Canadian Public Health Associutizn

650 College Street, Toronto 5

U_I!_ER_ITY YGUELPH I

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ON O GRICULTURAL COLLEGE Dep_'tme_t of Environmental Biology • ° ,

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' GUELPH o ONTARIO o CANADA o N1G 2W1 o (519) 824-4120

| MANTF_TFOR, _NIT_RY INSPECTORS prepared un_r the direotion of

R.D. DEFRIES, C.B.E., _._.D.,D.P.H.

Director, School of Hygiene and Connaught Medica! Research Laboratories

Universityo of Toronto

Contributors

J.H. Baillie, MeD., D.P.H. A.M. Fallis, B.A., Ph.D. A.E. Berry, M.A.Sc., C.E., Ph.D. R. St. J. _cdonald, M.D._.P.H. W. Gordon Brown, _LD., D.P_H. E.W. McHenry, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.C. F.M.R. Bulmer, M.D., B.Sc.(Med.) N.E. MoKinnon, I_.B. G.A.H. Burn, B.A.Sc. D.R.E. MncLeod, B.A., _I.D.,B.Sc. (Med.), J.G. Cunningham, B.A., M.B., D.P.H. D.P.H. E.L. Davey, M.D., D.P.H. A.S. 0'Hara, M.R.San.I., C.S.I.(C.) R.D. Defries, C.B.E., M.D., D.P.H. L.A. Pequegnat, M.B., D.P,H. G.A. Edge, V.S., D.V.M., D.V.P.H. A.R.B. Richmond, V.S., B,V.Sc. R.J. Wilson, _I.A._M,D._,D.P.H,

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Published by the CANadIAN PbBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION ° 150 College Street, Toronto 5

September i 1947

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CONTENTS

Public Health Organization in Canada...... 1

Department of National Health and Welfare ...... 1 Functions of the National Health Division ...... 2 Branches of the National Health Division ...... 3

Provincial Departments of Health...... ,...... 5

eoooeoeeoeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeee_e•oeeoee• •eeoc••eeoc Qe J jLocal Health Services.._. 5b Food Control:

_esuonsibilities of the Federal, Provincial, and Municipal Health Authori- ties in the Control of Food ...... 6

Food in Relation to Health: Nutrition...,...... 9

Food in Relationto Health: Food Poisoning...... 0.Ii C_nned Foods, ...... 15 Sanitation: '

Milk...... •...... ,...... 17

Milk and Communicable Diseases...... 17 Inspection at the Farm...... ,...... 18 Washing and Sterilization of Dairy Farm Utensils...... ,....,25 Transportation ...... 28

\ JJ Examination of Milk .@osooToeeeeooe_ooo_eeooooeoooeooeeeeoee • , leeoeoeeeoee 31 Bovine Tuberculosis of Cattle., ...... 34

Preparation of _AilkProducts, including Ice Cream, Butter, Cheese, and Evaporated, Condensed, and Powdered Milk...... 37

Engineering Defects in Dairies...... 43

Beverage Plants...... •...... 46

Meat InspectionOoeee.oGoosge o ee geGo.oeoeoeooo oe@oo_eoooeoo o eeee e eoe.eo • ee ee_ 50

Slaughter Houses...... 54

Inspection or Poultry and Game .qpoe • • oct e oaJ ee • • "OQO o no.coco o o eee e o o Joe eoooeo. 58

Inspection of Poultry Killing Plants...... 60

Fish and Shellfish...... 62

Inspection of Public Eating and Drinking Places ...... 63 Recommended Standards for Public Eating Establishments ...... 69

_Environmental Sanitation:

Water Supplies €...... •...... 76

Sewerage Systems and Waste Disposal...... 92

Plumbing and Drainage...... ,...... 108

Ventilation and Heating ....x...... '...... 117

Lighting @eoeeeooeeeeeoeoooeoeos_eeeeeeoeeoeeeeee eoeeoooaoe@oeeoo_oeoooeoeeo 122

Housing ...... ,...... 131 Model Provincial Housing Regulations ...... °....•.....•....133

Industrial Hygiene....,...... 144

Dangerous Dusts and FLLmoS,...... ,...... 150

The Full Time Sanitary Inspector Ooeeee " eoo ee Qe e • e • eeoc. • • oee°eooeeqbeeoqDeee 155

Industrial Camp Sanitation...... 156

Regulations Governing Barber Shops Ooooeeo@eeqD eeoc eeo eee ego. oeeeo eo • ooeoqJo. 162

Common Insects...... 163 The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas...... 170 A Review of the Uses of the Insecticide DDT .inthe Control of Insect Pests affecting Humans ...... 171

/Methods of Disinfection ...... 175 Con_nunicableDiseases: V Q Sourmes and Modes of Infection .llOo.ooooeoeeee coo oeeeooeemoeoee.oe • coo (J • e° • 179 Defences of the Body ...... ,...... 1_6

Infection • @@@e@ooooo_o,eooe • eeo,eeoeoooee e.e e_e eeeeoeooeeeeeoeeeeeoeoo_e. ..187

ll_unity .eooeeoeeeeo • eeeeeeeeeoOoeoeeeoeeeoetoeeeoeoeeeee,eeoeeeeoeoeeoeee 188 Definitions of Common Terms in Communicable Disease Control...... 189

Eosential Measures in Control...... 191 The Common Cold...... 192 I1_fluenza...... ,. . .192 Pneumonia...... ,...... 193 Tuberculosis (in Man)...'...... 194 Diphtheria ...... ,...... 195 Neasles (Rubeola) ...... 196 _ German _easles (Rubella) ...... 197 Chickenpox (Varicella) ...... ,...... 198 _!_amps(Infectious Parotitis) ...... 198 Smallpox (Variola) ...... 199 Poliomyelitis ...._...... o... 200 Typhoid Fever, Paratyphoid Fever A and B ...o.....oo...°.. 200a Cholera ...... ,...... _...o...... 201 Dysentery, Bacillary ...... _...... _.,...... _o 202 Dysentery, Amoebic (Amoebiasis) .o...... °.°5.°° 202 _alaria _...... _...... o_._...... _o_,_ 203 Plague _Bubonic and Sylvatic) ...... o_ ...... o_ 204 Typhus Fever _,....o...... oo o...... 204 Roc_j Mountain Spotted Fever ...... _...... 204 Worm I_festatio_ ...... ,o. 205 Pin_1ormInfection ....,...... 205 Fish Tape_orm Infection ...... 205 Hookworm Infection ...... °o.o_o....°o.... 206 _ipv_orm Infection ...... 206 Ascariasis ...... °...... 207 Trichinosis ...... 207 Pork Tapeworm Infection ...... 207 Beef Tape_vormInfection., ...,...... 208 Dwarf Tape_orm Infection ...... 208

Rat Control ...... 209

Venereal Diseases ...... e.....-.....-.o°.-._...... °.-.... 210 Syphilis ...... ,...... 210 Gonorrhoea ...... ,...... o...... °. 211 Chancroid...... 212 Lymphogranuloma Venere_m ...... 212 Granuloma Inguinale ...... 212 Prevention and Control of Venereal Diseases ...... 212 Responsibility of the Sanitary Inspector ...... 213 Provincial Legislation ...... °. 213

Ringworm ...... 214 Scabies ...... °...... o...... •..... 214 Impetigo ...... 214 Pediculosis ...... 215

Tetanus ...... 216 Gas Gangrene ...... •...... 216

Actinomycosis ...... 216 Anthrax ...... _...... 216 Rabies ...... 217 Septic Sore Throat 217 O Tuberculosis (Bovine5 ...... oooeoolooe.eeoeo.oe@eooo@eoeeoeoeeoo 217 T_raemia ..... 218

_Indg,_VitalS_t[_eT.[B_l_i_iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiill" 218.... 219

The Ethical Conduct of the Sanitary Inspector ...... ,...... 222

o 76

ENV.TRON_AL SANITATION

WATER SUPPLIES

The fact that water is such an every-day requirement for domestic purposes makes it essential that it be readily Obtainable. Likewise, the knowledge that easesit canmakescarryitdisease-producingimperative that itbebacteriasafeandandbeofresponsiblegood quality.for a number of dis-

Water is procured from several sources and is made available to the consumer by numerous methods. Private wells, springs and surface waters continue to supply a large part of the population of most countries, especially the rural areas. Elaborate and complicated treatment plants and distribution systems areneeded for urban centres. These two general conditions are very different and yet in each there is_an attempt to make available for the consumer an abundant supply of safe and palatable water. Convenience of the supply is always a consideration.

L_eislation on Water Control

The safety of water is a matter of such public importance that much legis- lation has been passed concerning it. Other laws deal with safeguarding its use and ensuring its adequacy. These laws vary to some extent in the different pro- vinces and in different countries, but some features are fairly common to all.

Provincial Legislation

The provinces of Canada are given general control over all public water sup-, plies. This takes the form of approval for work to be undertaken--new systems and extensions--by the provincial health department. Authority to compl necessary w@rk to be proceeded with is likewise a general feature of the legislation in so far as this work is in the interests of public health. Similar legislation is found in other countries.

Municipal Legislation

The legislation places a definite responsibility on municipal officials. The local board of health is expected to see that the public water supply is so protected as to ensure the safety of the consumer. The sanitary inspector works with the health officer in this program.

Local by-laws may be passed by municipal councils concerning the details of waterworks administration, such as the turning on and shutting off of _ater, rates, payments, etc. All these by-laws and legislative enactments will vary from place to place. The sanitary inspector sho_nldfamiliarize himself with all of them in his own territory.

Amount of Water Needed

The amount of water used by the individual is influenced largely by the ease with which he can secure it, and by the costj Only a relatively small amount is needed for drinking, but in a house equipped with modern plumbing the amount used is quite high, and this, with the amount used for other purposes in the munici- pality as a whole, reaches a figure of from 50 to lO0 gallons per person per day. If the water is metered, the per caput consumption is usually lower. It is well to cempare, if the figures are available, the consumption of water indifferent municipalities.

Where water is secured from a private well or similar source, there is a tendency to use smaller quantities, because of inconvenience in obtaining it and because of fewer sanitary plumbing fixtures. 77

Water Suo_lies and Disease

Drinking-water supplies may carry disease-produclng bacteria. When these enter the human body, sickness may follow.

The diseases likely to be spread in this way are typhoid fever, paratyphoid fevers, dysentery, and diarrhoea. In Canada, only typhoid and diarrhoea are likely to be prevalent. The typhoid death rate has been decreasing consistently due to greater supervision over the channels through which these disease organisms travel to the human body.

How the Disease Occurs _

Water-borne diseases are transmitted from person to person by bacteria. In order to produce the infection, the specific bacteria which cause the diseases must gain entrance to the body. These diseases can not result from odours or ether means; they are caused by organisms consumed inwater, milk or other foods. They multiply in the intestinaltract of human beings, and then the symptoms associated with the disease begin to occur. Animals do not become ill with typhoid. In typhoid fever the bacillus typhosus is the causative organism. It takes about 8 days to*2 weeks to develop in the body (see section on communicable and infectious diseases).

Water Supplies and Infections

when water contaminated with these disease organisms is consumed by a person, the disease of that particular germ may follow. Each disease has its own bacteria, and one disease can not result from another type of organism.

How do these bacteria reach the water supply? To start at the beginning_ it ls evident that since the bacteria of these diseases thrive only in the human body, water infection must come from the discharges of the human body. A person suffering from a disease such as typhoid fever excretes the bacteria in stool or urine. These may reach the stream, the well or other source from which drinking water is taken. If the bacteria are oonsumed, the process starts all over again.

There is also another source whieh is a very important one. This is the "carrier". He is a person who has had the disease and has recovered but still excretes these bacteria. This is very dangerous since the carrier is seldom recognized in time and may readily contaminate water, food,_etc.

Water acts as the vehicle for the transmission of these disease bacteria from one person to another. They do not grow in the water, but rather tend to die out. If the period between discharge from one person and ingestion by another is short, the bacteria will live and may cause disease. This period is usually less than two weeks except where the water is kept cold, as would be the case in the winter. Water is different from milk in that in the latter the bacteria multiply. Water is not a food for these bacteria, but merely a means for carrying them from one person to another.

Typhoid Fever Eoidemics

The danger of typhoid fever and other water-borne diseases is al_ays present in an unprotected water supply. The follo_vingare examples of epidemics which have occurred in public water supplies.

@ Case A - A town of 2,500 population obtained its water supply from a small lake fed by springs. The overflow from this lake passed out through a creek. This creek also received the sewage from the town, and as a _'esultof a lowering of the lake level the flow was reversed , with the sewage passing into the lake. This pollution reached the water intake and was pumped into the mains. Soon there were 900 cases of typhoid in the municipality. The sewage carried the bacteria of typhoid fever and caused the infection in these people. GEOLOC-.,ICAL,.FORMATFAVIONQRABLTOE THE i WATER BY MEANS OFARTESIANWELLS. ;t";.

ORDINARY WELL

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Co Illustrating a shallow well and an artesian Well. In the latter instance, the water being under pressure causes a "flowing" well. 79

Case B - A municipality of 4000 people took water supply from a lake through an intake some distance from shore. This water was filtered but not chlorinated. A break in the intake pipe permitted shore water to be taken in. This was heavily contaminated and could not be taken care of by filters alone. Fifty cases of typhoid fever developed.

These are examples of how the causative organisms reach the water supply and are carried along to the water consumer. Continuous precautions and safeguards are necessary to overcome this possibility.

In different cases which have reached the courts, the municipality or the owner of the water supply is held responsible for the diseases spread, and where @ any negligence on his. part is shown damages are awarded to the injured persons.

Private Water Supplies

This deals with the public health side of private water supplies, rather than any mechanical features of collection and distribution.

Private wells may be responsible for water-borne disease in the same way as public water supplies. The extent of the outbreaks is generally restricted since _ only a few people generally use water from one private sUpply.

Examples of T_q0hoid Fever from Wells

Case A - A well used at a fair ground was responsible for 15 cases of typhoid fever. Investigation showed that this had been polluted by a sewer which passed near the well. This had occurred during the period of the fair.

Case B - Ten cases of typhoid fever from one well. This was located in an area where"rock was about l0 feet from the surface. The well was dug to the rock. Investigation showed that pollution above the well had fo_lov_ed along the surface of the rock and had gained entrance to the water. In both these cases the water was quite clear and palatable.

Private l_ater Supplies

Private water supplies consist of : (a) dug wells; (b) dri!le8 wells; (c) driven wells; (d) springs; (e) rain water cisterns.

In a survey of over 10,000 private water supplies in urbsn centres in Ontario it was found that 69% were dug wells, _8_ drilled, 4Z driven, and 2{ springs. Bacteriological examination of samples from these showed pollution in S0_ to 99% of those in a municipality. Dug wells showed the highest pollution, then drilled wells and finally driven wells.

How Wells are Polluted

_{ells are polluted from two sources, (a) from the underground waters, and (b) from surface drainage near the _el].

Underground pollution may travel some distance and it results from contamina- tion introduced at a point some distance away, such as in a fissured limestone formation. This type of pollution is less common than that resulting from drainage at the top.

Surface pollution takes place where drainage from the soil, from rainwater or

O fromconstructedpump Splashin_ssides. Inisthiscarriedway theredirectlyis nointofiltrationthe well throughby a loosethe topsoilortopoorlyremove bacteria. Filth of all kinds may be deposited on the well top by boots, fowl, etc., and be later washed into the well. This is a common occurrence, especially v_There the well top is made of boards and the sides are of loose stone or brick.

Protection of !_Tells

Since wells are polluted from two different sources, protection must Euard against both of these,

Pollution from undezgr0und is difficult to prevent. It should be kept in mind when locatinE the well, and care taken that it is not placed in the path of drainage from outhouses, farmyards, or similar sources of contamination. The CONSTRUCTIONOF A SANITARY WELL 80

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Note location, concrete top, position of pump,, drain for waste water, con- struction of wall, manhole in top.

TOP

Reproduced by kind permission of the Division of Sanitary Engineering, Department of Healtfi o! Ontario. 81 distance a well should be !ocated from pollution cannot be defined accurately. This is due to the fact that the nature offthe soil, the slope of the Fround and other local factors all have a very direct bearing on the results. Some people recommend 50 to lO0 feet as a minimum distance between a well and a source of pollut ion.

Pollution from the surface can usually be controlled by proper construction of the top and sides of the well. The top should be watertight, and preferably made of concrete. The concrete should be raised under the pump and a tight joint ensured. If a manhole is used, a concrete curb should be raised around the opening, and an overlapping cover placed over this. The sides should be watertight for a distance of I0 feet from the surface. Concrete or brick may be used for this

purpose • Driven and drilled wells should be similarly protected at the top, although the chances of pollution are less than with a dug well.

Suspicious waters may be safe by boilin_ or by treatment with chlorine.

Disinfection of a Well

_ere pollution has entered a well, it may remain there for some period unless the well is disinfected. This can be done by adding half a pound of chloride of lime. The powder should first be mixed in a pailful of water_ and after the white solids have settled out, the liquid ma_T be poured into the well. After this has stood for about 12 hours or longer, sufficient water should be pumped out to remove the taste of chlorine. This treatment is recommended for new wells or where pollution is to be destroyed subsequent to alteration of the well against surface dra ina ge •

Sources of Public _ater Supplies

Public water supplies are secured from a number of sources, including rivers, lakes, ponds, wells, and springs. Adequacy of supply as well as quality is important. Large municipalities are obliged to seek a source which will be abundant under all conditions, and for this reason lakes and rivers are favoured. In the inland centres this is not possible and underground supplies are the choice.

The characteristics of waters from different sources will vary. Surface waters are usually higher in temperature, contain more silt and pollution, but _enerally have a lower chemical content such as hardness, "_ron, etc. _Tnderground waters are less reliable in quantity. They may have higher mineral _ content, but are usually free from silt and serious organic pollution. These factors should be considered when a choice is to be made between different sources of supply, a problem which not infrequently must be faced by a municipality.

Inspection Of Watershed

By "watershed" is meant the area of land draining into a source of supply. In the case of a lake, this can be determined readily by noting the slope of the ground. As all water comes from rain that fa)Is on the ground, it is possible to determine within reasonable limits the amount of water wh_.ch will be produced by any watershed.

Protection of the watershed against pollution is a respor_sibility of the local board of health. The sanitary inspector should know what to look for in this work. No hard-and-fast rules can be la_d down, but particular attention should be _iven to any drainage which may contain sewage. Residences or properties on the water-

willshed containshould havemuch satisfactorypollution, butmeansthisforis sewageless seriousdisposal._han Drainagewhere sewageof farmis present.lands The inspector can be aided materially by the collection of water samples for laborat cry examinat ion.

Collection of Water

Public water-works systems must be constructed first to bring in the water from the lake, river or other source to the pumping station. If a _ell is used, the p_unp functions in a manner familiar to everyone. For surface supplies intakes are necessary. These pipes may go out only a short distance from shore or the distance may be quite _rest, such as over half a mile or more. The best location for an intake should be chosen, having proper re:_ard for any pollution which may be present, depth of water, wind currents, etc. The water flows through this intake pipe to a reservoir on shore where it starts on its journey through the treatment plant and to the distribution system. 82 Parts of a Waterworks System The parts of a waterworks system include the following: intake pipe, pomp well (reservoir on shore), treatment plant, pumps, street mains, reservoirs or tanks for treated water, and house services. These will be described in detail later.

Water Filtration

The modern practice in the treatment of polluted water consists of filtration and chlorination. Each has a definite function to perform. These two treatments . are applied jointly, or chlorination may be used alone.

Function of Water Filtration

The main purpose in water filtration is to remove silt or "turbidity". Certain dangerous bacteria are also removed, and in some efficiently operated units a safe water is produced without requiringchlorination. This efficiency cannot be counted on continuously and the objective has come to be the removal of solids and a con- siderable number of the polluting bacteria, the remainder being destroyed by chlorine.

When filters _ere first used for water treatment, safety of the finished water _as highly desirable since no disinfecting agents were then employed.

A number of kinds of water filters are in use. These may be classed as follows:

(1) Slow sand filters.

(2) Mechanical or rapid sand filters: (a) Pressure type. (b) Gravity type.

Slow sand filters were developed first. While a number of these are still in use, new plants seldom employ this principle. As the name implies, the operation is comparatively slow and a large area of sand beds is required. The rate of filtration is about four million gallons of water per day per acre of sand bed. This filter requires no coagulant, but it removes very little colour. It removes the turbidity quite effectively.

Mechanical or rapid sand filters were developed later, and are still the type employed. They are of two general kinds, viz. pressure and gravity units. These can be readily distinguished by the fact that in the former the water is forced under pressure through a closed steel tank containing a bed of sand and gravel; and in the gravity type the water is allowed to flo_ on its own accord through a sand bed, and th_ entire process is carried on in an open tank. The rate of filtration is the same in each of these two--about 100 to 125 million gallons per day per acre of sand surface (this is equivalent to 2 gallons per minute per square foot of sand surface). Mechanical filters require chemical treatment of the water _ith a coagulant, and they c&n remove all colour from the water.

Operation of a Mechanical Water Filter

Water from the intake pump well is pumped to a coagulating tank where chemical treatment is applied. From here it goes to the filter, and as it passes through the bed of sand the turbidity and colour are removed. It is then delivered to a reser- voir from which it is pumped as required to the distribution system and to the consumers. Chlorine is added just before the water is pumped into the mains.

O Coagulation of Water

To get best results in Tater filtration, preliminary treatment in the form of coagulation is necessary. The purpose of this is to clump together or "coagulate" the fine particles and colour in the water. When in this condition, they can be settled out or taken out on the sand filter. Coagulation consists of adding a chemical, usually "alum" (aluminium sulphate), to the water. After this has been mixed with the water, a period of settling is provided--usually about tv#ohours. In this settling tank the coarser particles settle out. Then the _mter goes to the filter, where the remainder are removed. The dosage of alum averages about 1 grain per gallon. SLOW SAND FILTERS(TORONTOISLAND) Notearrangement of _sand and gravel as shown in section;provisionfor washing the sand removed from the Filter when the surface layer is removed in cleaning the filter bed.

TYPE OF WATER FILTRATION PLANT SERVING A POPULATION OF 7,000

PRESSURE I¥[ECHANICAL FILTERS

PRESSURETYPEOF MECHANICAL FILTER

Note provision for adding chlorine to the water, and for adding coagulant (alum); pressure filters, and pipe lines to town mains. ELEVATION

NORTH YORK TOWNSHIP WATER TREATMENT PLANT_

EXAMPLEOF A MECHANICAL FILTERWITH GRAVITY FLOW In contrast to a mechanical Jilter operating under pressure(page 83). Note intake, suction well, coagulating 6asins, filters, and alum mixing c_am_ers. C_lorine is added 6efore water is pumped into t_e mains. 85 86 87

In some pressure filters no coag1_ation tanks are used, and the alum is added j_st before the water reaches the filter. This is not good practice and is used for economy only.

_e Water F_iter

The water filter consists of a layer of fairly fine sand about 24 to30 inches deep. This is supported bya layer of gravel about 9 to 12 inches thick. Under this are laid perforated pipes through which the filtered uater passes. As the

waterthesand.passesGraduallyslowly throughthe filterthe becomesfilter, cloggedthe dirtandandhasturbidityto be cleaned.collect onThistopisof done by forcing clean water up from the bottoz throu_h the sand and _ashing the dirt away to waste. This has to be done about once in eve_ tuenty-four hours and requires about ten minutes for completion. Other measures may be taken to agitate the top of the filter.

In slow sand filters the top layer of sand has to be scraped off and _ashed in a special washer. This needs to be done only about once every two to three months.

Water Chlorination

Water disinfection is a modern practice and is employed very extensively. Chlorine is used almost entirely for this purpose, although other methods are used, such as ozone, ultra-violet rays, and certain other compounds.

_urpg_e of Disinfegti_n

The disinfection of water is designed to destroy disease-producing organisms. Chlorine acts on bacteria and all organic material. The action is rapid. This practice started about 1910, andnow over 80% of the water supplied through public systems in Ontario--to give one example--is c_1orinated.

Ch!o_ine Com_9_ds

Most chlorine used in water treatment is supplied in liquid form. At ordinary pressure it is a gas but when compressed it turns into a liquid. It is transported in steel cylinders, each containing 150 pounds. The cost is about8 to lO cents per pound.

Other chlorine compounds used are chloride of lime, calcium hypochlorite, and high-test chlorine compounds. These are used more for small _ater-treatment plants.

Chlorination Equ_Dment

Liquid chlorine is fed to the water by a chlorinator, the function of which is to measure Out accurately the required amount for that ,_atersupply. The chlorine is applied to the water usually after filtration but also to some extent ahead of tho filters. It may be added at the pump suction or to the pump well. The kind of chlorinator used depends on whether gas or solution feed is empl_yed.

Dosage of Chlorine

The amount of chlorine required to disinfect a _ater varies a great deal-- from about 3 pounds to 30 pounds per million gallons of v_ater. This depends largely on the amo_mt of organic matter present. The average amount is about 6 j whichpoundsanperortho-tolidinmillion gallons.solutionTheispr@peraddeddosageto theiswaterdeterminedcontainingby achlorine.colour testThein ortho-tolidin is supplied in most cases by the provincial department of health° The test is made as follows: 1CO cc. of the water, just after the chlorine has been added, is placed in a glass tube. This is allo_ed to stand for 15 minutes to permit the chlorine to disinfect the water. Then Icc. of ortho-tolidin is added. The colour produced is compared with two standards, usually supplied by the pro- vincial department of health. In this way it is possible to adjust the dosage with ease. This test should be made at least twice a day and more frequently if the water is changeable in chlorine demand. It is a responsibility of the local board of health to ensure that the pumphouse operator is making this test and maintaining a proper dosage. 88

Water Distribution

It is generally necessary to pump the water after it has been treated. For this purpose "high lift pumps" are used--so-called because they pump the water to a fairly high pressure, about 50 to lO0 pounds per square inch.

_heStreet Mains

The pumps deliver water to the street mains., . These pipes are laidabout five to six feet below the surface of the ground in _he various streets of the muni- cipality. They are all connected together so that the water flows from one to the Other. In most places a reservoir is provided on the mains. This may be an elevated tauk or a reservoir on a high hill. The purpose of this is to supply a reserve of water which can be used when the pumps are not operating, and also to balance out the irregularities of consumption of water.

From these street mains the water goes through service pipes, about _ inch in diameter, to the various buildings.

Protection of Water in the_s__te.2

The water mains are tight and no pollution should gain entrance, but some- times connections are made between these mains and other pipes carrying polluted water and this may permit contamination to enter the consumers' taps. This con- dition is prohibited by regulations in force in most places. Sometimes these connections are made without the knowledge of thewater department, and disease outbreaks may occur. Frequent sampling of water from various places in the municipality will be an aid in the de_ection of such a condition. A periodic check on water supplies used for fire protection and industrial processes in commercial plants should be made to safeguard against these cross-connections.

Examination of Water

Domestic water supplies may contain bacteria and chemical substances. Chemical analysis and bacteriological examination are made to determine the extent to which these are present, and from the findings an opinion may be formed as to the suita- bility of the water for use. For safety of the supply, bacteriological examina- tions are made most frequently.

Collection_of Saml_

Ali_ater samples to be examined bacteriologically in the laborato_j must be collected carefully and in specially sterilized bottles, obtained from the labora- tory. Facilities for examination of water samples are usually provided bythe provincial department of health or, in large cities, by the municipal health laboratory. Intakinga sample of water, great care must be exercised to avoid contamination byhands or other sources. The protective cover of the bottle (rubber membrane or other suitable material) should be removed, and held in such a manner that the part entering the neck of the bottle does not come in contact with the hand or other object. After adding the water, the stopper should be carefully inserted again and the cover replaced. Instructions for taking these samples are usually found with the container and should be carefully read.

A representative sample of water should be collected. If a pump is in use, some water should be removed first, or if the sample is from a tap, the water should run for a short time before the bottle is filled. In collecting samples from a surface supply, one should lower the bottle by means of a wire, making sure that any pollution on the outside of the bottle is not allowed to enter the _ater sample.

T__ran_ortationof Samples

Samples of water should be taken to the laboratory as soon as possible after collection. Shipment of these on ice is necessary only when bacterial counts (the estimation of the number of bacteria present by planting specified quantities of the sample on nutrient agar medium) are asked for, and when the time elapsing would permit of marked increase in the number of bacteria present. 89

Interpretation of Results

Two tests are co_nonly employed in bacteriological water analyses: (a) plate counts and (b) estimation of the degree of contamination with coliform organisms (smallest quantity of water in which coliform organisms are found).

Significance of Plate Counts: The aim of plate counts is to determine the number of organisms in a definite quantity of sample (1 cc.) which grow at 20° C. (a common water temperature), and at 37°C. (body temperature). Plate counts are of value chiefly _hen a series of samples is sent from a treated supply, and where it is desirable _o compare the results at various stages of the treatment, or to make other similar comparisons. Plate counts are made only when it is considered at the laboratoNj to be desirable, and when the samples arrive packed in ice.

_h_xColiform Organisms are Reported: Colon bacilli ire bacteria which normally inhabit the intestinal tract of both m_anand animal and are passed out in large numbers with the excreta. They,0f themselves, do not prove that a water contains disease-producing bacteria, but serve rather as a warning that dangerous germa or bacteri_,also of intestinal origin, such as typhoid, dysentery, etc., may be present. As coliforms greatly outnumber disease germs in a water, it is usually impracticable to recover the latter by laboratory methods. Wherever disease germs of this nature are present, coliforms always accompany them, and usually in large numbers, but colon bacilli may also occur when no disease germs are present. The detection of coliforms in a sample of water is, consequently, a more practical procedure than isolating the disease germs themselves. The essential point is that the presence of these coliform organisms in small quantities of the samole indicates that the water is potentially danger0us to health.

Detection of Coliform Organisms: In the analysis an attempt is made to deter- mine in what quantities of water these organisms are present. Various amomnts of sample from 50 cc. to 1/lO cc. _re planted in a suitable food broth. (One cc. corresponds to about 1/4 teaspoonful.) The tubes containing thequantities of the water sample and the food material are then kept at body temperature for 48 hours. At the end of this cultivation period it is determined in what amounts of the water sample coliform bacilli are present. It is evident that the smaller the quantity of water in which these organisms appear, the heavier is the pollution.

A water sample which shows coliform bacilli to be pres6nt in 1 cc. or less is generally regarded as being heavily polluted. Samples from properly protected or treated supplies show no colon bacilli in any amounts up to and including 50 cc.

Another method of reporting analyses is frequently used. Instead of indicating the smallest quantity of the sample in which coliform bacilli were found, the result is expressed as the number of coliform organisms in lO0 cc. If 1 cc. is the smallest quantity of the sample in which coliform bacilli were found, then it is assumed that only 1 organism was present and, consequently, in leO cc. lO0 organisms would be present. Similarly, when 50 cc. of the sample onlyshows these organisms, the number would be regarded as 2 per lO0 cc., and so forth. A further method of reporting is known as the M.P.N. (most probable number).

Interpretation of Findings: No supplyshould be approved on the result of a single bacteriological examination. Contamination may be intermittent and unevenly distributed, and consequently water samples frequently show wide variations in the bacterial count.

_ast___esand Odours in Waters

@_ Water supplies that are used for domestic purposes in municipalities must not only be safe, but they must be palatable as well. Many water supplies contain components which give objectionable taste to the consumer. These tastes are due to a variety of conditions. There has been much development towards eliminating these tastes. The safety of supply is always the first consideration, and when this is established, attention can then be given to physical qualities in the water, such as tastes and odours. Now, attention is being directed towards making water not only safe but also palatable.

Tastes are sometimes caused by improper application of chlorine to the supply. With modern methods of application, this should not be a serious factor. It is rather more difficult to control other conditions in water, such as those derived 90

from algae and other forms of minute animal and vegetable life, and trade wastes. Certain algae give off oils which are particularly offensive to the taste. The taste and odour are often intensified when chlorine is added. Not all algae give objectionable odours, but certain kinds are noted for the characteristics of the odour produced. These odours are said to be earthy, fishy.,mouldy, grassy, aro- matic, bitter, offensive, etc. To determine the method of control or the cause of the tast_, it is necessary to make a microscopic examination of the _mter and to list the organisms or algae which are present.

Another cause of odours is the presence of industrial wastes, such as phenol

productstaste andwhich,odour._henThese,theyincombinethemselves,with chlorine,may not givegiveodoura veryorstrongtaste,andbutpronouncedin com- bination with chlorine may be very marked.

Control 9f Tasters -. For the control of tastes, a number of methods are available. If the taste is due to the presence of algae, a method is to treat the water _ith copper sul- phate and prevent the growth of these small plants. Only minute quantities of copper sulphate _re required. The dosage is dependent uponthe particular growth which is present. Usually about 3 to 5 pounds of copper sulphate will be sufficient to treat 1,O00,O00 gal!ons of _atero This application mustbe made early in the season so that the growth Will be prevented rather than destroyed after it has reached large proportions.

The control of industrial wastesis sometimes feasible, while at othcr times it is difficult. A survey of the locality does much to determine which industry is causing the difficulty. This material should not be discharged into the water supply if it can be avoided.

A number of methods are in use for the €orrection of taste. One is the application of ammonia before the chlorine is added. About one-third as much ammonia as chlorine, when administered just before the chlorine, tends to prevent the development of tastes due to contact between chlorine and these vegetable oils or industrial wastes. Another method is known as _uper-chlorination. This means treating the water with an excessive dose of chlorine, with the chlorine acting as a reducing agent to destroy the offensive taste. This leaves enough chlorine in the water to be noticeable to the taste. The excess chlorine is then reduced by neutralization with sulphur dioxide or a similar chemical.

For some time, activated carbon has been used extensively to prevent tastes. This is used before the water is filtered and in this way the taste-forming sub- stance is adsorbed by the carbon and the taste does not occur. About 20 pounds of this carbon is sufficient to treat 1,000,O00 gallons of water.

Aeration has been practised for taste removal also. This consists of blowing air through the water and driving out some of the offensive odours. Other methods of taste cohtrol include breakpoint chlorination and the use of chlorine dioxide.

School Water Supl_

Water supplies at public schools require particular attention. They are derived from a number of sources but in most rural communities they come from wells. These wells need the same protection as any private supply. The top must be made of some impervious material and the sides should be made wQter-tight for a distance of ten feet from the surface. Where it is possible for a school to secure a con- nection with a public water system, it is generally advisable to do so. If this is

nottectionfeasible,of theitsupplybecomesis thenecessarysame astohasresortbeentooutlinedthe use forof aprivateprivateSupplies.water system.Pro-

The method of bringing the water into the school issomething for consideration by every school. If electric power is available, it is usual to pump the water to an nir-pressure tank in the school an_ h_ve it flow under pressure to all rooms in the school. If it is not possible to have it pumped in this way, it may be placed in containers filled from a pail. These containers should be made of earthen_lare material which Bill tend to keep the water cool.

Drimking-fountains are essential for a school and in this way the common drinking-cup is avoided. If fountains cannot be made available, then paper cups are satisfacto_j. Where a school water supply is not above suspicion, it is desirable to treat it for school use. This can be done bychlorination. The 91

department of health of the province can make available a chlorine outfit which is particularly useful for this purpose. The chlorine can be applied to the water in the drinking-fountain and in this way it becomes an easy matter to have safe water for use in the school drinking-fountains or containers.

A Convenient Method for Chlorinating Small Supplies of Wate_

An equipment which has been developed for this purpose consists of two one- ounce bottles with droppers and rubber stoppers.

One bottle contains solution A--a chlorine solutionfor sterilizing the water.

