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www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com INVERTEBRATESINVERTEBRATES

Britannica Illustrated Science Library

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Chicago ■ London ■ New Delhi ■ Paris ■ Seoul ■ Sydney ■ Taipei ■ Tokyo

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com Britannica Illustrated Science Library

© 2008 Editorial Sol 90 All rights reserved.

Idea and Concept of This Work: Editorial Sol 90

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Editorial Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board Michael Levy, Executive Editor, Core Editorial John Rafferty, Associate Editor, Earth Sciences Jorge Aguilar-Cauz, President William L. Hosch, Associate Editor, Mathematics and Computers Michael Ross, Senior Vice President, Corporate Development Kara Rogers, Associate Editor, Life Sciences Rob Curley, Senior Editor, Science and Technology Dale H. Hoiberg, Senior Vice President and Editor David Hayes, Special Projects Editor Marsha Mackenzie, Director of Production Art and Composition Steven N. Kapusta, Director Carol A. Gaines, Composition Supervisor Christine McCabe, Senior Illustrator International Standard Book Number (set): Media Acquisition 978-1-59339-797-5 Kathy Nakamura, Manager International Standard Book Number (volume): 978-1-59339-804-0 Copy Department Britannica Illustrated Science Library: Invertebrates 2008 Sylvia Wallace, Director Julian Ronning, Supervisor Printed in China

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www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com Invertebrates

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com Contents

Origin and habitats

Page 6

The simplest life-forms

Page 18

Crustaceans and arachnids

Page 34

Insects

Page 52

Relationship with humans

Page 80

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com ARTIFICIAL BEEHIVE Movable frames allow the beekeeper to remove honey Tiny and wax from each comb. ees are among the most important insects have jointed legs and an external Creatures insects. They process the nectar of skeleton for protection. In this book you B flowers to produce honey, a sugary will also be able to admire the beauty of liquid that humans use as a sweetener butterflies and the changes they and nutrient. The nutritive component of experience throughout their lives, and you nvertebrates were the first forms of honey is pure carbohydrate in the form of will discover the world through the eyes of I animal life on Earth. They are the simple sugars, which are directly a fly. Have you heard that, among the most ancient and most numerous of absorbed by the body. This characteristic 35,000 known species of spiders, only 30 known life-forms. Some, such as worms, gives honey its punch as a quick energy are truly poisonous, and that without these sea anemones, and jellyfish, are soft- source. Edible in its natural state, it can poisonous creatures we would be bodied. Others, such as insects and also be used as an ingredient of desserts swimming in a sea of insects? Also crustaceans, are hard-bodied. Some, or to sweeten drinks. Not only bees, interesting are the many kinds of including jellyfish, live in the water and however, but also wasps play a spiderwebs that spiders use for making swim freely. However, others, such as fundamental role in the lives of all living traps, mating, moving about, and covering corals and anemones, are fixed in one beings. Many plants depend on them for their burrows. place. This fascinating world of tiny pollination of their flowers. Without creatures has over 1.5 million known these insects there would be fewer fruits species, with a wide and vegetables to eat. e invite you to explore the pages variety of shapes and habits. of this fact-filled book, with W fascinating photos and intriguing ere we show you the inside workings facts about the inner and external lives of of a beehive. Did you know that one the invertebrates that share our world. H difference between bees and other Mosquitoes, for example, can pierce the insects is the organized communities that skin of mammals and feed on their blood, bees form? Keeping in mind that each and flies can eat solid food because their artificial honeycomb has about 30,000 digestive process begins outside their inhabitants, there must be a way to keep bodies. No athlete can jump like the flea, a order, and the bees know by instinct how tiny, wingless insect that lives on the blood to do this. The queen, the drones, and the of birds and mammals. We will also tell you workers know their roles and duties well. about beneficial insects that can be useful They may even die defending the colony, to have in your house, and about others that just like ants, who are also true masters of it would be better to control and keep away, order and productivity. Noteworthy in the because they can transmit sicknesses such world of insects is their high degree of as Chagas disease. Just turn the page to evolutionary development. They are the find detailed accounts along with carefully highest achievers of the animal world. They selected images that will show you in full live all over the planet, need little food to detail how some of the smallest creatures survive, and escape from predators with on Earth live, change, grow, and highly developed means of locomotion. All communicate. It is well worth it!

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com ANOMALOCARIS TRACES OF ANCIENT LIFE 8-9 LIFE BEGAN IN THE SEA 14-15 The largest predator of trilobites in Origin and Habitats the Cambrian Period, it measured FROZEN IN TIME 10-11 TEEMING FRESHWATER up to 20 inches (0.5 m) long. THE FIRST CONQUEST 12-13 ENVIRONMENTS 16-17

he first life-forms appeared nearly found in Australia and Canada show that from the bottom of the ocean to the highest shellfish (phylum Mollusca); sea worms and 4 billion years ago. The main those invertebrates had soft bodies, quite mountain peaks. We will show you the earthworms (phylum Annelida); insects, groups of organisms with complex different from those that exist today. oldest species and many of the main groups spiders, millipedes, and crustaceans T cells (eukaryotes) evolved during Members of the kingdom Animalia became of today: sponges (phylum Porifera); corals, (phylum Arthropoda); and starfish and sea the Precambrian Period. Fossils adapted to many environments, extending anemones, and jellyfish (phylum Cnidaria); urchins (phylum Echinodermata). www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 8 ORIGIN AND HABITATS INVERTEBRATES 9

