Some Selected Malay Forms of Mythologies: an Islamic Perspective

SOME SELECTED MALAY FORMS OF MYTHOLOGIES: AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

SURIYATI BT HAMZAH

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

2007 SOME SELECTED MALAY FORMS OF MYTHOLOGIES: AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

SURIYATI BT HAMZAH

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Islamic Revealed knowledge and Heritage (Usul al- Din and Comparative Religion)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia

JANUARY 2007 ABSTRACT

This study attempts to examine the concept of myth in the Malay society. Generally, this study expounds the overview of myth in terms of its definition and its characteristics. In particular, it explores the mythical elements in the life of the Malays that include the belief in the existence of spirits, the practice of magical charms and incantations, and the observance of taboos in the two selected myths that cover “Wayang Kulit” (shadow-play) and “Upacara memuja semangat padi” (worshipping the paddy spirit ceremony). This study will use library and field research. Moreover, this study aspires to open a new dimension in the Malay society to realize the notion of myth and how it has influenced the life of the Malays since ancient times. This study hopes to provide an explanation to the impact of myth on the Malay society before and after the arrival of Islam. Therefore, this study will evaluate the Malay myths from the Islamic perspective. Towards this end, this study will delineate the history of some Malay myths in terms of their origin and historical beginning and will find out how much the practice of Islam in the Malay society in Malaysia is affected by its pre-Islamic cultural beliefs.

ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ

ﺗﺤﺎول هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻣﻔﻬﻮم اﻷﺳﻄﻮرة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﻴﺰي, وﺑﺼﻮرة ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺗﻌﺮض اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻧﻈﺮة ﺷﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﻸﺳﻄﻮرة ﻣﻦ ﺡﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺮیﻔﻬﺎ وﻣﻌﺎﻟﻤﻬﺎ, وﺑﺼﻮرة ﺧﺎﺹﺔ ﺗﺴﺘﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺹﺮ اﻷﺳﻄﻮریﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺡﻴﺎة اﻟﻤﻼیﻮیﻴﻦ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﺘﻤﻞ اﻹﻋﺘﻘﺎد ﺑﻮﺝﻮد اﻷرواح, ﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﻮیﺬات واﻟﺘﻤﺎﺋﻢ اﻟﺴﺤﺮیﺔ واﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺤﺮﻣﺎت ﻓﻲ إﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺳﻄﻮرات اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎرة واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ "وایﻨﺞ آﻮﻟﻴﺖ" واﺡﺘﻔﺎﻻت اﻷرز "اوﻓﺎﺝﺎرا ﻣﻤﻮﺝﺎ ﺳﻤﺎﻏﺎت ﻓﺎدي". ﺳﺘﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ واﻟﺒﺤﺚ اﻟﻤﻴﺪاﻧﻲ. وﻋﻼوة ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ, ﺗﺘﻄﻠﻊ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻓﺘﺢ أﺑﻌﺎد ﺝﺪیﺪة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﻼیﻮي ﻹدراك ﻣﻔﻬﻮم اﻷﺳﻄﻮرة وآﻴﻒ أﻧﻬﺎ أﺛﺮت ﻓﻲ ﺡﻴﺎة اﻟﻤﻼیﻮیﻴﻦ ﻣﻨﺬ اﻟﻌﺼﻮر اﻟﻘﺪیﻤﺔ. وﺗﺄﻣﻞ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻓﻲ أن ﺗﻘﺪم ﺷﺮﺡﺎ ﺡﻮل أﺛﺮ اﻷﺳﻄﻮرة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﻼیﻮي ﻗﺒﻞ وﺑﻌﺪ دﺧﻮل اﻹﺳﻼم ﻟﻠﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ. ﻟﺬﻟﻚ, ﻓﺈن هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺳﺘﻘﻮم ﺑﺘﻘﻮیﻢ اﻷﺳﻄﻮرة ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ, وﻓﻲ اﺗﺠﺎﻩ هﺬا اﻟﻬﺪف, ﻓﺈن اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺳﺘﺤﺪد ﺗﺎریﺦ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﺳﺎﻃﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻼیﻮیﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺡﻴﺚ أﺹﻮﻟﻬﺎ وﺑﺪایﺎﺗﻬﺎ اﻟﺘﺎریﺨﻴﺔ وذﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ أﺝﻞ إﺳﺘﺠﻼء إﻟﻰ أي ﻣﺪى ﺗﺄﺛﺮ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ اﻹﺳﻼم ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﻼیﻮي ﺑﻤﺎﻟﻴﺰیﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪات اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ آﺎﻧﺖ ﺳﺎﺋﺪة ﻗﺒﻞ اﻹﺳﻼم.

iii

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage (Usul al- Din and Comparative Religion).