Theof theotherchlorinebottlesolutioncontainsrequiredsolutionforB--atreatingtestingasolutionquantityforof estimatingwater. the amount

Dir_ecti____o2s_forUs0:The chlorine solution is prepared for treating water which is to be used for drinking purposes, washing vegetables or other domestic use. The amount of the solution required will vary with different waters, but the strength has been estimated so that 4 drops will usually be sufficient to destroy all dangerous organisms in a gallon of water (or one drop to a quart of water). After adding the chlorine solution to the water, stir thoroughly and allow it to stand for about 15 minutes. It will then be ready for use, and if the correct amount of solution has been applied, no taste of excess chlorine will be present in the water.

_est__Soiution: In view of the fact thatdifferent waters require varying doses of chlorine to render them free from dangerous germs, and since the strength of the commercial chloride of lime used in the preparation of this solution fre- quently varies a great deal, an additional solution has been provided for estimat- ing the exact amount of chlorine solution required to treat a definite quantity of any particular water. For this purpose, solution B, or the testing solution, is used.

_stfo_rthe Amount of Chlorine Solution Required: Add to the raw or untreated water the approximate amount of chlorine for sterilJ.zation. For ordinary water without much colour or turbidity, add 4 drops to a ga___onof _ater (or 1 drop to a quart) and, after stirring well, let stand for 15 mim_tes. Then take two cups or i glasses and into each place similar amounts of the water to which the chlorine solution has been added. (One-quarter cupful in each will be sufficient.) To one : add 5 _e _0 drops of solution B (the testing solution). A larger amount of solution_ B is not objectionableand should be added when the resulting colour is green or blue. Do not put any in the other cup. If the amount of chlorine solution added to the water is correct, a faint lemon colour will appear in the cup to which the drops': of testing solution were added. By placing this cup beside the one containing water, only, any difference in colour can easily be detected against the white background of the cup. If glasses are used, place a sheet of white paper under them so that it can be used as a background for examining the colour. If the _llow colour is absent, it indicates an insufficient amount of chlorine solution. Add mere chlorine solution to a fresh quantity of the water and after 15 minutes test solution again. If a deep yellow or reddish colour appears, it indicates that more chlorine solution than is required has been added, and this may produce an objectionable taste. By trials such as these the exact amount of Chlorine solution required may be determined. After once est_blishlng this amount, it need be checked up only occasionally when the same source of water is being used. It is desirable to test it whcn a fresh : chlorine solution is used, or if the solution has been allowed to stand for a great length of time. The bottle containing the chlorine solution should be kept in the cardboard box away from the light in order to protect the solution against loss of strength.

Sufficient chlorine solution is provided in the 1-ounce bottle to treat over paredlO0 gallonsor procuredof water.from Whenthe provincialdepartmentthis is exhausted, a offreshhealth,solutionuponmayreceipteitherofbecostpre-of bottles and mailing. The solution is prepared by adding approximately 1 ounce of chloride of lime to i quart of _ater and stirring thoroughly, after which the _hite solids are allowed to settle out, and the clear solution from the top is ready for us_

Drinking-fountains are intended to eliminate the dangers of the common drinking- cup. To do this effectively, they must be properly designed to avoid contamination. The drinker should not be able to place his lips over the orifice, nor should the water from his mouth fall back on to the orifice, it has been sho_n that a safe drinking-fountain should have a slanting jet. Thus the water comes off at an angle and the person does not place his mouth directly Over the orifice but rather off to one side. The orifice itself is also protected against contact with the lips of the drinker. Another feature of importance is that the orifice shm_d be placed suf- ficiently high so that if the bGsin in the fountain should be flooded none of this contaminated water will reach the orifice. 92

SEWERAGE SYSTE'_,_AND WASTE DISPOSAL

_e_islation and Administration

Legislation concerning the installation of sewerage systems(or sewage works) and the disposa_ of wastes is somewhat similar to that dealing with wate_vorks.

Provincial: Each provincial department of health undertakes the sUpervision of sewerage systems. The authority for such supervision is provided by public health legislation differing in form in the various provinces. This control by the plansprovincialfor alldepartmentssewerage systemsof healthmustis bebroughtsubmittedabouttoinandtwoapprovedwa_-oa byrequirementthe healththat department before any construction is undertaken_ and that the operation of the system must be satisfactory to the provincial department of health. The reason for such control is obvious: A municipality might by its action jeopardize the health or safety of the citizens of another municipality by improper disposal of sewage or other wastes. Stream pollution at one place might be prejudicial to the water supply of a community using this stream at some lower point.

Municipal: It is the responsibility of municipalities and industries to pro- vide proper meafisforthe disposal of sewage. Effective operation of sewage- treatment works is essential. Where no public sewerage system has been installed, private installations are made and these require the particular attention of the local health board. The sanitary inspector must be familiar with therequirements of both private and public sewerage systems.

General Administration: For the installation of sewerage systems and their operation, the procedure may be outlined as follows. If a municipality wishes to install sewers, disposal-works, or to extend an existing system, an engineer pre- Pares plans and specifications for the proposed works. These are Submitted tothe provincial department of health and if satisfactory a certificate of approval is issued. The construction of %he work then proceeds. The operation of the treatment works is checked periodically by provincial engineers. The local board of health isexpected to maintain a close contact and to ensure that the system functions effectivelyand produces a good effluent. For private installations, such as septic tanks, the approval of the local health officer is to be obtained before work commences. This latter is entirely a local responsibility.

Sewerage systems, publicand private, are important not only in the prevention of disease but also in the control of offensive conditions such as od0urs, drainage and unsightly conditions. Definition Of Terms

Certain words and terms are used extensively in the sewerage field. They should no% be used in a manner which will leave uncertainty in the mind of the person addressed. Some of these are:

Sewers - the pipes used to convey the liquid wastes. Sewage - the liquid wastes from private residences and a certain amount of industrial process waters.

Sewerage system - this term includes/ the entire system of sewers, pumping stations, sewage,treatment works, outfall pipes and _ll parts of a complete system. Sewage works - similar to sewage system. Outfall - the pipe c_rrying the sewage, treated or0therwise , to the final point of disposal in a body of Water. Effluent - the treated liquid from disposal works. Sewage disposal - the methodof treatment or purification of the liquid wastes. _ Industrial wastes -those wastes or liquids from manufact1_ing processes, such as tanneries, paper mills, slaughter houses, canning factories, etc, . _ '_ Invert - the lower inside edge of a sewer pipe. S.S. - suspended solids in the sewage. B.O.D. - biochemical oxygendemand--a term used to denote the organic strength of the sewage. 93

C__haracteristicsof Sexy_ageand Trade Was_es

Sewage is a mixture of many wastes, most of which are highly organic and offensive. In a residential community, most of these wastes are from homes and consist of a sanitary sewage from plumbing fixtures. In others the sewers may receive a variety of industrial _astes, some of which may be quite putrescible, while others may containinorganic compounds which cause no odours or do not create any public health problem.

Domestic sewage or that from private homes contains body wastes which are not only highly offensive when decomposition sets in, but they mayalso carry disease organisms responsible for dangerous pollution in water courses. Thus, domestic sewage usuallyrequires greater care in its disposal where public health pro- tection is the major concern°

Industrial wastes come from a variety of works. Some are more difficult to dispose of than others. Such wastes as those discharged bM milk plants, tanneries, and canning factories contain so much organic material that they become very offen- sive if allowed to decompose. These would be regarded as "strong" wastes. In contrast, there are wastes from paper mills and similar industries containing solids which do not decompose so rapidly. In this case it is usually a problem of removal of these solids without regard to danger to public health. The strength of sewage is measured by two tests, S.S; and B.O.D. The former indicates the amount of solids present and the latter the organic strength of the sewage.

What Becomes of Sewage?

when sewage containing organic material is discharged into a body ofwater or into a dry creek bed, changes begin to take place. In the decomposition of this material, oxygen is required@ This can be obtained from the water into which the sewage is discharged, which in turn secures its supply from the atmosphere. If the body of water is small, the oxygen is depleted more rapidly than it can be acquired from the air. This results in offensive odours. To ensure a balance or stability for the discharged se_age, the wastes must either be treated, or be placed in a body of water sufficient tosupply the necessary oxygen.

Selvagedisposal is chiefly concerned with tivoproblems: the treatmen_ of sewage to provide a stable effluent which, whan discharged into a body of water, causes no offensive condition; and the safeguarding of public health. Protection offish life is also a problem.

Private sewerage Systems

Where public sewers are not available, the l_quld wastes from private homes are taken care of by other means. A number of methods are employed, varying from the primitive pit privy to a water-carried system similar to that in use in urban centres. These private sewerage systems are used also for schools, factories and institutions of varying sizes. These may be: (1) pit or vault privies, (2) pail privies, (3) chemical toilets, (4) septic toilets, and (5) water-carried systems.

Outdoor Privies

Outdoor privies arethe least satisfactory or modern of all systems for private residences. They are to be recommended only for temporary use or where better methods are not available. They are the least expensive, and for this reason are found in those places where cost is a main consideration. The most primitive is the pit privy, consisting of an excavation in the ground. Other t_es @ are the vault privy, €ontainin_ a _ter-tlght receptacle above ground; and the pail privy, having a pall or can as a receptacle. The most sanitary of all these is the pall privy. With regular remow_l of the pail contents, sanitary conditions can be assured.

Certain requirements are common to all types of outdoor privies:

1. A fly-tight building, With proper ventilation through screened openings. 2. A self-closing door. A pulley and weight will accomplishthis. 3. The use of ashes, sand, or similar material on the privy contents. 4. The use of a fly larvicide during the fly season. Chloride of lime is satisfactory. 5. Regular removal of night-soil from pall privies. g-i +r...... i =-1' - [.... 11 ¢'T "_ ___., i...... • LL_';, _,-

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Chemical Toilets

Chemical toilets possess some advantage in that they are installed indoors. They maybe used for private homes, schools, factories, and similar buildings. The unit contains a toilet seatp a metal tank placed directly below the toilet and con- taining a caustic solution, a ventilating system, andsome means for disposal of th_ contents of the tank.

The principle uponwhich this system operates is that the faecal matter is placed in a caustic solution which destroys germ life. This, together with ven- tilation, controls odourS. The tank requires cleaning about every six months , and this is done by running the contents into a leaching well or by drawing away to a suitable point of disposal.

A special toilet bowl is required. It contains a large opening through which the faecal matter passes. Ventilation of the tank and toilet is important. A vent- pipe is carried to the roof.

This type of privy will work satisfactorily when given reasonable attention and supervision. It is deficient in that both water or sink wastes are not taken care of. It should not be used any place where it is likely to be abused. Its use now is less than formerly.

Septic Toilets

The septic toilet or waterless septic tank system is a method midway between the septic tank and the chemical toilet systems. It is not a water-carried system but its arrangement is similar to that of the chemical toilet except that no chemicals are required. The same toilet and tank are needed. A small quantity of water is added daily to the tank. The overflow from this tank is carried to a leaching well or to field tiles for final disposal in the soil, in much the same way as aseptic tank.

The Water-carried System

The water-carried system of sewerage is the most modern and most Satisfactory for private residences, schools, factories, etc. Its use involves a supply of water under pressure, for flushing purposes. This limits its field of application. The method of sewage disposal for water-carried systems is generally the septic tank. This consists of:

(a) A septic tank, usually of two compartments--the first for sediS mentation, and the second a siphon chamber.

(b) A field-tile disposal bed.

The operation of the system is as follows. The sewage enters the first com- partment of the tanke This is made large enough to retain the sewage until the coarse solids can settle to the bottom. This is the function of this tank. As the tank is always full, as fresh sewage enters an equal amolmt passes to the second or siphon tank. The solids held in the first unit gradually decompose and leave an inert residue. In this action, gas is generated. This mixture of gas and solids (sludge) rises to the surface of the liquid to form a scum. As the gas isreleased, the solids tend to sink to the bottom again. This scum on the tank is a normal condition. The solids must be removed from the bottom when too large an amount accumulates.

The function of the siphon tank is to give intermittent discharge of the liquid • from the tank. The liquid in this compartment rises to a certain level, at which the siphon starts to operate, and the full contents of this tank are then discharged to the tile bed. There is no further discharge until the tank containing the syphon fills again. Hence intermittency is obtained. (See diagram.)

The tile bed consists of rows of 4" drain tiles laid about 12 to 18 inches below the ground surface. The joints in these tiles are left about ½ inch apart, and as the liquid flows from the tank it passes through these openings, filtering through the surrounding soil. It is here that the actual purification of the sewage takes place. The number of feet of tiles required is from 20 to 50 per person. 94a

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Many misconceptions seem to exist about septic-tank installations. Some of _ese are:

(1) That the tank is some mysterious place in which certain bacteria work miracles. The operation of the tank is simple. Its duty is to retain the coarse solids, and since these are organic they undergo putrefaction.

(2) That certain chemicals and other wastes must be excluded from the tank. Some believe that no disinfectants or chemicals of like nature must be permitted in the tank. There is no foundation for such a belief. Septic tanks will handle largesoapy water,quantitiesgrease,of disinfectantschemicals, etc.continuouslyIt is not,intoof thecourse,tank.desirable to discharge

(3) That a "starter" must be put in the tank. There is no need for anything like this.

The sludge should be cleaned from the tank about once every second year or when an examination shows it to be more thanll foot to 18 inches deep.

Operation of a Public Seweragess_S

A public sewerage system in an extension or enlargement of the private, water- carried unit, so designed as to give the requisite service to the community.

A public Sewerage system contains:

(1) House Drains: These carry the liquid wastes from the home to the public sewer on the street. They are usually 6" pipes laid with tight Joints at a grade of per foot.

(2.) Street Sewers: These are closed pipes laid deep enough in the streets to drain the 6ifferent buildings. They are laid on a grade which will carry the sewage along at a "self-cleansing velocity"--about 2_ft. per sec. These pipes lead to the disposal plant or a pumping station.

(3) Sewage Pumoin_ Stations: In some municipalities where the ground surface is quite f_a_. _e required grades cannot be obtained to carry the sewage to the point of disposal. To overcome this, it is usual to install pumping stations. These elevate the sewage and discharge it either to a sewer at a higher level or to the disposal works.

(4) Treatment Works: These are for the purpose of treating the sewage and making it ready for discharge to some body of water.

(_) Outfall Pipe: This pipe carries the sewage (raw or treated) to the final point of disposal--to a stream, lake, etc.

(6) Manholes and Miscellaneous Equipment: Mamholes are structures placed on the sewer line about 300 to 400 feet apart. Their function is _o provide means for examining the sower and to facilitate cleaning.

Catch-basins are used chiefly on storm se_ers. They carry the surface water from streets to the public sewer. Traps or basins may be used here to catch heavy sand or other material which might block the pipes.

(7) Trunk Sewers: These are the larger pipes into which the laterals or street sewers discharge their flow. They are larger than the ether lines and one "trunk" may serve a considerable area of the municipality. Cost of Sewers

The cost of sewers may be financed in different ways. One method is kno_n as the "local improvement plan". Under this, the owner of the property pays for the sewer ar part of it fronting his premises. The municipality pays for all street intersections and for trunk sewers and treatment works.

Another method is for the municipality at large to pay the entire cost of the system. The former method is the more co_mon. 96

O_ReEationof a Sewera__Ss_

The operation of a sewerage system comes under the engineering department of the municipality. The sewers are kept in repair by the municipality. As the sewage and trade wastes leave the buildings, there is a flow through the various sewers and then the treatment works are reached. The slope of the pipes must be sufficient to keep the solids moving along. Sand and similar material will settle out fairly quickly_ At the treatment plant the liquids are processed in a number of ways.

Di_s_osalof Sewage

@ Sewage treatment is necessary in order to prevent stream pollution and to protect public health. The degree of treatment is governed by local requirements, such as the proximity of water intakes, bathin_ beaches, fish life, and the quantity of diluting water available. If the sewage can be discharged into a largo body of water, such as a lake or an ocean, less treatment is likely to be required.

Sewage disposal may be divided into two general classes: primary or_ treatment and_or secondary treatment. In the former, only a limited degree of treatment is given. This would be applied where there is a large body of receiving water and where no water intakes or bathing beaches are near. Primary treatment generally means removal of some of the solids in the sewage, either by screens or by sedimentation in a tank.

Secondary treatment or complete treatment is taken to moan a much higher de- gree of p_rification. This is required where the receiving water does not provide a large degree of dilution. It may be accomplished in several ways, such as filtration, activated sludge, etc.

General Objectives inSeam:ageTreatment

Whatever type of treatment is selected, the objective must be to dispose of the sewage and wastes in such manner that no nuisance is created and public health is safeguarded. Sewage treatment is expensive and the higher the degree of treat- ment, the greater the cost. Floating solids or those which _ill readily settle out should be removed in every case.

Stream Pollution

Stream pollution is one of the chief reasons for sewage disposal. If a greater amount of sewage is added to stream than that stream can take care of, offensive conditions will result. Odours will be given off, fish life will be affected, and water supplies will be jeopardized.

Industrial wastes may be as important in this as is domestic sewage. When the oxygensupply in a stream is lowered, a septic conditiondevelops.

The degree of treatment must be designed to avoid this undue pollution of streams. For this reason, the provincial department of health sets the degree of treatment for each municipality.

Physica! Processes of Sewage Dispqsal

Go__osition of Sewage

Normal sewage from a municipality is largely liquid, containing about 99.9 per

becentcoarsewater.andSolidsheavy oraretheypresentmay beandsomuchfinematerialthat theyis willin solution.not readilyThesettle.solids mayUnder these conditions they may be regarded as being almost in colloidal suspension.

The treatment must be designed to deal with the different forms in which the wastes may be present, such as coarse solids, fine solids, or solution. The degree of treatment required will also be an important factor. If the water into _hich the effluent is to be discharged is such that no elaborate treatment is called for, it maybe satisfactory to utilize primary treatment only,such as screening, sedimenta- tion, etc.

In sewage treatment much use is made of pro_esses Which employ physical methods. Biological and chemical processes are also employed, usually when complete or secondary treatment is called for. The types of sewage treatment therefore may be •?

FRONT ELEVATION .-SIDE ELEVATION

Construction. Excavate 4 feet by 3 feet wide by S feet deep (for two seats). For each additional h01e allow 2 feet in the length of the pit. Line the upper 2 feet of the pit with heavy boards or plank to prevent caving in, and extend the lining 6 to 8 inches above the surface. Bank and slope the earth away from the top curbing to prevent the inflow of surface water. Over this build the privy house, placing the seat holes when possible over the centre of the pit. Board the building to the ground, making fly-tight all possible entrances to building or pit. A box ventilator may be pl.aced from the seat and extending x8 inches to _ feet through the roof of the building. The top of the ventilator should be screened to prevent the entrance of flies. Windows or other openings for ventilation must also be screened. The building should be more than 4 feet square--larger if more than 2 seat holes are provided. It should be at least 6 feet high in the rear and 7 to 7½ feet in front. The roof should overhang up to I8 inches at the rear in order to keep rain water away from the pit. The ground around should be graded up to the privy building to a height of 6 inches to help shed surface water. For the seat anoverall width of 2o to 24 inches is recommended, with a hole I2 by 9 inches. The front edge of the hole should be about 3 inches back from the front riser and the rear of the hole out 9 inches or more from the rear wall. The edges of the seat holes should be rounded off and smooth. The seat lid should be I2 by 2o inches, smooth and true on hinges, and made to close tightly. Q, the buildingWhen theonpitto hasit. beenCoverfilledup tothewithinold pit18carefullyinches oftothethesurface,surfacemakewitha somenew pitof andthe moveearth _: taken from the new pit. "• A pit of this type will last an average family 3 to 5 years. The pit may be dug with sloping sides to prevent caving in. Here again the top edges should be supported by box curbing. All pits should be located one hundred feet or more from wells or water supply and preferably downhill from the water supply. Where swampy lands are encountered, the pit will become filled with water and its usefulness impaired. In such cases concrete or brick vaults should replace the earth pits. Reproduced by kind permission of the De- ;partment of Public Health of Nova Scotia. .L "86 SECTION OF SEPTIC TANK SECTION SHOWING ABSORPTION BED

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PLAN SHOWILY3 ABSORPTION BED ' _'_e SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM CONNAUGHT FARM

SEPTICTANK WITH TILEDISTRIBUTINGSYSTEM _Upperleft: Sectionof septictankshowingtwocompartments,baffles,sludgeoutlet,manholeans d ,o siphon. Upper right: Absorptionbed. Notearrangemeofnttile drains. ,o @ . @ /'

• /

Leaching well for disposal of effluen_ _ • from septic tank under certain conditions o - © in place of tiles, or in combination with tiles. i01

discussed under two groups--physical processes and biological processes.

Physical Processes

Physical processes may be taken to include Screening (fine and coarse) and sedimentation.

A. Screenin_ of Sewage. Bar or coarse screens are used to remove only relatively coarse materials such as sticks, rags, cans, bricks, etc. Fine screens have much smaller openings and consequently will retain a greater proportion of the material found in sewage. Coarse screens usually consist of round bars or flat pieces of metal placed inparallel and spaced about 1 inch to 3 inches apart. As the sewage flows through these openings, the coarse solids will be retained. The screens are cleaned periodically either by a hand rake or by mechanical means.

Fine screens are usually made of perforated plate. The holes are about 3 inches long and vary in width from ¼ to 1 /32 inch. These screens revolve and as the sewage strikes the face of the drum the solids are retained. They are cleaned off by various means and taken away for disposal.

These screens, either coarse or fine,-remove only a comparatively small amount of the suspended solids in the liquid.• They are generally used in conjunction with other methods, but sometimes alone--as where the sewage is discharged through a •long outfall pipe to the ocean.

B. Sedimentation. Sedimentation of sewage is employed extensively at treat- ment works. The principle upon which this operates is that a body of water in motion will carry along with it certain solids, and the higher the velocity the heavier the particles which can be carried. Thus in a sewer the grade is set to give a self-cleansing velocity or one which will carry the solids which may gain entrance•. Conversely, when the sewage reaches the treatment works and when the velocity of flow is reduced or the liquid kept in a qules_ent state, these solids tend to settle out. Sedimentation in the plan% J_ sffee:_:_by making a tank large • enough to reduce the velocity. Another methzo of Je_or:Li:iugthis, especially when the velocity of flow is quite low, is the "period of retCh%ion".

Sedimentation is used in a number of places about the sewage treatment works, including grit chambers, preliminary settling; final settling, etc.

The grit chamber is a small tank installed at the entrance to the plant to remove sand or grit. Relatively small quantib_es are taken out but this m_ght interfere with the rest of the operation if alle_:ed_o remain. In grit chambers the velocity is cut down to about 1 foot per second.

In settling tanks the retention period is about two hours. This means that theoretically the time required for the liquid to pass through the tanks is t_fo hours. Obviously some parts of the liquid will get through faster and some will take longer. This retention period merely means that if a tank holds 100,000 gallons it would take this retention period of 2 hours to fill the tank if it were empty. Thus this tank on a 2-hour basis would treat 100_O00 x 24/2 m 1,200,000 gallons per dayof sewage. The solids settle to the bottom of the tank and are removed through an underground pipe. The liquid flows off at the top. The liquid may enter at one side of the tank and leave at the opposite side, or it may enter at the centre and leave on all four sides. Sedimentation tanks are illustrated in the diagram on page 103, Weston Sewage Disposal Plant.

@ Sedimentation may be the only treatment of the sewage or it may be used in con- junction _ith other processes. Sedimentation should_remove 3_b0ut 60 per cent of th_ to_al suspended solids.

Biological and Chemical Processes of Se_mge Disposal

Physical processes remove but a limited portion of the total organic material in sewage and are therefore regarded as a "primary" treatment. Where more complete or "secondary" purification is required, the general practice is to employ biologi- cal processes (action of living micro-organisms). L 102

B_ip!ogicalProcesses

Biological processes are designed to remove organic material in suspension and in solution. Dilution of sewage in lakes and streams is a biological process in that the sewage is purified through the action of the diluting water. In biological methods of sewage treat1_nt the organic material is oxidized and the fine particles brought together in such way that they will settle out in tanks. A high degree of purific_tion can be obtained, and the treated liquid will be clear in appearance. A number of methods have been developed, many of which have

beensewagesupersededtreatmentbyareimprovedin use.practices.These are T?1o-day"sprinklingtwo mainor tricklingbiologicalfilters"methodsandof "activated sludge".

A. Sprinkling Or Tricklin_ Filters. The essential equipment consists of vsettling tanks for removing the solids which will settle out, a filter made of stone or similar material, and a final settling tank. The settled liquid is sprinkled on the filter bed and is allowed to pass slowly through it. In doing so, it comes in contact with a film of bacterial life on the filter. This purifies the sewage. Such a filter is about 6 feet in depth, and the most common material used is crushed stone, about 2_inches in diameter. Oxygen from the air is able to circulate through the stone and play a prominent part in the process. The liquidthen passes through a final settling unit or "humus tank" for removing any solids. (See diagram on page 103u,Weston Sewage Disposal Tank.) The capacity of the filter can be increased by recirculating a portion of the treated sewage back through it again. This is known as high rate filtration,

B. Activated Sludge Process. This is a modern development. It consists of preliminary settling tanks, aeration tanks, and final settling tanks or clarifiers. The sewage from the primary settling tanks enters the aeration tanks, each about lO feet wide, l0 feet deep, and of w_rying length. Air is blown in through special diffuser plates at one side of the bottom. Activated sludge, which is the solids of the sewage which have been aerated and made active, is mixed with the incoming sewage. This mixture of sludge and _ir acts as a movable filter for treatment of the wastes in a manner somewhat like that in the sprinkling filter. The period of aeration is about _ to 6 hours. Then the liquid containing the sludge passes to the final settling tank where in a period of about 2 hours the sludge settles to the bottom and the clear liquid flows off to the stream or lake. This sludge which settles to the bottom is pumped back to the incoming raw sewage and goes through the process again. In some plants it is given reaeration before it meets the sewage. Gradually the sludge accmmulates and some of it must be drawn off and taken av_y for disposal. (See diagram on page 104, Danforth Park Activated Sludge Sewage Disposal Plant.)

Both sprinkling filters and activated sludge systems give good effluents and are considered as complete treatment.

Chemical Treatment

Chemical precipitation involves the addition of a coagulating chemical to the sewage in order to increase the settling of solids. Such chemicals as ferric chloride, alum, lime and others are employed. This process gives results in between plain sedimentation and the biological processes. It can be used quite successfully under some conditions. A large amount of sludge is produced and this has to be disposed of.

Disinfection of Sewag_

Disinfection of the treated sewage (effluent from activated sludg_ treatment plants, etc.) is carried outby the use of chlorine as in the treatment of water supplies. This is employed in the vicinity of bathing beaches and water intakes.

Both sprinkling filters and activated sludge will rem0ve about 95 per cen_t of the suspended solids in th__sewag_e.

Disposal of Slud_

The solids removed from the sewage are knovm as "sludge". This material accumulates in all processes of sewage treatment and thus creates one of the difficiLltproblems. Different methods and different equipment have been devised for treating the sludge. Nest of these involve some 6xpenditure and inconvenience.

s TRICKLINGFILTERINSTALLATION WITH PRELIMINARY SEDIMENTATIONOF THE RAW SEWAGE Note that the effluent is applied to a bed of brokenstone, using a rotating distributor. E_fluent from these bedspassesthrougha humustank. Sludge is dried on special beds. Thisis a standard ratetricklingfilter., ...i _,vrll'l

104 I t

DISPOSALOF SEWAGEBYTHE ACTIVATEDSLUDGEMETHOD Note arrangement of inflow (upper left)to permit o_ by-passing storm water, grit chamber and screens, aeration tanks through which the sewage travels being aerated, settling tanks (clarifiers), effluent discharged into river, major portion of sludge from settling tanks pumped into digestion tanks where anaerobic decomposition occurs, sludge from these being subsequently dried in drying beds. A part of the sludge from the settling tanks is added to the raw sewage on entering the aeration tanks. lO5 0 Sludge is largely organic in native and it decomposes raDidly with the creation of offensive odo_s. In fact, disposa! of the resulting sludge creates a major problem in sewage treatment.

Wh.vTreat Sludge?

As sludgedecomposesand gives off odot[rs,it cannotbe left exposed at the works. It also containsbacteriav:hichmay render it dangerous to health.

Nethods of Treatment

@ T%_oobjectives are set in the handling of sludge. The first is to so pro- cess it that odours will not be given off _;henit is finally placed; and the other is to remove the excess water so that it can be handled more readily. As sludge comes •from the treatment plant, it contains about 95 to 99 per cent moisture. To reduce it to a form which can be handled conveniently, it should not have more than about 75 per cent water.

Different methods of sludge handling have been :_dopted. In one case the sludge is allowed to decompose or rot in tanks (illust=ated in the diagram of the Danforth Park Sewage Plant), and the gas is so controlled that odours are pre- vented. In settling tanks, whether one- or two-storey, the sludge settling in the bottom gradually decomp0ses until it is quite innocuous. Later a special tank, kno-_nas a "separate sludge digestion" tank, was used. Here the sludge is decomposed in an air-tight and heated tank° The sludge is kept at about 85° to 90° F. and this s0 hastens digestion that in about 6 weeks to 2 months it can be removed without odours° The sludge is then dark in colour and looks like ordinary humus. In this rotting process a gas, chisfly methane, is given off. This can be burned to supply heat°

: Sludge is also treated mechanically. In this way the excess water is re- moved. The method employed mainly to-day is vacuum filtration. In this the sludge is passed through a filter under a lo_vvacuum. The water is reduced and the sludge can be more readily handled. It does not alter the odour-producing properties. For this purpose, incineration may be follovJedas with municipal refuse.

Digested sludge is relatively free from odotu-. It is usually dewatered by drying on open or glass-covered beds of sand and gravel. (See diagram, Danforth Park Sewage Plant.)

Sludge may be used as a fertilizer but it should not be applied to any grow- ing crops such as celery, lettuce, etc., which are to be eaten raw.

School Sewerage Systems

Sanitary facilities for schools require special_consideration. Especially is this true of rural schools were an adequate supply of water as well as means for V_ping are not always available. A school which can be connected to muni- cipal serverscauses little difficulty. A municipal water supply is generally available in these circ_nstance.s,and a waterflush system of toilets should be installed. The problem of disposal of the se_:mgounder these conditions requires no further consideration.

Rural Schools

In rural schools the disposal of sewage often creates a problem that is i difficult. The various kinds of accommodation used for private homes be _" considered for rural schools, but they may require adjustments to meetmaYthese special conditions. These include the outdoor privy, the chemical toilet, the septic toilet, and the _vaterflushsystem.

Outdoor Privy

For school use the outdoor privy has disadvantages. It is disagreeable in the colder weather, and may cause odours if not given proper attention. The school is closed during the _arm weather, and this reduces the possibility of odours to some extent, but these facilities are often used by other groups in the summer and they abuse them. In _certain circumstances the outdoor privy is all that can reasonably be expected, and it can be made sanitary if care is taken. 106

,\ i

! 107

The construction of the privy is important, and the necessity for self-closing • doors, screened openings and proper ventilation is quite apparent. The type of privy best suited for the needs of the school will depend largely upon the nature of the soil and other local factors. Tnere the ground is sandy and no water supplies are likely to be polluted, a pit privy can be made to function satis- factorily. In other places it is more desirable to use a watertight va_t of concrete or brick, or pail privies. (See diagrams.) The latter can be emptied readily and causes less inconvenience than other types. A liberal application of earth, ashes or sand to the privy contents is desirable, and if the teacher encourages the use of this there is not likely to be much trouble with odours. Cleaning of the seats is a responsibility which should be taken care of by the janitor. Those should be cleaned regularly.

Indoor Toilets

A number of schools have been equlpped with chemical •toilets, and the so- called septic or waterless type of toilet. These have the advantage that they provide indoor accommodation and are largely independent of weather conditions. In the one a chemical is used to destroy bacteria and dangerous organisms. The other is a modification of a septic tank and the liquid overflow must be treated in the soil in a somewhat similar manner. Freezing is always a possibility in this installation unless it is uell protected. Adequate ventilation is neces- sary in both types to avoid odours in th_ building.

Waterflush Systems •

Where possible, waterflush systems should be installed in schools. They offer the most sanitary arrangements and, in addition to this, they make it possible to have wash-basins , drinking fountains and similar sanitary facilities. In the small rural school this may be difficult, especially where electricity is not available or where insufficient water is available.• There is also the pos- sibility that the installation may freeze during week-ends and winter holidays. This can be avoided by draining the system and by using salt in the traps of the different fixtures if necessary.

Septic Tanks for Schools

Where septic tanks are designed for schools, the size of the tank need not be made as large as would be required to accommodate a like number of persons in a private home. The tank should_aclty for about ten gallons_e_r p_upil. The tile bed, consisting of _-inch drain tiles, would require about half a_sgreat a number of tiles as would be necessary for a priw_to home--that iso, about 10 to 20 feet per person. (See diagrams,)

Miscellaneous Wastes

The private home and industries may require disposal of certain wastes apart from sewage. This problem is greater where this liquid cannot go into a sewage treatment plant.

Grease traps are used to some extent at private homes, at kitchens and othez° places where grease is a major factor. The diagram on page 106 shows the con- struction of a trap suitable for a home. In this the grease rises to the top, where it can be removed periodically, and the liquid drawn from the bottom is or a carried to open jointed tiles cesspool,The grease forms rather quickly, and if the piping is correct the tank need not be very large. IndustrialWastes

Industrial wastes of variable composition may be enco_itered at different factories. Some of these offer problems, not because of their organic content but rather because some condition is created which may be offensive to the sight or smell. These wastes are so varied that no general plan of treatment can be suggested. A Chemical examination of the material may be of considerable aid in selectinga systemof disposal. 108

i

PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE

The plumbing and drainage system of a buildinghas as its fundamental ob- jective the conveyance of the respective commodities to and from the consumer, through the building, without menace to himself or others; that is, the plumbing will bring water for all purposes, and will carry away the wastes from the building.

In modern plumbing and drainage the disposal of waste is by water carriae___e! that is, the wastes are carried away by a flush of water.

Definitions Sewe____r:A sewer is an underground pipe for the conveyance of sewage to the point of disposal.

Sew___: Sewage is the waste, liquid or solid, carried in the sewer.

SeweEa_e System or Sewage Works: This is the term applied to the entire system of sewers and•sewage treatment.

Combined Sewerage System: Where surface drainage and rain water are carried inthe same sewer as domestic and factory wastes, the system is spoke%of as a combined system.

Separate System: Here two sets of se_ers are provided. One carries domestic and factory wastes. The other carries surface drainage and rain water, and is known as a storm water sewer. This system permits the discharge of rain water and street washings directly into the nearest _ater course without treatment. An ad- vantage of the separate system is that the sewage will be smaller in volume, hence smaller sewers may be used and the sewage may be treated more economically. Dis- advantages !ie, however, in the cost of a double set of sewers, and in that street washings may cause a nuisance in streams of small volume.

Buildin_ Drainage and PlumbiD_

The house plumbing is the beginning of the public drainage system. It collects the _aste material from the toilet, wash bowl, bath tub, kitchen sink, laundry tubs, and other fixtures. In combined systems it also carries away the rain water frou roof and Yard areas. It pays to use good material•and _orkmanship throughout.

Soil Pipe: This is the name given to the vertical pipe into which the house fixtures discharge. It is at least 3 inches in diameter. It is carried through the roof of the building and generally acts as the main ventilating pipe for the drainage sys%em.

_aste Pine: The main or branch _pes carrying the waste water from sinks, wasb basins, baths, laundry tubs, and discharging into the soilpipe, are known as waste pipes.

Rain Pipe: This is the leader from rain troughs and gutters at the eaves and is usually discharged into a trap in the drainage system. _here rain water is ex- cluded from the_se_erage system, it may be connected either directly or indirectly to a system of storm _ater sewers. Where rain _ater pipes discharge•into traps• in a drainage system, it is advisable to have other wastes discharged into the same trap because whenthis is not done, such traps may become unsealed in dry weather by evaporation and mosquitoes breed there.