Burgess Shale EVOLUTION Traces of Ancient Life Trilobites are the best-known fossilized animals to appear Located in Canada, Burgess Shale is during the Cambrian explosion. The fossil record shows an well known for its fossil bed of soft- extraordinary proliferation of life-forms during this stage illions of years ago, our planet was not as we know it today. bodied animals from the Cambrian Period. of life on Earth. From this time on, no new structures of The continents were arranged differently, and the climate, flora, This bed gives a glimpse of what ocean life morphological organization appeared. Rather, existing M was like during the Cambrian Period, with forms evolved and diversified. and fauna were different. How do we know this? We have specimens of the four main types of learned these things by finding and studying fossils, remains of past life- arthropods: trilobites, crustaceans, Olenoides Xandarella Emeraldella Yohoia Sidneyia Burgessia horseshoe crabs, and Uniramia (the forms that are preserved in both geography and time. The Ediacara, in group that includes insects). AYSHEAIA OPABINIA southern Australia, and the Burgess Shale, in Canada, are two regions From 0.5 to From 1.5 to 2.5 inches 3 inches with extensive fossil beds of soft-bodied invertebrates. Both areas have (1-6 cm) long. (4-7 cm) long. shed light on what is known as the Cambrian explosion. 540 million years AGE OF THE FOSSILS FOUND IN THIS BED

CANADA Ediacara Latitude 51° 25’ 30” N DICKINSONIA SPECIES CHANCELLORIA This group, called Ediacara fauna, is the oldest known Believed to belong to the Cnidarian Longitude 116° 30’ 00” W This cylindrical form group of multicelled organisms. Found in Precambrian (coral, jellyfish, anemones) or This fossil bed is Mouth is thought to have rock, it predates the great Cambrian explosion. Its age is around Annelid (worms) phyla. The largest outstanding for possibly been a 600 million years; it contains impressions, or molds, of diverse was 17 inches (43 cm) long. the variety of sponge. animal forms conserved in sedimentary rock, without a trace of creatures found. hard parts. The first such bed was found in southern Australia, Mouth in the Ediacara Hills.

Mouth 600 million years AGE OF THE FIRST SPECIMENS FOUND

AUSTRALIA Latitude 35° 15’ S Longitude 149° 28’ E The first specimens Mouth were found in the Mouth Ediacara Hills. CANADIA Mouth Estimated to have ANOMALOCARIS been between 0.8 20 inches and 2.0 inches (50 cm) long. (2-5 cm) long. Mouth

Mouth

WIWAXIA OTTOIA A rare marvel with no This priapulid known biological worm could relationship to any measure up to MARRELLA SPLENDENS other life-form. 3 inches Less than one inch long, JELLYFISH CHARNIA (8 cm) long. Ediacaran One of the most this creature is thought to widely found fossils live on the seafloor. of the Ediacaran SIZES Period. It is believed The Burgess Shale FOSSILS to have been related invertebrates had a wide range Fossils yield clues about life in Mouth to certain cnidarian of sizes, from microscopic to the past. By comparing fossilized colonies. nearly 7 feet (2 m) long. (Dogs, organisms from different periods on the other hand, have a 20 inches of the Earth's history with narrower size range; the most (50 cm) organisms of today, we can common breeds range from 20 deduce how various life-forms to 40 inches [50-100 cm] tall.). Anomalocaris Dog have changed over time.

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 10 ORIGIN AND HABITATS INVERTEBRATES 11 Frozen in Time ossils give evidence about many different ancient F life-forms. Bones, footprints, and other signs of Properties and Characteristics animal and plant life can become fossils as Amber is a material derived from the fossilized resin of their organic components are replaced by certain trees that lived between 144 and 65 million years ago. Over time they were fossilized, forming large, irregular mineral compounds. Many arthropods were masses within layers of sandstone and slate mixed with clay. trapped in the sap of certain trees. When Masses of amber range from very small, only a fraction of an Value inch, to many times longer, up to 20 inches (50 cm) in length, this sticky substance hardened, it with a hardness of 2 to 3 on the Mohs scale. Amber is composed Amber containing animals that of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. became what is called amber. lived millions of years ago is Amber is very useful for studying used to make jewelry. Its price depends on the type of processes that gave rise to the organism it contains. diversity of life on Earth. 1 During the Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods, forests covered a wide area. The trees secreted a resinous substance that oozed out in the form of drops.

FOSSIL IN AMBER FOSSILIZED ARACHNID Photograph of amber that This spider, perfectly conserved contains fossil remains from 38 thanks to the protection of the million years ago. This piece is valued at nearly $35,000. amber, enables scientists to make reliable comparisons with genera and species of today. 2 This substance accumulated on tree branches and bark and at the foot of the trunk, trapping all sorts of plants and animals (even toads) that got stuck in the thick resin. Diverse Origins The color of fossilized amber depends on the type of tree it came from, when it was formed, and the environment where it was fossilized. Amber is usually yellow, although it may come in many shades ranging from orange, red, brown, blue, and green to transparent varieties. Although color is important, amber is classified according to its origin.