______Wan Sabri Wan Yusof Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage (Usul al- Din and Comparative Religion).

______Noor Azlan Mohd Noor Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of Usul al- Din and Comparative Religion and is accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage (Usul al- Din and Comparative Religion).

______Anis Malik Thoha Head, Department of Usul al- Din and Comparative Religion

This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage (Usul al- Din and Comparative Religion).

______Hazizan Md. Noon Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where other wise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Suriyati Bt. Hamzah

Signature…………………………. Date……………………

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

SOME SELECTED MALAY FORMS OF MYTHOLOGIES: AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or recording or other wise without prior permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writings with due electronic acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM Library will have to right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other university or research libraries.

Affirmed by Suriyati Bt. Hamzah

------

Signature Date

In the name of Allah the Most Gracious the Most Merciful.

Specially dedicated to my beloved parents, siblings, family and friends as they

are my inspirations for success.

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, Most Gracious and Most Compassionate. All praise be to Allah S.W.T and peace be upon his messenger, Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), and upon his family and his companions and upon his true followers. Thank God, because of his mercy and blessing, I am able to complete this dissertation successfully. Through this special space, I would like to express my deepest gratitude for those who have involved in making this dissertation a reality. First of all, I would like to express my heartiest thanks to my supervisor, Asst. Prof. Dr. Wan Sabri Wan Yusof for his continuous supports, patience, and useful advice in supervising this dissertation writing. Special appreciation also to Dr. Noor Azlan Mohd Noor as the second reader and examiner of this dissertation, Dr. Anis Malik Thoha as the Head of Department of Usul al- Din and Comparative Religion, Dr. Hazizan Md. Noon as the Dean of Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage, and other individuals of their untold contribution in completing this dissertation. I would like to take this opportunity to record my endless love to my beloved parents, Haji Hamzah b. Senik and Hajjah Azizah bt. Senik who have done a lot of sacrifices in terms of material and spiritual. Special thanks also dedicated to all of my beloved siblings; Nor Azinawati, Rosmawati, Mazlan, Yuhanis, Suridah, Mazri, Marzuki, and Muhammad Nadzim for their support, commitment and understanding. Last but not least, I would like to express my special gratitude to Puan Hasmawati bt. Ismail for editing my dissertation. Finally, special thanks go to all my colleagues and friends for their help and support. Indeed, all of you have proved to me the reality of a phrase; “What’s friends are for?” in my life.

viii

TRANSLITERATION TABLE

Consonants

t ط b ﺐ z ظ t ﺖ ‘ ع th ﺚ gh غ j ج f ف h ح q ق kh خ k ك d د l ل dh ذ m م r ر n ن z ز h ﻩ s س w و sh ش ’ ѕ ۶ ص y ي d ض

Short Vowels Long Vowels a _َ+ ا a َ__

i _+ يِ I __ ِ ِ u _ُ_+ وْ U ___ُ

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Abstract in Arabic ...... iii Approval page ...... iv Declaration ...... v Copy right page ...... vi Dedication ...... vii Acknowledgements ...... viii Transliteration ...... xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 2 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ...... 2 1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 3 1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 3

CHAPTER TWO: MALAY MYTHOLOGY ...... 15 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 15 2.2 THE STUDY OF MYTHOLOGY ...... 17 2.3 A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF MALAY MYTHOLOGY ...... 23 2.4 CONCLUSION ...... 29