Bt_/din_ Drain: This runs horizontally _der the cellar and receives the dis- Charge from the soil pipe and conveys it to the building sewer.

B__uildin_Sewqr: This extends outside the building to the street sewer.

Intercepting.Trap: This is the name given to a trap which is placed on the line of the main house drain before it reaches thesewerin order to interrupt any noxious gases which may have formed in the sewer, The original use of this trap rose from the belief that sewer gases caused disease. This is no longer believed, but the use of the trap is continued in some municipalities to prevent the ent1:_i.ce of ill-smelling gases into the house. The desirability and efficiency of this _rap are open to question but a n_mber of plumbing codes require its use. The usual practice is to place such a trap near the boundary of the property being drained • and to carry up from the house end of the trap to the ground surface a ventilating 109 shaft. This is _o provide for the exchange of air from or to the drainage system. It is desirable to have the sewage drop a short distance on to the water seal of the trap so as to ensure that the floating matter will pass on. This method of plunging the floating matter in the water seal is known as cascade action.

Vitrified tile Or cast-iron pipes are used to form the horizontal building drains. They are round in section, smooth, and well glazed. These pipes have an enlarged or hub end which allo_sthe insertion of thesmaller or spigot end of the next pipe. In laying these pipes the ground in which they are laid must be sufficiently solid to bear the pipe. The pipes must be protected against possible breakage,suitable bendsas fromprovidedsettlingto ofachievewalls.turns.FipesIfmustpipesbe laidare angledin a straightto each lineother,anda proper joint cannot be obtained and there is likely to be obstruction to the flow of sewage. Care must be taken to see that a proper gradient is obtained. If the gradient is too great, the liquid may flow off and leave the floating matter to decompose and adhere to the pipe. A common rul_ for obtaining the proper gradient for house drains is to provide a fall of one inch for every ten times the diamater of the pipe. Thus, the gradient for a 4-inch pipe will be 1 inch in 40. The best size for a drain is that size which will run about half full.

Iron Piping: This is used both for building the horizontal drains under the house and for waste, soil, and ventilating pipes in the plumbing system. This pipe is usually of cast iron and is coated to prevent rust. This piping may have spigot and hub joints_ or flanged and bolted joints. In wrought iron,pipe screw joints are usually used but flanged Joints may be employed. In scre_ joints, proper recessed u_ien_ and fittings must be used. If this is not done, there will be a point at ea_h joint where the diameter of the joint and not the pipe is present and i_ns thencewill be a potential point of obstruction. Spigot and hub joints are subject to the same rules as tile pipe. Joints in these are made _ith hemp and caulked lead. Branches should have proper angles and provision should be made for access in case of stoppage. Piping should be properly supported and should not be placed on external walls because of the danger of freezing.

Lead___Pi_ng: If lead piping is used in the plumbing system, it must be sup- ported to prevent sagging. Only wiped joints are allowed. Where lead is joined to iron piping, a brass ferrule is used. This is joined by a wiped joint to the lead and a lead caulked joint to the iron.

Trap_s: Each fixture is provided with a trap_ that is, a fitting so constructed as to prevent the passage of air or gas from the drair_agesystem through the fixture into the building. Traps contain a water seal. To prevent the unsealing of tzaps by syphonic action or back pressure as a result of water sucking through them or past them_ they are commonly vented by means of vont pipes whi&h carry air into the house drainage system. (See below.) A trap presents an obstruction to the free flo_Jof sewage and retains a certain proportion of the waste for some period. How- ever, it is necessary in order to exclude odors.

There are various types of traps. S and P traps (so named bechuse of their shapes) prevent the _assage of gases. They are usually placed under sanitary fittings. Traps mayhave an additional duty such as trapping heavy matter like floor dust. Inthatcaso, _r_re_l or -----belltraps may be used. If the trap _o_ used to collect grease, it is called a_ trap. In S and P traps there must be a con._ant bore throughout. The trap must not have sharp corfiersin the interior. Traps must have a drain to allow the removal of foreign matter. A barrel trap has a vertis_l cylindrical shape. It has a connecting pipe at each side near the upper end, and at the outlet side a baffle is carried do_vninto the water to provide a seal. It is used where it is desired to trap all heartymaterial such as adust,bell,etc.the lowerIt mayedgealsoofbewhichused isas asubmergedgrease trap.in a waterA bellsealtrapandtakesretainedthe formby aof saucer-shaped lower part. Water passes through a grating around the bell and passes away through a hole in the centre. It serves to remove heavy material, as in a cellar. Grease traps remove fatty matter contained in the sewage. All take advantage of the differing specific gravity of fat and water. For example, kitchen waste is discharged into a trap containing a considerable volume of _vator. The fat floats on.the surface of the_ater and the liquid passes under a baffle and into the drain. The solidified fatty matter must be removed from the trap _t intcrvnls. In large installations, such as institutions, the fatis removed in aliquid state and discharged by a separate orifice. DIAGRAM i. """_"_" SECT I0 N

TYPICAL PLUMBING.& DRAINAGE INSTALLATION Iii

DIAG.RA . / - - ' u i

_wb_-'_,,,n."j i ,,_,,x. ("•'.S'_OO""N-w_"_"'_,.,._i G,LASS,,iWASHERii i L _ __ AND • J,, _ i I ,. ,,,,,,'_'"°_"",:L_="'o_,,RINSING. ,_TUBS USED. : I _, ! ,_ _ , PI PF... CO._. E Iw .'PD.. ' IN SODA-FOUNTAIN._

.... l ' , ..... ______, :_ IN DRAIN.

,,=,,,,.,,,,,,_,_,.,,_.,,,. ,,",,_,,.,",*,,,,_-,,_ m,DIAG.RAM: .... 4.

"_ltw_ F" s',"Qo_,a,,s_. . . 'l P_ _ '- ' CORRECTIONDESIGN BY USOFINGFAULTYA VENTURI

lilII i_" " i ,,,_•',"¢o"-_'"*_,-o.o_"°*" AIRIMoFVENTINGR THEBRESIAKABBACKNK,OTHUSV-SYPHONETHEeRE-AGE i_STOPPagOCCUe IRNS

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HOT W_'l'l R._" U I_PLY

DIAGRAMS. D[AG,RAM6_ HOSP,ITAL,INSTRUMENT LAVATORYWASH BA,SIN,,, STER)LIZER.. NOTE INTEGRAL WATER SUPPLY NOTE WATER SUPPLY PiPE OPENING BELOW RII40F BASIN AT THE BOTTOM OF STER- WITH DANGER OF BACK-SYPtl- ILIZER WITH THE DANGER ONAGE IF STOPPA(;E OCCURS OF BACK'SYPHONAGE IF IN DRAIN •PIPE. _,. u_- STOPPAGE OCCURS IN WASTE " PI PE. Ri_KOOU(I_O FROw _Mr_t_CAW _¢,'.ttS'v Ot__t'TCwlY E.NG,_IM£II_. 112

DIAGRA_7,_ _DIAGRAM,IO; ov..,,..., PIT WATERCLOSET-- DANGEROF BACK'SYPHON- I , AGE IF STOPPAGE OCCURS I IN DRAIN PIPE.

NOI[MAL WATKR. LllVIr.t. ....BATHFITTINGS, CORRECT ARRANGEMENT _'ro,,,,,,=, .a_l,p_,= "=_ _. WATER SUPPLY PIPE _"P"°" ABOVE RIM OF TUB PREVENTING BACK-SYPHONAGE IF STOPPAGE OCCURS.

DIAGRAM 9.

TOILE,T BOWL ,._YIl,_lO t4 1OWL WITH SIDE WATER SUPPLY AND FLUSH VALVE _DIAGRAM,..!!. SET ABOVE FLUSH RIM OF BOWL ,..DRINKINGFOUf_TAIN SHOWING, .THAT BACK'SYPHONAGE MAY WATER SUPPLY OPENING BELOW RIN TAKE PLACE IF STOPPAGE OCCURS IN OF BOWL WITH DANGER OF BACK- DRAIN PIPE, I.... SYPHONAGE IF STOPPAGE OCCURS ==.=oo.€.o,=o"*-.&,=,_o(,,.v o,_*.,.,,=ve.=,.===,.; IN DRA;N PIPF.. " 113

Ventine: This allows the constant free movement of air through the drainage system of the building. Three things are prevented by venting: accumulation of offensive odors in the piping, the syphoning of traps under fittings, and the forcing of traps by air •under pressure in the vertical piping. Thus venting ventilates the system and maintains in the region of the fixture traps an atmospheric pressure balance against the displacement associated with flushing or the passing of water through a fixture, _Thichdisplacement favors the removal of the water seal from the •trap.

The system is ventilated at the one end bv the breather or fresh air inlet • which comes from outside the building and connects YJiththe drain on the house side vertical or stacks O of the main trap, and at the other end by the one or more pipes _hich extend through and above the roof (see Diagram 1). There is also the lesser isystemof sell pipes and waste pipes which proceed from the fixtures to the drain. Each of the latter would constitute, in a sense, a pocket _rithdead ends at the _raps of the flxtures, were it not for the individual vents which arise from all •fixtures on the drain side of the traps, to unite at a point above the highest fix- iture to join the upper or Vent portion of the soil pipe or stack (Diagram 1). Thus all parts of the system are ventilated. Vents guard against any unnecessary invasioz with sewage or waste. For this reason the primary branch or tributary must rise vertically or with a vertical trend from its particular "_vasteplpe, and the main trunk must rise before union with the soil pipe to a point to _Jhichse_Jageor _¥aste _ater cannot reach, this being well above the highest fixture in the building.

Sewers: Serversare constructed of tile pipe, concrete pipe, or brick. They are ventilated by inserting gratings in the crowns of road_ays, by leaving surface vJater gullies untrapped, or by special ventilating pipes. From the middle of the il9th century until its close, emphasis _as placed on preventing se_;_ergas from entering houses because it was believed that it was the actual cause of certain in- fectious diseases. It was believed that putrefying matter an_vhare v_0uldcause disease. To-day it is recognized that proper traps ;_ndvents are •essential not because the sewer air of itself spreads disease but because it is undesirable that such air, ._vithits unpleasant odors, should enter buildings. In constructing sewers, care must be exercised to obtain a minimum velocity of 2 ft. per soc., to have a sufficien% grade to prevent accumulation of solids,and to prevent sedi- mentation at junctions.

The Common Water SuDDIF

This _omprises mains or pipes of varying dimensions and size which convey the public v_ter supply, usually underground, to which individual house supply lines are connected. These latter _re knovm as services The remainder of the system, so far as a•building is concerned, consists of the piping within the structure, the various fittings employed, and the outlet fixtures installed for the use and the convenience of the consumer. Usually there is only one set of supply pipes, but in industrial plants and institutions an auxiliary water supply may be installed from a river or other source. Such auxiliary supplies are used for the purpose of washing, cooling, processing, or for fire protection. This auxiliary supply is never in- tended to be used at any time for human consumption.

In order to meet emergencies arising from fire or fail1_e of the municipal water plant, connections bet_Teenthe two are sometimes made, even though pro- hibited. This constitutes a cross-connection betvreen the potable water supply and water that is unsafe for human consumption. These connections are presumably valves. Conditions may arise either through the failtwe of the opor:ztorto operate the valves properly or by the failure of the valves themselves, in which the untreated polluted water of the auxiliary supply enters the municipal supply and so is used by the employees of the plant or residents of the m_nicipality at large. Such cross-connections are prohibited but are installed sometimes, _;ithout the danger being realized. Serious v_&_ter-bornooutbreaks have been traced to oven temporary installations of this kind.

In the installation of domestic water systems the use of too small _ater mains should be discouraged. All interior piping should be laid so as to ha_e a definite fall to the main shut-off valve, so that when the valve is closed all the pipes _;_ill drain to that point. Care must be taken to see that where water connections are made to sanitary fittings the water ,_Tillenter the fitting at a point higher than the top of the fitting. To place the point of entrance of the water above the overflow opening in the fitting is not enough, for the overflow would not operate in case of the blackage of the dry,in. This would constitute a potential cross- connection, and the f_ctor of bhck syphonage enters here_ In back syphonage, se'z_agefrom a choked or defective drain may be syphoned into the water pipe. Such , ii_.

condition may arise in the case of a fitting lying full Of sewage where the sewage submerges the water inlet of the fitting, where the trap is open or leakinG, and the water is shut off at the main valve. With the lack of pressure in the water tap due to closure of the main valve, as it empties it v_illsyphon out the sewage from the fixture into the water pipe. Long and short hopper closets are connected directly to a water pipe without the intervention of a cistern° In these, water is discharged below the top of the fixture by a spreader. Should there be a block and the closet be full of sewage, the shutting off of water will result in the sewage being syphoned into the water pipe.

Cardinal Points in the Re2_lation of Pl_umb_ l. Licensing of the Plumber: The trade divides itself into two classes: master plumber and journeyman plumber. These two classes are based on experience, andabillty to consunmlateand finance a Contract. The llcence, which is the holder's authority to do business or to engage in the occupation, should be dependent upon the passing of a satlsfactoNj examination. This is now ths procedurein many places_ The requirements for examination .mayvary to some extent between the master plumber and the one who works for and accepts superWsion from another.

2. Exami_____nationandA_rovalof Plans: It is the Usual practice to require for building or for major alterations a permit from the municipal authority. • The sub- mission of plans is required and those relating to plumbing and drainage Should be reviewed and approved separately by a qu_lified official a_liated _ith the health department.

3. The Code: The supervisory control of pl_ing cannot be carried out satis- factorily without guiding legislation in the form of regulation, by-lav_,or ordin- ance. This code should clearly set forth the specifications for materials and workmanship and should detail adequately the terms of submission of plans, work permits, and inspection.

4. A__Svstemof Inspection: First there is a revie_ and acceptance of the plans submitted. Before the drain is covered, an inspection is made. Further inspection is made when the work is nearly completed (roughing-instage), and a_ain when the fixtures have been connected. •

t In__ection of a Draina_e__Ss_ _ _ • / In making an inspection of a drainage system, whether new or old,•the inspector should satisfy himself in regard to the follov_ingpoints wherever possible:

lo The nature of the _round on which horizontal drains are laid, and the pre- cautions taken to prevent damage to these drains.

2. The level of the building in relation to the level of the sewer, and thus determine if the proper gradient has been used.

3. The materials and Sizes used for drainage pipes, andthe methods of jointing used.

4. The trapping of horizontal drains :_,ndthe provision made for their venti- lation.

5. The provisions made for access to the drains and plumbing in case of a blocking.

O to prevent6. Thedamagemannertointhedrainwhich thethenhorizontalor later.drains are covered over after testing

7. The n_mber, nature, location, and adequacy of installation of the various sanitary fittings.

8. The trapping of the sanitary fittings.

9. The provisions made to prevent the sanitary fittin£s becoming untr_!.pp_d during use.

/ lO. The relationship of vlaterfittings to the fixtures they supply so as to prevent the possibility of back syphonage.

ll. The placing of fittings and piping so as to prevent freezing, 115

Tests _ To ascertain the soundness and tightness of a plumbing and drainage installa- tion, it is customary to employ, in addition to the observational powers of a trained inspector, a number of special tests. The three most commonly used are the water test, the rolling ball test, and the smoke test. The air test may also be used.

I.• Water Test: This test is used in the roughing-in stage; i.e., at a time before partitions are closed in or floors laid--or, in ether words, when the

plumbinghave beeninstallationattached. Inisthestillcasewithinof drainfullwork,view.theAttestthiswilltimeprecedefixturesthewillcoveringnot of the drain. The test may be used on the drain alone or on the installation as a whole. The procedure is as follows: Aftersealing openingsLexcept the highest, which is naturally at the highest point of the soil pipe, the system to be tested is filled with water and obser_J.tionis directed towards leaks as they may be apparent to the eye or as they may influence the level of the _Jaterat its high point. As anaid to the!atter observation, it is common practice to float a wax seal down the inner side Of the pipe and over the surface of the water at its upper level; a downward recession of the water is thus more readily apparent. If leakage is evident, its source must be sought, and in this connection one senses at once the wisdom of conducting these tests in theroughing-in stage. At this time, the Careful inspector will closely inspect the material, joints, and fittings, noting the general workmanship and any evidehceof unscrupulous patch work. • . _ i W t test either as a sln-le 2. Bal! Test: After the drain k_s _assed the a er . , " " unit or a_-_-p_ of the whole installation, and after the Water has been drained out, a ball about the size and weight of_ billiard ball is Passed through the

drain and its branches. If the ball rolls/ freely through, it may be assumed that the pipes have been laid with an even gradeand are without obstruction or debris to retard the flow of water-borne wast&. / 3. Smoke Test: The final inspection and smoke test are made after the build- inghas been completed and the plumbing fixtures are fixed in their respective places_ A special smoke machine is used, consisting primarily of a fire pot in which are burned tobacco stems or oily cotton waste. Around the base of the pot is a channel into which water is run. A dome-like smoke container is inverted over the fire pot, its edges resting in the water. To keep the fire smoldering and to propel the smoke from the smoke chamber, a bellows is used. The smoke chamber is connected to the system to be tested and the smoke is forced into it. Sealing of openings now becomes confined to the upper vent and soil pipe apertures only, the water seals of traps serving the purpose. At this point it is worthy of note that the sealing of the uppermost apertures is best not attempted until the smoke is plainly evident at these points, which may be taken as a signal that the smoke has sufficiently permeated the system to render the test of practical value. _oreover, it is to be noted that total permeation is facilitated by the choice of the point at Which the smoke is introduced, which is usually through the fresh air inlet or breather which, in turn, is low in position and the forepart of the whole installa- tion. A properly constructed smoke machine will not create a pressure sufficient to disturb the water seal of traps, and if such pressure were developed it would automatically be relieved by the dome being lifted above the water in which it rests. The first requisite in connection with its use is therefore that bellows' pressure be applied at a rate which will not raise the dome out of its own seal. The value and interpretation of the test depend on definite sensory impressions. In the first place, smoke is visible and, secondly, the peculiar odor of the smoke from the articles _hich are burned is unmistakable. In the case of leakage from the drain, which by this time is covered over, the only evidence may be one of

_@ fluctuationpressure andofreleasethe domealone;in athismanneris whicha phenomenonis not consistentwhich requireswithmorethe bellows'or less skilled interpretation. A completely satisfactory test is one in which the upper inverted receptacle will rise to a given height and remain so for a considerable period.

4. Air Test: In the air test the various outlets are plugged up and air is pumped in until a certain pressure is indicated on a gauge. The falling of pres- sure will indicate a leak but not its location. This test is sometimes varied by using a strong-smelling gas instead of air_ butin such cases care has to be taken to ensure the fillingof the system withthe gas before the outlet points are plugged. 116

Another test is used to test the efficacy of the local vent. A number of crude methods may be employed, the purpose bein_ to measuro roughly the exhaust" which takes place through the vent. A simple method of testing the outflow is to place a piece of light-weight paper over the venting. If there is a satis- factory suction, the paper will be held against the aperture.

The Test Plu_: This is the method of sealing openings for the w.rious tests. A simple mean_ is to solder a cap into the ends of open pipes but this is appli- cable to lead pipes only. A device known as a test plug is widely used. In addition to its use for plugging, it has another use. If simple closure alone is wanted,threadedthestem,plugconsists_hich is f_stenedof a flatintorubberone metaldisc plateheld betweenand whichtwoholdsmetalalldiscs.threeA together, receives a lock nut, by means of _hich pressure is exerted on the rubber disc to bring about expansion of its outer edge. Presuming the initial selection of the proper size Of plug, the expansion _ill be sufficient to plug the opening. As a v_riant of the foregoing, a plug mo.ybe designed to seal the opening and, at the same time, allow the introduction through it of the medium to be used for testing (_ater or smoke). This requirement is easily met by the use of a threaded nipple or piece of piping of the desirQd size in place of the threaded stem. Capping of the nipple, on the other hand, returns the device to the form for simple plugging. If the diameter of the nipple is considerable, thatwhich has been described as a rubber disc assumes the form which mere closely resembles a rubber ring.

i J 117

VENTILATIONAI_ HEATING

QqmDositionof Air:

It is well known that man cannot survive long without air. Air is a mixture of gases, largelY composed of oxygen, nitrogen, a small amount of other gases, such as carbon dioxide, and a variable amom_t of moisture. For practical purposes, we may consider air to be composed of twenty per cent oxygen and eighty per cent

nitrogen. Early Conceptions of Ventilation:

By the process of breathing, the body obtains oxygen from the air for the oxidation or burning of foods and, by the same process, carbon dioxide, which is produced in the body by oxidation, is exhaled. The early investigators thought that the harmful effects of the air in confined spaces was due to a deficiency of oxygen. This idea was abandoned when it Was discovered that an animal could live in an atmosphere so deficient in Oxygen that it was unable to support the burning of a candle. An increase in the carbon dioxide content was then considered to be the cause of discomfort in badly ventilated places but later experiments demon- strated that this _as not the case. It has been well established that, in rooms ordinarily used for human occupancy, the changes in o_jgen and carbon dioxide of the air, even in the most crowded and poorly ventilated rooms, are comparatively small, because of the continual leakage through walls and ceilings and cracks. There may becertain conditions such as in vaults, tanks and deep mines where the amount of oxygen or carbon dioxide may vary enough to cause trouble, but in ordin- ary problems of ventilation, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air is of little or no practical importance, r_anyinvestigators have claimed that poisonous compounds are given off by the lungs and during the evaporation of sweat, but no such substance has been isolated.

Factors Influencing Heat Loss from the Body:.

Attention was then drawn to another very iaportant part played by air in man's well-being - the loss of body heat. _n, like an engine producing power, is not thermally one hundred per cent efficient. As the body is always producing energy, it must also be losing heat, unless a rise in bo_y temperature occurs. This heat is dispelled to the surrounding air. To-day most of those who have given the question thought consider that the control of man's environment so that thebody can__o__eitse_c_e__h_t__ti_h__thtund_e__s_ra_nis the_rimeconsideration Heat loss from the body is influenced by the temperature of the air, theair movement, the humidity of the air, the temperature of surrounding ob- jects, and the type of clothin{_worn.

Of these factors, temperature is the most important. The temperature of the environmental air regulates the method by _hich heat is lost from the body. When the temperature is low or medium, the heat from the body is dispelled to the cooler surrounding air. At high temperature, sweating occurs and the sweat, evaporating on the skin, cools the body. This method of heat loss by the evaporation of . sweat makes it possible for the body to n_intain its proper temperature even when the surrounding air temperature is higher.

The effect of air movement is considerable. At low and ordinary temperatures, air movement greatly increases heat loss from the body. At higher temperatures, it helps eVaporation of shear. Thus, by increasing the air motion, we can com- pensate to a great extent for increase in temperature.

The effects of the humidity of the air depend on the temperature. High hum- idity with high temperature makes cooling of the body difficult because of its ad- verse effects on evaporation of sweat. Low temperature and high humidity increase heat loss b]__ conduction and by the greater heat-absorbing properties of moist air over dry air. This is the explanation of the fact that on sultry days the sensa- tion of heat bears no relation to the temperature, and that on damp days one feels chilly even when the temperature is not very low. High humidity greatly decreases the range of temperature in which comfort can be attained.

. The temperature of surrounding objects is important. The body loses heat by 118 radiation to surrounding cooler objects while hotter surrounding objects radiate heat to the body. This heat transfer is not dependent upon the surro_nudingair temperature. The open fire-place is a striking example of heating by radiation, while walls, window-panes and metal sashes, because of the low temperature in winter, receive heat by radiation from people in close proximity, thereby produc- ing a feeling of chilliness. In in_istry, the presence of hot machines greatly influences the worker's environment, while in our homes and work places, the presence of cold walls, etc., demands that higher air temperatures be maintained to produce comfortable conditions_ It is common to observe during the colder weather that in large offices, in order to have comfortable conditions near outside walls, the centre of the room is overheated. It is said that the body can lose as much as forty-six per cent of its excess heat by radiation. Good ventilation means that the deheating effect of the air is such that the body can maintain its proper temperature with ease and comfort. In practice, the thermometer is the best single index for meastu_ingthe efficiency of ventilation, a temperature in the neighbourhood of 70OF. usually giving satisfactory results. More complicated standards, based on comfort, _hich include the effect Of _ir motion and humidity as well as temperature, have been worked out but they are not generally used for every-day purposes.

Codes for Ventilation:

There are many codes of ventilation used by different municipalities. These codes usually state the volume of air supplied per individual, the number of c_oic feet of air space per person, the area of floor space per person and the tempera- ture of the air. When mechanical ventilation is used, the amount of air that can be recirculated is usually stated. Some codes also make reference to the amount of relative humidity in the air. Examination of such codes, with the exception o_ temperature, strongly suggests that there is no fixed agre_m<_ntbetween the different people responsible f@r these codes. It is well to bear in mind, however, that ventilation requirements will vary in different places, due to difference in clim_te, social status of people, age, amount of clothing worn by the group _mder consideration, and many other factors. It is important that the inspector be familiar with the"ventilation code of the municipality in which he works and that for the schools in the province in which he resides. It is well to compare these codes with those of other municipalities, provinces or states.

Methods of Ventilation:

In practice, ventilation is effected by either natural or mechhnical means. In natural ventilation, windows, doors, etc., and sometimes gravity exhausts are used to control air conditions. In mechanical ventilation, motive power is used to supply air. The simplest form of m_%hanical ventilation is the use of fans or exhaust or vacuum systemsto remove air from the room, the air entering through windows, doors, cracks, etc. More complicated systems of mechanical venZilation usually supply air to the room and means are provided for the removal of the air by ducts which may or may not have motive po_;erfor this purpose. When the air is supplied mechanically, it is sometimes called the "plonu_ system". _echanical air supply and exhaust are often referred to as the "balanced system". Sometimes a portion of the air is recirculated, saving fuel in cold weather. Unit heaters are mechanical ventilation units, usually piaced under window,s. They bring in outside air and heat it to a satisfactory temperature before delivering the air to the room. They may be so designed as to permit recirculation of the room air.

Air conditioning usually ref<_rsto a type of mechanical venZilation equipment that permits cooling of air in hot weather and heating in cold weather and also controls the relative humidity. Moans are usually provided for filterin£ the air.

@ Natural ventilation requires the personal attention of an occupantof• the room for its regulation, that is, the opening and closing of windows. It is usually satisfactory for rooms up to the size of school rooms. Larg6r rooms, densely populated, generally require some form of mechanical ventilatian to pro- duce satisfactory conditions.

Whatever system of ventilation i_used or code followed, it is well to re- member that goodovontilation requires_hat the air__ave the orcper cooling%_Qfect on the occup_nts_ii{b_i_-_ion be prcsent_dours bc prevented and_om- fort be attained for the majority of the occupants. In investigating the atmospheric conditions of a room the following points should be noted:

(a) Number of occupantspresent normally in the room and at the time of investigation. (b) The cubic capacityof room_ length,width and height. (c) Number and location of windowsand doors. How many windows will open. (d) Number of square feet of floor space and cubic feet of air space per person usually housed in room. (e) Size and locationof inlet and outlet registers in room.

(f)(g) VoluThe pmreesenceof airofsupplieddrafts ifandmechanicaltheir cause.ventilationis used_. (h) The presence of odours. (i) The termperatureat various locations in room. (j) If dryness is complainedof, the relative humidityshouldbe es- timated.

In order to determine the volume of air entering the room from an inlet, the average velocity over the whole area of the register should be determined by means of an anemometer (see photograph) and the area of the register measured. From this information the vol_ne of air supplied can be calculated.

Drafts can be measured by the Kata thermometer (see photograph) which is essentially a large bulbed thermometer. It is heated by hot water and the time taken to cool from lO0°F, to 95°F. is noted. From tables supplied with the in- strument, the air velocity can be calculated as well as the cooling effect of the atmospheric conditions of the room_ This instrument can also be used as an an- emometer for measuring velocity at registers.

The following by-l_ of the City of Hamilton may be taken as an example of a municipal by-law dealing with ventilation. The volume of air specified refers to the case where mechanical ventilation is provided, if air conditioning is used, as much as 75 per cent of the air can be recirculated. Air-conditioning equip- ment must be satisfactory to the Medical Officer Of Health.

OCCUPANCY _':_2JCHANICAL VENTILATION

Cubic feet of air Complete ep_g_r_qrspnper minute c_j3_n_esoer hour

Assembly halls 25 6 Ball rooms 30 6 Basement stores 30 6 Church auditoriums 20 4 Classrooms 25' 6 Club rooms 20 4 Conference rooms 25 _ 6 Court rooms 25" 6 Dance halls 30 6 Dining rooms 20 4 Gymnasiums 30 6 Laboratories 25 6 Library rooms 20 4 _seums 20 4 Offices 20 4 Stores 20 4

AmmoniaTheatrescompressor rooms --25 6 Automobile repair shops -- Bakeries -- 8 Bath rooms -- 4 Boiler rooms -- 6 Dry cleaning and dyeing plants -- 20 Enam_lling -- 6 Engine rooms -- 6 Garag9 storage -- 4 Gasoline service stations -- 6 Kitchens -- 8 12_ OCCUPANCY Cubic feet of air Complete _er person per minute chan_es per hour

Lacquer manufacturing plants . -- 6 Locker rooms -- 2 Paint shops -- 6 Refrigerating plants -- 6 Rest rooms -- 4 Stair halls and public

Toiletcorridorsrooms -- 43

For purposes of determining ventilation requirements according to the nmmber of occupants, "the number of occupants sm.ll be determined bythe number of fixed seats or other fixed provisions and when no such provisions are made shall be based on floor area in accordance with the following table.

OCCUPANCY NU_,_EROF S_OUAREFEET PER PERSON

Assembly halls 6' Asylums i00 Churches. I0 Class rooms 15 Club and lodge rooms• i0 Court rooms 15 Dance halls iO Dining rooms • 15 I_ellings i00 Factories andwork rooms 50 Gymnasiums i0 Hospitals i00 Hotels 70 Lodging houses 70 Lounging rooms 15 Offices 75 Readin£rooms 50 " Recreationrooms 15 Store buildings 25 Theatres 6

The Ontario Department of Education gives the fo!lo_ing standards regarding ventilation:

(12) Ventilation.--(a) All school buildings shall have a ventilating system. (b) Where a mechanical system is provided, it shall be so devised as to supply at le__st_ thirt_ 9ubic feet of fresh air for each _uoil par_. For a standard classroom for forty pupils this will require a com- plete change of air eight times per hour. (c) In schools heated by hot-air furnaces, there shall be a direct fresh air supply duct to the furnace from the outside as far above the grade as practicable, fitted with a regulating damper. Ducts for re- circulating the air from the classrooms shall be provided as well as four air exits. (d) In classrooms heated by jacket stoves there shall be a direct fresh air duct leading from the outside at a point as high above the grade as practicable to an opening to the stove, and providedwith a regulating damper. There shall also be a foul air extract pipe so placed as to be heated by the smoke pipe, having the lower end six inches from the floor and passing in- to a ventilating flue or through the roof.

NOT___.--(a) At intermissions and during periods for physical exercises, the windows should for a time be raised from below and lowered from above. (b) The windows should be supplied with close-fitting portable win- do}_b_ards. (c) When storm sashes are used, they should be so adjustable as to allow the ingress of pure air. 121

Heatin_ Equipment and Ventilation:

In practice, heating and ventilating are inseparable. The most primitive type of heating is the open fire-place, which, because of its inefficiency, has been replaced by the stove or furnace.

All heating equipment, with the exception of that using electricity, requires a supply of air for burning purposes and a chimney to remove smoke and fumes. In this way a certain air exchange is effected in the room. The open fire-place removes more air from the room than other methods of heating. The ordinary hot-

airfromfurnacethe houseis thedescendsmost bycommongravitytypetoofacentralizedcha_oer aboutheating.the fire-potHere theof coldthe furnace,air is heated, e_oands and rises through pipes to different parts of the house. Hot- air furnaces give satisfaction if properly desi£ned. One disadvantage, however_ is that the warm air inlet to the room mustbe located on an inside wall while the cold air outlet should be located by the outside wall or in the hallo This means that the occupants of the room are between the source of heat oondthe cold out- side walls or windows. Another disadvantage is that if the fire-pot cracks, gases may enter the air ducts and be circulated throughout the house.

In steam or hot-water systems the heating radiator is placed ruddera _indow or at an outside _all, in such a position that the source of heat is bet_oen the occupants and the cold windo_s or walls. Some of the he_t supplied to the room is by direct radiation from the radiator while in a hot-air furnace the heat is supplied entirely by warm air circulated in the room. Large radiators _ith lo_rer operating temperatures ust_lly give better results than smaller radiators _ith hii_hertemperatures.

_,_henan air-conditioning system is used it is somewhst like e hot-air furnace only that the circulation of air is effected by fans sad not by gravity, which • permits the placing of hot-mir inlets at any given location in the room. _eans are also usually provided for cleaning the air and for regt_ating the moisture content.

Unit h_aters are often used in schools _undfactories for heating purposes. These units are composed of a heating coil _hich is heated by steam through which air is blown by a fan. The air m_y be t_ken in part or whole from the outside or just be the room air recirculated through the coil.

Satisf_ctory heating requires that m conufortabletemper_ture be _intained in the room. Heating syste_ tb_t produce big differences bst_vcenair temperature at head and foot level are not satisfactory and usually result in general everhe_ting. Stoves, radi_.tors_nd other heating units should never be operated @r placed in such a position as to c_use overheating of peopl_ close by.

In investigating the heating of a room, the method by _hich the room is heated should be noted. If a hot-air system is used, the location, size _tndnum- ber of inlet and cold-_.irregisters should be observed. If steam or hot-°_ater syste_ _re used, the location, size sad ntm_berof r_di_:torsshotuldbe noted. Whenstovesare emplov_. _ -,_d_the location,size_-,_dntm_bershouldbe specified_-_nd _'lso_°hetherpeople close to the stoves ,_reprotected from too much heat by casings around the stoves. The temperature _t different points in the room should be taken. There should not be ms.rkeddifferences of temperature betv_eenthe h_ad level and feet level in the room. A tempero.t_e in the nei_hb_urhood of 70°F. should be satisfactory. Coolness ",_it_temper_:_tureover 70°F. is often caused by • drafts from ventilating ducts or _mnao_s"_ _ or by the'presence of cold surrounding •bjects such as outside _zs!is. @ . _ 122

LIGHTING

In order to see one must have light. The light falling on the object under obeervation is reflected to the eye which in return conveys the impression received to the brain,

The amount Of light present naturally has an important bearing on vision and the study of•this subject has produced much valuable information.

The Standard of lllumination: The accepted standard of illumination is the foot-candle. The foot-candle is the light intensity of a standard candle at the distsnce of one foot and this measurement is used in prescribing the mnount of illumination considere_ _esirable for different situations. A 60-watt frosted bulb hanging dov_nwaraswill produce about ten foot-candles at a distance of thirty-seven inches.

It has been found that vision is greatly improved by increasing illumination up to five foot-candles. From five to twenty foot-candles the rise in visual acuity boccmes progressively slower and beyond twenty foot-candles scarcely noticeable.

Intensit[ of Light for Various Purposes:

For ordinary purposes ten foot-candles are quite satisfactary. For fine work a greater amount of light is considered necessary. There has been an attempt the last few years to increase greatly the amount of illumina%ion provided for all types of lighting. While increasing the amount of illumination does not cause any specific harm, higher than necessary standards are not desirable from an economic viewpoint.

There is some evidence that people with certain types of eye trouble are benefited by increased illumination, but eye trouble cannot necessarily be attributed to poor lighting. People doing _ery fine Work are greatly helped by wearing special spectacles while working even if their eyes are normal and good illumination is provided. The amount of work performed by such people will _e increased as much as twelve per cent. and eye strain greatly reduced by such spectacles.

