The Great Middle East Empires

MES 20 Reﬂections on the Middle East Prof. Hesham Issa Mohammed Abdelaal History and Conﬂicts

2 Ethnical Classiﬁcation This Lecture will use Ethnical Classification to Explain the great empires of the middle east from the seven century to the Eighteen century.

S02.key - September 18, 2014 3 Related current events: September 10th, 2014: Obama authorize the Air attack on ISIS September 16t, 2014 Dempsey Testify to senate on ISIS: There will be ground forces as advisors. Who is ISIS? How the historical analysis of this lecture contribute to the current conﬂict?

4 • Lecture and Reading Intent outcomes: In this lecture • Knowledge • List the name of Empires in the Middle East from The Middle East empires 632-1700 1.Arabs: The Rise of Islamic Civilization ·The Islam Expansion During Muhammed and the four Caliphs • Summarize the Development of the Islamic ·The Umayyad Empire ·The Abbasid Empire civilisation. 2.Turkic: Ottoman Empire • Comprehension 3.Persian: Safavid Empire • Explain the raise and fall of many Middle East empires. • Identify the origin of ethnic groups of the later modern Middle East • Synthesis • Relate many contemporary Middle east issues to many historical facts and incidents.

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7 • After the first four Rashidun (People of Wisdom) caliphs, the Umayyad Caliphate became the dominant force in Islam • The Umayyad's moved the capital to Damascus (modern Syria) and began to act more like European (Byzantine) rulers

Arabs: The Islamic Empire The spread of Islam 8 Early Islamic Expansion: • Muhammad had not appointed a successor before he died in 632 • He had not even established a procedure by which to appoint/elect/ pass leadership. • Opinion in Muslim community is deeply divided as to who shall lead next • The leader who would succeed him would be known as the Rashidun caliphs, the political and religious successor to Muhammad. - First Rashidun Caliph 632–634 Abu Bakr Alsadeeq - Second Rashidun Caliph 634–644 Umar Ibn Alkhatab - Third Rashidun Caliph 644–656 Uthman Ibn Affan - Fourth Rashidun Caliph 656–661 Ali Ibn Abi Talib

S02.key - September 18, 2014 Arabs: The Islamic Empire The spread of Islam 9 Reasons of islam Expansion success to the end of the Fourth caliphs • The unify under the religion of faith. • Exhaustion of Rome and Persia • End of a 400 year war • Nationalist sentiments in the Egyptian and Assrayan kingdoms. • Arguments among Christian factions. • Speed and size of Muslim armies. • Simplicity and uncomplicated nature of Islam. • Acceptance of the Old and New Testament of People of the Book. After the Fourth caliphs • After Ali the fourth caliphs and the last of Rashidun, the Umayyad Caliphate became the

Jerusalem and Islam 10 Why Jerusalem is Important to Muslims: The Siege of Jerusalem was part of a military conflict which took place in the year 637 between the Byzantine Empire and the Rashidun Caliphate.

S02.key - September 18, 2014 Jerusalem and Islam 11 For Muslims Al-Aqsa Mosque • A small prayer house built by the Rashidun caliph Umar, where it is believe that the prophet Mohamed night Transported from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al-Aqsa during the Night Journey. • It was the 1st led prayers towards this site until the seventeenth month after the emigration, when God directed him to turn towards the Kaaba • It Becomes the First Islamic empire capital after Mecca-and - Madinah under Maawiya Ibn Sofian the Umayyad caliph

Jerusalem and Islam 12 For Jewish • Solomon's Temple, also known as the First Temple, was the Holy Temple (Hebrew: n ancient Jerusalem, on the Temple Mount in the same site of Al-aqsa Mosque before its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar II after the Siege of Jerusalem of 587 BCE. • There is no direct archaeological evidence for the existence of Solomon's Temple

S02.key - September 18, 2014 The Sunnah and Shia 13 Sunni The Development of the Islamic Civilization • Those who remained loyal to the Umayyad are called Sunni (means Majority) • Sunni make up over 85% of Muslims today