Mineral deposit Origin Shades 572° F 3 Baltic Eocene conifers Ancient Life-Forms The resin insulated the animal Burma Eocene Burseraceans (300° C) Finding these fossilized creatures enables us to learn from the atmosphere and about life-forms and environments of the past. The protected its remains from Dominican Republic Miocene legumes The melting point of amber presence of certain fossils can help us to determine what the water and air. As the resin Sicily Miocene Burseraceans climate was like millions of years ago and to date rock layers. hardened, it gradually formed a Romania Miocene legumes We know that certain plants and animals lived in specific protective, pressure-resistant Mexico Miocene legumes periods. Their presence or absence can help us determine the layer. Over time this layer was age of the rock layer where they are found. Not only did amber transformed into what we Canada Cretaceous conifers preserve plants and animals, but it also trapped air bubbles. know today as amber.

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 12 ORIGIN AND HABITATS INVERTEBRATES 13 The First Conquest o be able to live on land, invertebrates developed ways of breathing and MONARCH T BUTTERFLY moving that were adapted to a Danaus land environment. Thus insects, which plexippus can walk and fly, have populated land and air environments. Other invertebrates have also become accustomed to life in this element, and they play an important role in land ecosystems.

Who Eats Whom? ASIAN TIGER The relationships of eating MOSQUITO and being eaten that are Aedes albopictus established among the organisms of an ecosystem are called the food chain. In contrast to plants, whose capacity for photosynthesis gives them the role of food producers, invertebrates occupy various levels in the food chain as food consumers.

THE ORDER OF THE FOOD CHAIN Fleas Ladybugs 70% OF THE SPECIES THAT CRAMER'S Spiders LIVE IN TREES ARE BLUE MORPHO INSECTS. Morpho rhetenor PRAYING MANTIS 1 FIRST LEVEL 2 SECOND LEVEL 3 THIRD LEVEL Family Mantidae Invertebrates Carnivores that Larger invertebrates that that eat plants eat herbivorous eat other carnivorous invertebrates invertebrates

WASP The Most Successful Polistes sp. Beetles (order Coleoptera) are the most prolific and diverse group of the animal kingdom. This is mostly because of their chitinous exoskeletons and highly compact elytras (wing covers), which give each species the hardness, flexibility, texture, or color it needs to adapt to its environment.

OVER

350,000 COMMON Tunnels bored by beetles SPECIES OF BEETLES FURNITURE BEETLE Anobium punctatum ARE KNOWN.

FEEDING ON EUROPEAN HORNET DEAD MATTER BROWN Vespa crabro GARDEN SNAIL TICK Helix aspersa Boophilus sp.

BURYING BEETLE Nicrophorus investigator

BLACK VINE WEEVIL Otiorhynchus sulcatus SPIDER Drassodes sp. DESERT MILLIPEDE BLOOD-RED ANT Orthoporus ornatus (WORKER) CENTIPEDE Formica sanguinea SILVERFISH Lithobius sp. Lepisma saccharina Naturally Programmed PILLBUGS SILKWORM The world of air- and land-dwelling sp. Small Arthropods Armadillium Bombyx mori invertebrates includes societies, such as those Most land- and air-dwelling arthropods have a of bees, wasps, and ants (order Hymenoptera). tracheal respiratory system consisting of highly The bees' dances to inform other bees about efficient air tubes that supply oxygen directly to the location of new food sources, their strict the cells and tissues. The tracheal system makes it division of labor, or the structure of a possible for these arthropods to maintain a high EARTHWORM spiderweb correspond to patterns of behavior metabolic rate, but it also tends to limit body size. CLICK Lumbricus sp. specific to each species. Each individual carries That is why land-dwelling arthropods are relatively BEETLE these patterns inscribed within, like a small compared to the rest of the animal kingdom. Agriotes lineatus computer program that executes perfectly. www.MemarJoon.com www.MemarJoon.com 14 ORIGIN AND HABITATS INVERTEBRATES 15 Life Began in the Sea nvertebrates are not defined by any single common those found in other environments. Some forms of animal characteristic, but simply by not being vertebrates. Their life, such as corals and sponges, are so simple that they I heterogeneity is most notable in the ocean. Some 3.8 are not able to move about on their own. Others, billion years ago, life arose in our planet's oceans. The species such as some cephalopods, show great that inhabit the ocean waters show greater diversity than intelligence and skill.

A World Without Insects CORAL Arthropods are the most prolific animals on the Acropora sp. planet. But just as insects (hexapods) reign on land, 50,000 Coral reefs are crustaceans have been successful in the water. KNOWN CRUSTACEAN SPECIES environments inhabited They breathe through gills, and some, such as krill, THE VAST MAJORITY LIVE by thousands of ocean are microscopic. Most, however, are larger than IN THE SEA creatures. They make up insects-mostly because they have no need of their own ecosystem. complex and costly metamorphosis.