Glare and Shadows:

It must be understood that seeing is not an instantaneous process and that it takes time to see, the amount of time needed depending in part on the light available. It is for this reason that different amounts of light are recon_uondedfor different types of work, In general, enough light that does not flicker should fall on the work without producing discomfort or glare to the worker. •Light-colored surfaces reflect more light than dark ones and for this reason _Jorkingwith dark materials requires more ligat.

Glare may occur in •natural or artificial lighting. Giare may be defined as any brightness within the field of vision that causes discomfort, interference with vision, or oy_ fatighe. Glare _ay be caused by looking at a source of light which is too strong such as the sun, the reflection of light from bright surfaces, cr by contrasts in lighting. The automobile headlight at night causes glare duo to the contrast ",etwoonlight and darkness. In the daytime the same lights do not cause glar_ as this contrast is lacking. For the sai_ioreason, a bright light on a dark wall causes Considerable annoyance, while on a bright wall no special effect is notice_.

Much discomfort is also produced when alternately looking at objects _rith

m_rked differences of illumination and this should _o avoided as much as possible. Benefits of Good Lighting:

Good illumination, both natural or artificial, makes for a bright _andmore cheerful interior and usually produces the following results: 1. Reduction in accidents. 2. Greater accuracy in workmanship. 3. Increased production. 4. Less eye strain. 5. Greater contentment of worker. 6. Better housekeeping (light shows up dust). 123 Natura ! Lightin5: "

Lighting may be provided by natural or artificial means. Natural lighting depends on windows and it must be remembered that dirty windows greatly reduce the sl_otmtof light entering the room. The location of workers in a naturally-lighted room should be so arranged that the light does not come directly to their eyes from the windows and that objects in the room do not produce glare.

Artificial Li_htir_ :

Artificial lighting is usually necessary in large rooms. There are three

systemslightingofallartificialthe artificiallighting,lightgeneral,is suppliedlocalbyandoverheadlocal-general.lights thatIn genera!illuminate the whole room_ In local lighting, individual light sources are provided at each work place. Local-general lighting is a combination of the other two methods.

For ordinary purposes general lighting c_,nbe mnde satisfactory but for fine work local-general lighting is to _e Nreferred.

The foot-candle meter is an instrument for measuring the am0tmt of illumination. Its use is necessary in investigating lighting conditions,

The Department of Labour, Canada, distributes a pazaphlet "Recommended Practice of IndUstrial Lighting", giving standards of illumination which have been approved by the Canadian Engineering Standards Association. It is recommended that each inspector obtain a copy of this book. Thu following recommended minimum standards of illumination for industrial interiors are given as they appear in this publication.

_,_inimum Foot- candles in Service Measured 30 inches above the floor Assembly : Rough ...... '.._...... • l0 Modiunl...... 20 Fiuo ...... •...... B x Extra Fine. _...... A x

Automobdie _lanufactuin_:r Assembly Line...... B x Frame Assembly...... 20 Body l_[anufacturin_-- Farts...... 20 Asse_ibly ...... 20 Finishing and inspecting...... i...... A x

Bakeries:...... 20

Book Bindini: Folding, Assunfoling, Pasting, etc, ...... i0 Cutting , Punching and Stitcifinj ...... 20 Embossing ...... 20 Bre;v_rdes: Br_wI_ouse...... °...... •...... 5 Boiling, Keg i_ashingand Filling ...... i0

Bottlin_ ...... 20 Candy }4rlkin_j Box D opartmont...... _0 Choceiato Dupartmont-- Husking, _Tin._o_ving,Fat Extraction, Crushing, Rofilling, and F coding...... l0 Bo_n Clo,_ningand Sorting...... _.%...,i_...... ,.... 20 Dipping, Packing, Wrapping ...... #...... 20 _[illinE••...... 50 Cro_ _,[aking-- i_[ixing,Cooking, iolding, _Itu_Drops and Iolliod Forms ...... 20 Hand decorating...... 50

x - See roferon_ footnotG st end of tablu. 124

Minimum Foot- candles in ServiceMeasured 30inches above Candy makin_ (Continued) the floor

Hard Candy-- Mixing, Cooking and Molding...... 20 Die Cutting and Sorting @eeeoeeeooeoooeeeeooeooeeeeeoeeeoeeeeoo 30 Kiss Making and _J:rappingoeoeeeeeoeo'eeoeo_oeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeo 30

oeoeoooeooeeooeeeeoeeeoooo@eoeoeeoeeo_oeeeeeoooeeeo • 20 O Canning and Preserving: Chemical !_orks: Hand Furnaces, Boiling Tanks, Stationary Driers, Stationary and ' Gravity Crystallizers eeeeeoeoooeooooooeeoeoeeeeoeeeeoeeeeeeeeeee 5 Mechanical Furnaces, Generators and Stills, Mechanical Driers, Evaporators, Filtration, _chanical Crystallizers, Bleaching .... l0 Tanks for Cooking, Extractors, Percolators, Mitrators, Electro- lytic Cells ...... 15

Slay Products and Cements: Grinding, Filter Presses, Kiln Rooms ...... 5 Molding, Pressing, Cleaning and Trinming...... 10 Enameling Oeoooeeeo@eeeeoeeeeeeeeeoeeeeoeeoeeeoeeoeeeoeooeeeeeoeeoo • 15 Color and Glazing ...... 20

Cleaning and Pressing Industry: Checking and Sorting ...... 20 Dry and Wet Cleaning and Steaming eooeeeeeoeeeeeeeeoeeeeoeomeoeeeo lO Inspection and Spotting ...... •...., A x Pressing°- Machine...... 20 Hand...... 50 Receiving and Shipping ...... lO Repair and Alteration ...... 50

Cloth Products : Cutting, Inspecting...... 20 Se_ing-- Light Goods oeeeoeooeoooeoooeeooeoeoooeooooeeooooeoeeoooooeooooo - 20 DarkG oos.....d ...... A x Pressing, Cloth treating iOil Cloth; _tc_i 2_ Light Goods ooeoooeeeeeeeeeoeoeeeoeoeoeooeoeoeoee"oeoeeooeeeoeee@ I0 Dark Goods ...... 20

Coal Tip_Diesand Cleanin_ Plants: Breaking, Screening and Cleaning ...... '..... i0 Picking...... • ...... A x

Construction - Indoor: (General)...... lO

Elevators - Freight and Passenger:...... lO

Engraving: ...... A x

Forge ShoR£ and Welding: ...... i0

O Garages - Automobile: Storage--Live ...... lO Storage-'Dead.... 2 Repair Department'and'Washingi_l[i_i_i_i[_ii[[_iiii_iiiii_i_iill 30

Glass _Vorks: Mix and Furnace Rooms, Pressin_ and Lehr, Glass blowing M_chines.. i0 Grinding, Cutting Glass to Size, Silvering ...... 20 • Fine Grinding, Polishing,rBeveling, Etching, and Decorating ...... 50 C x Inspection...... B x C x

x- see reference footnote at end of table. 125

Min _uum Foot- candles in Service Measured 30 inches above Glove Manufacturing: the floor Pressing, Knitting, Sorting- Light Goods ...... l0 Dark Goods ...... 20 Cutting, Stitching, Trimming, Inspection- Light Goods ...... 20 @ Dark Goods ...... - ...... Ax Hangar s-Aer o_,lane : Storage-Live ...... l0 Repair Department ...... 50

Hat Manufacturing: Dyeing, Stiffening, Braiding, Cleaning and Refining-

Formins, Sizi_ig, Lig_'_t...... 20 Dark ...... 30 Sewing- --, Light. •_...... :...... 20 Dark ...... _.._...... ,...... A x

Ice Making-En_;i.aeand Compressor Room: ...... l0

Im.spection: Rough...... 20

Fine ...... ' B x Extra Fine...... _...... ii. oA x

Iron and Steel i4anufacturin(4:...... •...... xx

Yewelr_jand Watch Z_ianufacturin_:...... _ A x

Laundrios :...... 20

Leather i,_anufacturin_: " "

Vats.. • e.,6eoe,,., o., ._ eo,,e.eae_.ee_,ee 5

Cleaning , Tar_uing_ and Stretching @ee ,, e e. e o • a • . ,, • s • • • eee e.e o _ o. o * • O l0

C"_ tting , Fleshing _ud StU ffin_eeee._e ,,.. e..ot 20 Finishi_4_o.nd Scarfing _ _o_ oeooeo " • oee eeee eee*e eeee • • eooeeoeea, e 0° ,,OO 30

Leather Workin_ : .. Pressing, _Jindir_gand Glazing- Light ...... l0 Dark ...... 20 Grading, R_atching, Cutting, Scarfing;,Se_,Jing- Light ...... 20 Dark ...... A x

Locker Rooms :...... •...... "...... i0

O IviachineShops: Rough Bench sn_d}iachinoWork ...... 20 _iodiumBench and l_achiieJerk, Ordinary AutOmatic ivIachffies,

Re U gh Grindi_ n. g _ _ie diu_ Buffing and Polishing @ e _, • • o ,_ • • • • • • q, a, • e • e, go 30 Fine Automatic }:iachines,Fine Bench and _.d:zchinowork, _Sdium Grindingly,Fine Buffing _md Polishing ...... B x Extra Fine Bench and i_iachi_oWork, Gri_ding' Fine work ...... A x

x - See reference footnote at end of table. - Consideration is now bcing given to the proposition of issuing a report on Reco_mcndod Lighti_ Practice for the entire Iron and Stool Industry. 12& _4inim_uFoot- candles in Service _easured 30 inches above the floor

IvleatPacking: Slaughtering ...... _•••...... •. l0 Cleani1_, Cutting, Cooking, Grinding, Canning, Packing ...... _0

i_iillin_-GrainFoods : O Cl-eanin_ , GrindiI_ _ud Rolling ...... • l0 Baking or Roasting ...... 20 Flour Grading ...... 30

Offices :

Bookkeeliin_ _yping and _c0unting ooeee eoeoeoloeeooeoo, • ooeoo.ee oee 50 Busil_essi_lachineS-l_o_J_erDriven (Transcribi_g and Tabulating)- CalculatorS, Key Punch, Bookkeeping ...... B x Conference Room- General hIeetings...... 25 Office Activities - See Desk Work Corrido_-sand Stair_,rays...... •...... 5 Desk Work- Intermittent Reading and Writir_ ...... , 25 Prolonged Close Work, Computing, Studying, Designing, etc..... 50 Reading Blueprir_tsand Plans...._...... 30 Draft ing- Prolor_ed Close Work - _t Drafting , ai:_dDesigning in Detail.. 50 Rough Drawing _d Sketching ...... 30 Filing and Index References ...... 25 Lobby.,.:...... lO W.ailSorting...... 25 Recopt ion Room_...... •...... l0 S_enographic Womb...... 50

Vault _Q_e,_m_@Oee_ .OeOe oeQeoeee.o. @. eeeoe -e • • • • • • • • ee • • • • • o • • • • e l0

Packing • and Boxi_: e_oeeoo_eeeo_eeoeoooo_oooeoooeeeooeeeeee_eoeeeoeeeeo i0

Paint __,ixil_6 ' _. i0

Paint Shops : Dipping, Simplo SiJrayi_g,Firing ...... l0 Rubbi_g, Ordinary Hand Painting and Fi_ishing 7_t, Stencil and Special S_rayi_4_06_Oeaeeooeee.e*_eeeeee.. _.o..ee .e_eeoeeoeoo.,e 20 Fin. Hand Paintir_ and Fir ishing ...... B x Extra Fine I_andPaintin_ _;.dFinishing (Automobile _odi_s, Piano Cases, etc.)...... A x

Paper Box l_!anufagturi_: Light ...... i0 Dark ...... ,...... 20 Storage ...... 5

Paper _anufacturin_: Beaters, Grinding, Calendering ...... l0

Finishing, Cutting, Tr_mning, Paper iiaki_g _achinos ...... 20

Plating: eoooe*ooeooeeooe_oeeeeeeeeeeeeooooe_eeo@oo@oo@@@o@ ..o@,oooeoeo.@,, • • l0

Polishing and Btu'nishi_: eoe_oe,e_eeee_oee_ee_eeeo_ee_oe_e_eeee@oeeo,. " 20

Power Pla:_ts_ Engine Room,_Boilers : Boi!ors, Coal and Ash HandlinG, Storage Battery Rooms ...... 5 Auxiliary Equivalent,0il Switches and T_-ansformers...... l0 Engines, Generators, Blo_ors, Comprosso_'s...... 20 Switchbo_nrd_...... 50

x - See fore,rococofootnote at end of table. 127

Iiinimum Foot' ca+__dlosin Service Iieasurcd 30 inches above the floor Printin_ Industries: _jpe Foundries - ivlatrixMaking, Dressing T_jpe...... A x Font Assembly-Sorting ...... B x Hand Casting...... 30 _iachine 20 O CastiT+_g...... Printing Plants : Presses ...... 30

I_posing Stones oeii e • iio.o o el eeoe o o • • ! o • o el • e • • u+pee eeoc • o • eoo oe o ee e @o co A x C x Proof Residing...... A x

E iectroty_inp_: +_JIolding,Finishing, Leveling +iolds,Routing, Trai!ing...... B x Blocking, Tizn_ing• • • • e e + • + a ++e ...... ,.e • o o o • +. • • • I • • • o e • e • I.ll • • o • o+ It • • el • o el o o 30

Electr0plati_-g,, + Washing _) Backing o o • o • • + i• • ++o • o • • oe e ooo oe o e 811 a,e eoe o _0

Phot Engravln_:

• B x

Tint Laying...... ,..... A x Receivin_Routing,Etching,Blockingand Ship+_ing...... Finishi_+g,Staging'''!+_iiii...... ;iiiii!iliiii!!!!!!!ii!!ii_!iii!!i_iiiiiiii._'" ii,."i'.° _0l030

Rubber Tire and Tube _lanufacturing: Stock Preparation Plast icating...... 20 Milling ll41e e + e e • e + e + + _p + ° o _'e • _1 e 0 + e ee I_e I.o +l _ • •*0 e _ +! eB • D e'e e_ • • _ • • • _o 20 Calendering...... 50 Branbury ...... +...... ,...... , BO Fabric Preparation - Stock Cutting...... +..o+...,...... 50 •Bead Buildiug_ . •lille• +0 e_ * , e • @. ee • I, + • e • • + • e, l+ i. • • • _oee I •e • • O0 I+0 _0 Tube Tubing _,_achines...... _0 Tread Tubing }_achines...... •+...... •..... _0 Tire Building - Solid Tire ol.. _._ _, , o• e el+ • • • • • • + • e, • • • • • • •e • ell + .i • • e+l • ee •lie• • • • eo 20

Pneumatic Tire alooooo_o_e_o,eooelle eeeeeo_eo, o, _eeeee +oeo eeoe,eoo 50 Curi_:g Departme+_:t-

Tube Cu_i_+_+_+_ll_" e+ • • ii • • • • • • • • • • • • II • • • e • • • • • • • • • • _1 • • _. I' • • • • • • • • o e • • o • B x Casiug Curing eooe ee .o •co ql • oe e• e_e eeo • e • e lie ooe IlOeO+ ioe.o • • • • i0 B x Final I_spectio_ - Tube...... B x

Casing Oee el • else• ,_.oe eeeeelee • o _ • o • e4+ e e • • e e eeo • • le_eoeeJloe ell• A :c

°,ll iIeo e o e • • _1 o cede e e • e • • e ee e • • • • • • • • • o • e• ell • I,o o _farehouse...... 5

Mechanical Rubber Goods : Stock Preparation -

Piast o e e • el • + • • • eo, o o • ,e ,ll o.l_ • • e • + • e • • el+ SO O _illingicat...... ing ...... PO

Calendering D e e* o o e ...... • • • e • eii e o e o o e • e • • • e • • • • i e l, • o• e ee o Iloo • • el_lOO 30

Br_+•nbury o eel •., e• . ell col • • i ooo ._ ii. lee • e e . o o • + III • • o o _0 Fabric Pr+paration - ..... • Stock Cutting "50 Hose Looms...... _0

_olded.' Products o • • .• • • • • e., _ o o el o e e • o oe "o e o . el • • o , • II X

Extr"_ ded ProductSIIo 41 • , • iii e I •e • co o • coo _ e is°" • i_ • e o• 30 Curl g • + B 1"! ee•+, •_ ee, •eee ;iiili- , ii"• ...... _ • e .e e,+ eeee • • • ee+eoo e•'+ Inspectioy_eel + + • • , . + • e ,, e+ e l+ I e,ll..... • • • e i+ _ , e • o • • • el • ':,_. I,_ • + • _•l 'eo A X ++oxin+ ...... _0

_+arehousoIlool+•oe lie ! I log III log @ e O i o i o • l ! 0 i+ l O II ! II el ! o i III • e O • ! IP I • O 5

x - $+o rofore_ce footnote at on_. of t_blo. 128

L_inimumFoot- candles in Service _ioasurod 30 inches above the floor Sheet Metal Works: Miscellaneous Machines, Ordinary Bench Work ...... 20 Punches, Presses, Shears, Stoups, Spinning, Medium Bench Work .... 20 C x Tin Plate Inspection...... B x C x

Shoe I_[anufacturing(Leather): .....

CuttingCurtanding TablesStitching-...... 20 _,,larking,Buttonholing, Skiving, Sorting, V_iping and Counting- Light Materials ...... •...... 20 Dark Mat erials...... ,...... 50 St itching - Light Materials ...... 50 Dark Niaterials ego e. _. • • oe ! eeoe _ . 0..ee. ooe'.. • ..e@ B X M_king and Finishing - Stitchers, Nailers, Sole Layers, welt Beaters and Scarfers, .... Tr_nmers, Welters, Lasters, Edge Setters, Sluggers, Randers, Wheelers, Treors, Cleaning, Spraying, Buffing, Polishing, F_abossing- Light Mater ials...... • 30 Dark _iaterials (,eo e e o _, e. e e o.. 0 e,_. e . e e . 6 • . oe,, • o- ! • a • oe ,,@ oo @ 50 • i0 Storage. 9 Packing and Shipping @ e @ o D a, e o o @ • o/, ,, • • a, o Q ......

Shoe _,ianufacturin_(Rubber):

L_ashing' Coating ' Mill Run Compounding o o o _, • e • • o o e • o ...... l0 Varnishing, _hlcanizing, Calendering, Upper ar.dSole Cutting...... 30 Sole Rollins, Lining, __mkln__" : _id Finishing Processes ...... 50

Soap Manufacturing : Kettle Houses, Cutting, Soap Chip and Powder ...... l0 Stamping, Wrapping ar_dPacking, Filling and Packin_ Soap Powder... 20

Stairways, Passagewavs__ :...... 5

Stone Crushing and Screoni_: Belt Conveyor Tubes, _AainLine Shafting Spaces, Chute Rooms, Inside of Bins ...... 5 Primary Breaker Room, Ausiiiary Bro_'_orsLmdcr Bins ...... 5 Screens ...... lO

Stora6e_ Battery "_u_'1"" _.-_....c_Lu_m._. • i_.__.,-,.. Molding of Grids ...... i0

o Store and Stock Rooms: Rough Bulky.Material ...... 5 Modi_xaor Fine Matorie_lRequiring Care ...... i0

•Structural Stool Fabrication: ...... i0 • 30 SuGar Grading: ......

Test ingRough: ...... 2O Fine ...... •....•..... _0 Extra Fine Instrtu_cnts,Scales, etc ...... A x

Textile _dills.(Cotton): ._

SlubbilA_,Roving, Spi_ming...... [_ 20 _pool_n_, Jarp_T.o o__Comb ...... 20 Beamini_and Slashing on Comb- _ Grey Goods ...... 20 0porting,DenllnS.Mixing',...... Picking,...... Carding...... and Drawing!il.!!!!i[!iiiiliiiiii[i!! ioB x

x - See reference footnote at end of table, 129 _iini_lu!5Foot- candles in Service };ieasured 30 inches above the floor Textile _ills (Cotton) continued: Inspection - Grey Goods (Hand Turning ).oooooe oo. eeoe e,,e eoee eooe• eeoc..geol. 50 DenJ_us(Rapidly i_,!ov•Jn_)_ 0oo _ o pe,,e_mo Jo,,oe. J. • eo ee oo.oeeo o_oee _@ A, x Autonetic T_I"ing_ in, _Jeavingoeeee..oo.oeeeeooooeeeoeoe6oeooeeeooe.. B x Drawing in "by}i_nd A x O _eaviz_...... eoe._eoo_,eeo_eeemeeoeeeeeeoeoo ...... eeeooo.eooee.e ".e'ee.ee.e'o e" 25

Silk and Rayon i:[anufacturi_¢<: Soa_"ing, Fugitive _•zntzn_,..... ana" Condltioni_g or Setti_ of T_¢ist... lO Windin_j_,%%visting,Rewindiz_, and Coning, 0_UI_IL._,"_ "_ Slashing. • • •.. 30 Warping, (Silk or Cotton Syste_) on Creel, on Ruu!lingEnds, on Reel, on Bee_m,on Warp at Be_uing ...... 50 Drav_ing-in-

On Heddles o m e@ e . o o • e, o o • @ o o o ,J @ o o e e, 4J • • e e • • • oo • • • • • • • • • .@ m o e, e • o @ e A x

On Reed (,e o.ooooe coo e o..,Do o 8 oe eeoo •ooe ee o • • ,,o • oe eeeooe • • • • ee • o. A x _e_vir_- On Heddles and Reeds ...... i0

O!_ Warp B_ck of Harness _o .eeo e. e ee e eoeoooeooo eooe,e • oo ..- e_oeeo _0

On Woven C!oth oe . eo,, e e e e . . e e . .,o e e o o o o e e o e • • o,, • e-,,.e...e • • • • • • • • • 30

_,ool_n :

Cardir._-•_, Picking, . Washin_ , Cc_ubin_ oeee eo.oe, o .co ee • e. ooo o eeooeeooe 15 T_isting, D_r eing .ee_,_oe_. e o ee. e _ • o • • . _,eo.eeoe. • • eee • _ • _e _,o ee • oe.e O 15 • .o eeoee X Dr_'_wi.u_2 _ in , Garpi_g. ooo 0@@0' e.g.. eeoc e ee o" _.oooeeoeto • • [email protected] m • •

Light Goods ...... BD

Dark Goods oeeeoo ee_oe e eeee_.e e(,e..eeoc• o. • ..eeoc..oe.eeeoe- ee 50

Knitt ing i4achD__es oe, 4. oomeoe@ooe eooe eeeeeoeeee_eeoee _eooe eeeeeeee.@ 20

Tobacco Products

Dryin_, Stripping , Get,_oral o _ e e _ o • o.e _o o,_e • • _o • 0. e_oe oo e_, o o oeoooo 80 l0 t_re_dIi!_ and Sortingo.....,..o .... • ...... • ...... o...... J,i X

Toilets and _ash Ro_s. :._o.eeo_.o..oeeoe.eeeeo.oeoeeeo_eee.eee_ooeooeeoO • i0

:oeeeeOeeeeeeee ee.ooeooeOe Upholstering• Autonobil_o• ....Cou_ ch Furniture o oeeoee 20 \ Warehouse: .ooee.e.e.eee.o o.*ee.ee_eeee_e_oee_eee@eee_oeeeO 5

V_elding:ee_'_eeoooeeee_eooeeeoooo_eeeooeo_oeeeooo_oo. Oeo.e_eooeoeo_oeoo.o 30

Woodworkin(_: Rough Sa_viiqi,and Be]_ch_Jork...... 15 Sizing, Planin_, Rou_h S_ndin_, i_edi_qi_aehineand Bench ii,_ork, Glueing, Veneeri_, Cooper_<_e...... 20 Fine Bench and .i<;chino_/ork,Fi_e Se[Ldiiig,_nd Fiziishinj...... 50

x - Lightin_ rec_z:ez_datio_nsfor the _nore difficult seeing tasks, _s indicated A,B, and C in the fore_oii_ t_blo, _re 6_ivonin the following:

O Grcup A: These sooin6_t_s_.s involvo (a) the discri_uin_:tior_of"Jxtre_nolyfine d_tail u_udcrconditions of (b) extre_oly poor contr[_st,(c)for !on_ periods of tL[_c. To _cot those rcquirc:uonts,illtuainationloveis above i00 footca_.dlos at, roo o_l_loLdod,

To provide illu_uinationof this order, a co_ubinationof at least 20 foot- candles of ¢_Oz_rallilhtini_:plus specialized supplonontary lighting is necessary. The design _nd installation of the coi_bine_tionsystemicsJnustnot only provide a sufficieiut_t;!ountof light but also nust provide the proper direction of light, diffusion, eye protectiozt,_indinsofar _s possible i_mst elii_.inatedirect and reflected glcro _s well _s objectionable shadows. 13o

Group B: This group of visual tasks involves (a) the discrimination of fine detail under conditions of (b) a fair degree of contrast (e) for long periods of time. Illtuninationlevels from 50 to 100 footcandles are required.

To provide illu_Ginationof this order a combination of at least 20 footcandles of general lighting plus specialized suPiolementarylighting is necessary. The design and installation of the combination s_stems must not only provide a

diffusion,sufficient amounteye Protection,of light butand alsoinsofarmustasprovidepossiblethemustpropereliJ_inatedirectiondirectof lightand reflected glare as well as objectionable shadows.

Group C: The seeing tasks of this group require the discrimination of fine detail by utilizing (a) the reflected image of a luminous area or (b) the transmitted light from a luminous area.

The essential requirements are (1) that the luminous area shall be largo enough to cover the surface which is beiz_ inspected and (2) that the brightness be within the limits necessary .to obtain comfortable contrast conditions. This involves the use of sources of large area so_.drelatively low brightness in which the source brightn0ss is the principal f_ctor rather than the footcandles _ produced at a given point.

The Ontario Dep_Irtmontof Education in regulations for Public and Separate Schools and for High Schools and Collegiate Institutes gives minimur_values of illumination for w,rious school rooms.

Classrooms, Study Halls, Libraries ...... 15 Foot-candles Drafting Rooms, Art Rooms ...... 25 " " Gyrm-;asiu_1.oeo ooe eoe .co. ee Q eeqJ'e e.oo, • e-e coo 15 " " Shops , Laboratorios...... • ...... i5 " " Sight Saving Classes...... 30 " " Auditoriums ,_.oeoeoe.ee. e.e.., oo...eoQoe to 6 " "

Corridors Stairs , ooe o. • • • e ..e • • • e . o. e.. eo'e 4 " "

To inv_stig,ate the condition of lighting in a rectathe followir_gpoints shouldbe noted: "

I. The type of lightiI_ used. 2. The a_uountof light proso,_t[_smeasured by a foot-candle motor. 3. _hothor glare or shadows c_o present, and if presort, their causes. 4. The colour of walls _nd coiling. 5. WhetHer the light is ste<_dyor flickering; if flickering, the cause. 6. If the proper lighting intensity is supplied for the type of work being done.

@ 131 HeUSING

In 1938 a national Committee of the Canadian Public Health Association, under the chairmanship of Dr. R. St. J. Macdonald, prepared a set of model provincial housing regulations. Study of those regulations, which are presented in the follow- ing pages, will afford the sanitary inspector specific information. The subject is introduced by quotations taken from published reports by Dr. Macdonald. The inspector is referred also to the reports of the American Public Health Associa- tion's Committee on the Hygiene of Housing, which has done invaluable work in this field.

"Housing as a Health Problem" "The health of a community is unquestionably associated with housing con- ditions. Where these are faulty, the health of the people suffers. Where good housing exists, there will be found the healthiest, happiest, wealthiest and most progressive people.

"The housing problem, from a public health point of view, is twofold; i.e., too many houses unfit for human habih_tion, too many housing evils in existing houses.

"The factors that constitute a slum or insanitary house are: structural defects in the house, i.e., poor foundations, dampness, leaky roofs, falling plaster, holes and cracks in the walls and floors through which winds blow, rains pour, and rats and other vermin enter; darkness and inadequate ventilation; over- crowding; absence of adequate or readily accessible water supply; absence of adequate and readily accessible sanitary convenience; absence of properly equipped kitchen.

"It would seem reasonable that any dwelling-house possessing three or more of these defects should be considered unfit for human habitation. But in thus con- demning a house, regard must be had for existing district by-laws or for the general standard of housing accommodation."

".Whatis Bad Housing?"

"Any condition of housing which tends to impair the physical or mental health of the tenants or the conmmnity is bad housing. The major housing evils are over- crowding, and lack of fresh air and sunshine. Other housing evils are to be found in dark rooms, alcove rooms, rooms with no cross-ventilation, cellar dwelling, dampness, lack of open spaces, rear and alley dwellings, small air- and light- shafts, inadequate v_ter supplies, absence of facilities for safely storing food, public halls shared by several families, outside privies, filthy lanes, yards and courts, and improper methods of disposal of refuse.

"Bad housing conditions are found everywhere. It is not necessary to go to the old and crowded cities of Europe to find slums. Unsatisfactory housing exists in all the cities and to,ms of Canada, in the thickly settled rural districts of the east and centre, and even in the vast open spaces of the groat western prairies."

"What are the Results of Bad Housing?"

"Sir George Newman, formerly Chief Medical Officer of the Ministry of Health, England and Wales, once said: 'There is no subject in the whole range of preven- tive medicine in which the evidence is so general and incontrovertible as in re- gard to the ill effects of bad housing upon the hu_aanorganism.' Whore housing conditions are bad, the following conditions result:

An increased morbidity rate. A lessened expectation of life. An increased general death rate. An increased pulmonary tuberculosis death rate. An increased measles, whooping-cough and diphtheria death rate. An increased incidence of, and death rate from, rickets. An increased infant mortality rate. An increased incidence of anaemia and rheumatism. An increased incidence of all the covLmoncommunicable diseases. An increased incidence of delinquency. An increased general deterioration in the health of the people leading to debility and poor physique. 132

r,_jorHousin_ Evils

"Overcrowding"

"Overcrowding is usually expressed in terms of the n_nber of persons occupying rooms of a certain cubic capacity. Thus, in England, the Housing Act of 1930, as applied to houses let in lodgings, tenements, states that all persons over ten years of age should have 350 cubic feet of air space, and each person under ten, 250 cubic feet.

"In the Province of Quebec and the City of Montreal, lit is forbidden to any owner of a building to let one dwelling to more than one family unless the com- bined cubic space of all the rooms of this dwelling be s_Lfficiontto provide each occupant at least 600 cubic feet of air space and unless the floor area be in pro- portion of 70 square feet to each occupant'.

"A method of determining overcrowding Chat has been practically applied for many years is that of the Registrar-General of England, in which a house is ovcr- crowded if it contains more than two persons per room, excluding kitchen, bath- rooms, cellar and pantries.

"Social or moral overcrowding exists in a house that does not provide separate bedroom accommodation for persons of opposite sex, above the age of ten years, unless living toe,ether as man and vJifo.

"The principal causes of overcrowding are: poverty, an insufficiency of houses, shortage of houses in proximity to work; and unwillingness of workers to leave the locality in which they were born and raised.

"Results of OvercrowdinE"

"(a_ Communicable Diseases.--Overcrowding is dangerous because it is a con- tributory cause of tuberculosis and other cormm_licablodiseases. It contributes to tuberculosis because it facilitates the entry of the tubercle bacillus to the body and, on account of lowered resistance, favours the multiplication of the bacilli within the body. The evidence is Conclusive that overcrowding favours a higher tuberculosis rate and a higher death rate of thecommon communicable diseases, such as measles and Whooping-cough.

"_b) Infant Mortalit-_.--Theinfant mortality (the n_ibor of deaths of children under the age of one year per 1,O00 living births) is perhaps the most sensitive index of the general sanitary state of a community. Bad housing is one of the contributing causes of a high mortality among infants. A report of the Children's Bureau of the United States Department of Labor, 1925, dealing with seven Cities, states: 'Housing congestion was found to have exerted an influence upon infant death rates, the mortality among infants in homes in which the number of persons averaged two or more per room being two and a half times as high as that among infants in whose homes the number of persons was less than the number of rooms.'

Infant mortality rate Families living fewer than i person per room@.. 52.1 Families living i or 2 persons per room ...... 94.9 Families living 2 or more persons per room ..... 135.7

"Prevention of Overcrowding"

"In practical public health _rork,the prevention of overcrowding is an ex- tremely difficult thing to accomplish. To prevent ov_rcrov_ing in houses, the first thing necessary is to determine by a survey the amount of existing over- crowding and the number of new houses needed. ?mother important requirement is that it be forbidden by law to overcrowd a house in excess of the stated standard of accommodation."- (See model regulations.)

The Model Provincial Housin_ Regulations are presented in the following pages. £,iODELPROVI}_CT&L HOUS ING R_GULAT!ONS

Regulations to Promote the Health en_ Welfare of the People and Control Light and Ventilation, Sanitation, Alteration, _viaintenance, ]i_prov_aentand Use and Occupanc_ of _'_llings and the Disposition of Lands upon which such _,_ellingsmay be Located.

AI_TICLEi

. G_kru_L _mROVISIONS

SECTION 1. SCOPE AID ENFORC_J_Yf. The following regulations apPlY to cities, to_a_sand villages, to municipalities end Unoi_ganizeddistricts of the Province of , and the sanitary authority thereof shall be entrusted with their en- forcement. Wherever there is no such authority, the regulations shall be enforced in the manner and by such body as shell be _escribed by the _,iinist_of Health (or Department of Health-)of the said l_2ovince. He,rover,the non-existence of any specific _nforc_nent authority does not justify any person to contravene any of the provisions of these regulations. All the provisions of those regulations shall apply to all d_,tellingsand the lands upon which such dwellings may be located with!n the classes defined i::_the following sections except that in sections where specific reference is made to one or more specific classes of dwellings, such provisions shall apply only to thosc classes to which such specific reference is made. All other provisions Which relate to dwellings shall apply to all classes of dwellings.

SZCTIO_ 2 D_INiTIONS. Certain words i_._these regulations are defined for the purposes thereof as follows4 _ords used in the present tense include the future; words in the masculine gender include the f_uinine and neuter; the sing- ular nmnber includes the plural and the plural the singular; the word "person" inciudsa corporation as'well as a natural person.

(1) DWELLING° A "dwelling" is any house or building or portion thereof which is occupied in whole or in part as the home, residence, or sloeping_place of one or more human beings, either permanently or transiently.

(2) D_ELLIk_S ARE DIVIDED iI_0 TP_ FOLLOWING CL}_SES: (a) private d_'el- lings, (b) tw_o-familydwellings, and (c) multiple d_'_elli_s;(d) fmuily.

(a) A "private dwelling" is a d_,_ellingoccupied by but one family alone, _-ndso designed and arranged as to provide cooking and kitcher_acco_'_nodstionsfor one fm_ily only. (b) A "t_-fe_mily dwelling" is a dwelling occupied by but two families alone, one above the other, and so designed and arranged as to provide cooking and kitchen acco_modation for _:o families only. A semi-detached or double ; house <:ontainingtwo feaniiieswith separate entrances for each but under one roof and with a wall or party-wall bet_oen but no interior connection between the two parts of the building is to be co_sid,_redas two priw0.tedwellings. A two-fea;_- ily d_,_ellingwhich contains a store or other business space or is three storeys in height, shall be deemed _ multipie dwelling an_ shall comply with requirem:_nts for such dwellir_s. (c) A "multiple dwslliug" is a dwelling occupied other_ise them as a private d_iling or t_o-fsuuiiyd_:_oili'ig. ._ (d) "Family." A group of persons iiw[ng together whether _'elatedto each other by birth or not ; it m_%yconsist of on_ or more persons.

