist arts and crafts. Made in Iran, probably during the reign of Reza Shah or just after his dethroning, they on the one hand symbolize the ability to produce Zionist art in its highest quality in Iran. On the other hand they mark a new form of Zionist identity by combining a traditional carpet pattern with modern Jewish iconography as a form of identification. The iconography of the Judeo- Persian carpets transfers the visual tradition of Biblical stories and of messianic hopes in a context of the Zionist semiotic system, using motifs to propagate national symbols. This carpet group and its iconography emphasize the Zionist message by summarizing ‘key symbols’, which are connected to Zionist art of the 20th century. Thus, these carpets can be considered as an artefact made in Iran and as a form of material culture of Jewish art and Jewish history as well. As a Judeo-Persian handmade craft object, it combines the visual traditions of Jewish iconography with a visible expression of Persian virtue.

49. Cf. A. Davidi, ‘Zionist activities in twentieth-century Iran’, in: H. Sarshar, Esther’s children. A portrait of Iranian Jews (Beverly Hills 2002), p. 239-258, p. 240. 50. Cf. Ibid., p. 247. 51. M. Berkowitz, ‘Art in Zionist Popular Culture and Jewish National Self-Consciousness, 1897-1914’, in: E. Mendelsohn and R. I. Cohen, Art and its uses. The Visual Image and Modern Jewish Society (New York/Oxford 1990), p. 9-42, p. 9.