The Largest The reduced effects of gravity in the water CARAMOTE ANTARCTIC enable the largest invertebrates to live in PRAWN KRILL the sea. Out of the water, octopus and Penaeus Euphausia squid-cephalopod mollusks with no rigid kerathurus superba BROADCLUB structure or joints in their bodies-would not CUTTLEFISH be able to move or hold themselves up, let Sepia latimanus alone hunt. Perhaps this is why no AMERICAN invertebrates of this size are found on land. LOBSTER Homarus americanus

COMMON OCTOPUS Unique Shapes Octopus vulgaris Some sea organisms, such as jellyfish, some sponges, and Found up to 30 feet (10 m) deep anemones, are very simple. Others, such as sea urchins and starfish (phylum Echinodermata), are more complex. However, all of these life-forms have a body plan called radial symmetry, which, in contrast to bilateral symmetry, is found only in the sea. 66 feet (20 m) length of the giant squid Architeuthis dux RADIAL SYMMETRY

BIGFIN REEF SQUID Sepioteuthis lessoniana JELLYFISH Male and female WHITE Thysanostoma JELLYFISH loriferum Rhizostoma pulmo Medium and Substance Gills enable oxygen from the water to enter directly into SPONGE an animal's circulatory system. Through tiny chambers, Spongia officinalis they exchange gases with the surrounding water. But the Absorbs nutrients simplest organisms, without digestive tracts, feed by RADIANT SEA URCHIN from the water absorbing other substances and trace Astropyga radiata elements from the water. Defends the crab against predators

URCHIN CRAB Dorippe frascone Transports the sea urchin in a form of symbiosis

RED STARFISH Echinaster sepositus SEA SLUG COMMON STARFISH Chromodoris Asterias rubens willani

OYSTERS Crassostrea sp.

BEADLET ANEMONE Actinia equina CHRISTMAS TIGER COWRY SEA CUCUMBER TREE WORM Cypraea tigris Thelenota sp. Spirobranchus giganteus www.MemarJoon.com www.MemarJoon.com 16 ORIGIN AND HABITATS INVERTEBRATES 17 Teeming Freshwater Environments n rivers, ponds, lakes, lagoons, and swamps, many means they must obtain a reserve of air or come to the surface to invertebrate species are adapted to life in the water but breathe. Crustaceans have mechanisms that protect them from Icome from other habitats. Thus, water beetles breathe, losing salt in fresh water. With these adaptations, invertebrates make not with gills, but with spiracles, the way land insects do. This seemingly calm waters the scene of an intense struggle to survive.

One Species, On the Border 8% OF INSECTS LIVE The areas in and around water and IN WATER Two Environments close to the water's surface are the Many species of land- and air-dwelling scenes of a battle for survival. Most Molting insects lay their eggs in water. After freshwater insects live in this zone. dragonfly hatching, the larvae undergo metamorphosis in the water. This fact has enabled certain species to prosper by colonizing more than one EMPEROR DRAGONFLY environment at once. Not only does Anax imperator the same individual inhabit different The adults feed on small environments at different stages of flying insects that live its life, but it also has distinct feeding LIFE CYCLE OF THE near plants by the habits and means of breathing during ADULT COMMON MOSQUITO 4 shore of bodies of those stages. That fact keeps adults After a few days the fresh water. of the species from competing with pupa's skin splits the young for food. and the adult mosquito emerges. The adult will live for only a few MAYFLY weeks. Hexagenia sp. COMMON POND SKATER EGGS Gerris lacustris PUPAE 1 After feeding on 3 The larva molts Lives in water. It has just the blood, adult females four times as it right weight and structure to THE PROCESS lay 40 to 400 eggs grows, finally take advantage of surface LASTS ABOUT on the surface of reaching the tension when the water is calm. ONE MONTH the water. WATER MEASURER pupa stage. Hydrometra stagnorum WATER BOATMAN (BACK SWIMMER) Notonecta glauca

LARVAE 2 After one week, the eggs hatch and the larvae are born.

Adapted to

ZOOPLANKTON the Water Some water species breathe through air tubes or tracheae. All such organisms had to develop a mechanism or device for providing themselves with air, because GREAT POND tracheae and tracheoles are useless SNAIL for breathing underwater. Lymnaea stagnalis

DRAGONFL Y NYMPH

DIVING BELL SPIDER Argyroneta aquatica GREAT DIVING BEETLE Dytiscus marginalis

Living Off Others CADDISFLY LARVA Limnephilus sp. WHITE-CLAWED CRAYFISH Some organisms are parasites. They do not obtain Austropotamobius pallipes their own food; rather, they live at the expense of Glands on its antennae excrete another species. Although they depend on another water and maintain the animal for sustenance, they avoid doing the other balance of salts in its body. species too much harm. Otherwise, the parasite would have to find a new host. In Fresh Water Ocean invertebrates live in an osmotic balance between water and the salts the water contains. Invertebrates that live in estuaries or other places where salt water receives currents of fresh water (euryhaline organisms) must keep the concentration of salts in their bodies constant, even when the salinity of the water changes. In fresh water, with its low Most parasitic concentration of salts, crustaceans developed worms are mechanisms to eliminate water and capture WATER BEETLE microscopic in BLOOD-FLUKES TRICHODINA MEDICINAL LEECH COPEPOD salts actively-that is, their bodies expend LARVA size. The ones (BILHARZIA) Trichodina fultoni Hirudo medicinalis Cyclops sp. energy on these functions. For this reason river shown here are Schistosoma sp. crustaceans, unlike sea crustaceans, urinate. highly magnified.