The Sunnah and Shia 14 How the division of Sunnah and Shia created: The Development of the Islamic Civilization • Spark of violence: Murder of the 3rd caliph, Uthman Who was a decent of Bnu Umayyad tribe , by warriors returning from Egypt • His death was the signal for the supporters of Ali the decent of Bnu Hashim tribe, Muhammad tribe, to proclaim him as caliph • Uthman had not been popular among many tribes, especially the early followers, because he was the first caliph chosen from the Umayyad clan. • Umayyad tribe reject Ali’s claims • Mawayah Ibn Sofian in 660- proclaimed leader (caliph) in Jerusalem • Directly challenges Ali’s position • In 661- Ali assassinated • From this point on Sunnis- back the Umayyad and Shi’a- supporters of Ali/anti-Umayyad

S02.key - September 18, 2014 The Sunnah and Shia 15 Shia Believes, • Ali, was Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law and he should be the successor and the first caliph after Muhammed Death. He became the fourth Rashidun caliph, but was assassinated by Umayyad. • There were some Muslims who believed the Umayyad’s were corrupting Islam • One of those was Ali’s son (Muhammad’s grandson), Hussein who refused to pay allegiance to the Umayyad. • At the Battle of Karbala, Hussein was beheaded • The people who were loyal to Hussein believed that the caliph should be a descendent of Muhammad • They are called Shi’a (Shiite) – means “Party of Ali” • Almost all of them live in South-east Iraq and Iran • Karbala is a holy site to which they pilgrimage today

Umayyad Caliphate 16 • Umayyad conquests reached: The Umayyads ruled 661- 750 CE • Middle East • Persia • North Africa • Spain and Portugal • Afghanistan and Pakistan • Stopped by the Franks in 732 or they would have taken Europe. • Damascus was the Capital • Only Muslim Arabs were first class citizens

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The Abbasid Caliphate 19 The Islamic Empire Golden Age The Abbasid Caliphate • The golden Age of Islam, Abbasid Caliphate • Seed Of Rebellions against Umayyad led by Abu al- `Abbās `Abdu'llāh ibn Muhammad as-Saffāḥ, • During the reign of late Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik this unrest led to revolt in Kufa • In 750’s 50,000 Muslim warriors had settled in Iran and intermarried with the local people. • Damascus seemed very distant to them. • They considered the Umayyan elite corrupt and decadent. • They called themselves the Abbasid after Muhammad’s uncle al-Abbas – they picked up the support of Ali’s supporters and the Mawali

The Abbasid Caliphate 20 The abbasid Development of Arabic text and calligraphy: • Abou Alabas Alsafah developed the Kufi with Diacritic dots and accent • The New Abbasid Style (NS) began at the end of the 9th century and was used for copying the Qur'an until the 12th centuries, and maybe even as late as the 13th century. Unlike manuscripts copied in Early Abbasid scripts, NS manuscripts Kufi Manuscripts from 2nd century H had vertical formats. • During this time, Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (died 786) Ma‘ili manuscript from 1st century H devised a tashkil system to replace that of Abu al-Aswad. His system has been universally used since the early 11th century, and includes six diacritical marks: fatha (a), damma (u), kasra (i), sukun (vowel-less), shadda (double consonant), madda (vowel prolongation; applied to the alif) • Another central figure during this time was Abū Bakr b. Mud̲ jā̲ hid (died 324/936). His goal was to restrict the number of reliable readings and accept only those based on a fairly uniform consonantal text. S02.key - September 18, 2014 The Abbasid Caliphate 21 The abbasid Development of Arabic text and calligraphy: • He chose seven well-known Qur'an teachers of the 2nd/8th century and declared that their readings all had divine authority, which the others lacked. He based this on the popular ḥadīth̲ ̲ in which Muhammad says the Qur'an was revealed to him in “seven aḥruf”. During this time there was strong 7th century The Arabic Kufi 9th century Qur'an, an early consisted of about 17 letters kufic example from the Qur'anic traditions in Kūfa, Baṣra, Medina, Damascus, without diacritic dots or accents Abbasid period. and Mecca.

The Abbasid Caliphate 22 The abbasid Development of Arabic text and calligraphy: • Perhaps the most predominant style of Arabic calligraphy, the Thuluth Style was created in the Abbasid period. This style was used particularly when writing official documents of the king or Sultan. • The style may have gotten it’s name “thuluth” (“a third”) because the thuluth writing was about one third of the size of the other well known

The New Abbasid Style Naskh and Thulth contemporary writing style. As depicted in the picture to the right, the script is a combination of lines & curves, a cursive flow, and intricate proportions. Some still consider it the most vital of all the ornamental scripts today.