(3) CLASSES OF _V,_TIPLEDWELLINCS. Al! multiple dwel!in_s are divided into two classes, class A and class B. b Class A. _uitiple dwellings of Class A are @_ellings which arc occupied more or less permanently for residence purposes by several families aridin which the rooms are occupied in apartments, suites or groups, in which i_'achcombination of rooms is so arranged and designed as to provide for cooking,accommodations and water closet, bath and sink accommodation within the separate units. This class includes tenement houses, flats, apartment houses, apartment hotels, bachelor apartments, studio ap

Class B. _,_ultipledwellings of Class B are dwellings which are, occupied, as a rule transiently, as the _ore or less temporary abiding place of individuals _zhoare lodged _;_ithor without _aeals,and iz_which, as a rule, the rooms are oc- cupied singly. This cl;_ssincludes hotels, lodging houses, bos.rdinghouses, furnished-room houses, lodgings, :._.ndall other dwe!li_gs similarly o4(-u_?ied wh_';th.ersp_cific-.:d_!,.yontu_oratedh_,rein,or not, (4) ROOMING HOUSE. A "roomii_ghouse" s_all be considered to me_n any d_,_ellingoccupied in sunh a marmer that certain rooms, in excess of thoseused by the members of the innuediatef_nily and occupied as a homo or f_uily unit, are leased or rented to persons outside of the fs_mily,without any attempt to provide therein or therewith accor._todationsfor cooking. In the case of single or tw_o- family dwellings the n_iber of such bedrooms leased or rented to roomers shall not, exceed three unless such dv_ellingsbe made-to comply in all respects with the provisions of these regulations relatLug to multiple dwellings. '.

(5) HoT_. A "hotel" is a raultipledwelling of class B in vehichpersons are lodged usually transiently.

(6) MrXED O_.CJ_.."_ *T _D,_'\_,,_' _Y. In cases of mixed occupancy where a building is occupied _,_ ...... _,,_the part so occupied shall be de_nod a dwelling and shall comply with the provisions thereof.

(7) Y_I_©S. A "rear yard" is an open tmoccupied space on the same lot with a &_rel!ingbetween the extre_nerear line of the lot and the rear line of the house. A yard bet_ceonthe front lin;_of the house and the front line of the lot is a "front yard", k yard bet_'_eenthe side line of the house and the side line of the lot and w_hJ.chextends from the front line or front yard to the rear line of the lot or to the rear yard is a "side yard:'.

(8) COURTS. A "court" is an open unoccupied space, other than a yard, on the s_me lot ,__._oha dwelling. A court not extending to the street or front yard or rear is an ironercourt.

(9) COIaN[_!d:iDI_J]_L_IORLOTS. i ,corner" _lot is a lot of which at least two adjacent sides abut for their full length upon a street. A lot other than a corner lot is am "interior" lot. When a corner lot is more than fifty feet in width that portion in excess of fifty feet shall be treated as an interior lot.

(i0) _C:]'_:__E{[___',_D_ OF LOT. The front of a lot is that boundary llne which borders cn Ohe street. In case of a corner lot the city shall decide which ,', street bounda_ ._line cons:;ibutesthe _.,.onu,...... The res.r of a lot is the side opposite to the front , The depth of a lot is the a_!_eI:s" ° fen' measured from the .,.rentof the lot to the extreme rea_rline of the lot. In the case _,f_irrc_ular-shs.pedolots the mean depth shall be taken.

(ll) I_JBLICw_u_L..... A "public hall" is a hall, corridor or passa_eway not within the exclusive congro],of one fmnily.

(1,%)STAIR }I_L. A "stair hall" is a public h_l! ar..dinc!ud_s the stairs, stair landings a_._d:-_.....portions of the buildim_s throu,_hwhich it is necessary to p_

(l'J,)>_._I_:_LE_'_- _''--.0Ok._"_:'.....A "habitable roo_" :s a room used for living, sleeping, eati_g or iooo.preparation. A ._!uao±e room shall not includo any spaco in a dwe!iin,_used as a lobby, ha!l_ay, closet, water closet or bathroom.

( ) - o' ..,-,-m CEL_LA_TTT_C._ '_ A "basement' " is a storey partly undergrotmd but having <_tleast one-half of its hei@h% above the curb level, and also one-half ....-....of its height above the highest level of _].lthe adjoining ground. A "cellar" is

a storey having,.. more than one-half of ".L_-_'o bei_:ht.... below the cumb level, or below the highest leve! of the adjoining ground. CUF_ L_!_. The curb level is the level of the established curb in front of the building measured at the centre of such front.

(15) I%EIGI_. The "height of a dwelling" is the __er_ndieular distance .measured in a straight line from the curb level to the highest point of the roof cover in the case of flat roofs, and to the average of the height in the case of pitched roofs.

fire-towers,(16) OCCUPI_porches,S]?AC3platforms,TS. Projectionsbalconies,suchboileras outsideflues,stairways,Cornices, fireeavesescapes,and other projections shall be considered as part of the dwelling add not part of the yards or courts or unoccupied area. This shall not apply tounenclosed outside porches not exc_eding one storey in height which do not extend into the front or rear yard to a greater distance than five feet from the front or roar wall of the dwellirg,

(17) _FjISA];_CE.The word "nuisance" shall mean any act or omission which :_:s.y endanger tlhelife, safety, health, property or comfort of the public or of an individual or individuals, or by which the public or any individual or individuals is or are obstructed in the exerc_iseor enjo_.ent of s_nyright co:m_.onto all His Majesty's subjects. Without limiti_g the scope of this d<_finition,the .._ord "nuis_ce" shall include _hatever dwelling is overcrowded with occupants, or is not kept in sufficiently good rep_iir,ventilated, sowe_'ed,drained, clea:_:tedOr lighted in reference to its i.ut,_._._ded.or actual u_c, and shall also mean ,_:verythingso docl_red by reg_l_%_:on"_f'the Lieutenant-Governor-i_-CO__i!, or by by-law c,fa muniei_p__.., c_._:::_i! or i_,_.. ,,._ard.tary _uthority, (18) o0._o..IfOCTiCOFr_Cg/gT}_I]_O_RDS. T_e _._ord':shal!"is always _',andatory. Nherever the words "regulations", "ordina:{_ces","sanitary autho_!t__ occur, they shall be construed as if followed by the :,_ords"of the city or to<<_n,village,

c'O tmoy.u or mun'icipality" in which the dwelling. . is situated. V_hereverthe word _','it_''..._, occurs, it shall be construed as if followed by the words "_'ow_ ._,village, coun_d or municipality or other organized co-_m_.nity"._Thereverthe words "oceupied",_ or "used" are employed, such v..'erds_nal_ be cons"h1-Aedas if followed by the words i "or is intended, _,rr_ng_a,o ,_ _...-_ desig:zed,built, altered, converted to, rented, leased, let or hired out, to be o_u_.d_ or used". \,rhevorthe words "dwel_'_ 1 in__ _" , "two- fs_i!y dwelling", "multiple d_'clling","building", "house", "premises", or "lot" !. a_e used, they shall be cots,rued as if followed by the words "or any part thereof, ,,Lhore_erthe v_ord"d_elling''is used, it shall be construed as includin_ house or .,_ dv_..'eliin_-house._gherevcr the words "city _;_ater"are used, they shall be const_,_aed as meaning any public supply of y¢aterthrough street mains, m_d wherever the words "Dublie sewer" are used, they sh_!l be construed as meaning any part of a syste_ of]_ sewers that is used by the publ_¢, whether or not such part _;¢asconstructed at the p;:_blicexpense. Wherever the word "batL" is used, it shall be construed as includi_ a bathtub or a sn.._-o_:tn. Wherever the _or_ "street" is used, it shall be construed as including a lane, sixteen feet or more in v_-idth,an avenue, a boulevard or any other public thoroughfare.

(19) S'Ai_!TAP.PR!%_f.Y A sanitary privy is one which does not create a nuisance, is properly lighted and ventilated, and is corstructed, sited and maintained in such a manner as to prevent the spread of disease by: (a) water supplies, bathing, ice; (b) soil; (c) foodseaten raw; (d) shell fish; (e) contact; and (f) animals and insects

SECT!0N _. B_JILDINGSCOUVF2.T_ OR ALT'EIKED. A building not a dwelling if hereafter converted or altered to use as a dwelling shall thereupon become subject to all the p_.,ovisionsof those regulations, A dwelling of one class if hereafter altered or conw_rted to •another class shall thereupon become subj'octto all the provisions of these regulations relative to such class.

SECTION _. ALTERATIONS A__-DCIiA!_GEIN 0CCUPM_CY. No dwelling hereafter erected shall at any time be altered so as to be in violation of _.nyprovision of these regulations. Mxd no dwelling erected prio,_'to the passage of these regulations shall at any tLme be altered so as to be in violation those provisions. If any dwelling or any part thereof is occupied by more f_milies than provided in these regulations, or is erected, altered, or occupied contrary to law, such dwelling shall be deemed an unlawful structure, and the sanitary authority may cause such d_elling to be vacated. And any such dwelling shall not again be occupied tmtil it, or its occupation as the case n_y be, has been _de to conform to the law,

S_Ti0N 5. DW_qGS D_D?_C-_D. If a dwelling be damaged by fire or other _ause to the extent of not more tha_ one-half of the assessed value, exclusive Of the value of the foundation, such dwelling in being repaired or rebuilt need not comply with the provisions of these regulations relative to buildings hereafter erected, but shall comply _;iththe provisions of those regulations in force prior to the passage of these regulations. If _iamagodto the exto_t of more than one-half of such value, it shall not be repaired or rebuilt except in conformfty with the provisions of the:soregulations relative to dwellings h,_'_reaftorerected.

SECTION 6. Pr_S %u_DSPFP_iFICA.TI0_,>_S.No new construction or modification of exist- ing construction sb_ll be undertaken in any city without authorizatA0n from the aanitary authority. For this purpose, plans and specifications conforming to the present reguxlationsshall be submitted in duplicate. One copy of the plans and specifications, officially endorsed, wil! be returned to the owner with author- ization to proceed with co_struction or modification.

_,.,._.Oh' 7. tk,[INIS._,_REZU!Rg/I_TS. When any city regulation is contrary to the i provincial regulations, the latter alone shall remain in force. SECTION @. D_ILLii_C-_0R_ _,_-_2DC_,_0_T _._, Every dwelling shall be constructed end maintained in cofonmity with these regulations.

SECTION 9. MINISTRI_ OF H_ (c_PROV_C]J_L D_P_R%%,E_]NTOF Iu_3

ST_X]TI0_,_10. DWKLLING [D_FITFOR ]':{U}i__261TATi0N.'_{ A dwelling may be declared unfit for h_um':_nl'mbitation,_:¢ithinthe requirements of the regulations, if showing: (1) Overcrowding, after due notice has been given for its abat_nent. (_) DisreDairs or defects, or omissions, or combination thereof, which arc such as prevent or ....:_.der"" the maintenance of th_ d_'_eliingin a .,.....___...._,_rycondition, or permit dsuugorto !if_.a_:_dlimb. Without limiting the s,'._opoof the above, th_s__,disrep-airs,s_:_nJ.tzr_defects,; or omissions _naybe e_i_on<_the followii_g: (a) Structural defects in foundations, floors, stairs, or ally woo,&v_ork or Openings, roofs, plaster, etc., any coW,tilt±on causing permanent dampness or _ermitting entrance of rain, underg±-ound water, or enmnations from the soil. (b) Defective or leaky plumbing system, including d_ains, stacks, wastes, traps and fixtures. (c) Abs--_uceof proper flues to Carry off su-oke and gases of combustion from _toves or other heating appliances, arid proper ineem.sfor storage of food, fuel _nd refuse. (d) Absence of a sink or of othei_ similar fixture s_ipplied with rulming water, '_hen the dwelling is bordering a street served by a public _vatsr syst_], and absence Of a water closet acco_._odation if the said d_.Yelling is bordering a street serve/ bY a _ublic s_erage system_ (e) Absence of a_ adequate and potab!e wa_er suppiy.hnd proper means for sewage disposal, or privy accolmuodation, for da_ellings not covered by the, preceding paragraph, (f) Absence of a window in habitable rosins opening On a pem_mn.ent open @ space and complyin_ with Sections 31 •ani 32. (g) Cellar occupancy.

TITLE 3.

Llt_I'Ai':]DVE=T2iLATION'

SECTION•li. _:_qO_qi_AGE0_'LOT OCOUPIZ_. A privatedwelling or a two-family dwel!inghe.ream_e.rerectedmust not cover more than :_-_+v_.. ,'ercent.v of an interior lo% _id hot _'noz-ethan sixty per cent of a corner lot. A multiple dwelling.must not cover more than sixty per cent of the area of an interiorlot and not more _.&hanseventy-fiveper cent of the area of a co:('aerlot, No measur_];entsof lot _raa _hall iuc!ude an_; portion of any sbreet.

SECTION 1£. IiEIG_. No dY_el!ing hereafter erected shall e_:ceed in height the %_idth of the _,,_ideststreet upon which it abuts, nor in

SECTI0i;$13. FRONT j£qD R_'_i 7-VJOS. A front yard may be ar_y depth. 17_aediately behind every d'_el ling hereafter erected there shall 0_ a rear yard e.

SZ,T.'-fIO)k_!4. D_r! 0_'R_R Y._",_. The ._epth of. the rear yard requirGd by the _prece.lin_ section shall be a m ini_r_,_of, ten feet. On inter'dot lots [;he minimum •_opth ;_hali increase by two and oue-ha!f feet for each additional storey over two; but for corner lots this increase shall be required only Y_ho_},the lot exceeds fifty i'oct in width and only for the e_;cess.

S_OTION 15. SID[_]YAP_DS. Distance between' adjacent buildings. _herev_'_._re shall be left a side yard between any dwelling anl envy _djacent building, either -

on the sai_e lot or an adjacent lot measured from the side wall of the said dwelling:.:_:;e....._e nearesu _,,'_allof su,_'_adjoining building, such s_.. yard shall not be less _ _a__ik_C_" /lf@_t_X ill_"'._.,i_d_. The minJzutumwidth shall increase two feet for :_{ae.i_a,idii;ionalsto.reyabove two. ?,"herevesuchr dyes!fin{exceeds sixty f®<:9in !c:rUbhor depth,such ;3idoyard spa.coshall fu:._therbe increasedthrou.gl_outits , _!Tntiz_':o_idbhby two-feetfor every t_i:foot or fracti.onthoreoi:t)_atsuch l_ngbh •or t_e[.,tn is in 9xc,3ssof sixty z_:._.

o.,-_u__-...,_ ,_-._16. COU_TS . '__'".._size of all courts for dweilin_s.. hereafter erectedsha_,_' '_ be proportionate to the height of the cotu"t_ _:_hichfor purposes of this section shall be measured f<'om the bottom of such cornet, wherever it starts, to the top of the highest wall abutting it. No co_rt sha!l be less in auy _'.rt ti:e.n the min_._am sizes prescribed in t_is section. The niinii_tu:_width of a court _;hroughout it,s entire heir]hi shall nev,.,,rbe less than one-third of such hei{_bt, The len,,Etnof an inn6r oo_.m"b snail. ;_ev,_rbe less than on.;_and on_,,,-haii' --;;;.'such:_es ::'_in._um _,'idth. The ie.<_tb of a co,z:.t, except in. the c_.so o:[' a side Ca_,..i, ,._hal! never b+_ greater than four times its width. The width of all courts adjoining the lot line shall be measured to the lot line and not to an opposite building.

SECTION 1V. COU_S 0PF_ AT THE TOP. No court of a dwelling hereafter erected shall be covered by a roof or skylight_and shal_ be at every point open from the ground to the Skit '_obstructed. Except that in the ease of hotels hereafter erected, courts may be at the level of the floor level of the lowest bedro_u storey and _l the case of other multiple dwellings _here there are stores or sheds o_ithe entrance storey, coua_ts may start at the top of such entrance storey. No court under any circ__,mstances shall extend down so as to be less in size im any par.t than the minLm_un sizes prescribed in Section 16. • 0

.S-_]CTION18. AIR INTAKES. In all dwellings hereafter erected every im_er court p_ov_d_ with one or more horizontal air-intal-es at _' _ _ shall be ++ _ _-" _n_ bottom. O__e such intake shall al_vays communicate directly ...... _:_T_onthe street or front yard or r,_er yard and shall consist of a passaz_<._.ynot less than thz'ee i:,_t _,_idoand sove.n feet high which shall 0c l_ft open, or pr_vided with an open gate at _ach _nd.

oECTION 19. ANGL_ _ COD__TS. Nothing contained in the fore,ping sections concernir_ courts shall be construed as preventing the cutting off the corners o_'_said courts, provided that the running l_'-oth+_ of the _all across the angle of such cor_mr does not exceed s+_e_._'feet.

SECTION _u._ BT±iD_L__ ...... _<" ON TILE.S_$_ELOT. _,(;ITKA D ;+,,,._,;_:G._T+-:_,_ if any building is hereafter placed on the same lot with a dwelling, t_+ere" shall always be maintained between the said buildings an open unoccupied space extendirZg upwards fr,mm the gro_.qd and ex_endJ.ng across the entire width of _ne lot. If _ucn buildings are place& at the side of each other, the space between them shall conform to _he prov$sions of sectian 15 relating to side yards. If such buildings a;'e placed one at the rear of the other, the space betwee_ them shall be the sszm, as that +:r_sc_._b_d•_ +_j_._ in sections !3 and i i for rear yards. In a_!_ cases the heL.

SECTION el, _QiVATE GARAG-_ik_"&Z_ i_IW\TE STABLF_ Construction of a _,r_v.=,;,e .....-4,._age or private stable may be permitted on a _--eary.erd of the minizmm_ dimensions, ._.if its height, does not exceed twelve feet, provided it is placed at least ten feet from aJ.l. n windows of dwel.lin6;se.__ddoes no.t occupy more tha:r_one-nail+ " of th.+ewidth of the lot. No public garage or private stable ma_" be ere,c_ed o.u the same lot with a dwell.in< No r_riv,ute_sra__<'or _riwr_ stable on _._e ...... lot with a dwelling shall exceed teeo++storeys.... in =_ez_+,h_,,It ,-,+_y+.,have living_,rooms therein for the use of the chauffeur or coacNuan or members of his family or o_h_rs • _:_;_ _+++....a garag_ is sttache_i" to the house or forms +rJs_+tof the _..:_ous_,_" it shall be separa-[ed from the house by a substar.tial wall. A garage in the basement or under any portion of _....house shall have-a subs_antiai ceili_a_... A garage.... must be +_._,_-+e,_._...... and ven-_ii_!_i_cd' to the outside. --+

_ECTION £_. RO0i_, :IG-H±_._I" ++_ "r_'r _--, miNeD+,-,+_,++_±- ++-.l_.,.lu_+,,:m q_t OF. im every dw+:_,lli_Thereafter ,erected every room shall have at leazt one wi_tdo_.+_._peningdirectly upon the street, or upon a yard or court of the dimensions specifle_in this-[article and located ca the same lot, and such window shall be so loeate%_ as to properly lib.hi alL. +, portions of such rooms. +___ulep_ovisions for tb_roug_ or cross ventilation so , t.]?ai]son}s,as to ensuredOOrSZ%_eeof movement,:_ud

SECTION S5. _Vi._._O_{SIN RO0i_. In every dwelling hereafteA- erected the tota! combined £_lass area of the _:vindows in each room shall never be less ti_ one- tent__ of the superficial floor area, and the whole window shall be made so as to open in Z.0 per cent of its area• Such window area shall be of windows open i_g directly upon the street, or upon a yard or court of the dimensiona specified in this article. No double window shall have .openings less _har_ ten per+cent of its area.

The provisions of this article apply to water-closet compartments; bs.throem.s and sL_._ilarrooms,but no _indo_v_,h__,lbe less In size then_four s_uare e_ +- If loci=tedimme.diatei_[benea[;hthe roof, a ventilatingskyli_i_tef no% less %hart the above minimum u_zme_;:...... 4 ,"+ou-_- :::sybe u_e_...... in lieu of the windows above ]:'cgj+tired, Toilet rooms and bathrooms in hotels may be without exterior Al_htl_:g'""_ , provided they be fitted with an approved system of ventilation ensuring a con- I tinuous air clmn_e of at least six t_es an hour_ azd provided further that the floors and walls, to a height of five feet, be oi_ impervious material.

SECTION _4. ROOMS, SIZE oF. _n every _elling hereafter erected all rooms, except water-closet co_Ipartmentsand bathroomS, shall be of the following minimum sizes: D_ery room shall 6ontain at least SO square f_et of floor area; , uo room shall be in any paintless than seven feet •wide, except that kitchenettes may contain but fift_.....s,_uare_ee_J•_ _ of floor area and be,not,, less than five feet wide. In multiple d_iellingsof :ilassA in each apartment kroup, or suite of rooms, there shall be at least one room containihg not less than one hundred and fifty square feet of floor area_

SECTIO!_25. ROOY_,_HEIG_..16F_ No room in a dwel_.ing hereafter erected shall be D in any part less than eight f_et high _rom the• __in_s_:_a4 • floo__ to the finished ceiling_ Except that an attic room in such pri-_mtedwelling or t_o-f_.ily d_olling need be but eight feet high in but on@-half its area, but at no point less than six feet in height. ;

SECTION 26. P_IVA.._f.In o_e__ -; d,_;el!inghereafter erected-access to everj;living room and to every be'iroomand to at least one _'ater-closetcompartment shall be had without pass'_,_:through•a bedroom. "Passi_ _lu_ougha bedroom" shall not, however, be construed as applyi_ to access from a beseem to an adjoini_< priw_te bathroom or co_muunicatingbathroom,

SECTION £7. •_JBLIC i__LLS. In every n_ultiple dwelling hereafter erected every public hall shall have at each store_ at least ohe window directly opening upon the street or u_on a ya_,dor court of the dimensions •specified in this article and lock,ted on the s_me lot. T,_ section shall not apply to hotels hereafter erected, provided the public halls are ea'tificially•lightedand ventilated adequately b_-a system of fo__'cedventilation,

SECTION 28. W_DO_JS AhT)Sk_Y',,IC-HTSFOR _W/BLICPL£LLS. In every _u].tipledwelling hereafter erected one _ least of the _:_indowsprovided to light each public hall or part thereof, sD_ll be at least t_'_elvesquare feet in area measured between stop-beads. In every _ultip!e d_vellingherea_er erected there s_hallbe in the roof directly over each staim_vella ventilating skylight provided with ridge ventilators having a miu_uur_opening of forty squere inches or such skylight shall be provided with fixed or movable louvres.

_±a_a IJJ_LLSSIZE OF In every nn_lti_¢ledwelling', herezfter erected there shall be provided for each storey at least one window to light •and ventilate each stair hall which shall be at least twelve squ_are feet in area, measured botv;eenthe stoo-beads, _.d shall open on the ope_spaces required by these regulations . A sash-door open__'_= on s_ilar open spaces shall be ae_met_the equivalent of a window in this add the two foregoing sections, provided that such door contains the _ount of glazed surface presc_'ibedfor such windows.

SECTION Z0. OUTSIDE PORCi_$. in dwellingshereafter erected outsideporches shall not be so !ocated or cons%ruttedas to interferev_ithor diminishthe light or ventilationrequiredby these regulations. The term "o,,itsideporches" shall include outsideplatforms,balconies,sheds and stairways. All such outside porches,except as ether:_ziseprovided in subdivisionsixteen of section two, shall be consideredas part of the building and n_t as part of the yards or courtsor other unoccupiedarea.

TITLE

o_u,_ITATIO_

SECTIOI_D1. C_LA_-_RO0_[_. in dwellings hereafter erected no room in any oell_ shall be occupied for living purposes or shall be considered as a habitable ro_n,

SECTI0_[_2. BAS_;q _ RO0_,,_.In dwellings hereafter erected no room in the bas_.ent shal! be occupied for living purposes unless in addition to the requirements of these regulations such room shall be d_p-proof and dry.

SECTION Ze. DFutINAGEA!_DV_TILATI01_ OF CELL

SECTION Z_. COU_TS, ._-_ o_,_D_P_S. In every d'_e!linghereafter erected _.ll courts, _reas, and ya_-dsshall be properly graded an_ drained sod _;_henrequired by the sanitary authorit_ they shall be properly concreted in whole or in p_rt_ as may be necessary. 159

SECTION 35. _.'AL\TER-SLq:PLY._'_DS_'i_%_C_EDISPOSAL. The provisions of these regulations with reference to water-supply a_;dse_;{agedisposal shall be deemed to apply only where a city main is or becomes reasonably accessible. Wherever there is no public sewer reasonably accessible and there is city Water, the required plumbing for the dwellinl_ shall be connected to a cesspool, septic tai_kor other means of sewage disposal approved by the sanitary authoritY; provided that the nature of the soil is such that such device can properly take care of the sewage from said pi_bi_ syst_. Where im_racticable_ owin{_to the nat_'e of _n_ soil adjacent to said dwelling to co_struct such a device a water-proof and fly-proof vault or other approved sanita_,rprivy or s_r.ilardevice, may be used temporarily for sdch dwelling Until suclLt_ne as a public sewer is provided reasonably accessible to such dweiling. _J_enevera public sewer is so provided, suchthe oserver.w,ner of theExceptdwellingthat, inshallruralconnector semi-ruralthe p!_nnbingdisti'ictssystemwhereOf thetheredwellingare nowith co_nunal water mains and sewers, sanitary :privies, chemical closets and wells, springs or other water-supply must be provided, placed and maintained according to the reo_at_'_ __o_'° of the .__.....011n,_st_yOf _,.ea!_n:__" er the Provincial Department.. o_, neal_,nrelating to water and aewage.

SECTI0m_ 36. :-,__2I_-_" _ Lr£_L]..... fd._ S_._..'_GE,7 DISPOSJ!L F0_4,...... I_JLTIPLE,DNELLINGS. _,_on_u!tiple dwelling of Class -Ashall hereafter be erecte_ on any street unless there is a public water-supply and a public sewer in the street on whicN such d_<_ellingabuts. NO multiple dwelling of Class B shall hereafter be erected on any street unless there is a city water-supply and a-public sea':orrec_sonablyaccessible, w.w°ery such multiple _,elling of Class A shall have its pl_umfoingsystem connected with the water-supply and with the public sewer before such multiple dwelling is occupied. No cessoool or vault or similar means of se_ge' disposal shall be used in connection wit_any'._;_ellingWhere connection with a public sewer is practicable.

SECTION 3?. PLb%_BI___.Every city shall pro_algate by-laws for _he regulation of plumbing which must be submitted and approved by both the sanitary authority and the }Linistry of Health {or the Provincial Department of Health), but such by-laws must conform to the follo_'¢in6_minimvm:requirements: The plumbing system which includes fixtures and water connections thereto; traps, stacks, drains and proper fittings shall be made of sotmd material (cast-iron, galvanized v_ou_ht-iron or steel, copper _md to a limited e_.teut,lea_ _d vitrified clay), shall be of sufficient vfeightand installed accordin_-_to the accepted practice. Pipe lines shall be as direct as possible and all changes in direction shall be made _ the use of 45o _ryes,'half_;wges,lon:__ sweep 1/4 bends, _16, i/S, 11'16bends, exce2t that single sanitary tees and short quarter bends .maybe used in soil or waste lines where the cha:_.]ein direction is from the horizontal to the vertical. Tees and cresses may be used in vent pipes only. In all .cases pipe lines shall be properly S!oped and free f_,-omshard bends or tu_,'ns.Stacks shall be extended above roofs at a distance at least _on feet from windows-or other openings of habitable rooms. _ipe lines shall be:so arranged as to be accessible at'_alltimes by means of suitable clea_outs. All fixtures, f_oor drains, and other outlets shall be trappe.dand properly vented, so as to prevent the siphonage of t_-apwater- seals, sewer emanations and the entrance of insects inside or about dwellings. Pl'_ebin_Tfixtures shall be open to vie_._and free from wood enclosures. Sinks, wash-bowls, wash tubs and sLmilar fixtures s_e.__have the rim not more than thirty inches above the floor. _:_aterclose.tsar:dsimilar fixtures shall be properly flushed and manufact[u-edwith vitrified earthenware or stonev:_arc,cast- iron ene_eled on the inside or other equivalent material. On new pl'm_foing installation a water or air test shall be made on the piping before the._ne is covered in any _my and before ar<_'fixture is installed. Gas piping-shal! be installed according to the accepted practice and all gas appliances _._ithan oven, water-heaters and sLmilar fixtures shall be provid._dwith flue cozmecti.ons extended above roofs.

Plumbing systeros " receive any so]id or fo_'cign,snal_ bematterused liableonly tototheircauseintendedobstructionuse, inand_-_n_-_shallpipingnot or alteration of the pipe material.. Pluau'oLngfixtures and piping shall be so installed as to prevent cross-connections with nor-potable water-supplies or to make possible the back-flow of selvageinto potable water-supply systems.

SECTiO_ 38. WATER-CLOSET, B_T_.,_/_$H-BOWLSA!_D:S_'_ ACC0_._,,10DAT!ON.In e_e_v dwelling hereafter erected where water mains are reasonably accessible t_e shall be provided a -_/ater-closet,a bath and a wash-bowl or sink. Water-_lb_.et and bath compartments shall not be less than throe feet wide, shall be enclosed with 2artitions _,._hichshall e_end to the ceiling s_d shall have a _._indo_vopen_ng directly upon a street or upon a yard or court of the mininmunsizes prescribed in these regulations and located upon the s_me lot. No water-closet bowl shall be enclosed or placed out-of-doors. In multiple dwellings of class B hereafter erected there shill be provided a wash-bowl in every room and at least one separate water-closet and one separate bathroom contain:ingboth for every ten ' LO

occupants or fraction thereof. Every water-closet compartment and bathroom, in addition to the natural lighting, shall be provided _lithproper means for artificial lighting.

ARTICLE 8

.ALT._TI ONS

Iu this article will be found the provisions _hich :_ustbe Observed when a person i_l'oposesto alter an existing dwelling.

orSECTIONits let39.beP_C_TAGEdiminishe_,OF LOTor otherOCCUPIED.buildingsNo dwellingplaced onshallits lot,hereafterso theftbe s_enlargedgreater percentage of the lot shall bc occupied by buildings or structures than provided in these r.,oulatlon_.

SECTION 40. I_IGI_. No dv_ellingshall be increased in height so that the said dwelling shall exceed the height prescribed in these regulation_. This provision shall not apply to hotels.

SECTION 41. YARDS. No dv_ei!ingsh_].lherc_ftcr be enlarged or its lot be dLminished, el"other building placed oa the lot, sO that the roar yard or side yard shall be less in size thsz_the l_-inimtu_sizes prescribed in these regulations.

"SECTION 42. N_J_COU_S IN _wD_ISTINGDW_LI_GS. Any court hereafter consti'ucted in a dwelling erected prior to the passage of these regulations and used to light or ventilate rooms, public halls or _vater--closetcompartments or bathrooms shall be not less in its least horizontal dimension in _°__ypnrt thsz_one-half of its height measured as prescribed in these r_ulations and such court shall undo1"no circumstances be roofed or covered over with a roof or skylight. _e_y ;_uch court, if an inner court, shall be provided at the bottom "_zithone or more horizontal air-intakes c0nstruct_d s.ndarr_Ccd as provided in these rc_lations.

o_,T_0N _S. _DDITIONAL ROG_'_SA_ H'Ai_S. _n_yadditional room or ha].lthat is hereafter constructed or created in a dr-oilingshall comply in all respects with the provisions of these regulations, except that it may be of the s_mc height as the oth_r room_ or hall on the s_ne storey of the d_elling.

SECTION _:. R00_L_AIT_DHALLS: LIGHTI_?_=_D v_I!,_TII_&TIONOF. No dwelling shall be so alte[_edor its lot diminished that any room or public hall or stairs shall have its light or ventilation d_ini_hed in any way not approved by the sanitary au _hO._l _ .

SECTION 4:5.SK'/LIC}_TS.All new s}o,lights here_i_fterplaced in a multiple dwelling shall be provided with ridge ver_tilatorshaving a minimum opening of forty square inches and also with either fixed or _ovab!e .].ouvres0.%with movable sashes, and •shall be of such size as may be d_te_'_r_inedto be practicable by the sanitary authority.

ARTICLE 4

SECTION 46. C___L%u_0CCUPAINCY. I_oroom in the cellar o_ aiV d,:,_ellin:qera:trod prior to the passage of these reg_latio_s shall be occu_,isdfor livi_ purposes.

SECTIOn]47. FL00RS_ WALLS.__ CEILI_GS :_D _I[_%TION OF CF_LARS. The,'floor of

D oreveryothercellarpurposes,in a dwellingthe wallsshalland beceilingsd_-p:_oof,shall beif_.such,,;hitewashedcellarorispaintedused fora lightstorage_ colo_r and shall be so maintained. Cellars shall be also well ventilated.

SECTI0__ 49. V;=__ OF COURTS. In multiple d_'ellingsthe walls of all courts, unless built of a light coloured material, shall be white-washed or painted a light colour by the o_':nerand shall be so maintained.

SECTION ,_9._,_AZ_ER-CLOS,_7f_S_BATI_q_SIT_S _D WAS_-I-BOWI_.Where a public water- supplF is reasonably accessible, every dv.,ellinsshall have within the dr;oiling,a water-closet, a bath and a sink providedwith rum_ing water. The floors beneath and arooz_,_these, plumbin_ fixtures shall be maintained in good order and repair. In multiple _]:_vellingsof class B, there shall be provided at least one water- closet e_d at least one bath and one wash-bowl for every lO occupants o_ fraction thereof. .B]_CTi01_50. _RIV_S, C_SP00LS, _-TO.,In the case of dwellings wher@, because of lack of accessible water-supply and se_:_erage system, a sanitary privy or solos other approved convenience for the disposal of sewage shall be provided at a poiut accessible to the occupants in the yard or other open space. In the case oi'dwellings where, because of lack of accessibility to a sewerage system, but provided with a water-supply, a cesspool or other convenience shall be provided. }_ivies, cesspools or other similar conveniences, shall not be Ymintained in such a manner as to cause a nuisance, and shall conform to the provision of section 6 of these regulations.

SECTION 51. PRIVATE _,T!_T_-SUPPLY.Wherever there is no City water-supply reason- ably accessible, a private supply from an adjoining watercourse, well or spring may be used, 3?rovidedthat in the opinion of the Ministry of Health (or Provincial Depart_ent of He_lt_:),it is or rendered safe or free from pollution.

..... SECTION 5°_.DISPOSAL OF XSI_h_3,G_RBAGE 2_PDR[B_±_I_.Subject to the mode of refuse collection in force in a city, sc_paratoand suitable tight non-absorbent recep- tacles, with Covers, for holding ashes, rubb_Sh, garbage and other waste zlatter shall be provided _d mai_tained _hon necessa_ for every dwelling. _iouseincin- erators arc permitted if properly constructed with a separate flue termfhated at the roof with a screen, provided at every floor-level with automatic tightly closin{ doors and operated in such a _,_ayas to prevent the development of a nui- sance. _:[oroovor,the oc'cupantsof dwellings using house incinerators shall drain and _rrapsecurely the garbage in paper, before disDosi_g Same in the house incin- erators. The construction e_udmaintenance of garbage chutes with receiving bin in cellar or basement are prohibited.

SECTION 53. REPAIRS. Every d_velling shall be kept in good repair by the o_mer, and the roof shall be kept so as not to leak, and all raLu water shall be so dre_ined as not to cause d_pness in the walls or coilir_s, or cause nuisance to adjacent buildings and the lots on wb_ich they ea,e situated, and to adjoi.uing s$reets.