www.MemarJoon.com www.MemarJoon.com THE SIMPLICITY OF THE JELLYFISH RADIAL SYMMETRY 20-21 JOINTLESS 28-29 The jellyfish is a very simple animal with a The Simplest Life-Forms gelatinous consistency and with no respiratory, SEA CARNIVAL 22-23 GENERATING ADDED VALUE 30-31 digestive, or excretory systems. It drifts around AQUATIC 24-25 POWERFUL TENTACLES 32-33 in warm ocean waters. LEGLESS 26-27

ven though most organisms simple invertebrates are unable to move and octopus, can move about and have horn-like jaws, and tentacles with such as sponges, jellyfish, and from one place to another; some even become skilled marine predators. suckers to trap their prey. Some sea anemones look like lack certain tissues or an entire Cephalopods are the most highly evolved cephalopods live in deep-sea waters, E vegetables, they belong to the respiratory or digestive system. Other, mollusks. Their heads have highly whereas others stay close to shore. animal kingdom. Many of these more developed species, such as squid developed eyes, a mouth with two www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 20 THE SIMPLEST LIFE-FORMS INVERTEBRATES 21

Cnidarians CLASSIFICATION Radial Symmetry Cnidarians are a group of aquatic animals that HYDROZOA: ANTHOZOA: Sea SCYPHOZOA: Jellyfish Asexual polyp anemones and corals includes jellyfish, hydras, sea anemones, and Mesoglea any of the numerous invertebrates on Earth live in the corals. Their cells are organized in true tissues. They have specialized cells called cnidoblasts for Gastrovascular ocean. Some, such as polyps and jellyfish, have radial stinging prey and for defense. Two basic types of cavity M symmetryΩthat is, their bodies are structured around an cnidarians are polyps and jellyfish. Mouth axis. A typical echinoderm such as the starfish has tiny, flexible, Gastrodermis JELLYFISH Epidermis tube-shaped legs arranged like the spokes of a wheel. The animal Pelagia noctiluca uses them to hold onto surfaces and to move. Sponges, on the STINGING CELL other hand, are very simple, multiple-celled animals, with Used for defense many small pores that they use to feed. REPRODUCTION 1 INTACT Cnidocyst GAMETES Nucleus JELLYFISH 1 Adult jellyfish 6 Operculum The polyp's body produce sperm and grows and Adult Cnidocilium jellyfish egg cells during begins to form Young meiosis and then DISCHARGING jellyfish, which jellyfish release them. 2 RADIAL pile up like a Rolled-up Imaginary axis SYMMETRY stack of plates. tube The body parts are organized around a Most common Barb central axis like the Center habitat 2 FERTILIZATION spokes on the wheel Fertilization takes 3 DISCHARGED of a bicycle. Any plane COASTS OF place in the POLYP Unfolded waters near the stinging passing through the 5 The planula larva THE UNITED STATES jellyfish, resulting tube body will divide it into settles at the in a zygote. two halves, each bottom, where it mirroring the other. attaches to a surface. There it develops a mouth SEA URCHIN and tentacles, and Strongylocentrotus franciscanus transforms into a polyp.

BLASTULA 3 The zygote, after THERE ARE a series of cell APPROXIMATELY divisions, becomes a blastula, or hollow sphere, of cells. Echinoderms PLANULA 9,000 4 The blastula lengthens This phylum includes sea lilies, sea SPECIES OF CNIDARIANS and becomes a ciliated cucumbers, urchins, and starfish. The (COELENTERATES). larva called a planula. echinoderms have an internal skeleton made of calcified plates and a locomotion Water system made up of ambulacral grooves ECHINODERM CLASSES coming out with rows of tube feet. In most ECHINODERM Epithelial cell echinoderm species, the means that this Porifera THERE ARE Oscula Are sessile aquatic animals. Most live at the bottom of endoskeleton is made of tiny animal's body is APPROXIMATELY Spicule calcareous plates held covered by a the ocean, although there are some freshwater species. together by skin and spiny skin. They are the simplest animals, lacking organs or true muscle tissue. tissues, and their cells are independent to a certain 5,000 extent. They are basically water-filtering bodies formed SPECIES (150 ARE ECHINOIDEA by one or more cavities. Most porifera have no definite FRESHWATER, AND THE The water with Sea urchins shape, but some have radial symmetry. REST ARE MARINE). food particles ASTEROIDEA OPHIUROIDEA enters through the porocytes. Starfish Brittle stars TYPES OF PORIFERA ACCORDING Direction of TO ORGANIZATION water flow THERE ARE APPROXIMATELY Nucleus 7,000 Flagellum LIVING SPECIES AND 13,000 EXTINCT CRINOIDEA HOLOTHUROIDEA SPECIES OF Sea lilies Sea cucumbers ECHINODERMS. ASCON SYCON LEUCON