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The Islamic Civilization 29

30 Ottomans The raise of the Ottoman Empire 1299 (AC) • The Osman Turks started on the Anatolian Peninsula in Turkey. • They started on land granted them by the Seljuk Turks. • They were a pastoral and peaceful people at the start. • As the Seljuk Turks began to decline, the Osman began to expand, and the Ottoman dynasty began. • In the 14th century, the Ottomans moved into the Balkans. • They took the title of sultan and began to build a strong military by developing the “janissaries.” • Janissary were an elite military guard recruited from Christians, converted to Islam, and trained as foot soldiers or administrators to the sultan.

S02.key - September 18, 2014 31 Siege to the city of Constantinople. Ottoman • April 6, 1453, the Ottoman Turks laid siege to the city of Constantinople. • May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks and Mehmet II. • The Turks spent 3 days sacking the city. Many people lost their lives inside the city. • The city was later renamed Istanbul. The Expansion of Ottoman Empire • Selim I took control of Mesopotamia (Iraq), Egypt, and Arabia – included Jerusalem, Mecca, and Madinah. • He took the title of caliph, defender of the faith. • The Ottoman Empire went from the Black Sea to the Red Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar. • There was little impact on North Africa. Political structure • Pashas, appointed government officials, collected taxes and maintained law and order reported to the sultan in Constantinople.

32 The Expansion of Ottoman Empire Ottoman • Suleiman I, or Suleiman the Magnificent, came to rule in 1520. He expanded Ottoman rule into Europe and the western Med. Sea. • He ruled for 46 years. He was a great military commander, but he known for his legislation as well. Political Structure • He codified Ottoman law keeping Islamic faith, took into account Christian inhabitants of the Empire, addressed taxes, and built more schools. • Suleiman I may have been able to run an empire, but his personal life was different. • He married a harem girl from Poland named Roxelana and had 5 children with her.

S02.key - September 18, 2014 33 Ottoman Ruling Class Ottoman • The Ottoman Empire was like most Muslim empires of the time; it was a" Theocratic and Military government ” • Sultans were the head of the empire. Sultans were the supreme authorities in both political and military senses. • The position of sultan was hereditary – a son always succeeded the father. • Many deaths among family members took place because of this. • Since the times of Mehmet II, Ottoman sultans ruled from the Topkaki Palace in Istanbul., It served as an administrative headquarters and chief residence of the sultan. • The private domain of the sultan was called a “harem,” or “sacred place.” Here the sultan and his wives lived. Sultans often chose 4 wives as his favorites. • When a son became sultan, his mother became queen mother and acted as a major adviser to the throne.

34 The creation of the Viziers position: Ottoman • The chief advisor to the sultan was the “grand vizier.” • He led meetings of the imperial council that met 4 days a week. • The sultan sat behind a screen and made his wishes known to the grand vizier. • The empire was divided into districts and ruled by officials who were helped by bureaucrats trained at palace schools. • Senior officials were given land but the sultan and were responsible for collecting taxes and supplying armies for the empire Grand vizier the Sultan advisor Religion of the Ottoman Empire Ulema or the Islamic Scholars • The Ottomans were Sunni Muslims. Sultans had claimed the title of caliph since the 16th century. They were responsible for guiding the flock and keeping Islamic law. • In practice, they gave their religious duties to the “ulema”- a group of religious advisors. • The ulema were responsible for the legal system and schools for educating Muslims.

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37 The decline of Ottoman Empire Ottoman Around 1699, the problems became more visible. • The training of officials declined, and senior positions were given to the sons and daughters of the elite. Members of the elite were busy trying to amass their own fortunes, so local government grew more corrupt and taxes rose. Wars depleted the imperial treasury. • Other problems arose. • The biggest problem was the influence of Western Europe. • Western clothes, Western furniture, tobacco and coffee were introduced to the Ottomans.

38 (b) is the correct answer, They allowed a degree

How is the religious policy o the Ottoman sultans best described? of toleration but taxed religious minorities. A.They expelled Catholics and Protestants, but not Orthodox Christians.

B.They allowed a degree o toleration but taxed religious minorities.

C.They gave ull equality to all worshippers, regardless o aith.

D.They ruthlessly suppressed Jews and Christians.