CHAPTER THREE: THE MYTH OF WAYANG KULIT (SHADOW- PLAY) IN THE MALAY SOCIETY ...... 31 3.1 THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF WAYANG KULIT (SHADOW -PLAY) ...... 31 3.2 THE PROFILE OF DALANG (SHADOW-PLAY) MASTER ...... 35 3.3 THE OPENING CEREMONY OF WAYANG KULIT AND ITS RITUAL ...... 42 3.4 VARIOUS INCANTATIONS (MANTERA) OF OPENING CEREMONY ...... 53 3.5 THE DRAMA OF WAYANG KULIT ...... 59 3.6 THE CLOSING CEREMONY OF WAYANG KULIT...... 63 3.7 CONCLUSION ...... 67

CHAPTER FOUR: THE MYTH OF WORSHIPPING THE PADDY SPIRIT CEREMONY (UPACARA MEMUJA SEMANGAT PADI ) ...... 70 4.1 THE ORIGIN OF RICE ...... 70 4.2 THE OVERVIEW OF WORSHIPPING THE PADDY SPIRIT CEREMONY (UPACARA MEMUJA SEMANGAT PADI) IN THE MALAY SOCIETY ...... 72 4.3 THE PADDY PLANTING CEREMONY AND ITS RITUAL ...... 73 4.4 THE RICE HARVEST CEREMONY AND ITS RITUAL ...... 86 4.5 CONCLUSION ...... 93

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 97 5.1 CONCLUSION ...... 97 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 101

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 102

GLOSSARY ...... 111

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

The study of myth in Malaysia, particularly in Malay society, has become of interest to various western scholars since the beginning of British rule (1786) in Malaysia.1

Generally, at that time, western scholars such as Frank Swettenham and Hugh Clifford have defined myth as “magic”. In their studies, the western scholars have identified the concept of magic in all aspects of life in Malay community such as in games, martial arts, and medical treatments.2 Their writings on magic have become significant written sources for the many to recognize the significance of mythical elements in

Malay society as they practise it in their daily life. For example, the Malays wear amulets to prevent from diseases.

In this era, there is a need to have a thorough study to introduce the concept of

“Malay mythology” via an Islamic perspective. Indeed, learning about ‘Malay mythology’ can open a door to an understanding and respect for Malay traditions, even though the Malay mythical beliefs are different from Islamic values. Thus, the main purpose of this study is to explain the concept of Malay mythology, both its philosophical and mystical meanings, and also to explore superstitious beliefs and practices from Islamic point of view.

1 Walter William Skeat, Malay magic, (London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1965); Frank Swettenham, A nocturne and other Malayan stories and sketches, (London:Oxford University Press, 1993); Hugh Clifford, In court and kampung (Revised edition), (Singapore:Graham Brash, 1989). 2 Richard Winstedt, The Malay magician being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, (Singapore:Oxford University Press, 1953): William R. Roff, Kelantan: religion, society and politics in the Malay society, (London : Oxford University Press, 1974).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

This study is specially drawn to explore the concept of myth in Malay society in terms of its origins, its influence on the Malay culture, and its assimilation with the Islamic culture. This study aims at identifying some mythical practices and beliefs in “Wayang

Kulit” (shadow- play) and “Upacara Memuja Semangat Padi” (worshipping the paddy spirit ceremony).

1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This study aims at achieving the following objectives:

First: to examine the general meaning of myth, its historical background in the Malay traditions, and its connection with the Malay culture.

Second: to analyze practices of two selected Malay mythologies namely the “Wayang

Kulit” and “Upacara Memuja Semangat Padi”.

Third: to analyze these two selected Malay mythologies from an Islamic perspective by examining their rituals, incantations or magical spells, and taboos.

1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research will entirely rely on the following sources:

First, library research is done to obtain information on the historical background of myth and for a detailed description on the link between the Malay culture and myth.

Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Malaya (UM), and International Islamic

University Malaysia (IIUM) itself are the appropriate locations to search for the references. Second, interviewing key informants like a dalang (shadow-play master)3 and a paddy planter4 from Kelantan are conducted. Unfortunately, not all the respondents were willing to tell the related information especially the mantera (charm) because it is considered a secret and confidential thing for them. In general, this research will use content analysis to analyze different components of myth in Wayang

Kulit and Upacara Memuja Semangat Padi.

1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW

Myth has become part and parcel of the Malays before the arrival of Islam in

Malaysia.5 The Malays adapted certain practices without realizing that it has been corrupted from the Islamic teaching. Thus, this study focuses mainly on a detailed discussion on “Some Selected Malay Forms of Mythologies via Islamic perspective”.