Sn-D_T_0N54. NUISANCE, A_BkTF_¢_T_OF. It is forbidden to con_zaita nuisance as de- fined in section two, paragraph !_. Wherever any d_elling or any building, struc- ture, excavation, co_m_-cial or industrial pursuit, m_tter or thing, in or about a dwelling, or the lot on v_hioh it is situat_d, or the _lt_,bi_, sewerage, _.rain- age, privy che.micalcloset, cesspool is causing a nuisance, the sanitary author- ity amy order the s:_e to be abated, if any order of the sanitary authority under those regulations is not complied _ith _ithin five days after the service thereof, or _vithinsuch shorter period as it n_y designate, tho_ such order may be executed by said sanite_ryauthority, at the exp_nso of the o_nor of the building or lot concerned, and the maount so _xpcndod shall constitute a lio_ on the said build- i_ngor lot and shall be recoverable as a special asses_nent thereof.

SECTI0I,_55. U_KABITABLE D_JELLI_SGSTO BE VAC.ATED.Whenever it shall bc certified to the sanitary authority by one of its offi_'.er_:_that a dwellingsis unfit for h_s.n habitation in virtue of s_.,ctionl0 of these _-egulations,the said sanitary authority _my issue an order requiring all persons therein to vacate such dwell- ins within not less th<_u24 hours nor ;_._oreth_u 60 days for the reasons _r_entioned in said or_er. In Case such order is not co_._._plied_ith within the titusspecified_ the sanitary authority n_aycause the said d_'._ellingto be vacated. Wherever the i_sanitary conditions in the said d_:vellinghave ceased to exist, or the dwelling has been rendered fit for hu_n habitations,the sa_it_ry authority n_y remove s_id order or nx_yextc_idthe time within :;_hichto c_nply with the same.

SECTION 56. LODGERS_ R00_qS A_D BOARDERB. The sanitary authority amy prohibit in any dwelling the letting of lodgings therein by _ny of the tenants oc(,.u?yingsuch dwelling, and may prescribe conditions under _;hichlodgers, roomers, or boarders t_ay'be taken in, may require a written pe_nit to that effect and keep a record of a!l the _ecessa_D_infor_ation as to the size of rooms, their adequacy, the number and forth. of roomers or lodgers per_aitted so SECTION 57. P_OHIB]_gEDUS_. No horse, cow, calf, swine, sheep, goat, chickens, uigeons, geese, or ducl_ shall be kept in any dwelling or part tDmreof. I_orsimll any such anLmal be kept on the s_mueiot or premises with a dwelling except under such conditions as _maybe prescribed by hhe sanitary authority. _,,odv_ellingon the lot or premises thereof shall be used'for the storage or handling of rags or junk.

SECTION 58. CLEA_LINESS OF DWELLI_GS. Every dwelling sad ew_ry part thereof shall "be kept free frownvermin s._dfron_t_y accumulation of dirt, rubbish, gsrbage or -_thermatter in or on the sa._. It s_).llbe the duty of each occupant to keep the porti°n of the d_zellingoccupi_d b_ hiz_a_d over _hich he _ms control in a cleanly ¢ondition_at all times, it shall like_._isebe the duty of th_ o_,uncrof _y multiple dwelling to keep clean public halls, stair halls, a_d other p_rts thereof used in co_0zuonby its occupe.nz_ SECTION 59. O_,_i_CR0_ING.If en_rroom in a dwellingis overcro_:_ded,the sanitary authorityshall order the nu_nberof persons occuloyingsuch roon_ to be so reduced as to conform to the provisionsrelating to overcrowding.

ARTICLE 5

In this article will be found those ir_&_rove_nentsin the older buildings re- quired as a matter of compulsory legislation.

SECTION 60. T_,_ FOR CO_,_LIAh'CE.All improvementsspecificallyrequired in this article relativeto dwellingserected prior to the date of its passage shall be made within one yeer from said (iate cr at such earlier'period as mmW be fixed by the sanitary__uthority.

SECTION 6!. _!_':=_"00__ ,LIG}_INO_ _Y'D__:_____.-_,_T,'_'_T'_}___._F _:_:,,_,room __n a dv,re!!ing. erected prior to the passableof this act shall hereafterbe occupiedfor living._urpo_es unless it shall have a windov_of an ar_a of not !ess than ei_zhtsqare feet open- ing....directly upon the street, or upon a rear yard not __so= than ten feet' deop or above the roof of an adjoiningbuilding, or upon _ coua_tor side vard of not less than twent?f-five. s_uare_ _et_ in area, open to t_-,:,,_,_sk_ywithout roof or s _,l!___ht _less such room is located on the top floor and adequately lighted and ventilated by a sk_flig_topeningdirectly to the outer air. Except that a room v_hichdoes not complywith __h__ above orovisionsshs,ll be consideredas a part of -_.,adjoining room with _Jindov_,'Rrovidedthat eighty_er cont. of the partitionside shall be entirelyopen, e_d _Drovlaua"_°_ such room is .....orooer].y ventilated. The arca of tho combinedfloors shall be taken in the calcul_,_tionof the _u.,_Lcd glass area.

_ECTION 62. PUBLICHAIJ_t_i_D _TA±RS__*_-" Z_"_"_"n. IN_u Ai'_V_q'._IL_[_.±0_'__'_'_-'__T '_OF. In all ._Ll!_ip.,.o"'_" _ " dv_ellingserectedprior 1o the passage of these regnla_l,o_s,the public h:::l!s_,nid stairsshall be providedwith as mucl-light t_ndventilationto the outer air as _y be deemed _oractieab!eby the sanitary s-

_ _ ....." . _,J_m-=_oi___oAI:_ _L_T_-CLOSE_S. In nil multiple dweilh_gs erected prior to the passage of these regulations,when deemed necessaryby the sanita_vy authority, the wood_-orkenclosing sinks and v,_.sh-basins en__dwater-closetsshall. be =_emoved and the space.,uudernoath sh_.._lbe io. u open. The floor _...,_ v_s.!lsur- faces beneath and around them shall be pu_"_ iu good order _ud repair, a:_d if of wood she!! be kept well painted _vith light-colourcd paint.

SECTION 64. 2R!VY VAULTS,• '_...... _Xi_-O_OoE=S".... A!,D B__H._:._Whenever ..,° cormection_ _ith publicvJater-mainsbecomes reason_s.blyaccessible,all privy vaults, cesspools or other similr_r._p_c!__...._" '_ _.'_shall, before Juue ist, ----, with their coi:_tents,be completelyremoved and the plece, where they ",,verelocated properly disinfected under the directiouof the seJ_lu_.ry__,,_oiI_._. Such a_)pliances.,shall be ...._._<,_ by individualwater-closetsand baths of dt_abie non-absorbentmaterial, _rroper- ly connu.ctea_ to= a public sevTer,if a public sewe__.is reasonablyaccessible;if there is no public sewer reasonablys.cco_ssible, then such ',voter-closetsand baths shall be properly connected to a cesspool, se_n__ic ta_nkor other similardevice. Al! such water-close%s and baths sh_dl be of modern sanit_,.ryty_', andwith

pro.vidin_i;._.:iiv_dualS antrapsampleprgtectedflmsh ofagainstwater to_ thoroughly_...... a__zdcl_r_nseproPerlYthecorn_ectedbov,zl,Eachf!ush-tinkssuch _,J:;_ter-closotand bs.thsht-llbe located insidethe d_vellingor other buildin{ in connectionwith which it is to be used, in a compartmertcompletelyseparated . from every other _vater-ciosot and bath, and such compartment s_mll contain a wind0_-of not loss t.hanfour squarefeet in area opening directlyto the street, or rear yard, or on._,.side yard or court of the r_:quircd minimtuusizes. _,,_uz,u65,,_ BAS_7_'._S1½':DCELI_I_P_.The flobr of the c_l_m_ or i_vest floor of e"Ter_ &veiling shall be frec __._omd_pnoss, and, when neccss_zrv,, sb_ll be con- c'-_+_d _:¢ithnot less than four _ ...... of concrete of good ouality _.nd with a fin-. ished surface. 143. SECTION 66. SHAFTS A_D COURTS. In every dwelling where there is a court or shaft of any kind, there shall be at the bottom of every such shaft and court a door giving access to such shaft or court to enable it to be properly cleaned out - provided that where there is already a window giving proper access, it shall be deemed sufficient. _T ICI__6

SECTION 67. OVERCROWDING i. A dwelling-house shali be deemed to be overcrowded at any time when the number of persons sleeping in the house either (a) is such that any two of these persons, being persons ten years old or more, of opposite sex, and not being persons living

O totogetherthe numberas husbandand floorand wlfe_area ofmustthesleeprooms inofthewhichsametheroom;houseorconsists,(b) is, ininrelationexcess of the permitted number of persons.

For the purposes of these reguletions, the expression "the permitted number . of persons", in relation to any dwelling-house, means either: (1) the numlberspecified in the second colmun of table I in relation to a house consisting of the number of rooms of which that house consists_ or (2) The aggregate for all the rooms in the house obtained by reckoning, for each room therein of the floor area specified in the first column of table II, the nmuber specified in the second column of that table in relation to that area, , whichever is the less: Provided that in computing for the purpose of the said table I the number of rooms in a house, no regard shall be had to any room having a floor area of less than 50 square feet. TABLE I

Where a house consists of: (a) one i'oom ...... 2 (b) two rooms ...... ,...... 3 (c) three roolIhS...... •5 (d)four rooms...... 7½ (e) five rooms ...... i0, with an additional 2 in respect of each room in excess of five. TABLEII

Where the floor area of a room is: (a) ll0 sq. ft. or more ...... 2 (b) 90 sq. ft. or more, but less than ll0 sq. ft ...... l_ (c) 70 sq. ft. or more, but less than 90 sq. ft ...... 1 (d) 50 sq. ft. or more, but less than 70 sq. ft ...... (e) Under 50. sq • ft e,e Qo,Jeeeae ,.eeeoe eeo.oeeoee.eeoe,eo, ° hi]•

2. In determining for the purposes of this section the number of persons sleeping in a house, no account shall be taken of a child under one year old: and a child who has attained one year and is under ten years old shall be reckoned as one-half of a unit. In the application of this table, account is only to be taken of rooms which are habitable.

The provisions of this paragraph shall not apply to rooms used as bunk-houses or sleeping places in lum.beringand woods industrial camps, canneries_ barracks, and all other dwellings similarly occupied, whether specifically enumerated here- in or not, provided sixty square feet of floor space is available for each indi- vidual in such places, and provided such rooms are adequately lighted and ventilate_!.

The floor area of "aroom shall be ascertained for the purposes of this section

O_ in the(1) Thefollowingarea ofmanner:any part of the floor space over which the vertical height ef the room is, by reason of a sloping roof _r ceiling, reduced to less than 5 feet shall be excluded from the computation of the floor area of that room. (2) Subject to the exclusion under the foregoing rule, the floor shall be measured so as to include in the computation of the floor area, any floor space formed by a bay-window extension. REQUIREmenTS_D R_DIES Sections dealing with abatement of overcrowding, permit to commence building, certificate of compliance, unlawful occupation, penalties for violations, pro- cedure, service of notices and orders, service of smnmons, enforcement, powers conferred, inspection of dwellings, right of entry, injunction, undertaking, laws repealed, validity, when to take effect, shall be drafted by each province to conform with local practice and other provincial regulations• I_USTRI_L HYGIENE

The development of the factory system during the past one h_udred and fifty years stimulated legislation directed to the control of hazards to health in indus- try. Some of this legislation considerably antedated general public health legis- lation, and so the wage-earning section of the population has received rather special attention in health matters. Obviously, a polluted water supply or an epidemic of smallpox presents the same hazard to industrial workers as to others in the community, but if the source of livelihood to-day represented by the man's work is associated

arewithnecessary.disability or premature death to-morrow, its purpose is defeated and safeguards

At the same time, the grouping of industrial workers together day after day affords special _opportunity for the application of known measures for the up-building of health; and the economics of industry dictate support for a healthy personnel.

These considerations are the warrant for a body of factory legislation directed to the protection of the health of workers and more recently for intensive research to determine the optlm_m conditions of work directed to the same purpose.

The approach to the investigation of conditions of work since World War I has been, firstly, the study of production, spoiled work, accident and sickness records. The influence of hours of work, ventilation, lighting, rest pauses and posture has been the Subject of recommendations arising out of this type of inquiry. Secondly, the measurement of energy-consumption in performing a specified piece of work under varying conditions has been applied to weight-lifting and carrying, the holght and tread of stairs, balance of tools, and other conditions of work. For example, when the actual hours of work in a certain operation were decreased from 69 to 59 there was a pronounced increase in the hourly rate and a considerable increase in total output. Such a result is possible only where the operation is not completely dom- inated by machinery. In a tin-plate factory with hot processes where good ventila- tion was provided, the output in summer was only 3 per cent less than in winter months, while in two poorly ventilated factories the average output was ll per cent and 18 per cent less in the hot weather; in two silk weaving mills _ith good artifi- cial illumination the production fell 10 per cent below the daylight rate; one study showed that rest pauses with a change in post_e was associated with an increase in production or 30 per cent over that uhen no change in posture was provided for. With respect to weight-lifting, studies made to determine the ratio between body weight and the practical load indicated that about 35 per cent of body weight was a sound standard load and that ratios of practical importance respecting women and young persons in industry were 40 per Cent of the body _veightwhore the lifting was an essential part of the process and 50 per cent for occasional load carrying. Related to average physical data, these percentages would be 45 lb. and 55 lb. respectively. In the U.S.A. the Department of Labor has recommended a maximum load of 25 lb. for women for steady lifting.

The industrial hazards of the worker may be roughly divided into the following five classes:

1. The danger of contracting a communicable disease as a result of occupation or association with fellow-;vorkmen. 2. _orking in atmospheric conditions which are not conducive to proper heat loss from the body. 3. Contact with materials that are not systemically poisonous but cause local irritation. 4. Accidents.

5. tP_oughThe handlingthe skin,and subsequentof specificbreathing,poisons. swallo_ing or absorbing,

Communicable Diseases

The danger of contracting a co_nunicable disease from fellow-workmen is a hazard not to be dismissed without comment. A perusal of mortality records shows tuberculosis to be one of the most important causes of adult mortality. In early adult life as many as one death out of four may be due to this disease. Thus the worker in the course of his daily toil may be infected from one of his fellow-workmen suffering from it. Industrial work often involves close contact. There are certain trades in which the incidence of tuberculosis is very much higher than in the general population. These trades may be divided into two classes: sedentary occupations

/ 145

which attract the type of worker prone to develop or alreadysuffering from tubercu- losis, and trades in which there is some specific hazard favouring the development of this disease. The garment trade is an example of the first class, and granite- cutting of the second class. Therefore, when in a given trade the mortality rate from tuberculosis is high and the nature of the work is heavy, one can assume with some degree of assurance that a definite hazard favouring tuberculosis exists at the work itself. This is usually due to the presence of silica dust.

Unsatisfactory Atmospheric Conditions

_n, like a machine, uses fuel in the form of food and produces energy. The body, ho_ever, is not i00 per cent thermally efficient, but must lose heat in order to produce work. Conditions that interfere with host losses from the body decrease the _orker's efficiency greatly and in extreme conditions may affect his health. The more strenuous the work, the cooler the workroom should be. People engaged in sedentary occupations should not work in the same air conditions as men engaged in hard physical labour. High temperatlmes 1_mybe compensated for by increasing the air movement. High humidity reduces the range of temperat1_e in :;thichefficiency and comfort are attained. Working in hot conditions is associated with a general in- crease in sickness. Working in hot, vJetconditions increases the incidence of pneumonia and rheumatism. _hen these conditions are associated _ith sudden changes to lo_Jtemperature, the hazard is further increased. Men uorking at hot trades should be provided with proper washroom and locker facilities so that dry clothing can readily be put on before leaving. This is especially important in cold weather.

Effect of Certain Irritants

Considerable discomfort, without any serious consequences, is occasioned by _any substances handled in industry. In this class come most of the trade dermatoses such as those duo to nickel, chrome, rubber and lo'_J-gradeskin infections like those caused by infected cutting-oil. Some cases of skin disease are entirely due to con- tact with irritating materials. In others the real cause is a hyper-sensitive con- dition of the individual's skinto the materials used; this condition may arise after years of exposure and may make it necessary for the sufferer to change his occupation. Few people realize the part played by atmospheric conditions in creat- ing and continuing skin irritation. A hot environment increases skin temperature, which in turn increases skin irritability. Profuse sweating irritates the skin and makes it more alkaline. Alkaline m_Aterialsremove much of the fatty substances of the skin and greatly reduce its natural protection. Many cases of dermatitis are made _vorseby the use of abrasive hand cleansers and strong alkaline soaps.

Accidents

Industrial accidents cause much suffering and hardship to _orkers and great financial loss. In a recent year, according to a report of the Uorkmen's Compensa- tion Board of Ontario, 1265 out of every IO,000 full-year workers in that province were injured. The causes of industrial accidents might be tabulated as primary and secondary. The primary cause is the phl_sicalagency directly responsible for the injury, and the secondary cause runs the gamut from individual ill-being to adyanced psychosis. Perhaps there impinges the factor of individual susceptibility, fop _ve are reliably informed that 70 per cent of the accidents occur in 25 per cent of a given group of workers.

For present purposes, accidents _y be divided roughly into tbmeo classes: (a) purely fortuitous or accidental in the popular sense; (b) from exogenous in- strumentalities of human nature; (c) from endogenous causes such as speed of move-

intelligencement, keennessandofphysicalperception,well-being.muscular Controlco-ordination,of industrialmental accidentsadaptation,mustgeneraltake cognizance of the personal factor. This has not been generally recognised. Its immediate application lies in the provision whereby workmen sustaining two, or at the most three, even minor accidents in a unit of time, should be removed to a less hazardous occupation.

Soecific Poisons

Wherever those substances are used, it is necessary to come to some definite conclusion as to whether their use is attended by serious consequences to the work- men. In all cases a primary evaluation is made, when it should be decided _hether or not analyses of materials, dust counts and complete medical examinations are neces- sary.

t The First Inspection of the Plant

The Company's Attitude

On inspecting a plant, the first person met isusually the manager or super- intendent. At this meeting the company's attitude to,yardsthe health of its em- ployees is ascertained. Frequently the blame for any occupational disc_asois placed on the worker. The statement is made over and'over again that the men do not wash, that they stay up late at night, drink or have some other bad habit to vJhich their ailment can be attributed. Rer_nrksof this kind from the man in charge _ke one s!_spiciousthat trouble has been experienced in the pl2.ntand that no action has been taken to find the cause. It is importantto ku_o_J_that most industrial diseases are produced by the introduction into the body over a long period of time of relatively small qu_antitios Of toxic _mterials. Hence their onset is usunlly slow and insidious, and not spec- tacular like "poisoning" in the popular sense of the word. _ Some people are much more prone to be affected than others by the same exposure, but unfortunately there is no way to anticipate individual susceptibility. This it is not reasonable to Conclude, because all the _1orkmenexposed are not affected in the same _rayand some not at all, that those complaining are not suffering from an occupational disease. In some plants where a definite hazard exists, one is told that they have been operating from ten to fifteen years without trouble. This may be possible because, very often, occupational diseases have not been and are not recognized as such, or labour turnover is so high as to prevent sufficient expom_re. This argument in some cases is used to discourage further investigution. It ishard to believe that any manager Or superintendent with several years I experience in handling poisonous materials would never have soon a case of poisoning. Some fe_:employers even deny the existence of industrial diseases, but mainly employers wish to kno_jif unsafe conditions exist.

The Workmen

From conversation with the workmen _luchv:_.luableinformation is obtg.inod. A fairly accurate _nowledge of the labour tulnover in the plant can be obtained, and whether this measure is being used to prevent the occurrence of occupatibnal dis- eases. A rough idea of the time lost and the most prevalent causes of sickness is also determined. If a worker complains of ill health, detailed questioning regarding his complaint is of great value. Very often the worker will blame his occupation for his ill health__lhenit really is due to other causes. This tendency to attribute ill health to causes beyond one's control is not restricted to the working-man but per- vades all groups in the community. The general appearonce of the workmen is _orth noting. Do they, as a class, look undernourished? Do they appear pole and anaemic? Generally speaking, the older the worker the better he is able to viithst:mdindustrial poisons. Females are more susceptible to serious damage than are me.les. If the nature of the work is heavy, one has to bear in mind that more air _ill be breathed than at a sedentary job. This is very important if a dust or f_mnehazard exists, as the injurious mnterials entering the body ,rillbe greatly increased in amount.

Are Poisonous Materials Used?

It is not generclly appreciated that a gre;:_tmany industrial plants, both large and small, do not knovlthe chemical n_.tlwoof the materials in use. This state1_ent appears startling, but on further consider_otionit can be understood, as industry is largely concerned with "performance" rather than vJithchemical composition. A large firm may decide to start doing its own paint spr_ying. A spray booth is obtained and the necessary selection of paints and lacquers is made. In this selection the colour, viscosity, drying time, durability of finish, and cost v_illbe considered, _J_hilono

re_erencctain lead oris madesilica;to _iftheitchemicalsis a lacquer,used initthemayfinish.contain benzol,If it isleada paint,or someit othermay con- injurious ingredient. The first intimation this type of plant usually gets concerning the chemical composition of its paint or lacquer is when some wor_uan becomes sick, or an inquisitive factory inspector has asked questions concerning the materials used. Even in plants with laboratory facilities, the chemical kno_ledge of materials is largely confined to the laboratory. Another source of hazard in industries using paints and lacquers is the substitution of "just as good" an article. Very often, as far as performance goes this substitute is just as good as the original, but its cos_ is reduced by using a cheaper substance--perhaps cheaper partly because it is poisonous. It is familiar to everyone that a great deal of !_terial is bought under trade name, a name that very often in no vmy indicates the composition. Seldom arc these preparations labelled as to poisonous contents. 147

Of seventeen plants _king similar products in which was suspected the use of a volatile poison, only three had any knowledge whether they were using, might use, or had used this poisonous material. From these plants alone there could have been collected enough samples to keep a chemist busy for a year. Fortunately, ho_Tevcr, from close attention to the particular process, verbal e_mination of the workers, and the information gained from the three plants knowing what they were using, coupled with analyses of a .limitednumber of samples, the hazard for the whole group was estimated. _ost of the spectacular and serious occupational cases occur in plants where the workmen and executives alike are ignorant of the poisonous n_.tureof the materials used.

Nature of Process

If poisonous materials are used, the type and nature of the process greatly influences the danger. Ordinarily, processes n_.aybe divided into the open, closed, or partially closed. The ideal method of handling poisonous materials is to use a closed process, butthis is not al-_layspracticable. Even _vitha closed process, a degree of hazard exists v_henthe materials are put in and taken out, and _Thenthe process machinery is cleaned. This cleaning may be very hazardous. Entry into an enclosed space of any kind is not without considerable danger unless proper pre- cautions are t_,.ken.In open or psrtial]y closed processes there is always some hazard when poisonous materials are used. This hazard can be greatly reduced, but never entirely eliminated, by the use of efficient exhaust systems. Although _et processes naturally do not produce as much dust as dry ones, the advantage may be lost by the unfavourable influence Of dampness on the incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia and rh_umatism. Dry grinding and mixing may be the cause of considerable dust, and hand sorting of scrap Jcad is usually very hazardous. The use of pneumatic tools is very often accompanied by the production of large amounts of fine dust effectively scattered about by the air exhaust on the tool.

The inhalation of poisonous dusts or fumes is the most common cause of industrial poisoning. From this it can readily be understood that the control or prevention of industrial diseases depends primarily upon the employer, rather than upon the personal hygiene of the worker.

Silica and Lead Dusts

_J_hileall dusts may be more or less injurious, the chief offenders are silica and lead. In the case of silica dust, it is the particles under ten microns (a micron is 1/25,000 inches) in size that cause the trouble, entrance being gained through the respiratory tract. In lead, much of the coarse dust is swallowed and some is absorbed by the intestinal tract, the fine dust entering thebody by way of the lungs. It is reasonable to assume that if visible dust is present, fine dust is present also. But if no dust is visible, this does not mean thatno fine dust is present in the air. Generally speaking, it is dust of a size seen in a beam of sunlight which is most important. Control of visible dust is not difficult. Control of invisible dust is extremely difficult, if not impossible in some cases, because it must be recogu_izedthat in addition to dust of visible size and even of ultra- microscopic size there are dust particles so infinitesimal as to be incapable of measurement. Even the grinder working at a slowly revolving natural grindstone kept continuously wet with a stream of water produces enough dust to cause trouble after many years of exposure.

A common way to ascertain the presence of invisible dust in a process Is to take dust accumulations from rafters, sills, etc., near the process. If this contains the poisonous materials used in the factory, it is reasonable to assume a hazard. In making a survey in a lead plant, samples of fine dust were obtained from the locker fromtops thein theworkshop.washroom.TheThisdustwashroomon analysis_wascontainedin a building12 perby centitselflead.severalHerehundredwas a leadfeet hazard in a place where no lead was thought to be present. It is essential that people using poisonous materialskeep their placcs clean. Housecleaning is usually the first step taken in making a plant safe. Expensive e_aust systems are of relatively little value if fine dust is permitted to remain on places of lodgement. The constant vibration of machinery and the movement of materials on the floors will continuously stir up this dust, creating a maximum hazard from a minimum amount of dust. It is the size of the particle, rather than the _eight, that determines the rate of settling of fine dust. The smaller the particle the bigger is its surface in relation to its mass. The use of machinery has greatly increased the dust hazard, especially in trades llke granite cutting, whore pneumatic tools have displaced the hand hammer. The means of keeping dust dov_mby mechanical methods have not kept pace with its production by machines. 148 PoisonousFmnes

Next to dust as a cause of industrial diseases come poisonous fumes. Fumes or vapours are very readily absorbed through the respiratory tract. This can be under- stood, as the lungs are highly specialized organs for the exchange of gases to or from the body. Lead fmmes are given off by molten lead at a high temperature. The control of the temper_ture of the lead wil! control the f_ne hazard to a great ex- tent, but will not prevent the dust hazard produced by the formation of load oxide on the top of the molten metal. Nitrous fumes are relatively insoluble in water and, compared with ;manyother's,are less irritating. They reach the air sacs of the lungs with little vJarningand there produce an intense infla1_F_ationles.dingto pul- monaryto forty-eightoedema andhoursusuallyaftertoexposuredeath. toThethefirstfumes.signOnofaccomntc_nytroubleof thiscomesdelay,fromthetwelvereal cause is often obscured and, indeed, seldom recog_ized, so that very fe_'_eases of poisoning by nitrous fm._osare brought to our attention. Gases like chlorine and sulphur dioxide, while very poisonous, are so irritating that they are practically irrespirable in toxic concentrations. Hydrogen sulphide, the arom_fof v_hichper- vades most chemical laboratories, is about as toxic as hydrocyanic acid gas in high concentr_tionS and can be evolved from many organic m_tcrials. This gas is the com- mon cause of fatal poisoning in senatorsand sewage disposal plants.

High concentrations of benzol vs_pour,like high concentrations of the vapours of toluol, gasoline, ether, chloroform and many other solvents, _vhenbreathed cause anaesthesia and even death. But the concentration required to produce this sudden effect is not ordinarily enco_mtered in industry, and when it is encountered the nature of the happening is more like an accident than an occupational disease. It is continued exposure to small amounts which constitutes the major industrial hazard. Men daily exposed to a concentration as low as lO0 parts of benzol vapour per million parts of air are very likely to show some blood changes. I_'Iostof the cases of benzol poisoning coming to our attention, however, have been caused by concentr_tions in excess of this amount. In one case vJherothe exposure was very small, it took ton years to produce fatal results. In evalu_!_tinga Benzol hazard, one must bear in mind that it is the continued use of benzol, even in small o.mo_mts,that is likely to cause serious trouble, and not the ocsasional use of lc.rgoramounts. Thus a painter who uses paint remover, Which usually contains benzol, does not get into trouble if his expos1_e is limited to this source. In f_ctorios, however, it is very difficult in some cases to draw the line betv_eencontinued and occasional use.

It is not necessary to assume that the use of poisonous materials in industry is bound to ps'oducedire results, for this need not be the case. There are a great many plants in Ontario _lherepoisonous materials are used _ithout aoy kno_m se_ious consequences, but these plants realize what they are using and adopt adequate methods of control. The most serious and spectacular c_ses of occupational diseases usually occur in plants where poisonoUs substances are used un!mo_:inglyor carelessly.

Control of Occups.tionalPoisoning

It may be emphasized again that _hile a considerable number of substanc<-spro- duce skin irritation among wage-earners, the most import&mr occupational diseases are produced by the inhalation of dusts and fumes. The general measm'es adopted for their control must therefore rest v_iththe employer rather than with the employee. They consist of:

(1) The substitution of less poisonous for dangerous _:_utorials,such as occurs in the Use of zinc oxide or tit_mit_moxide in place of lead for outside paints; or the partial substitution of toluE1 for benzol as a solvent or d_lu_mt.

(2) The labelling of c6ntainers holding materials such aS le_:_dor benzol, by manufacturersthese substancesandaredistributorsbeing used.of these mc_t_rials,so that euployers may know that

(3) Th._provision of local exhaust ventilation to remove dangerous subst_mces from the atmosphere at their source. This is the most important single control measure.

(4) The use o_ water or oil, _-Jhichis limited in its application _.snddoes not usue_llyentirely remove the hazard.

(S) Periodic examination of _orkers knovm to be exposed in order that early s_nptoms and _lgns of poisoning may be recognized and the workman removed from ex- posure before disability arises. (6) The reporting of occupational diseases to departments of health and labour by physicians and employers.

Control Measures for General Sickness

_ile the specific occupational diseases are important, the loss in time and disability which they produce is a small part of that due to general sickness,.to which all are subject. It is estih_atedthat general sickness accounts for about 9 days' lost time per worker per year, while industrial accidents are responsible for about one and a half days, so that a reduction of 25 per cent in lost time from general sickness uould be equivalent from this standpoint to _he total elimination of industrial accidents.

General sickness is characterized by the fact that ncarlyene-half is due to diseases of the respiratory system, 20 per cent to diseases of the digestive system, and lO per cent each to the rheumatic group and those of the circulatory system_ one- half of this lost tiiffeis due to illness of less than seven days' duration; feP_le workers show about 50 per cent more lost time from sickness common to both sexes; least sickness occurs around twenty-five years of age, with a gradual increase there- after_ marked variations occur in the experience with sickness from one factory to another, even when the same prod_ct is manufactured.

Efforts directed to the control of general sickness involve the employment of medical personnel under conditions _here physicians, nurses and first-aid workers bear some direct responsibility te industry. For factories in this country, these physicians will be mainly on part-time duty and therefore the work must be condhcted by the general practitioner. Sometimes it is pr_ctical for one physician to super- vise health in a group of small plants readily accessible to one another.

Since the specific means for the control of adult ill-health are limite& to such procedures as inoculation against t_hoid and vaccination against szmllpox, the main measures depend upon recognition of disease in its early stages so that appropriate advice may be given and treatment carried out by the family physician if necessary.

The first and most obvious measure for control of ill-health is the supervision of first-aid in both accidents and sickness. Uhile very serious accidents occur, so that employees generally shouldbe trained in first-aid, the most important single item in first-aid is the adequate care of wo_uds to prevent infection. In most cases this is a comparatively simple procedure when suitable first-aid facilities are avail- able, including trained personnel _mder medical direction. Yet the number of wound infections is still high.

By first-aid in sickness is meant attention to minor complaints of ill-health. This provides an opportm_ity for the early diagnosis of disease. _Tnonconfidence in health supervision has been established, workmen _ill use this service when they would not incur the expense of a visit to the family physicimn _uless they were shown that it was necessary_

Physical e_mination on employment shou]H be conducted with a view to determining what diseases or defects are present in order that they nay be given consideration in choosing suitable work for the applicant. Except where special hazards eY_st, the nmmber of rejections should be low and co_ined to such conditions as active tubercu- losis, gross heart disease and perhaps epilepsy or other conditions which require active treatment. Physical examination in industry should be used for the control of ill-health and not as a means for exclu_lingfrom employment. Periodic physical ex- amination provides an additional opport_mity for the early diagnosis of disease and should be applied after an illness anclbefore ro_urn to work; if disease or defect J_ has been suspected in a previous examination_ before tr_msfer from one job to another of different type; or _en partial fail,n'oat work suggests ill-health as the cause. _;,, The opportunity for health education is important. The e_mple provided by Q' executives of a factory acting on advice arising out of health supervision influences the individual workman, beth at the plant and in his attitude to health educ:_tionfor his family at home.

Discussion of health habits of employees in the light of a recent physical ex- amination is much more effective than any.abstract discussion of health before largo _oups. At the same time, groups of employees may be addressed on the subject of health with advantage. 150

DANGEROUS DUSTS AND FU_S

D_u.st___s

Dusts consist of relatively large _quantities of finely divided particles of such a size that they may be carried by air currents or winds. Those particles may be produced from any substance which can be broken up. They vary in size from about 150 microns to less than half a micron. A micron is a microscopic measurement of length and there are 25,000 microns in one inch. A considerable number of porticles of dust are so small that they cannot be readily seen by the unaided eye. The small- est particle that can be readily seen by the eye is about 60 microns. Since the beginning of time, dusts have been encountered everywhere, but it has only been since the development of specialized industry that they have become im- portant from a health viewpoint. Industrial dusts can be divided into 4 groups: (1) the so-called harmless dusts, (2) dusts producing changes in the brain, (3) dusts composed of definitely poisonous materials, and (4) dusts which cause scarring of the lungs (fibrosis).

1. "Harmless" Dusts

The so-called harmless dusts are dusts containing no appreciable amount of free silica or other poisonous materials. Limestone is an example of a so-called harmless dust. However, such dusts are not without some harmful action. Heavy concentrations of the so-called harmless dust, when breathed, irritate the nose and throat mechan- ically, producing inflammation with its resulting s_vellingof the lining membranes of these and adjacent organs. This condition favours the gro_'thof bacteria and the •individual is more likely to have colds which may be of a serious nature. The openings into the throat from the sinuses and middl-_car may become plugged, result- ing in sinus trouble and middle-ear disease. The concentration of dust necessary to produce this effect is heavy and causes, at the time of breathing, discomfort to the worker. In •thistype of exposure the worker will usually wear a respirator for comfort as well as for protection.

2. Dusts Producing Skin Irritation

Many dusts coming in contact with the skin set up changes in the skin that we call dermatitis. The dermatitis usually starts around the wrist, at the back of the neck, and where clothing rubs the skin° From these locations it may spread to other parts .ofthe body. The occupational type of skin trouble is usually very itchy as well as unsightly. It, hou.3ver,is not as a rule very dangerous to the in- dividual and clears up rapidly on removal of the affected worker from exposure.

Skin trouble in industry can be divided into t_vogroups: firstly, from con- tact with irritating dusts, solids, or liquid materials_ and, secondly, those cases in which the individual has become sensitive to the material or mo_terialshe is using. These materials may not be necessarily either poisonous or irritating_

12_the first group wc have as offending materials such subst_:.ncesas acids, alkalies, oils, chromium compounds, and many others. Prevention of skin contact with such irritants is the obvious _ay to prevent trouble. Very often this t:fioeof skin trouble is ag_avatod by the "",,_-o__erT'_ !S using strong soaps or abrasive cleansers for cleaning the hands and arms.

In these Oases of skin trouble where the worker is sensitive 'tothe materials handled, it is usually necessary for him to change his job unless the offending material can be dispensed with at his work. M_ny people are sensitive to such

materialsskin sensitivityas organicto ordinarydyes andmaterialsother chemicalsuch asmaterialsflour, soap,used etc.,in industry.are sometimesCases metof _J¢ith.

3. Poisonous Dusts

Poisonous dusts are often produced in industry when poisonous materials are beingprocessed. Probably the most common and one of the most poisonous materials used in industry is lead and its compounds.

Lead or its compounds may enter the body by three avenues: absorption through the skin_ by ingestion, and by inhalation of lead-containing dust. 151

Absorption of lead through the skin is likely to occur only when such compounds as tetraethyl lead are handled. Fortunately, such compounds are seldom used in in- dustry.

