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0 a Paleopedological and Ichnological Approach to Spatial 0 A Paleopedological and Ichnological Approach to Spatial and Temporal Variability in Pennsylvanian-Permian Strata of the Lower Dunkard Group A thesis presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science Michael G. Blair August 2015 © 2015 Michael G. Blair. All Rights Reserved. 2 This thesis titled A Paleopedological and Ichnological Approach to Spatial and Temporal Variability in Pennsylvanian-Permian Strata of the Lower Dunkard Group by MICHAEL G. BLAIR has been approved for the Department of Geological Sciences and the College of Arts and Sciences by Daniel I. Hembree Associate Professor of Geological Sciences Robert Frank Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3 ABSTRACT BLAIR, MICHAEL G., M.S., August 2015, Geological Sciences A Paleopedological and Ichnological Approach to Spatial and Temporal Variability in Pennsylvanian-Permian Strata of the Lower Dunkard Group Director of Thesis: Daniel I. Hembree Paleosols record a wealth of paleoenvironmental, paleoecological, and paleoclimatic information. Plants and soil-dwelling animals both affect and are affected by soil properties, and, therefore, their traces serve to further refine the interpretations of paleosols. These characteristics make paleosols and ichnofossils particularly valuable in understanding lateral variability in the complex fluvial system represented by the upper fluvial plain facies province of the Upper Pennsylvanian to Lower Permian Dunkard Group. These deposits represent proximal to distal expressions of a migrating river and associated floodplain microenvironments. By understanding the degree to which soils and organism behaviors change over short distances at a given time, interpretations of regional change through vertical successions can be better calibrated. This study integrates physical properties of paleosols and ichnofossils at outcrop, hand sample, and thin section scales with chemical properties determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). These analyses provide bulk geochemical and clay mineralogical information to derive estimates of mean annual precipitation and various chemical weathering processes. Consideration of these factors allows interpretation of small-scale spatial and temporal variability to be recognized and understood in terms of local versus regional changes in environmental and climatic conditions. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Daniel Hembree for his support and patience, as well as my committee members, Dr. Craig Grimes and Dr. David Kidder. I would also like to thank Jeff Shaffer and Lauren Johnson for providing field assistance during the summer of 2014. I am extremely grateful for the support of my friends and family, especially my parents, Ron and Cathy Duchovic, and brother, Joel Blair. This research would not have been possible without funding from the Geological Society of America, the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund (52708- UR8), and the Ohio University Department of Geological Sciences Al umni Graduate Research Grant. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract………………………………………………………………………………… 3 Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………4 List of Tables……..……………………………………………………………………. 9 List of Figures…...……………………………………………………………………..11 1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………....15 2 Geologic Setting………...………………………………………………………. 18 3 Methods…………………………………………………………………………. 24 3.1 Field……………………………………………………………………….. 24 3.2 Laboratory………………………………………………………………… 26 3.2.1 Thin Sections………………………………………………………... 26 3.2.2 Bulk Geochemistry………………………………………………….. 26 3.2.3 Clay Mineralogy…………………………………………………….. 27 4 Results…………………………………………………………………………... 32 4.1 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy………………………………………….. 32 4.2 Flora……………………………………………………………………….. 33 4.2.1 Plant Impressions…………………………………………………… 33 4.2.2 Rhizohaloes…………………………………………………………. 34 4.2.2.1 Reduced rhizohaloes…………………………………………. 34 4.2.2.2 Yellow rhizohaloes…………………………………………... 35 4.2.2.3 Diffuse purple rhizohaloes…………………………………… 35 6 4.2.3 Rhizoconcretions……………………………………………………. 35 4.2.4 Rhizotubules………………………………………………………… 36 4.2.5 Root Casts…………………………………………………………… 36 4.3 Fauna (Ichnofossils)………………………………………………………. 37 4.3.1 Scoyenia……………………………………………………………... 37 4.3.2 Arenicolites………………………………………………….............. 42 4.3.3 Skolithos…………………………………………………………….. 42 4.3.4 Cochlichnus…………………………………………………............. 43 4.3.5 Mermia……………………………………………………………… 43 4.3.6 Naktodemasis………………………………………………............... 44 4.3.7 Isopodichnus………………………………………………………… 44 4.3.8 Planolites……………………………………………………………. 45 4.3.9 Coprolites…………………………………………………………… 45 4.3.10 Pedotubules…………………………………………………………. 