Malay mythology has held the fascination and interest of various scholars to generate a body of literature regarding this unique and mysterious matter.

3 Sulaiman Abdullah (Ayah Man), Interview by author, Kampung Air Hangat, Tumpat, Kelantan, 5 December 2003. 4 Zakaria Musa (Pak Ngah Ya), Interview by author, Kampung Langgot, Demit, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, 3 December 2003. 5 Mohd Taib Osman & Hamdan Hassan, Bingkisan untuk pendita, (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1978).

Skeat (1965)6 gives a full coverage of beliefs and practices in the Malay society especially in terms of associating spirits with two elements of nature; water and earth.

It also touches on the descriptions of birth and funeral customs, cock fighting and

Wayang Kulit. Moreover, it also states many relevant appendixes of spells and charms, which are related to various kinds of mythical feasts such as invoking the spirits of nature.

Endicott (1991)7 has a different view from Skeat in terms of associating nature with spirit. He gives a significant connection of the spirit with four divisions of nature that include earth, water, jungle, and habitation of man rather than two; earth and water as has been stated by Walter William Skeat. He has revealed a coherent order encompassing the visible and invisible worlds of man, plants, animals, souls, and spirits that inhabit them, which sheds light not only on the beliefs themselves but also illustrates a type of cultural pattern particularly suited to situations in which cultural traditions are mixed.

Shaw (1975)8 highlighted some selected aspects of magic such as the concept of invulnerability in silat gayung (Malay martial art) that has received little attention from earlier authors. It also focuses on the discussion of various kinds of the Malay amulets and charms such as hate charms, love charms, protective charms and other kinds of charms. In addition, it often deals with the earth spirit that is related to magic and taboos.

6 Walter William Skeat, Malay magic: an introduction of folklore and popular religion of the Malay Peninsular, ( London: Frank & Co. Ltd, , 1965). 7 K.M Endicott, An analysis of Malay magic, (Singapore :Oxford University Press, 1991). 8 William Shaw, Aspects of Malaysian magic, (Malaysia:Muzium Negara Kuala Lumpur, 1975).

Winstedt (1985)9 has mentioned the significant functions of Malay Magicians who dealt with spells, offerings, charms, amulets, philters, and others in order to live in harmony and avoid evil. In his classical study of Malay magic, Winstedt traces and explains the development of the Malay beliefs and their practical applications, their responses as well as the integration of these beliefs with the great Hindu and Muslim’s imparted traditions from oversea. For instance, he mentions about the practice of a pawang (Malay medical practitioner) in searching for losing items. The pawang had to make a small offering to Siva and implores his help to recover what had been lost.10

Thus, this kind of practice is a part of believing in one of the Hindu deities. The study also discusses the invoking of the earth spirits, which refers to the ritual at the rice field that took place in various states in Malaysia such as Negeri Sembilan, Kedah, Perak, and Kelantan. The author found that the paddy planters in the related states propitiated the paddy spirits by having offerings.

Gimlette (1991)11 described his eighteen years experience as a practitioner of western medicine, most of the time in Kelantan, and was therefore well equipped to examine and analyze the method of poisoning and Malay charms. Gimlette’s findings remain beneficial in the knowledge and skills of the Malay bomoh (Malay medical practitioner) and pawang in terms of associating nature with the spirit of “Ghost plants”. They also discuss various kinds of charms and amulets which include charms against forest demons, poisons, love and hate. The findings prove that the ancient

Kelantanese had practised various kinds of mythical practices that are corrupted with the Islamic teaching especially in curing diseases. For example, those who suffered from mental illness in Kota Bharu had to find a pawang in order to have Main Puteri

9 Richard Winstedt, The Malay magician being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1985). 10 Winstedt, The Malay magician being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, 32. 11 John D Gimlette, Malay poisons and charm cures, (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1991).