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41 • Shah Abbas, who ruled from 1588 to 1629, Safavid brought the Safavids to their highest point of glory. • He attacked the Ottoman Turks, with European help – they saw the Safavids as allies – to regain lost lands from the Ottomans. • The Safavids could not keep territorial gains, but a treaty was signed in 1612 returning

Shah Abbas I the Great (r. 1587-1629) Azerbaijan to the Safavids. • The Safavid Empire went from Azerbaijan on the Caspian Sea east to India; along the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea north to the southern border of Russia.

42 Political Structure Safavid • Isfahan was the Safavid capital, While under Shah Hussein, it was taken by Afghan peoples. Isfahan was the jewel of the Safavid Empire, and it is still that for modern-day Iran. This work is rightly regarded as the artist's best work, distinguished by • Persia sank into a period of anarchy – lawlessness and disorder. its exquisite drawing, superb depiction of details and remarkable • The role of the shah was that of a king. coloring. The artist uses a typical 16th-century device: the • The social structure was Shah, bureaucracy and landed classes, representation runs over the border and into the margins. then the common people. • The official religion was Shia Islam because the Shiites supported the shahs at first. Riza-i-Abbasi • Silk weaving flourished, but carpet weaving flourished more – Persian rugs are still prized today. • Riza-i-Abbasi is the most famous artist of this time. He made beautiful works about simple subjects such as oxen plowing, hunters, and lovers. They used soft colors and flowing movement in painting.

S02.key - September 18, 2014 43 Ottoman and Safavid Empires Similarities towards the western culture : • The Ottoman empire gained through their trade with minority groups, such as Christians and Jews, which had connections with overseas traders that the Safavid empire lacked • The Safavid empire cooperated with the Portuguese which helped with the lack of overseas connections, but their economy remained more constricted, less market oriented, and more tech backward than the ottomans. • Women in both societies were disadvantaged and subordinated to their brothers/husbands in the home, however they struggled with these restrictions • Women in both societies were active in trade and court records suggest women often could invoke provisions in Islamic Law. • The exchange of culture and impact of religion toleration in both empires, loosen the restriction on Women life and duties through out the modern Middle East era.

44 (B) is correct. In keeping with their

The class which initially dominated the Ottoman and Safavid in the social hierarchy was origins as warring steppe nomads, A. descendants of slaves (Mameluks). B. a military aristocracy. and in reward for their role in gaining C. the clergy. D. the merchant class. all three empires, the military leaders E. largely composed of intellectuals and scholars. of each formed a new military aristocracy.

S02.key - September 18, 2014 45 (A) is correct. Support for Shi’ism is what The Safavids arose to power in Persia primarily due to separated the Safavids from neighboring groups, A. their support for the Shi’ite cause.

B. an alliance with Portuguese merchants and soldiers.

C. their conversion from Islam to Christianity. and was a unifying force.

D. a monopoly on military technologies and guns.

E. their control of trade along the silk road.

46 (E) is correct. All contributed to division

All of these developments weakened the rule of the Ottoman government EXCEPT: within the state, but the viziers were not (A) powerful factions within the Janissaries and court bureaucrats.

(B) harem politics by rival wives and their sons, who were in themselves a threat. potential heirs.

(D) corruption and graft.

(E) the development of the ofﬁce of vizier.

S02.key - September 18, 2014 47 The correct answer is (B) False Islamic principals was the used to rule. One side based on authority

During the four empires (Umayyad, Abbasid, Ottoman, Safavid) handed down from the Prophet, on succession, and the Caliph in each empire invoked a divine status. A.True on heading the community as Imam. The other side B.False on basis of a mass of traditions which were additional and external to the Koran, additional to what Mohammed had revealed, additional to the word of (God) as revealed by Mohammed.

48 On August 22nd Shia gunmen shot 68 Sunnis dead in a mosque in Diyala province. Human Rights Watch, a New York- (e) is the Correct answer based lobby, has accused government-backed Shia militias of kidnapping and killing scores of Sunni civilians this year: (Economist article War against Jihadists, Sept. 6, 2014).

What historical events can help in explaining the origin of this conﬂict?

A. Muhammad’s death and succession question.

B. Muawiya claim to caliphate.

C. Ottoman and Safavid wars in Iraq.

D. A & B only.

E. All above.

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