45 4.4 General Section Paleosols………………………………………………… 47 4.4.1 Paleosol 1 (P1)………………………………………………………. 47 4.4.2 Paleosol 2 (P2)………………………………………………………. 48 4.4.3 Paleosol 3 (P3)………………………………………………………. 54 4.4.4 Paleosol 4 (P4)………………………………………………………. 56 4.4.5 Paleosol 5 (P5)………………………………………………………. 57 4.4.6 Paleosol 6 (P6)………………………………………………………. 61 4.4.7 Paleosol 7 (P7)……………………………………………………….67 7 4.4.8 Paleosol 8 (P8)………………………………………………………. 69 4.4.9 Paleosol 9 (P9)………………………………………………………. 74 4.5 Coeval Profiles……………………………………………………………. 78 4.5.1 General Description…………………………………………………. 78 4.5.2 Northwest (NW-CP)………………………………………………… 85 4.5.3 Northwest Island (NWI-CP)………………………………………… 85 4.5.4 Northeast Island (NEI-CP)………………………………………….. 86 4.5.5 Northeast (NE-CP)………………………………………………….. 89 4.5.6 Southwest (SW-CP)………………………………………………… 90 4.5.7 Southwest Island (SWI-CP)………………………………………… 94 4.5.8 Southeast Island (SEI-CP)………………………………………….. 94 4.5.9 Southeast (SE-CP)………………………………………………….. 98 5 Discussion……………………………………………………………………… 104 5.1 Soil Forming Factors…………………………………………………….. 104 5.1.1 Parent Material……………………………………………………... 104 5.1.2 Climate……………………………………………………………... 106 5.1.3 Topography………………………………………………………… 114 5.1.4 Biota………………………………………………………………... 115 5.2 Vertical Variability………………...…………………………………….. 116 5.3 Lateral Variability………………………………...……………………… 122 5.4 Paleoclimate……………………………………………………………… 124 5.5 Soil Ecosystems………...………………………………………………... 127 8 5.5.1 Plants……………………………………………………………….. 127 5.5.2 Soil Animals………………………………………………………...133 6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………....137 References……………………………………………………………………............. 141 Appendix 1: Bulk Geochemistry (General Section)…………………………………. 148 Appendix 2: Bulk Geochemistry (CP Profiles)……………………………………….149 Appendix 3: Weathering Indices through the General Section…………………..….. 150 9 LIST OF TABLES Page Table 3.1 Oxides and ranges reported by ALS Chemex following XRF analysis of bulk geochemistry…………………………………………………………………………… 28 Table 3.2 Molecular weathering ratios (From Retallack, 2001)……………..………... 29 Table 3.3 Paleoprecipitation proxies…………………………………………………... 29 Table 4.1 General section paleosol summary table, P1-P3. P1 and P2 are isolated from other units by buried upper and lower contacts. Stratigraphically higher paleosols (P3- P9) are separated by laterally continuous sandstone beds, which are used to dileneate paleosol-containing depositional cycles. Genetically distinct paleosols within a given cycle are highlighted, with colors corresponding to letters “a” (green, i.e. “3a”) through “c” (yellow, i.e. “3c”). Clay mineralogy is only reported in paleosols with a <4 m fraction greater than 10%. Only mineral species with >10% abundance are listed in parentheses following the total weight % of the clay size fraction for a given paleosol horizon.……………………………………………………………………………………… 50 Table 4.2 General section molecular weathering ratios, chemical index of alteration (CIA-K), CALMAG, estimated mean annual precipitation (MAP). Calculated using bulk geochemistry data derived from whole-rock X-ray fluorescence (XRF) of samples from general section paleosols. Negative values in the location column and a single asterisk next to the paleosol number indicate paleosols sample from the northwest trench, which was measured in 20 cm intervals descending from -20 to -700 from the stratigraphically lowest laterally continuous sandstone exposed in the northeast general section trench. The double asterisk next to P6 samples indicates that these were taken from the same depositional cycle as those taken from the northeast trench, but were sampled on the northwest corner of the study area where the paleosol is better exposed.…………….. 52 Table 4.3 General section clay mineralogy from X-ray diffraction (XRD) of the <4 micron fraction of general section paleosols. R1 M-L I/S 30%S: ordered mixed-layer illite/smectite with 30% smectite. R1 M-L I/S 20%S: ordered mixed-layer illite/smectite with 20% smectite. Negative values in the location column and a single asterisk next to the paleosol number indicate paleosols sample from the northwest trench, which was measured in 20 cm intervals descending from -20 to -700 from the stratigraphically lowest laterally continuous sandstone exposed in the northeast general section trench. The double asterisk next to P6 samples indicates that these were taken from the same depositional cycle as those taken from the northeast trench, but were sampled on the northwest corner of the study area where the paleosol is better exposed. Triple asterisks indicate an approximate location (±20 cm). The sample highlighted in pink was lost in transport and not analyzed.……………………………………………………………. 53 10 Table 4.4 General section paleosol summary table, P5-P4. Same conventions used as the previous summary table, but a a light purple-blue
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