5 or séance. This kind of treatment must be supported by musical instruments, offering, and propitiating spirits.12

Swettenham (1993)13 discusses “The Real Malay”, which gives detailed information about the Malay people in terms of its origin, physical out-look, and personality. It also discusses Malay mythology in relation to the concept of

“Berhantu” that is related to various kinds of spirits and offerings. In addition, it deals with the most famous Malay traditional game which is cock fighting. The findings show that cock fighting at that time was much related to the upper class group in

Kelantan such as sultan, raja, and chief. Furthermore, the game was started by the participants carrying a keris (Malay dagger), betel chewing, and reciting charms which are full of mythical elements.

Mohd Taib Osman (1967)14 stresses the characteristics of the contents of the

Malay folk beliefs which are related to supernatural beliefs. The study shows that the

Malay folk beliefs provide the Malays with a certain measurement of assurance that their passage through day to day living is smooth and free from misfortune. His work is extremely vital in understanding the influence of Hinduism in these beliefs.

Although Islam is the professed religion of the Malays, some people in the kampung or rural settlement still subscribe to the belief in elements that they have inherited from their ancestors. For instance, some of the kampung folks believe in the idea that a man’s well-being and the success of his ventures is dependant on the disposition of the spirits that inhabit his environment. Thus, they will propitiate these kinds of spirits by offering them various kinds of feasts such as glutinous rice and egg cakes.

12 Gimlette, 88-89. 13 Frank Swettenham, A nocturne and other Malaya’s stories and sketches, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). 14 Mohd Taib Osman, Malay folk beliefs: an integration of disparate elements, (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka, 1967).

On the other hand, Mohd Taib Osman argues that the different elements, which are derived from the animistic and Hindu Buddhistic period of the Malay history, may be seen to be distinct, but they are well integrated in the worldview of the Malay folk beliefs. For instance, it is proven that addressing the spirits with various kinds of mantera or incantations is actually being derived from the mantera of the Hindus. It could be identified by the uttering of the word “Om” which is similar to the Hindu's in starting their prayer. Basically, the Hindu prayer and Muslim charm are two different things but they are the same in pronouncing the word “Om” and associating it to the

Hindu deities such as Siva and Vishnu.15 In relation to this, he examines the indigenous, Hindu and Islamic elements in Malay folk beliefs in a historical as well as socio cultural perspective.16 On the historical level, the study attempts to show how historical factors can account for the patterns or characteristics exhibited by the different elements in the Malay folk beliefs. For instance, Adat Pepatih (matrilineal society) in Negeri Sembilan which is originated from the area of Minangkabau in

Sumatera. On the cultural level, the problem is to deal with the issues of interaction and integration of these different elements in the supernatural belief system of the people. For example, wet rice cultivation, domestication of buffalo for rice planting, and wayang kulit which are the cultural achievements of the ancient Indonesian in the pre-Islamic period. According to him, the Malays are generally devout Muslims, and to the best of their ability live by the teachings and commands of their religion.

However, the Malays seek help from the grave of a pious man who is considered as keramat (sacred). Thus, the beliefs and practices that are inconsistent with Islam coexist with the observed dogmas of the religion. In relation to this situation, a

15 Mohd Taib Osman, Malay folk beliefs: an integration of disparate elements, 90-91. 16 Mohd Taib Osman, Indigenous, Hindu, and Islamic element of Malay folk beliefs, University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1967.

7 specialist (pawang or bomoh) has been associated with spirits and magic in curing diseases, and other activities like entertainments and personal life.

Mohd Taib Osman and Hamdan Hassan (1978)17 discuss Malay religious rituals in term of its origin and position from the Islamic point of view. This unique work is full of charts and descriptions in order to identify the differences between the true teaching of Islam (Agama) and beliefs (kepercayaan). It deals with multiple explanations of how certain practices and beliefs at first glance may seem religious but in reality has been corrupted from the true teachings of Islam. For example, the practice of taking a bath in the month of Safar (mandi Safar) seems perfectly compatible with the religion of Islam. Nonetheless, many Muslims did not know that the tradition originated from the purification bath of Hindus in the Ganges River.18

Likewise, Mohd Taib Osman (1984)19 gives a comprehensive explanation of the concept of myth, legends and folk tales in the Malay culture. He also talks about myth, ritual and drama with particular references to the Nusantara (part of Asean countries) that includes a description of Wayang Kulit. The finding shows that Wayang