The ingestion of lead by mouth usually results from eating food containing lead, or unclean habits of people working _rithlead. When lead is ingested by mouth and swallo'_Jod,the greater part is never absorbed from the intestines into the body. The more soluble the type of lead compounds is in the intestinal fluids, the more it v_ill be absorbed into the body. Poisoning by ingestion of load is not common in industry.

• of leadThepoisoninginhalationoccurringof lead-containingin industry.dustIrrespectiveis responsibleof theforchemicalnearly allcompositionthe casesof the lead dust breathed into the lungs, such dust is absorbed by the blood strc_m and circulates t_ough the whole body. Thus the chemical composition of the lead com- pounds in the dust is not import_nt. The important considen_tion is the actual amount of le_:din the air being breathed. TTJoor three rags.of lead dust breathed daily over a period of time will usually create changes in the body. As there are over 25,000 rags.in an otmce, one may appreciate the small quantity of lead dust _lhich will produce trouble. In load exTJosures,the ;Jerkerdoes not see nor is he neces- sarily conscious that he is breathing dust. There is no special irritation of throat or nose and the lungs are not appreciably°cffoctod. The lead entering the blood stream circulates around the body, damaging many or_ans. It is either ex- creted in the urine or faeces or in part stored in the bones of the body. The f'_ct that lead is stored in the body ms.kesit a c_ul_.tive poison, and for this reason it is possible to have very acute cases of poisoning among _Jorkersexposed to very small amounts of lead over a period of months. It also accounts for cases of lead poison- ing occurring in _orkers who have not been exposed to lead for years. As long as the lead is stored in the bones, no trouble vJilloccur. Ho_Jever,if this storage system breaks do_n, the lead will be thrown into the blood stream and poisoning may result. Factors _hich are likely to cause breakdo_n in storage are fever, changes in diet, certain drugs, and alcoholic intoxication. Thus a lead worker when he has an attack of influenza may also suffer f1_omlead poisoning at the sane time.

Acute lead poisoning usually produces a colic vJhichmay be mistaken for appen- dicitis. In more chronic poisoning, nerve trouble vfithparalysis may occur. The very chronic forms of leod poisoning may mimic other diseases. In c_Lsesof sickness, the cause of ?_hichis not clear, the possibility of le_d poisoning being a factor is usually considered. The amount of general ill health suffered by people working with lead is much gre_ter than that in the general population. Lead is a race poi- son, as it interferes _;Jithreproduction and for this reason is more serious in _1omon •than in men." Lead poisoning very often is domestic in crispin. Considerable atten- tion has been drawn to cases of lead poisoning, often •fatal, in children _Jhohavc eaten lead oaint from toys, verandah rails, and other sources. _,hterialscoming in contact _ith children should never be coated _ith lead-containing paints.

Arsenic-containing dusts are occasionally met with in industry. Uhile arsenic has a wide-spread reputation as a poisonous m_terial, its use in industry is not attended _:_ithnearly the trouble that is c_'_usedby load. It has, ho_over, besides its general poisonous properties, a tendency to cause skin trouble and to erode the partition of the nose.

Cadmium is another poisonous material _J_hichis being increasingly used in in- dustry. Operations involving the handling of cadmium_or its salts require special attention. CadmiuJ_dust or fuJ_esarc very injurious to the lun_Ts_nd even minute quantities when breathed are likely to set up lun_ chan_es of a serif'usnoture.

•A. Dusts Causing Scarrin_ of the Lunzs

@ Such dusts are composed in part of wholly of silica (silicon dioxide). The disease produced is c_lled silicosis.

Quartz and flint are practically pure silica; granite contains about one-third silica, and it is present in varying amounts in m_ny other rocks and sands. Ex- posure to silica dusts in industry occurs at such jobs as mining, quarrying, stone- cutting, moulding, grinding, and sandblasting. Uith the exception of sandblasting, _jherethe dust concentration may be very high, silicosis is produced only after many years of exposure. _on not protected, sandblasters develop the disease in t_7o years or more. Not all those exposed to silica dust develop the disease in the ordinary span of lifo. 152

In gold mining the gold is usually found in a quartz vein, and in coal mining it is the silica in the rock about the coal seam that causes trouble. Moulders get their silica o:_osure from sand and fret the parting material used. Fortunately during the past few years non-silica par'_ingshave been developed and have largely displaced the silica parting in the industry. The sandblaster gets his silica ex- posure from the sand being used for abrasive purposes. Grinders get their exposure from the sand adherent to the casting being ground or from the use of natural grind- stones, Fortunately, however, most of the grindstones used in industry are made artificially and do not contain silica.

The silica dust in the air must be of a certain size before it can enter the the naked never reach the lungs. Particles of dust big enough to be seen with eye imoortant lung substance. The particles of silica that cause silicosis are less tho.nton microns (10/25,000 of an inch) in size. The s_nll particles of dust causing silicosis do not settle out of the air readily bug stay suspended in the n.irfor a long time. It is a good rule to remember that if visible dust is present, it is reasonable to conclude that much fine dust is present in the air. Sometimes when no visible dust is present, the amount of fine dust present may be hiEh but this situa- tion is rather unusual.:

When the fine silica dust enters the lung substance, it causes by its presence thQ laying down of a peculiar form of scar tissue. This process goes on year after year until there is more scar tissue in the lungs than l_ng tissue. In uncomplica- ted silicosis much of the lung tissue will be dispL:_codby scar tissue before serious disability is noticed by the person affected. The first symptom noted by the silicotic is shortness of breath on exertion. This shortness of breath gradu- ally increases Imtil the individual is short of breath oven while resting. This last condition, however, is rarely encountered, as most silicotics get tuberc_ulosis before they have severe disability from silicosis, and die from tuberculosis. So common is tuberculosis the cause of death in silicotics that the problem of sili- cosis is largely at present one of tuberculosis. The silicotic lung, when infected with the baoillus of tuberculosis, has little po-_erof resistance, and as the tuber- cle bacillus is ever present in the community, the silicotic has little chance to escape it. Most of the people who are dying to-d_.yfrom tuberculosis and silicosis would die of old age before their silicosis alone would give trouble. Silicosis is a serious incurable dise:_se,the fatal tornin_tion of which is usuully caused by tuberculosis.

" Poisonous Fumes

Poisonous vapours and gases can, for convenience, be divided into four classes, •according to ho_Jthey make their presence known:

I, Vapours or gases that cannot be smelt or seen and are not irritating. II. Those that draw attention by their appearance; i.e., can be seen. IIl. Those that make their presence felt by their irritating action. IV. These that make their presence known through the sense of S moll •

Class I

In this class there are carbon monoxide, h__droc_ranicacid, mercury vapour, and many other materials.

There is little trouble from carbon monoxide in industry, although the potential exposure is great. This is duo to the ce_mon know,ledge regarding the toxicity of this gas and adequate preco.utiontaken to control possible exposures.

H__vdrocvanicacid gas or prussic acid is the gas largely used for fumigation, in which connection it has caused many deaths. It is evolved when cyanide _terials are mixed with acids. In industry, cyanides are used largely in the process of electro-plating and no deaths are believed to have occurred from their use in this country. This is largely due to the skill and knowledge of the electro-platers.

_rcurM vaoour is given off from metallic mercury. As little as one milligram breathed daily over a period of time will cause poisoning. A milligram is 1/28,O00 part of an ounce. 153

Class II

In the second class the most important vapours that attract attention by their visibility are nitrous fumes. Nitrous fumes are brownish to black in colour when present in visible concentration° Wherever nitric acid is used, nitrous fumes may be evolved. Materials like celluloid, gun cotton , etc., give off these fumes when slowlyburnt or oxidized. Solutions of nitrites as used in dyeing cotton may under certain conditions give off these fumes. Oxides of nitrogen, while slightly irrit- ating, can be breathed in fatal concentration without much discomfort. Of all the poisonous fumes these are the most insidious; no trouble is usually experienced until some hours after the exposure, making it difficult to relate cause and effect unless enquiry is made about exposure to fumes at work.

Class III

inthis class are those gases which are extremely irritating, such as ammoni__a, sulphur dioxide, and £_ln__rin£._Yhilethese _ases are toxic in small concentrations, their irritating effect is so great that no one _ould voluntarily enter or remain in a room _hich contained a dangerous concentration. When death occurs from those gases, the cause is usually an accident; a pipe or a container breaks in a confined space, producing a lethal concentration in the air before the occupants can escape.

""Class IV

In'this class are many vapours and gases that nan be recognized by small. All solvents, diluents and lacquers, cleaning fluids used by dry-cleaners, paints, rubber cements and many other products contain volatile substances _hich often c_n be recognized by the sense of smell. In the case of lagquers there is usually a mixture of volatile substances, making exact recognition by smel! difficult. _hny of the substances in this g_oup have anaesthetic properties When inhaled in hich concontrations and v_illput one to sleep promptly. It is obvious that a concon- tr_Ltionhigh enough to proJuco anaesthesia is only encountered in industry as an accident. It is the small amounts inhaled, v_ithoutapparent trouble, day after day, that constitute a serious industrial hazard.

in this group are benzol, trichlorethylene, carbon tetrachloride, _asolin_qe, hvdrp_en_sulohide_,and many others.

Benzol or benzene must not be confused _vithbenzine, the petroleum product. B_nzol is produced as a by-product in the destructive distillation of coal. It is a coal-tar product. Benzol is often a constituent of rubber cements, leather dope, and cements and paint reiuovers,and may be present in lacquers, thinners, and many other preparations. Benzol poisoning in industry usually occurs from the repeated breathing of small amounts of benzol day after day for a long period. Men exposed daily to concentrations as low as lO0 parts per _illion parts of air are likely to be injured. Benzol destroys those organs in the body that marn_acture blood. The disease is very insidious, the workman seldom co_iplainingbefore he is fatally poisoned. The real cause of death is often missed, as the terminal illness is usually z chest infection. It is the continuous exposure to small amounts of benzol that causes trouble, not the occasional heavy exposure.

The use of trichloroth_rleneand c_rbon tetrachloride in industry is increasing. Both these materials are used in dry-cleaning plants. Trichlorethylene as a de- greasing agent is finding a reul place in industry. Carbon tetrachleride is some- times used in rubber cements. Both those substances are non-inflammable, and under certain conditions both break down into phosgene, a very irritating and poisonous gas. The vapours of both substances arc much heavier than air. While ,_leare well

awaresay justthatvJhat_these;_illvapor,happens arefrompoisonousexposureintohighsmallconcentration,amounts. Carbonit istetrachloridenot possibleinto mOder9te amounts causes stomach trouble and some liver damage. Both those sub- stances are very volatile and quite expensive, and,moans for the recovery of the vapours are used for economic reasons, reducing the hazard.

i Gasoline and similar potr(01e_lj_compounds, although largely used, do not seem to create a serious health hazard in industry. In high concentrations, gasoline vapour will cause anaesthesia and death, but such concentration occurs only as an accident. Gasoline containin_ tetraethyl load should never be used in industry. Its Use for the automobile has not been attended _vithany trouble.

Hydr_en sulphide has the odour of rotten eggs in low concentration and an _I o • _ • • " • irrltating effect In higher concentratl_m. It is frequently present in the chemical

1 i 154 laboratory. Dangerous concentrations of this gas may occur in tannery vats, fat- rolnderingplants, glue factories, and sewers. Its toxicity is about the same as t_at of hydrocyanic°acid but its smell and irritating effect give some w_rning. The w_rning odour soon disappears, duo to fatigue of nerve endings. Special care is necessary. Sore eyes are con_on amongst people exposed to low concentr_tions of hydrogen sulphide.

Industrial diseases areusually caused by the breathing of dangerous dusts, fumes, or gases. The responsibility for their prevention or control belongs to the , employer rather than to the employee. Very often a non-pois0nous material can be

orsubstitutedenamels sprayedfor a poisoncontainousbenzolone _Tithoutor an appreciableaffecting theamountproduct.of lc_d,Thus,Non-silicafen lacquers parting has largely displaced the silicaparting formerly used by the moulder. Un- fortunately, however, there are many industries _hichnust use poisonous materials and it is unfortunate but true that some of the most useful oaterials have harmful Potentialities. To prohibit the use of these materials would be jmst as unreasonable as to close do_m factories because of accidents or to stop theuse of the automobile because of the dangers inherent in its use.

Manufacturers should know the chemical n_ture of the materials used. Much of our past trouble has been due to the use of dangerous materials in industry when neither the employer nor the employee .wasaware of the chemical composition of materials being used. This situation has been greatly improved by the compulsory lhbellin!_under the Factory Act of _ll materi_ls containing benzol and spray- painting prepar_tions _hich contain lead.

If the materials being used are toxic in nature, the prevention of industrial diseases can be accomplished only by a definite program of control along the follow- in_ lines:

i. The handling of the material in such a manner as to produce a minimtun ' amount of dust, fumes, gas, or vapour.

2. The use of general ventilation and local exhaust ventilation at points where dust, fumes, gases, or vapours are produced or liberated.

3. The use of respiratoryprotective equipment by the _orker.

4. Periodical medical e_mination of the workers exposed.

NO one of the above methods is satisfactory alone, but in most cases all meth0ds are required. It must be remembered that the health of the worker is the ultimate test of the value of any system of control and that early impairment of health Can be detected only by frequent medical examination.

I @ 155

TI_ FULL-TI_, SANITarY INSPECTOR

With Particular Reference to The District and Unit Sanitary Inspector

In the co_se ofdevelopment of natural resources, large areas were opened by the establishment of logging, mining and construction camps, the greater proportion of these areas being known as "m_organized territory", i.e.,territory without municipal or county organization. Naturally, environmental sanitation is of first importance and this was recognized by several provinces in the appointment of dis- trict sanitary inspectors. These inspectors are appointed under the authority of The Public Health Act of the province concerned and their duties incl_e the appli- cation of health regulations controlling industrial camps as well as the general public health control of the unorganized communities. For administrative purposes the district sanitary inspectors work under the direction and control of their pro- vincial health department, being responsible to a chief or senior sanitary inspector. In Ontario, the chief sanitary inspector and his staff are attached to the Division of Industrial Hygiene, but their services are made available, as required, to other divisions.

The health unit inspectors and municipal inspectors work under the direction of the principal medical officer of the unit or municipality and, in the case of the larger places, through a senior or supervising inspector. Their duties are also diverse in nat_e, but, in common with the district sanitary inspectors, they are responsible for relatively large areas and populations. The essentialdifference is that the unit or municipal inspector usually has a greater density of population to his area and works as an integral part of a team rather than a detached officer. "It therefore becomes possible to discuss all full-time inspectors under a joint heading.

In 1935, when the training methods for sanitary inspectors were being estab- lished, the premise adopted was that the sanitarian is not a policeman but, in his own sphere, an educator. The teaching value of environmental health measures is high andthe ability:to explain the "why" of sucN measures may be counted perhaps the greatest basic qualification of Canadian sanitarY inspectors. In order to use adequately the teaching opportunity, the inspector must, himself, be properly trained. In Canada the basic technical qualification is the Certificate in ShnitarM Inspection (Canada__which is granted, after training and examination, by a joint board of examiners from the Canadian Public Health Association and the Canadian In- stitute of Sanitary Inspectors.

The personal attributes of an inspoctor are of importance. He should be in sound health, for his.work will make heavy demands on his physique.. His ability to associate his work with that of other public health workers will decide his de- gree of usefullness in the field. His off-duty interests may make or mar his public relationships, and, in a word, his must be a well-rounded personality. To expect all this from very young men in the field would be too optimistic. It is here that competent leadership and supervision must step in to guide and control the younger worker. In a general way, the greater the educational background and the greater the opportunities for graduate study and observation of the _ork of others, the more likelihood there is that the inspector will develop himself and his technique.

With the exception of the public health nurse, the inspector is probably the health department member with whichthe general public is most familiar. Therefore, to a large extent the public judges a health department by the personality and @ efficiency- Of its inspectors. The trained inspector's ability to translate hygienic procedures into lay terms can bring much desired public appreciation and support. 156

INDUS%RIAL CA._,,TSANITATION

Industrial camps are of several types. There are perraanentcamps, such as those associated with established mining operations, sawmills and pulpwood logging opera- tions; semi-permanent, as in the case of seasonal logging or fishing operations; and camps of a distinctly temporary nsture, e.g., high_Jaymaintenance. Regardless of the duration of the operation, t_hefollowing are basic requirements:

1. Adequate shelter for those housed.

3.2. ProvisionA safe _._atorforsupply.the sanitary disposal of excreta, manure, and garbage.

The duration of the operation will, to some extent, determine how these can best be provid_d, as will also the nat_e of the country and the type of operation. It is the responsibility of the inspector to see that these provisions are properly mot and that the reg_lations are obsorwd. He should consider the costs when making recommendations, and aim at having the work done efficiently and economically.

Selection of Site

The selection of a camp site is influenced by the needs of the industry. The camp Should be close to the work. For example, mining camps will, almost invariably, be located on a rocky, broken terrain, likely having little topsoil_ logging camps will be located in heavily wooded country; sa_smillcamps in the vicinity of lakes and rivers and close to a railv_ayline. Construction camps may be fearedunder all the foregoing conditions or in open country. The Canadian climate is such that for from four to six months each year flies are not a problem_ but the extremes of temperature influence ca1_Ipconstruction to a marked extent, e.g., the desirable south exposure in winter may be unbears.blyhot in sum._mor,and make special atten- tion to insulation and ventilation necessary.

Camp sites should be chosen in all cases as though for permanent use, because temporary camps may, and often do, become porte,anent.Also, co_unities--ps.rticular- ly in the mining areas--spring up in close proximity to the camps, thereby giving rise to o.dditionalproblems of s:mitation _;lhichare inadequately covered by exist- ing legislation.

Since a good camp site is half the battle in sanitary control, the importance o£ this feature cannot be overstressod. H1,_nground should be selected if avail- able and suitable i_ other u,ays, since such land _-illpresent a drier terrain. The site should have a sli_ht slope to f_cilitate drainage s.ndthe subsoil of choice is gravel. Stoop slopes, narrow valleys and ravines, dried-up watercourses and swamps •should be avoided for obvious reasons, as should old camp sites.

Finally--and very important--in selecting a camp site, the availabilit_ of water supply must be considered. A source of supply close to the c_umpand free from contamination is ideal. The site sho_&Idbe so located that the procedure of supply- ing water is not needlessly complic:_.tod.

Where circumstances permit, the choice of a camp site should be made by the owner or his agent in consult_.tionwith the comp_my's medical officer n:ndthe sanitary officer. This idee.1is seldom attained under ordinary circumstances.

Layout of Buildings

The follow,lagrules should be followed in general: , (a) The front of the camp should face the prevailing wind _nd the bunkhouses or other sleeping quarters should be in front of all other buildings, the kitchens and dining rooms being in line _Jiththe sleeping quarters but to one side.

(b) The source of drinking vJater should always, unless in exceptional circum- stances, be located above the camp.

(c) Latrines should be located down-wind from the sleeping and dining quarters_ but not too far from those nor in a situation likely to contamin_te the water supply. Experience has shown that, in winter camps particuls_rly,if latrines are located over lO0 foot from the sleeping_quarters, consid_:_rablefouling of the ground results. 157

(d) Washrooms, ablution benches and baths should be locatedbetween the latrines and other buildings in order to facilitate personal hygiene.

(o)_ Pi_mbing and he_ting installations, if any, should conform to accepted standards. In camps having _ater-carried systems of sewage disposal, many problems_ are automatically eliminated.

(f) The refuse disposal area should be dove-wind from the camp and be so lo- cated that the potential hazard from flies or pollution of Tater is reduced to a minimum.

space_(g)butItthatshoulddifficulties,be rememberedadministrativethat camp buildingsand otherwise,shouldincreasenever bewherecrowdedtheyforare placed too far ap_rt. In general, buildings may be spaced 20 feet apart with ad- vantage and 200 foot from water or shables.

Water Suoplie_.s

Water supplies in camps should be protected from contamination and, if possible, convenient to the c_mp. _ero any doubt, however slight, exists in regard to the safety of a water supply, the supply should be treated until proven s_fe or a new and safe supply is utilized.

It must be remembered that water may be safe at the source and still become contaminated by c_reless handling during collection and distribution, by defective supply install_tions or uncontrolled building on the watershed and other causes. For these reasons, all camp supplies, except under the most favourable conditions, should be treated.

In mineralized zones, the water supplymay be affected chemically to an extent whore it is unusable or unsafe. _ere these problems arise or are suspected, assistance should be secured fron the appropriate consultant service of the depart- ment of health. It is a good rule to consider relevant geological data when inspect- ing a source of water supply.

Methods of Treatment

_ore chemical problems are encountered, the appropriate methods of treatment should be decided by experts in this field. The treatment of water to remove pathogenic germs is, however, a common field procedure. Treatment in this respect aims at the destruction of disease germs present and is a prime factor in the con- trol of typhoidfever and gastro-intestinal infections _enerally.

Water may be rendered Safe by a variety of procedures: by boilin_ or by chlorination or other chemical methods. Boiling water is unsuitable exceptfor very small groups, as it is almost impossible to boil water in sufficient quantity, and fuel consumption and equipment are increased. Filtration is useful for the removal of organic matter and turbidity in suspension, but, as ordinarily employed, it is not a practical method of rendering camp _ater supplies safe.

The common method in Use is chlorination. This is applied by the addition of chlorine, either as a gas, or in aqueous solution, or in solids (chlorine compounds) from which it is released. _Vhatevermethod is used should be controlled by means of the ortho-tolidin or other standard test and by bacteriological examinations of the treated water at intervals. Inspectors should require that the method of chlorina- tion of water in a camp be in the h_nds of a responsible person who understands the equipment and method of controlling the dosage.

Collection and Distribution In camps, water may be collected from the source by pumping or by hand. Care- ful supervision must be maintained over all equipment used for the purpose. All portable drinking water containers should be periodically sterilized.

The use of open drinking water containers and common drinking cups must be actively discouraged, and the use of covered tanks, with taps, and individual drinking cups should be stressed.

Where piped supplies are provided, automatic chlorination equipment may be used to safeguard the _ater, and here the use of drinking fountains of sanitary design will be practical, The installation and control of piped supplies _ill follow the general sanitary rules applicable to such systems. 158

SevJa_ Disposal

Septic Tanks

The design and construction of septic tanks has been dealt with elsewhere in this E_nual. Of all methods of camp sewage disposal, the septic tank is the most preferable, except in the remote contingency of connection with a municipal system. Where a septic tank is in use, the kitchen sinks may be equipped with greas3 traps if large quantities of grease are discharged. In mining camps, instead of having an absorption bed, the septic tank effluent may be led into a mill-waste flume, where the enormous dilution effected renders the sew_ge virtually inoffensive when coursesdischargedwithouton thetreatmenttailingsisarea.to beDischarge_voidod. of septic tank effluent into water-

Chemical Closets and__SqoticToiet_S stems

These systems have their uses, generally, for small groups where soil and other conditions are suitable, but they should not be considered where a _ater-carried system is feasible.

Pit and Pail Privies:

The pit privy is in common use. For a camp it is usual to dig a trench 6 to 8 feet deep, 3 feet wide, and 8 to i0 feet long. In loose soils it may be necessary to line the sides with boards or light poles. A fly-proof superstructure should be provided, the seats being covered vJithself-closing lids. Under each seat opening and in front a metal urine deflector should be fitted. Care should be taken that any supporting members do not cross the pit below the seat openings. The pit should be provided with a screened ventilator. The building should have a window and a door. There should be an adequate supply of toilet paper and means for hold- ing it.

Privy structures should be treated With DDT in s_mer, and the seats scrubbed daily. Dry earth or ashes should be added to the pit regularly, as a cover.

Privy pits should be filled in when ,_ithin3 feet of the top. The soil should be packed down tightly. For _inter camps, extra pits should be Prepared in advance and covered to exclude snow, and the location marked. In winter camps the filth builds up and freezes, and the life of the pit is correspondingly shortened. Fly- proofing details are not required in winter camps. (For other details see section (c) under "Layout of Buildin_s".)

Pail Privies:

Pail privies are used where there is not sufficient soil to permit the use of pits, or where pit latrines would contaminate the water supply. Considerable extra care and cost is needed for pail privy _intenance, but if properly built and ser_ viced they are useful under the conditions named.

The superstructure is as for the pit privy; but this must be set on an imper- vious base of cement or well oiled and rammed soil. The pails should fit closely under the seats, _hich should be hinged to facilitate removal. A container of dry earth or sawdust should be provided, with a scoop. A scoopful of dry earth or saw- dust should be added to the pail after use. In summer, treat structures with DDT.

Pails should be emptied as required and the contents disposed of by bt_ial or incineration at a point remote from the camp. It is a good plan to coat the pails with oil, inside and out. Pails should be washed "_ith5 per cent cresol solution.

It will be seen that great care is needed with this type of _ivy and its use is not to be advised unless all factors are favourable.

NOTE: '_Tatorclosets or privies should be provided for the simultaneous accommodationof lO per cent of the men housed.

Cess__qol__gs

Where a camp is unsewered, v_ste water may be disposed of in soakage pits or cesspools, as they arc generally called. The location of cesspools should follow general sanitary rules. In size, 6' x 6' x 6'.has been found convenient for in- stallations servicing up to 75 men. The cesspools should have reinforced sides, the bottom being filled with coarse rock for a depth of 12-24 inches, and the top pro- vided with a tight cover anda screened ventilator. _ere proper drain pipe is not 159

available, wooden pipes of 4" side may be constructed from lumber. Such pipes should be laid on the angle rather than the flat to secure better scouring action in the pipe and with a fall of 1:40. ?_ere possible, t_iopits should be dug and connected in series, using one pit for sedimont_tion and the other for absorption. A final disposal of the effluent into field tile may be desirable in some locations. Otherwise cesspools may choke before a great _:jhile.

Refuseand Mam_e Disp_q_a_!l

Manure disposal is not the problem it formerly _;as,due to the introduction of mechanized equ-pment. The dispos_.lof refuse and manure is governed by an old rule,

tion"Burnis,_7hatasyoua rule,can andimpractical_J_hatyou can'tin summerburno_ingbutyl"to theIn _7oods'fire hazard.operations,Burialincinera-or removal to a dLunpis, therefore, most favoured.

DDT preparations _,_illbe found most useful as a fly-control measure at stables • a_d in refuse disposal areas. J / Incinerators vary so much in type that it is impossible to set a standard_at _resent; in general they are either open or closed in type. The closed type of /incinerator is considered most suitable. The chimney should be provided vrit_an efficient spark arrestor. Incinerator sites should be to lee_v_Lrdof a camp. _--Bunk-Houses

The sanit,'.%rycontrol of camp sleepinE quarters is of importance since, in addition to the need for adequate rest as an aid to general health, the sleeping quarters are sometimes the living-rooms of the _vorkmenwhen off duty.

The f011o_vingpoints should be noted at inspection: construction and state _:_ of repair, method of ventilation and heating; lighting; beds--type and position; bedding--kind and condition; ablution f:_cilities;cleanliness of floors_ dust control measures; screening during the fly season.

Bunk-house interiors, _mless specially finished, should be _hiteT_ashodafter the first year's use. _Wnitewashis a good disinfectant and improves the reflection of light.

Screens should be treated _.=_itha suitable DDT preparation.

If tent e_.npsare used, they should have an 8-foot wall. This is the most desirable height for all camps. Suitable attention should be given to surface drainage to maintain a dry site.

Beds and Beddin_

Beds may be single cots or double-deck bunks, w.ithframes of either metal or wood and provided with springs, Angular metal frames are better than tubular, as they offer less harbourage to vermin should the promises become infested, s.ndare more easily treated as a consequence.

Bedding in camps Usually consists of ::_mattress, blankets and a pillo_'pro- vided by the employer to the workman on entering the Camp. Such bedding should be clean and in sound condition at all times. A uniforr_1standard for bedding should include sheets and slip covers for the mattress and pillory,those being laundered regularly; but legislation is still behind on this important matter. Enquiry should alv;aysbe made as to the place and method of laundering bedding.

Ventilation , Heating..,and L,i_htin_ The first impression gained _-Jhenentering a bunk-house is a fair index of the efficiency of ventilation, particularly if entry is made when the building is occupied. Note the quality of the atmosphere, the temperature, and the size, nt_ber and position of air inlets and vcntilators. Note if air inlets or outlets havc been plugged and _lhetheror not they are adjustable. Sizes will conform to provincial regulations. In general, the best guide to adequate heating and ventils_tionis the sensation of comfort of the occupants. Discreet enquiry _I1illoften furnish useful information.

XThe subject of incineration is dealt with in extenso in the several army manuals on hygiene, which every inspector will find valuable. 160

Watch for overcro_ding. There should be a minimum of 300 cubic feet air space per man housed, the number of men housed being divided into the cubical contents of the building. If single beds are used, there should be a minimum of 6 linear feet wall space per bed and not less than 45 square feet floor space per man. Double bunks, if placed parallel to the vJall,should h_ve a space of at least 1 foot between bunks; if placed at right-angles to the wall, the space should notbe less than 18 inches.

The total window area should not be less than i square foot of window for every 20 square feet of floor area, and b_mks should not be placed under roof lights. leansin

Dry sweeping of floors shouJd be prohibited. It sometimes is of value to ex- , amine the equipment provided for camp cleaning, and it is always essential to discuss the methods employed.

The development of oil-emulsion treated blankets and bedding may, intime, exercise a far-reaching effect on dust control generally. Ablution

Washing facilities in a camp must include means for the provisionof an ade- quate supply of hot and cold water. V_ere a piped supply is furnished, and full plumbing, this will amoumt to about 25 galloBs per person per diem; this figure should cover all purposes. In semi-permanent and temporary camps the figure varies, but may be placed at 5 g.p.d, per person, of which 2.5 to 3 gallons may be set aside for ablution.

_ere a piped supply is provided, hot water is obtained by the installation of some form of standard vj_oterheating app_ratus. If such equipment is not available, a commonly used method is to connect a water tank to an ordinary stove with a one- inch coil. The stove serves the dunl purpose of heating the v_atcrand the _:_ashroom.

Impervious ablution benches with basins, or standard fixture wash-basins, should be provided. In either event, the basins should be in a proportion of one basin to every four men housed.

Bath-houses and laundries may be combined in one building_ but should bc in separate rooms. Drying facilities are necessary.

Kitchen and Dinin_Hall

Special attention to screening is essential, in s_a_er, in these buildings. Screens should be treated _ith DDT Compounds.

Sinks shouldbe constructed of impervious m_terial and provided _ith drain- beards. Provision should be made for double or three-compartment sinks. The dish_vashingtechnique may be any one approved for use in restaurants.

Utensils may be earthenv:are,enamel or tin. Enamelware is most undesir_blo, as it chips easily and flakes off, the pitting thus formed harbouring dirt and bacteria. Tinv_archas no rcally l_sting qualities_ and becomes dented and of unappetizing appearance. Heavy glazed china is best and is in co_:_onuse. It wears _ell and is easy to clean.

Cheap cutlery is also to be avoided, as the plating _.y contain lead, cadmium

orsanitaryantimonyvievJpoint,in harmfulAllproportions.cutlery shouldPlainbe caststeelincutleryone piece.is theWoodbestandfromcompositionevery handles on knives and forks are germ traps. _en inspecting eating utensils, always ° look be_'_eenthe prongs of the forks for the tell-tale debris _hich proves in- efficient washing.

Tables should be set at right-angles to the wallsrather than longitudinally with thebuilding. They should not accommodate more than 16 men each--thus being more easily set, cleaned and serviced. In addition, the smaller tables enable men of similar tastes and habits to eat together--a much-valued degree of privacy which, small though it may seem, contributes much to morale. Tables should have a readily cleanable surface.

Other than canned goods, non-perishables and foods for immediate consumption, 161

food-stLt_fsshould not be stored in the kitchen or dining hall.

Food storage should be dry and _oll-ventilated. Foods should be stored off the floor. The presence or absence of rodents and insect pests should be ascer- tained. Flour and cereals for immediate use should be in _ater-proof bins. Meats should be hung up in storage and meat blocks should be free from grease or odour. Refrigeration temperature should be checked. _ere dried or evaporated milk is used, special attention should be paid to the care _ith vhich the milk is recon- stituted and handled. Fresh milk from other than a pasteurized source should not be used.

@ Kitchen Staff

The kitchen staff should be housed separately from the kitchen, either in a separate building or room. Similar accommodation should be provided as in other camp sleeping quarters. The kitchen staff should be personally clean, and free from infectious disease or the carrier state of a communicable disease. When at _ork, they should wear clean, washable clothing, with caps in the case of cooks. Camp personnel c_.rryingv:aterto a cook-house should be cl'_ssifiedas food- handlers. ..

General

When a camp is inspected, the type and composition of first-aid equipment should be noted, and whether there is a trained f_1"s%.aidman on the job. For this reason the inspector, if not a physician, should have received first-aid training.

Recreationnl facilities should be noted. In fact, the inspector should in- terest himself in all environmental factors that _ould bear on the health, comfort, safety _nd morale of the vv_c_kmenemployed.

Opportunity will be found in many camp inspections to explain public health measures to the worZmen. This is a valuable contact _Jhichcan result in much influential opinion being carried back to families and co_nunities.

L 162 "

REGULATIONSGOVERNINGBARBERSHOPS

\ There is general appreciation of the fact that certain diseases Buy be trans- mitted in barber shops through improperly sterilized razors, brushers, etc. Such common diseases as impetigo and ring,vorm (see section on Communicable Diseases) may be readily transmitted from customer to Customer. Syphilis may be transmitted if the person having this disease is in a stage _vherethe caus_'_tiveagent may be readily transmitted; namely, a chancre of the lip or pustular eruption on the skin. Erysipelas and certain other acute diseases may also be transmitted.

It is essential that regulations be applied by municipalities and that periodic inspection of barber shops be conducted to see that the regulations are properly met. Such inspections are of the greatest value when the sanitary inspector is in a position to explain to the barber the reason for each of the requirements md to enlist his intelligent co-operation in the effort to prevent the transmission of disease. The regulations should relate to general sanitation and to the cleansing and sterilization of utensils. Typical regulations contain the follo_ving:

All barber shops, together v_ithfurnishings and fittings, must be kept at all times in a sanitary condition. The v#allsand ceilings should be painted, papered or whitened and the shop properly lighted and ventilated. An ample supply of hot and cold water must be available in all barber shops. The hot vJatertanks should not be used for any purpose other than that of heating v_ater.

Utensils. All mugs, shaving brushes, razors, needles, clippers, shears, forceps, combs, brushes or any other utensil must be sterilized by holding for a short time in boiling _,vatero_ 60 per cent alcohol, or by any other means approved by the medical Officer of health.

Every barber must use separate clean tovrelsfor each eustomer, and should him- self wear a vJashableapron or coat which must be kept clozn. Barbers should thoroughly cleanse their hands immediately before attending each customer. A rolling device carrying clean paper should be situated so as to form a covering over the head-rest for every customer. :

No alum or other astringent should be used on a second person. They should be used in powder or liquid form. Individual caustic sticks may be used and then destroyed.

No barber should shave a customer when the surface to be shaved is inflamed or broken out _vithrash unless such person has his o_m individual utensils for shaving.

No person Suffering from any communicable disease, or coming in contact uith anyone suffering from a communicable disease, may act as a barber.

No barber shop may be used as a dormitory or sleeping room.

@ 163

C0__!0_ INSECT_

The House Fly (Nusca domestica)

This fly is about 1/4 inch long, dusky grey in colour, and has four dark, longitudinal strip_s on the fore-part of its body (the thorax). It may be distinguished from the stable fly, which bears some resemblance, by the wing structure. The two long median veins in the wings of the house fly meet at the outside border of the wing, but in the stable fly these two veins do not W come together (see figure), • _oreover__ , the stable fly has piercing mouth parts but t_ose of the house fly are adapted for sucking only. The stable fly is called the biting house fly by many people.