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 22 THE SIMPLEST LIFE-FORMS INVERTEBRATES 23

ADAPTATION OF SHAPE Beautiful but Deadly To avoid being swept away in the current, the Sea Carnival sea anemone retracts on sensing a water flow. Tentacles Beautiful for their shapes and colors that orals and anemones, together with jellyfish, make up the vary even within the same species, and dangerous for the poison they use to sting both phylum Cnidaria. Some characteristics they share are their victims and predators, sea anemones live in Water C bright colors, tentacles that secrete stinging substances, and a almost all marine latitudes, and at varying flow Column depths. Tropical marine anemones can measure digestive system with a common opening for ingestion and excretionΩthe up to 3 feet (1 m). They have a basal disc, which simplest digestive system in the animal kingdom. All of these organisms allows some species to attach to rocks, and others to slither, and still others to penetrate Base are quite simple. Corals generally form colonies, large groups of small the seafloor. They trap live prey, even fish, with polyps that stay practically immobile and feed on microorganisms the many tentacles around their mouths. CONTRACTION DISTENSION EXTENSION brought to them by water currents. Sea anemones, on the other hand, The sea anemone By means of the When the water are solitary and can trap prey despite their limited locomotion. reduces its size. retractor muscle is calm CORAL POLYP 9,000 CLOWNFISH THE NUMBER OF CNIDARIAN Inexplicably, the sea anemone's TENTACLES SPECIES IN THE WORLD With stinging cells, poison does not affect this species. Coral Reefs to hunt and move Corals are small polyps with tentacles that grow at their base throughout their life, generating a calcareous exoskeleton. This skeleton forms masses, or branches. Most corals grow in colonies; the skeletons form huge calcareous masses called reefs. Corals live mostly in warm, shallow ocean waters. Their reproduction can be both HARD CORALS SOFT CORALS sexual and asexual, by division or by grow over the surface of the branch out; their skeleton is gemmation. They feed on plankton. lime-bearing substrate. not lime-based but horn-like and flexible.

CORAL WALLS Even though some coral walls live alone, most form colonies that can grow 100 feet upward at up to 3 feet (1 m) every year. (30 m) MOUTH ORAL Tentacles THE MOST COMMON DEPTH AT with stinging cells WHICH CORALS GROW DISC

SEPTAL PERFORATION

Mouth Hard skeleton INCOMPLETE Through here the A mass that grows MESENTERIUM animal ingests by the accumulation its food and of dead polyps RETRACTOR excretes wastes. MUSCLE MESENTERIUM FILAMENT PHARYNX

COMPLETE MESENTERIUM

Live SEA ANEMONE tissue Any vertical plane passing through its center divides it into two equal parts. GASTROVASCULAR Gastric cavity CAVITY Connecting tissue Divided into several Connects one polyp cavities in Calcium with another hydropolyps carbonate BASAL DISC www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 24 THE SIMPLEST LIFE-FORMS INVERTEBRATES 25

SEA URCHIN Aquatic Defense System Astropyga radiata Characterized by complete five-sided symmetry, sea urchins' bodies are covered chinoderms (phylum Echinodermata) are one of the best-known by several mobile spines that give them a SPINES dangerous appearance. The spines are spread There are two varieties of groups of marine invertebrates. Sea urchins and starfish, despite their evenly throughout the skeleton's surface and spines: larger primary E are used as a defense system. spines and shorter apparent differences, are part of the same group and share characteristics secondary spines. They are such as five-radial symmetry. This phylum has an aquatic vascular system with usually cylindrical with a many ambulacral grooves with tube feet, which it uses for locomotion, narrowed tip. BARB capturing prey, and breathing. In addition, it has an internal skeleton Used for made of calcareous plates. These creatures lack a brain or eyes, defense 6,000 so they use photoreceptors to sense movement. THE NUMBER OF ECHINODERM SPECIES PYLORIC CONDUIT Moves the water that ends at the pyloric cecum, which functions as a digestive gland Ambulacral Grooves These structures are hollow objects, enabling it to move at cylinders with thick walls surprising speed. These sensitive that straighten and move when a feet shrink if touched abruptly, starfish injects water into certain hiding behind a rim of rigid vesicles in its body. The ambulacral spines that protect grooves end in suckers that the them from harm. animal uses to attach itself to STOMACH

ESOPHAGUS STARFISH Archaster typicus

570 The muscles can make the tube feet move to either side, and the 3 coordinated movement of all the million years feet in one direction causes the THE LENGTH OF TIME ECHINODERMS starfish to advance. HAVE BEEN IN EXISTENCE MOUTH Surrounds the food and breaks it down with stomach juices The area near the sucker secretes SAC an adhesive substance that helps SKIN RADIAL CANAL Fills with water, 2 keep it attached to the surface. The underside The water passes and expands, and clings The lateral muscles in the groove is covered by circulates to the sacs. to the surface contract, and the liquid returns to spines. the sac for locomotion.