Kulit is just like any other traditional theatre. No performance is embarked upon before the instruments and musical props are ritually fumigated in the burning incense. In addition, it also covers a comprehensive discussion of bomoh as a Malay medical practitioner who deals with various kinds of spirits. According to him, bomoh in the

Malay society is known in various names such as pawang, dukun, bidan, and tok mudin. All of them engage in various fields of curing sickness. For instance, tok mudin

17 Mohd Taib Osman & Hamdan Hassan, Bingkisan untuk pendita, (Kuala Lumpur :Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka, 1978). 18 Ibid., pp.39-40 19 Mohd Taib Osman, Bunga rampai: aspects of Malay culture, (Kuala Lumpur :Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka, 1984).

8 is the village surgeon who specializes in circumcision while bidan, is the village midwife who is the expert pertaining to childbirth.

A. Aziz Deraman and Wan Ramli Wan Mohamad (1995)20 identify various kinds of taboos in the Malay society. Unfortunately, the facts given were not supported by any detailed description. The related taboos for this study are birth and funeral customs, forest, water, earth and theatrical taboos. Hence, this study highlights certain illogical taboos that have been practised by the Malay ancestors. For example, during pregnancy, a mother is not allowed to eat cuttlefish. It is believed that by eating it, the ghost of the cuttlefish will kill the baby with its multiple tentacles.21

Apart from that, Mohammad M. Al-Sha´rawi (1995)22 explores five reasons of why mythical beliefs and practices are not permissible in Islam. The first reason stresses that magic harms and does not benefit. It means that only harm comes from magic and benefit does not come from it such as hate magic will make the victims suffer from serious illness and can not proceed his life as a normal person. The second reason confirms that seeking the help of the jinn does not bring good. It could be proven through the life of a magician who shows himself to be inferior to those around him by seeking provision from them to improve his life. The third reason mentions that magicians do not know the unseen. This situation could be identified through the nature of a magician himself who is a normal human being and free from any extraordinary skills such as the prophet who can know the future through revealation.

The fourth reason stresses that jinn does not know the unseen. It could be proven that the jinn being used was at one time originated from the heavens but even that, it was

20 A. Aziz Deraman. & Wan Ramli Wan Mohamad, Adat dan pantang larang orang Melayu, (Selangor: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn.Bhd, 1995). 21 A. Aziz Deraman & Wan Ramli Wan Mohamad, 6. 22 Al -Sha´rawi, Mohammad , Magic and envy in the light of Qur´an and Sunnah, (London :Dar Al- Taqwa, 1995).

9 not truly speaking for the unseen. Thus, the jinn was used to make people imagine that it knew the unseen and told them lies about the nature of it. The fifth reason confirms that actions belong to Allah alone. It means that a believer must remember that his power is limited and that the power of Allah has no limit. Hence, all of the five reasons prove to us that the Muslims must avoid any magical beliefs and practices in their daily life.

In another study, Mohd Ghazali Maulud (1968)23 describes the information given by a medicine man from Perak, known as THM. In his study, “Love Charms” was designed to get back the love of a son or daughter who has forgotten his or her mother. He also gives a good description of how charms and amulets are formulated and talks about the spirit of water which can cure diseases related to that particular spirit.

Leyden (1898)24 had related his experiences in dealing with the spirits of nature like water spirits such as the lanchang (boat) charms, crocodile charms, water-spirit charms, and the wave offering. It also deals with the earth spirits that are related to the

Rice Ceremonies, which took place in Chedoi, Kuala Langat, Selangor on 28th January

1897. In his article, the author talks about the “Berpuar Ceremony” which is specially done to drive away the evil spirit of the sea. In this ceremony, Puar plants are thrown to each of the participants as a symbol to fight against the evil spirits.

In addition, Rentse (1931)25 had compiled a list of Kelantanese Malay Charms.

He lays out various kinds of Kelantanese Malay Charms such as love charms, Wayang

Kulit charms, protective charms, and vulnerability charms. He also mentions many

23 Mohd Ghazali Maulud, Saorang bomoh Melayu: satu kajian tentang chara- chara perubatan dan ilmunya, (Bachelor dissertation, University of Malaya, 1968), 30-35. 24 Leyden, “Some records of Malay magic by an eye- witness”, Journal Straits Branch of Royal Asiatic Society(JSBRAS),vol 31, (1898): 1-41. 25 Anker Rentse, “Malay Charms, Kelantan”, Journal of Malayan Branch of Royal Asiatic Society (JMBRAS), vol 9, no. 1(1931) : 146-157.