House' flies breed in decaying organic matter such as manure and garbage. They may fly directly from such material to human food, carrying _rith them disease-producing micro-organisms On their hairy body and legs and on the sticky pads of their feet. Flies may also transmit bacteria by regurgitating the contents of their stomachs on to food, thus producing the characteristic fly specks. Flies are potential transmitters of the organisms causing typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, dysentery, skin infections, tuberculosis.

The number of bacteria found on the bo_ies of flies and in their intestinal tract varies, depending on the habitat in which flies live. Laboratory experiments have shown that more than a million bacteria are ordinarily present on the outside of the body of a fly in the city. Hence the amount of contami- nation resulting from one fly falling into a container of milk is large. The number of bacteria in the intestinal tract is many times greater than the n_mber present on the outside surface.

Life _ist cry

The female fly deposits 120 or mere small, pearly-white eggs, usually in masses, in manure or other decomposing organic matter. A single female .may lay as many as 20 such batches in a month. The eggs hatch quickly, in less than a day if it is warm, into grubs or _aggots. These small, _Jhite, legless maggots are full-grown in about 4 days in warm weather. They wriggle to the surface of the manure pile, or other breeding place, and then change into the resting, or pupa,_ stage, which is enclosed in a hard brown case. About 4 days later the adult flies emerge from the pupae and within a week or lO days begin egg-laying. There may be as many as 12 generations during a summer. It has been estimated that a single pair of flies may, under favourable conditions be the progenitors of 19,000,000,000,000,000,000 flies in one season. If you allow I/8 of a cubic inch to each fly, this number would cover the earth to a depth of 47 feet' The breedinK places should be reduced to a minimum by treating or disposing of manure, decaying matter, and garbage. .A single manure heap in a co_mmunity is sufficient to infest the neighbourhood, so that the active co-operation of the whole community is required. The flies prefer fresh, moist horse manure in which to lay their eggs, but will also breed in other decaying organic matter. They are not attracted to old manure.

Control

I. Suppression of breeding places.

(a) ProPer disposal of manure, especially that from horses and hogs.

. (b) cide.SprayingLatrinesthe manureshouldor bsgarbagesuitablydumpsscreened.with !arvicide or insecti- (c) Proper disposal of kitchGn wastes and other garbage. Garbage should be wrapped and placed in g_rbage cans with lids.

2. Destruction of adult flies. Flytraps, sprays, poisons, fly papers and fly swatters are important measures against the adults.

DDT. and pyrethrum space spr_.ys _re particularly effective for immediate control, i_esidual spro.ying of walls or painting of screens with DDT is one of the best methods for more lasting control of adult flies. (Se_ appendix.) / 164

The use of insecticides should augment, not replace, the standard methods of sanitation such as the adequate disposal of human waste, garbage, manure, etc.

Nosquitoes

_osquitoes are among the most annoying pests of man. Some species, in many parts of the world, are important transmittars of human diseases such as malaria _na yellow fever. One species which will transmit malaria occurs in parts of Canada but most of our mosquitoes are more important because of the annoyance they cause by their bites. It may be that some species in l_fcstern Canada are for responsible the transmission of equine encephalitis. The female mosquito requires a blood meal in its development process and is equipped with "biting" mouth parts. The male does not attack humans.

Life History

The female _n9squito lays several hundred eggs on the surface of water--small ponds, pools, and ruin barrels being preferred by some species , but others lay their e_gs in streams. The eggs hatch into larvae or "wrigglers". These feed on the organic materials in the water, but they" come to the surface to breathe through a tiny tube or pores situated at the "tail" end of the larva. Certain control measures are based on this fact, for by spreading toxic materials, such as oils, on the surface of the water, the larvae are killed by absorbing some of the material when they come to the surface to breath_,

The larvae change to a resting stage (the pupa) in a short time, depending on temperature. The pupae are comma-shappd and breathe by means of _ pair of breathing tubes or "brumpets" attached near the head end. The adult mosquitoes emerge from the pupae in a short time and, following mating and a blood mea!, the females start egg laying, thus beginning a new cycle.

The larvae of all mosquitoes live in water but the typical breeding places of various species may be quite different in their characteristics; consequently control measures depend on the species involved. Effective mosquito control must be based on a thorough knowledge of their life history.

control

Detailed methods of control will depend on !ocal conditions. Control may be difficult, in some instances, without upsetting other natural balances the effect of which could have more far-reaching effects than the mosquito menace.

Permanent control is obtained only by elimination of the breeding place. Control methods wi!! depend on the species 8nd may involve swamp drainage, alterin_ the water levels of streams, emptying containers such as r_in barrels, tin cans, etc., in which water accumulates.

In some instances, where permanent control is too expensive or upsets the community economy (e.g. irrigation projects), temporary control is obtained by spraying the surface of the brooding areas "_ith a suitable dust, oil or oil and DDT mixture. (See appendix.)

For any large-scale program of mosquito control, it is odvisable to consult with authorities on the subject.

Lice

Lice are small wingless insects. Some kinds, such as bird lice, hdve biting mouth parts and feed on the hair and feathers of animals. Others have sucking mouth phrts and feed upon b!ood, The former will not live on man. The latter group, besides causing irritation by their bites, are capable of transmitting diseases such as t_qohus fever. There are three kinds of lice which feed on the blood of man: the head louse (Pediculus humanis capitis), the body louse (Pedieulus humanis eorpqris), and the crab louse _Phthirus pubis), (see figure). Lice are found on people living in unclean and crowded quarters, but people in clean surroundings may also become infested by associating too closely with infested individuals, fhe lice complete their entire life cycle on the body of man or on his cloth_s. The younK lice, as well as the adults, feed on the blood of man by means of their piercing and sucking mouth parts. They cannot live for long without blood meals at fairly regular intervals. 165

LIFE HISTORY OF FLY

_ _ •

EGGS LARVAL STAGE PUPAE (MAGGOTS) IRE S TIN G STAGE)

Suoking mouth parts _ Biting mouth parts

•. HOUSE FLY STABLE FLY

NOTE:THAT IN THE HOUSE FLY THE TWO LONG VEINS MEE _I"AT THE LOWER EDGE OF THE WING; BUT DO NOT MEET ON THE WING" OF THE STABLE FLY.

C_)')FEMALE MOSQUITO A.MOSQUITOEC.-GS (SIDE VIEW) B. LAIDoNIN uRFRAFT-LIKE C FORMAor wA-rEfTION O(_, . 5zt,_ :,,L Y t .... I C. LARVAL FORMS AI_.E FREE SWi'MMI'_IG AND i BREATHE AIR- NOTE AIR TUBES. 166.

e. .,,

LOUSE EGGS (NITS) BODY LOUSE FLEA A. HEAD LOUSE PIERCIN(5"& SUC.KINGMOUTH NOTE- STRONG LEGS FOR B. BODY LOUSE ATTACHED MOUTH PARTS ARE DRAWN JUMPING &BACI4WARDLY TO THREADS OF CLOTHING. BACI'(,INTO THE BODY. DIRECTED SPINI£5.

BED- BUG THe'_"PIERCING AND SUCKING MOUTH PARTS ' ARE FOLDED UNDERNEATH THE BODY.

COCKROACH. CRICKET. (NOT'_I:LONG ANTENNAE i - (SIDE VIEW) 167

Head and Body Lice

Besides the misery they cause by their parasitic habits, they are important in many parts of the world because they carry and spread such diseases as typhus fever, relapsing fever and trench fever. The head and body lice appear similar but the former tends to be somewhat smaller, darker and more active than the latter. The head louse lays its small, White oval eg_s or nits on the hairs of the head a short distance from the base of the hair. These nits are often mistaken for dandruff. The body louse lays its e_gs in the seams of the clothing. The eggs hatch in about one week and grow to mature adults in 2 or 3 weeks. In unused clothing the eggs may

O remainlay as manyviableas but300 unhatchedeggs. for as long as 5 v_eeks. A sin_lo female may

The Crab Louse ,

The crab louse is smaller than the head an8 body lice and has the appearance of a tiny crab. The legs are larg_o, especially the two hind pairs, 'which are armed with claws useful for clinging to hairs. It lives on the hairy parts of the body, especially in the pubic re_ion and the armpits. It embeds its mouth parts in skin of the host and may remain thus attached and feed in one place for several days. A severe irritation and often a fever may resu].t from its feeding.

Spread of Infestation

Vermin infestation is spread by contact either with infested persons or their personal effects. Rosenau * states: "I.ice are most often feared in those parts of the garment which are in closest contact with the body, such as the fork Of the trousers, armpits and neck. They are found in the inner as well as the outer garments. Lice may be found on any garment or article worn by _n infested man. In conducting inspections for lousiness, it is important to remember this, and to bear in mind that the body louse may lay its eggs on the hair of the head as well _s any other hairy part of the body. This is of importance, and neglect of it leads to unsatisfactory results. _

He also says: "The effects of the presence of lice upon man differ according to individual susceptihi]ity. Persons who are constantly vermin- infested are immunized a_ainst the salivary secretion, _ud the local reaction to the bite is very:slight. Sometimes only a slight puncture wound is dis- cernible. In pc,rsons who have never been lousy before, the local rehction:,is intense:and indicated by an urticnrial wheel or hemorrh_gic spot. Lice bites in themselves may cause _ mild febrile reaction and a generalized eruption re se_bling measles."

Control

The insecticide, DDT, in its v_rious forms is more effective and gives longer protection than previous forms of louse treatment. It will destroy crab lice as well as head and body lice. (See appendix.)

The Bedbug

The bedbug is a flat, ow_l, reddish-bro_:vn, wingless insect about 1/4 inch long when fully grecian(see figure). The eyes project prominently at the sides of the head. The piercin_ and sucking beak is folded under the body when not in use and cannot be seen from above. They omit a characteristic pungent odour • They are pests of man because of their blood-sucking habits, but they have not been incriminated in the natural transmission of any disease.

Some people react to their bites by marked swellin_s, whil,- others show little reaction.

The buEs hide in cracks and crevices of the walls, woodwork, furniture, etc., during the day. Ti_ey come out of th_ir hiding places at night to feed on mammalian blood if they can find it. They prefer human blood to that of animals. They will go for long periods v:ithout food. They will mi_grate from one room to another.

_Rosenau 168

Life History

The female lays yellowish-white elongated eggs in the cracks and crevices of its hiding places. The eggs hatch in 7 to 30 days, depending on the temperature. The young bugs, or nymphs, resemble the adults but are much smaller, and are pale in colour until they have fed. The nymphs shed their skins, or moult, five times before becoming adult. One meal of blood is required between each moult. The complete life-cycle may require from six weeks to a year, depending on the temperature and amount of food available. Control

Prior to the introduction of DDT, the most satisfactory control messures were fumigation with hydrocyanic g_s or superh_3ating to a temperature of 120 ° F. for 8 hours or persistent spraying of their hiding places with a kerosene- pyrethrum insect spray if the infestation was light.

The use off residual DDT in deodorize_ kerosene Or powder on beds, bedding, and walls has been found to be the most effective and easily appli0d method of controlling this pest. One application will effectively rid the premises of bedbugs for _ period of a month or !onger. (See appendix.)

Fleas

Three different kinds of fleas are commonly encotmtered: the human flea, the dog flea, and cat flea (see figure). The habits _nd life-cycle of all three are somewhat similar. As the do_ flea is perhaps found more frequently than the others, the remarks which follow will deal with it.

Fleas are hard-bodied, active, wingless insects, light brown in colour. They have very strong legs and are active jumpers. The bo_y is con)pressed from side to side and is covered by a number of bac)_ard-projectiug spines. The mouth parts are adapted for piercing and sucking. Although they spend much of their time off the host, they return to it at frequent intervals to feed. Fleas may be troublesome pests and are important also because they may transmit such diseases as bubonic plague and endemic typhus fever. They are often found in houses in late summer and autumn, especially if the house has been vacant for a few weeks previously.

Life History

The fem_le de]_osi%ss3_all,white, oval eggs among the hairs of the animal, or more likely in its sleepingquarters. The eg£s h_tch in a few d_ys, dependingon conditions. [['hetiny, ma_got-likecreatures,or larvae, which hatch from the eggs, have neither legs nor eyes. They feed on the organic _mtter which they find in cracks or on the dirt in which they are hatched, or on the excrement of the adult fleas. The larval sta_e may last from a few weeks to several months, depending on moisture, temperature and food conditions. At maturity the larvae spin s'ilken cocoons and transform into a pupae to emerge later as adult floss.

Control

i. Determine the source of the infestation.

2.3. TreatDestroyor thedestroyimmaturethe animalstakes host.of the flea in the dust on the floors.

If dwellings are infested, the rooms should be sprayed liberally with DDT spray.

Dogs and cats have been effectively treated with a 5% DDT dust which has kept them free of the insects for 4 to 7 days. The powder should be applied only to the head _nd neck of cats, as they will lick off the toxic pov_der from other areas. Special care should be given to sleeping quarters of animal pets. (See appendix.) 169

CockroaShe s

The most abundant species found in Canada is the German cockroach. It is about 5/8 inch long when fully grown, light bro_ in colour, with two dark bro_m stripes on the thorax. The _crican cockroach, _lthough loss common, is a lar_c form, about l_ inches long. It is dark broTm in colour. A third species, the wood cockroach, is abundant in many parts of Caneda. [5 It is light brown in colour and measures _ to I _nch in length. The latter species often invadc,_ssu_.mer cottages and many people confuse it with the other species which are more destructive.

Cockroaches prefer warm, moist surroundings and plenty of food. They usually remain hidden in cracks and crevices during the day, coming out at night to obtain their food. They are espec_ally fond of hum_n foodstuffs and therefore are found most f_equcntly v_here these are present.

Life History

The feme.le deposits a small horny capsule containing the eggs in a warm, moist place. The young cockroaches which hatch from the eggs have a similar appearance to the adults but at first leek wings. They shed t heir skins several times before they become fully-grown adults. The length of the cycle depends on temperature, humidity and food supply. The entire Cycle of the Germnn roach can be completed in 90 d_ys,

Control

Cleanliness and protection of food supplies are most important in a program to keep this obnoxious insect out of kitchens, etc.

Sodium fluoride, although poisoner,s to man, is stil] considered on_ of the bes+J roach remedies. It should be dusted or blown into the hiding places of the insects or sprinkled in the places frequented by them.

Residu_.l sprays of DDT and pyrethrum in kerosene in conjunction with sodium fluoride or DDT powder will prob_bly _ivc the best results but only if cleanliness and constant care are obs'_rved.

Pyrethrum-kerosene sprays have also proved useful in cleaning up light infe st at ions •

Crickuts

Two important crickets ar_ the European house cricket _nd the corms_onblack field c_,icket. The former is about _ inch !ong and lip4ht brown in colour. It is very active and often diffS cult to find iu the cracks and crevices in which it lives. It comes out from its hiding place at night to feed, It prefers warmth and may be found most frequent]_y around fireplaces, chimneys, kitchens, bakeries, etc. it lives outside during the summer and breeds in such places as garbage dumps.

The field cricket is an outdoor species, but does come into houses in the autumn in search of a w_rm place to hibornatco Both kinds of crickets can be very destructive as they will eat almost anything i_cluding clothing.

Control

Garbage dumps are favourite breeding places. The use of poisoned bait on these is reco_.ended. (_ibson recommends a mixture of 1 lb. of paris green, 25 lb. bran, 1 lb. s_ltj 2 gala. molasses, and water. _,_ixthe dry parts first, adding only enough water to make a moist mash. The bait is scattered over the surface of the dump. In dwellings, their hiding pl._}.cesshould be sprayed with a ODT pyrethrum-kerosene mixture. ° 170

The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas

Hydrocyanic acid gas generated from sodium cyanide and sulphuric acid with water is a satisfactory method for the extermination of bed bugs, but the danger to llfe associated with the release of this gas requires so many safeguards that it has been exceedingly difficult to avoid accidents which are nearly al_'Jaysfatal. It is not used for the destruction ofJgerms.

Eight ounces of hydrocyanic acid per 1,OOO cubic feet over a period of six

trating,hours willandkilldiffusesbed bugsrapidly.and theirIt haseggs.beenThisusedgaswithis cyanogenlighter tchloridehan air, generatedis pene- at the same time by the "pot method" to provide a warning of its presence. Sub- stances llke chloropicrin have been placed in containers, sealed after filling them with discs impregnated _ith hydrocyanic acid.

Ontario, _anitoba, and Alberta have passed regulations controlling the use of cyanide comoounds for fumigation. A few of the larger cities in Canada have local by-laws for the same purpose.

In Ontario, it is only in regard to the use of cyanide compounds for "fumi- gation" that provincial regulations exist, and here the term is defined to cover the destruction of pests using cyanide compounds. However, under the Public Health Act, local municipalities may pass by-laws which give them control of the use of all methods for extermination of pests.

In the Province of Ontario, certain cyanide products meeting the requirement for warning-gas have been approved in accordance with the regulations under the Publi_ Health Act. This procedure raises the cost considerably, so that compe- tition for the fumigation work to be done may result in the attempt to use cyanide without warning-gas at a lower cost.

Provided the practice is adhered to and there is no relaxation in the other precautionary measures, the use of warning, gas with cyanide compounds is of definite value.

The regulati0ns place the responsibility for inspection directed to the con- trol of the hazard respecting the use cf cyanide for this purpose, in the hands of the local municipality, and in Ontario provision exists ";therebythe Provincial Department of Health may, if the municipality fails in this respect, zlakesuch appointments for inspection as are necessary, the expense to be borne by the municipality. Experience has shown that this inspection is essential if dangerous practices on the part of those using these compounds, vzhetherlicensed or not, are to be avoided. To use such materials, a licoricefrom the Provincial Department of Health is required and is granted only upon the recommend_tion of the local medical officer of health and after verbal examination by a representative of the Depart- _ent. The applicant must have insurance covering public and employer Tsliability. A permit for each fumigation must be obtained from the local medical officer of health. The occupants must be _Tarncdby the f_migator, the premises carefully sealed, guards provided, all rooms and contents thoroughly aired after the ft_mi- gation, and the occupants notified _hen the premises may be re-occupied.

The use of these materials by unlicensed persons, failure to obtain permits, the use of materials in kind and amount not approved by the Department so that sufficient warning-gas is not present, and failure to supply suitable guards, are the most common offences.

D notificationWhere a permitis givenistheobtained,local medicalinspectionofficercan beof healthcarrieditout,is difficultbut where tono detect where the gas is being used unless the inspector is const_?0ntlyon the lookout for houses under fumigation. It is under these conditions that the fumigator, either from ignor_:nceor carelessness, is likely to omit all pre- cautions. This is one of the most serious offences, so that some effort should be directed to recognizing where i_ occurs in order that drastic action may be taken.

Sufficient publicity has been given the subject through nevJspaperaccounts of accidents that have occurred to leave no excuse for practices which have been sho_vnover and over again to result in fatalities. DDT in its various forms has been shown to be a safer, more efficient and economical method of disinfesting a building of most insect pests. 171

APPENDIX

A Review of the Uses of the Insecticide DDT in the Control of Insect Pests affecting Humans

The insecticide DDT is now generally •available for use in Canada. A great volume of literature has been written on the chemical qualities, toxic i properties and insecticidal efficiency of this PrOduct , and the facts are :i briefly these: (a) It is one of the most powerful insecticides against flies, mosquitoes, bedbugs, lice and fleas that is available. When properly applied, in most instances it has a residual lethal effect ranging from two weeks to six months. (c) Like most insecticides, it is toxic to h_±mans if ingested in sufficient quantities, and anim_:l experiments v:ould indicate--_t--_sorption through the skin in an oil solution over a period of time wi!l produce pathology. However, there are no proven cases of toxicity in humans to date (in normal use of the insecticide), and there is every indication that if ordinary precautions are taken it is quite safe for use •

For use in control]ing insects affecting humans, DDT 'is commonly employed in the form of an oilspray, a powder or a water emulsion and each should be used in a specific why, as will be seen from the fo]lowin_ chart showing the uses of these various forms of DDT. The information contained in the chart was obtained from data published by the armed forces in the United States and Canada.

Insect to be Place "of Treatment DDT Insecticide Nethod and Amount used controlled

A. Fly 1. Enclosed spaces: (a) Freon dispen- Spray 4 sec. per 1,O00 cu. ft. and mosqu- rooms, barns, air- set. l-lb. acre- of space by releasing into the ire adults planes, tents, kit- sol of pyrethrum air of inclosure. Not necessary chens and food + 3_ DDT in Freon to spray insects directly since preparation rooms, it acts like a gsJs. Effective- etc. noss continues 2t o 4 hours after spraying.

(b) Residual spray Coarse spray (but not enough (5% DDT in refined for run-off on surface where " kerosene with flies and mosquitoes rest auxiliary solvent) (I qt. per 250 sq. ft.). Apply to screens vrith a paint brush. One a[?plication usually rQmains effective against flies and mosquitoes in treated buildings for 3 or more months.

(c) DDT emulsion _ix I part concentra.te w_th 4 concentrate (25_ parts water and apply as for DDT, 10% Triton residual spray. X-lO0, 65_ Xylene)

2. Out-of-doors, by (a) 5 to 10% DDT in Two or more quarts of 5% DDT spraying from air- oil solution per acre will greatly reduce craft adult mosquito and fly popu-

•. larvaelation upandtocontro!a week mosqu,itoor longQr.

3. Out-of,doors, by (_) 5% DOT in Use hand or power spraying ground dispersal kerosene or oil equipment with proper nozzle equipment aperture. Atomize 1 or more quarts per acre for temporary control. USe 5 to lO gallons per acre for longer periods of control. " Around a clearing apply spray on veg_tation in a 50-ft. or Wider band, encircling area to form a barrier. 172

Insect to be Place of Treatment DDT Insecticide _ethod and Amount used Controlled

(b) Freon dispenser Attach an aerosol dispenser to l-lb. aerosol a stick and spray (bomb hori- zontal) 6 inches from ground. One bomb per acre will control mosquitoes in area for about 12 hours. Useful for temporary mosquito control in camping areas.

4. Control of flies (a) Residual spray Apply twice a week evenly over in latrines or 5% DDT in other p{t contents at rate of 2 oz. oil solvents per latrine box hole (_ oz. per sq, ft.)° In addition, spray walls of pit, inside and outside of.latrinebox, and walls; ceil- ing, and screens of enclosure. Control breeding primarily by lethal action on newly emerged adult s.

(b) DOT powder, I0 Apply Z oz. of the 10% dust per % DDT in talc latrine hole twice a week. Also, apply residual spray to the rest of the latrine as directed above.

B. _Tosquit6 1. Swamps, pools, (a) I to 5% DDT _n For a 1% solution add 2 lbs. Larvae ruts, receptacles kerosene, diesel, DDT per 25 gal!ons of oil. Use around dwellings, fuel, or crank-case lO qts. of 1% DDT per acre of and other breeding oil. }_ix locally, water surface With hand or sites power sprayer for a dose of 0.2 lb. DDT per acre.

(b) Larvicide dus- Dilute I_/o DDT powder'with 4 to ting powder 9 parts of any dry dust diluent for applications with hand rotary duster at the rate of 0.2 lb. DDT per acre. For hand casting, mix with 50 parts of diluent • _

(c) DDT emulsion Dilute 1 part concentrate with concentrate 24 parts "_saterto make I_ DDT emulsion. Use IO quarts per _cro •

_-10/o DOT oil Spray from aircraft at rate of solution 0.2 lb. or more DDT per acre.

C. Lice I. On body and (a) DDT powder (i0::_Group Delousing. Thoroughly clothing DDT in talc or dust between inside garments other inert dust) and skin by applying dust gun at all Openings of clothing. Apply from 1.O to 1.5 oz. per individual, using hand dusters or power dusters. Individual Treatment. Apply powder from sifter-top can over the entire inner surface of underwear and treat seams of the inside of shirt and trousers Use _ to 1 oz. powder.

2. Body and head (a) Delousing spray: Dilute 1 part of the concert- G8% benzyl benzo- trate with 5 parts of water and , ate--12% bcnzo- spray hairy parts offthe body caine--6% DDT--14% with about 20 cc. of liquid. emulsifier (T-_een- Protect eyes during application, 8o) 173

In se ct to be Place of Treatment DDT Insecticide _iethod and Amount used Controlled D. Fleas I. Rooms and rat (a) Resi4ual spray One gallon per 1,O00 sq. ft. burrows (5% DDT in kero- will give good results. In sene) rooms apply to floor and lower walls. Heavier dosage for earthen floors.

2.ing,On animalbody, cloth-pets, (a)(IO_DDTinpowdertalc) rowsLight andapplicationall sur.aces_ to floors,and placesbur- in rooms and rat to be treated. For group disin- burrows fection, use £_roup dusters or power dusters with same technique as for group delousing. Toxic to animal by licking coat. Application to back of animal's neck will clear up average in- festation.

E. Bedbugs I. Enclosed spaces, (a) Residual spray Spray mattresses, beds and walls beds and mattresses (5% DDT in kero- thoroughly. GiwJ particular sene) attention to springs and joints of beds and to crevices in walls. Thorough treatment eradicates all bedbugs and prevents reinfesta- tion for over 6 months.

(b) Freon dispen- For light infestation spray DDT ser ],-lb. eerosol aerosol 45-60 seconds in average rooms. Repeat as required.

F, Roaches I. Enclosed spaces, (a) Residual spray Apply with sprayer or paint under serving (5,_/DDTo in kero- brush to form a film ever surface tables (including sene) Rcapply every month, or as local legs); sinks; experience indicates. along mop-boards ; into cracks and cre- vices; along border of ceiling end wainscoating; and in general all runways and hiding places of roaches

(b) DDT powder Apply by hand duster with par- (!O% DDT in talc) ticular refercnce to cracks, crevices and behind objects. Reapply as local experience indicates.

(c) Freon dispen- Spray DDT aerosol _5-60 seconds ser l-lb. a_rosol in average rooms, repeat as required •

G. _mts i, Nests and run- (a) DDT po_der Dust is applied in a 3-inch-wide

• ways (10% DDT in ta!c) thestripnest;encirclingand acrossthe nest;or alongover the ants' runways.

(b) Residua! spray Spraying of r_wa]?s s,nd a (5% DDT in kero- thorough wetting of the ant sene) nests are very effective. On grass lawns, spray may cause "burning", maC,zinguse of 10% DDT powder of emulsionpre- ferable•

Avoid contaminationof skin and clothingby oil solutionof DDT. Remove soiled garmentsand wash contaminatedskin. Kerosenealone will cause skin iV4

irritation. Coveralls and rubberized gloves should be worn for commercial mixing of DDT oil solutions. Pest-control operators should wear suitable respirators when applying DDT residual spray for prolonged periods in enclosed spaces, Avoid con- tamination of food. In kitchens, cover food utensils, and table tops v_hen spraying or dusting with residual DDT, Observe appropriate fire precautions when spraying DDT oil solutions. Freon aerosol insecticide is non-inflamm&blg, and non-toxic when • used as recoutmendgd and the above precautions arc unnecessary when employing this form of insecticide.

DDT is safe and efficient to use if a little common sense is employed, but it must not be considered the final answer to all our insect problems for, like all program insecticides, it should only supplement, and not replace, a of sanitary procedures. *

J

*By J.H. Baillie, M.D., D.P.H. Reprinted from the Canadian Journal of Public Health, 1946, 37:214. 175

NETHODS OF DISLNFECTIQN

By disinfection is meant the destruction of agents causin_ infection, apply- ing particularly to bacteria. The term f_migation has been reserved to describe the destruction of vermin, insects, rats and other small animals vJhiehmay c__rr_ infection.

In the control of communicable diseases, disinfection must still occupy an important place in rendering excretions free from infection, excretions such as tuberculous sputum or typhoid stools or the objects which may be contaminated by them. This procedure, however, has reference to concurrent disinfection (Appendix A), _hich depends for its success upon close contact of the disinfectant :viththe infected material in suitable concentrations and for specified periods of time. Terminal disinfection has been described by a committee of the American Public Health Association as the process of rendering the personal clothing and im- mediate physical environment of the patient free from the possibility of conveying the Lnfection to others at the time when the patient is no longer a source of in- fection. It may involve disinfection by liquids or gases, but opinion gro_s that, if concurrent disinfection is thoroughly practised, the usefulness of terminal disinfection _ill largely disappear.

Its importance or otherwise must depend upon the facts re@_rding the spread of disease. For many years articles rather than persons _ero emphasized as being responsible for the spread of communicable disease, but patients _ith diphtheria, scarlet fever, and smallpox are infective in the early stages and less so later, while the infective agents die quickly outside the body, so that those organisms present on articles are likely to be doad long before the recovery or the death of the patient. Where cases of con_nunicabledisease are removed to hospital early, some care is necessary to ensure thorough cleansing if articles in the room are to be used immediately (Appendix B).

Dr. Charles V. Chapin, for many years I_._edicalOfficer of Health of Providence, Rhode Island, was a pioneer in suspecting that the rSle played by "things" in spreading communicable disease _as over-emphasized. He discontinued terminal disinfection for diphtheria in 1905 and for scarlet fever in 1908, with no increase in recurrent cases. Later it was sh0_n that in comparison with the city of Balti- more, _here disinfection was efficiently carried outj the ratio of recurrences to original cases was 1.76 compared with a ratio of 1.64 in Providence where terminal disinfection had been discontinued. Among 585 persons moving away from "isolated" houses, one half of them under ten years of age, after their return home without disinfection one case of diphtheria developed.

Many cities throu:hout the world have followed this lead in varying degrees. Kerr states that schoolroom disinfection is unnecessary. Some fever hospitals have discontinued the practice. In Boston, beginning as long ago as 1911, one half to one sixth of the amount of gas considered to be necessary for disinfection (Appendix C) was used after diphtheria and scarlet fever, with no apparent effect on the incidence of these diseases.

The most effective arbument against terminal disinfection lies in the man- ner in _hich it has been so frequently carried out. Substances llke sulphur dioxide and formaldehyde, released under the most favourable conditions for gas disinfection, require many hours for their effective distribution. They still depend for their action upon contact _ith the infective a_ents and yet the con- ditions for maintaining what might have been a suitable concentration at the beginningof the disinfection period, are almost non-existent.

@ Soap and water, sunshine and fresh air, are most adequate for terminal _ disinfection. To ensure their use is the problem of the health officer and sanitary inspector. The regulations in most provinces make terminal disin- fection optional. Samples of regulations covering concurrent and terminal disinfection appear in the printed folders available in various provinces in- cluding Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia, Alberta, and _nitoba.

Most sanitarians consider that mild cases of communicable disease and missed cases, together _ith carriers, can quite readily account for the pheno- mena noted in the spread of these diseases; that is, that person-to-person contact is of first importance. J 176

APPENDIX A - Concurrent Disinfection

Concurrent disinfection signifies the immediate disinfection and disposal of all infected m_terial durinG the course of the illness. It implies the prompt disinfection or destruction of all infected discharges and of all articles soiled by them. Furthermore, it includes the purification and cleanliness of the immediate environment of the patient so as to check the spread of infection.

The Rrin.ci___2b_j_tgsthat need disinfection are the discharges from the other body; towels, bedding, handkerchiefs and fabrics; food, tableware, and objects that have been mouthed; and finally the hands of the nurse, physician and pthers who came in contact with the infection.

No one germicide is applicable to _ll diseases or to all substances er even to the same disease or same substance under different conditions.

APPENDIX B - Disinfection of Ob'ects

Faece_s-- 1. Lime and hot water: A simple and effective method for the disinfection of faeces, such _s typhoid stools, consists in adding enough hot water to cover the mass in the receptacle, and then _ddin_ an amount of quick- lime about equal to one quarter of the mass. A large cup of lime is about enough for an average steel. The mass must be disintegrated and the receptacle covered and allowed to strandfor _wo hour____s. 2. Chlorinated lime: One of the most useful and potent germicidal substances for the disinfection of faeces. Use at least a 3%, and preferably a 5%, solution and an amount at least equal to the mass to be disinfected. Thoroughly mix and allow to stand at least two _ur__gs. 3. Form_ldeh_._e_gsol_._utio___n:A 10% solution is used. It must be thoroughly incorporated with the mass and allowed to stand at least _E2__o_uF._s. 4. C__ar_b_lic_acid:A 5% solution of crude carbolic acid added to an equal bulk of excreta may be depended upon to disinfect in _Eohou_r_. 5. Cr.__e_ol__gs:Valuable a_ents. Used in strengths of 1 or 2 per cent.

S_t____-- The most trustworthy chemical disinfectants for sputum are: carbolic acid, 5%; formaldehyde solution, 10% or stronger; chlorinated lime, 5%. The methods for the disinfection of sputum correspond to those described for faeces.

Bed and Bo_vLinen -- These may be steamed or boiled or immersed in a germicidal solution such as phenol, 2.5 to 5 per cent; liquor cresolis compositus, 1%; formaldehyde solution, 10%; or bichloride of mercury, l:lOO@.

Bo_..£ok£s-- Books handled by patients require care. They may be disinfected in specially constructed chambers by means of heat and formaldehyde gas. Ex- posure sho_d be continued 12 hours with high percentage formaldehyde and a moist air temperature of 8_°. A few books may be disinfected by placing t_voor three drops of a 40% solution of formaldehyde on every second page and placing in a closed box in which formaldehyde has been sprinkled _nd leaving in a warmplace not less than 24 hours.

Thermometers -- The best practice is to keep formaldehyde solution or 70% alcohol in the thermometer case in _vhichthe cleansed instrument is kept con- stantly bathed.

APPENDI_ C - Common Materials Used

BicP_oride of mercur_ (corrosive sublimate) -~ One of the most valuable and potent germicides. Destroys all forms of microbial life in relatively weak solution, both germs and spores. It is usually used in proportion of l:lO00, which is ample for the destruction of all the non-spore-bearing bacteria_ pro- vided the exposdre is continued not less th__},nht_lfan ho__nd_direct contact _s_.qobt__i_d.For spores a solution of 1:500 is necessary snd an exposure of _o_.tless tha_none.._.h____,

, Carbolic acid -- Avery useful disinfecting substance with a wide range of application. _y be used for th<_disinfection of excreta and sputum as _ell 177

as for soiled clothing and bedding. It is used in solutions of 2.5 to 5 per cent, in which strength it may be used for the destruction of non-spore-bearing bacteria.

P__heno__l-- Laboratory tests have clearly demonstrated that it is not a "general" germicide, and cannot always be depended upon to kill spores. This limits but does not d_stroy its usefulness, especially as the great majority of the epidemic diseases of man are due to non-spore-bearing bacteria. The time of exposure to a _ o__r__p._r cent solution should be not less than h_lf an hour. boilingFabrics forare t_hirtyusuallyminutesinm_ersedinfora 3onetoL_hour.per centSporessolutionare killedof phenol.with certainty by

Cresol_ -- Many of the disinfectants sold to the public are mixtures of varying quantities of phenolic bodies, especially the cresols, with inert tar oils and an emulsifying agent such as soap or tar, and sometimes rosin, gelatin, or dextrin. They are effective germicides. Cresol is an effective germicide in

• Chlorine -- The chlorine group includes a number of important substances. Chlorin--_te'-_-_ime(bleaching powder) has been proven to be a powerful germicide for the disinfection of water, faeces, sewage, etc. A solution in water of 0.5 to 1 per cent will kill most bacteria in from 1 to _ minute_ A 5_ solution destroys spores _n an__h_u_E.

Formaldehyde solution -- Used to disinfect urine, excreta, sputum, etc.

Formaldehyde cas -- One of the best disinfecting gases. For _ermicidal purposes , exposures of at least 6 to 12 hours in small tight spaces to strong concentrations of gas are necessary to achieve surface disinfection. It c_nnot be relied upon to disinfect fabrics, especially woollens.

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