Sac Suction Stages of Movement The sac contracts and puts pressure on the ambulacral When the sac muscles The ambulacral groove and tube feet allow the groove. The muscles tense and Closed contract, they force the liquid starfish to perform the movements it needs for force the water back into the valve 1 to pass to the ambulacral locomotion. The feet are arranged in two sac, causing suction between groove, which lengthens and parallel lines along the arm, and the feet at the the groove and the surface with makes contact with an other end have a sensory function, monitoring which it makes contact. Sucker Substrate adjacent surface, or substrate. the substrate over which the creature moves.

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Tissues Legless are formed in layers and are based on the presence of internal cavities. This annelid has three layers and one cavity, the coelom, which orms are invertebrates with long, soft bodies and no legs. They are carries fluids through the body like a classified into three phyla. Flatworms are the simplest type; most are FOOD hydraulic skeleton. W Bacteria and parasites, although some are free-living. Nematodes have a organic wastes cylindrical body with a hard outer surface. Segmented worms are more ECTODERM complex; they include leeches, earthworms, and sea worms. Many species COELOM have an impact on plants, animals, and humans. MESODERM ENDODERM

Classes of Worms WORM Round body Nematode enoplida DIGESTIVE CAVITY

AT LEAST Flat body Segmented body 100,000 PLATYHELMINTHES NEMATODA ANNELIDA KNOWN WORM SPECIES

Movement Guided by Light EPIDERMIS Flatworms have eyespots, or light-sensitive eyes, on the front end of their bodies. When exposed to excessive light, the eyes NECK Retracts and withdraw and remain immobile. remains hidden

PROBOSCIS Partly folded TISSUE Reproduction inward Fibrous and Flatworms and annelids are elastic usually hermaphrodites; Digestive System LEMNISCI nematodes usually have separate HOOKS Food sexes. In some cases the worm In annelid worms, the digestive system extends in a straight Hold the worm storage splits into two, resulting in two line from the oral opening to the anus. It includes the mouth, in place new worms. muscular pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine.

Hearts Clitellum 28 feet Mouth Pharynx Reproductive system (8.5 m) 1 2 3 Intestine LENGTH OF THE LONGEST WORM: PLACENTONEMA LOCOMOTION GIGANTISSIMUM Snake-like undulations along the dorsal-ventral plane EARTHWORM SPINES Lumbricus terrestris Pierce the wall of the host Segments

Setae Setae are bristle-like structures. Anus

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Jointless Bivalves Mollusks with a shell divided into two halves. The two parts of the shell are joined by an he body of most mollusks is soft, extremely flexible, and without joints, elastic ligament that opens the shell, adductor yet has a large and very hard shell. Most mollusks live in the ocean, muscles that close the shell, and the umbo, a system of ridges that helps the shell shut Cockle T Tellin but they are also found in lakes and land environments. together. Almost all bivalves feed on microorganisms. Some bury themselves in the All modern mollusks have bilateral symmetry, SCALLOP wet sand, digging small tunnels that let in Razor clam Pecten jacobaeus one cephalopod foot with sensory organs water and food. The tunnels can be from a and locomotion, a visceral mass, and a BROWN GARDEN SNAIL fraction of an inch long to over a yard long. DIGESTIVE Helix aspersa Otter shell covering, called the mantel, that GLAND secretes the shell. Mollusks also INTESTINE have a very peculiar mouth LAMELLIBRANCHIATA include most bivalves. Under the Sand structure called a radula. They use gills to Many mollusks live buried under the sand breathe and to feed. in order to hide from predators and the They have no effects of waves, wind, and sudden differentiated head, changes in temperature. eyes, or extremities. They can grow up to LUNG 5 inches (13 cm) long, Gastropods and they rest on the These mollusks are characterized by ocean floor. GREEN MUSSEL their large ventral foot, whose wave- Perna viridis like motions are used to move from 100,000 place to place. The group comprises snails and slugs, and they can live on THE NUMBER OF LIVING MOLLUSK SPECIES; AS land, in the ocean, and in fresh water. PROTOBRANCHIA When these animals have a shell, it is a This class includes bivalves with a MANY MORE HAVE single spiral-shaped piece, and the extreme split lower foot, called a sole. BECOME EXTINCT flexibility of the rest of the body allows the Bivalves use their gills only to gastropod to draw itself up completely within breathe. This subclass includes small the shell. Gastropods have eyes and one or two bivalves 0.5 inch (13 mm) wide, pairs of tentacles on their head. called nutclams (Nucula nitidosa).