10 types of love charms which have been described by different people such as Ilmu

Pengasih, a love-charm from Wan Dollah, Pasir Mas, Ilmu Pengasih, from Nik Man,

To’ Guru Wayang Kulit, Kampung Tungku Temenggong Kota Bharu, and Ilmu

Pengaseh Tok Guru ‘Ku Nejah , and a love charm called Ilmu Hanuman,was collected from To’ Dalang Wan Hamad.

Ishak Bin Ahmad (1941)26 discusses the offering ceremony to the spirit of the sea or water, which was held at Pulau Ketam, Malacca on 14th January 1936. In relation to this, he was fortunate to witness the ceremony in person, hence, gaining first hand knowledge of its proceedings. During the said proceedings, a full-grown male goat was purchased from the mainland and brought over the previous day or days to serve as an important item in the offering.

Zainal Abidin Ahmad (1949)27 described some of the religious occasions and semi-religious occasions that have been widely practised by the Malays. This among others includes the practice of “Mandi Safar” (Religious bath in the month of Safar28) which is classified as a semi-religious occasion. According to him, the practice has nothing to do with the original Islamic teachings or practices of early Muslims. In fact, it is merely based on undocumented reports related to some unknown holy man of the past. According to this practice, God will collect on that day all misfortunes, accidents and ill fortunes to bring them down into the world during the coming year. Thus, through the author’s finding it could be said that “Mandi Safar” could also be categorized as mythical practices even though at the first glance it seems Islamic.

26 Ishak Ahmad. “Malay fishermen’s superstitions”, Journal of Malayan Branch of Royal Asiatic Society (JMBRAS), vol 19, no. 1 (1941):131-136. 27 Zainal Abidin Ahmad, “Malay festivals: and some aspects of Malay religious life”, Journal of Malayan Branch of Royal Asiatic Society (JMBRAS), vol 22, no. 1 (1949): 94-106. 28 The second month in the Muslim calendar.

Abu Hassan Sham (1975)29 explores the description of cock fighting in the

Malay society. He described that cock fighting could be classified as a form of gambling, played by both the higher and lower class of the Malay community. He also identifies various kinds of mythical taboos, which must be observed during the game.

These kinds of mythical taboos had been taken from works on Classical Malay

Literature such as Hikayat Awang Sulung Mulut Merah, Hikayat Malim Demam, and

Hikayat Anggun Cik Tunggal. He stresses that cock fighting is deviated from the

Islamic norms and values due to the nature of the game that promotes gambling.

Mohd Noor Yusoff (1977)30 wrote an article on Wayang Kulit as one of the most famous Malay theatrical exhibitions.The article highlighted on four types of

Wayang Kulit namely, Wayang Siam, Wayang Jawa, Wayang Gedek, and Wayang

Kulit Jawa. The author also confirms many theories indicate that the origin of Wayang

Kulit was from India. He also stresses that Wayang Kulit is totally opposed to Islamic teachings. He argues that the prohibition was related to the practices carried out during

‘pembukaan panggung’ or opening ceremony where charms and incantations praising the deities of Hindus will be recited. At the same time, offerings will be performed for deities in order to ensure the smooth running of that theatrical exhibition.

In relation to birth customs, Azizah Ismail (1996)31 on Melenggang Perut described that the purpose of the ritual is to show gratitude to God for rewarding the mother with a child. The finding has shown that “Melenggang Perut” was commonly practised during the 1940s to the 1960s. Today, this practice is largely ignored by the

Muslims due to improvements in medical care and formal education. In addition,

29 Abu Hassan Sham, “Menyabung ayam dalam masyarakat Melayu lama”, Dewan Masyarakat, December 1975, 37-38. 30 Mohd Noor Yusoff, “Wayang kulit: ada yang bertentangan dengan Islam”, Serina, January 1977, 92- 95. 31 Azizah Ismail, “Melenggang perut: adat lama yang terpinggir”. Mastika, July 1996, 6-10.