Cephalopods PROSOBRANCHIA Cuttlefish, octopus, squid, and nautilus are called This mollusk subclass mainly includes GONAD cephalopods because their extremities, or marine animals. Some have mother-of-pearl KIDNEY tentacles, are attached directly to their heads. on the inside of their shell, whereas others HEART These predators are adapted to life in the have a substance similar to porcelain. oceans, and they have quite complex nervous, sensory, and motion systems. Their tentacles surround their mouths, which have a radula and SALIVARY RADULA a powerful beak. Cephalopods can be 0.4 inch (1 GLAND cm) long to several yards long. ESOPHAGUS

LUNGED OPISTHOBRANCHIA FEMALE Snails, land slugs, and are sea slugs, which are SEXUAL freshwater slugs have characterized by having a ORGAN NAUTILOIDEA lungs, and their lung sacs very small shell or no This subclass populated the oceans allow them to breathe shell at all. of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic oxygen in the atmosphere. COLEOIDEA periods, but today only one genusΩ Cephalopods of this class have a very SEA ANGEL NautilusΩsurvives. A nautilus has an Candida sp. small internal shell, or none at all, and outer shell, four gills, and ten only two gills. Except for the nautilus, tentacles. Its shell is COMMON this class includes all cephalopods alive CUTTLEFISH made from calcium, is BENDING OF THE SNAIL todayΩoctopus, cuttlefish, and squid. In snails, bending is a very Sepia officinalis spiral in shape, and is special phenomenon that moves Gills divided into the cavity of the mantle from the Nervous chambers. rear toward the front of the system body. The visceral organs rotate NAUTILUS 180 degrees, and the digestive Nautilus sp. tube and the nervous connections Digestive tract cross in a figure eight.

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MANTLE FOLD surrounds the mantle and Generating Added Value controls the flow of water. ivalves are sought after and cultivated for their pearls. Pearls are said to be the queen of gems, because they were discovered over 4,000 years ago and were B OYSTERS MUSSELS CLAMS used as important symbols in many ancient cultures. In spite of their Rough Smooth Prickly high price, pearls start out as a nuisance for the animal that creates them, which could be an oyster, a clam, or a mussel. Oysters produce the most valuable pearls, which are noted for their luster. The number of pearl cultivators Pearl is estimated at nearly 5,000. Producers Japan is the main producer.

Pearl Formation Occasionally grains of sand or parasites accidentally become SHELL lodged in an oyster's body and cannot escape. To relieve the Composed of two COMMON annoyance, the oyster begins a defensive action and secretes a pieces or valves EUROPEAN smooth, hard, crystalline substance called nacre around the OYSTER object. Cultured pearls are formed from particles that are Ostrea edulis intentionally inserted into an oyster. INNER SURFACE OF THE SHELL Sensory tentacles enable the oyster to A Introduction of detect light and 1 foreign body darkness. INCUBATION Pearl cultivation began in Grain Japan. It consists of inserting of sand into the body of a live oyster a small, round particle made from the shell of a freshwater bivalve. The oyster secretes mother-of-pearl substances DIGESTIVE GLAND from a gland in its liver to Its cells absorb and cover the object, and the digest food particles. PEARL Surrounded pearl begins to grow. The oyster B secretes Tongue by nacre nacre to cover it. HINGE LIGAMENT joins the two valves 2 at their upper part.

GROWTH OF THE PEARL Organic New, uniform layers are constantly 3 to 8 layer PALPS GILLS added to the pearl, and the cultivator Aragonite select the absorb oxygen leaves the pearl in place until it reaches years crystal food. from the water. the required diameter and quality. TIME IT TAKES During the process, humans intervene FOR A PEARL only to provide the oysters in farms TO GROW with the right temperature, water currents, and cleanliness to favor the LAYERS OF NACRE LAYERS OF NACRE FOOT growth of pearls. MUSCLE ON THE PEARL ON THE SHELL Seldom used; the A fiber keeps the oyster prefers to swim shell closed. rather than dig. Oysters Tied HANGING with OYSTERS ropes These oysters are HARVEST suspended from 3 Cultured pearls make up 95 percent of the bamboo rafts in pearls currently sold. About 500 million 2% Types TENTACLES areas with pearls are produced every year. However, OF THE HARVEST WILL have sensory abundant plankton. pearl farming is a demanding and difficult YIELD PERFECT PEARLS. of pearls organs. business because of the nature of pearl They can be round oysters: out of 100 oysters cultivated, only or elongated like a NATURAL CULTURED 30 will be harvested. grain of rice. PEARL PEARLS

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Powerful Tentacles Speedy Escape The flow of water into and out of the funnel is When the ring-shaped regulated by alternately contracting and muscles contract, they expel he eight-tentacled octopus is one of the few large ocean cephalopods relaxing ring-shaped muscles and long muscles. By a jet of water that propels the octopus backward. to live in deep water. It is usually found on the rocky or sandy regulating the force at which the water is expelled, the T octopus can flee at high speed through a kind of jet bottoms of shallow waters near the mouths of rivers. It generally propulsion. The octopus moves in the direction its head SELF-DEFENSE is pointing, with its tentacles outstretched. WITH INK moves slowly, sometimes moving in brief spurts, but it can reach A gland located near the anus great speeds when hunting or fleeing. Some are quite contracts when the octopus senses danger, expelling a The ring-shaped muscles fluid that creates a dark cloud intelligent, having highly evolved brains. relax, and the long muscles in the water. contract. Water enters.

Masters of Color 1 BREATHING For the octopus, taking on the color of the 4 miles The Funnel ocean floor is a camouflage strategy to hide Head The funnel is the exit from from its prey. In deeper waters, another TENTACLES the octopus's respiratory tactic is to become luminescent to per hour All eight tentacles have the same cavity. It is also extremely attract the prey. But when the length. In the male, one tentacle important for the creature's octopus changes colors while doing EYES functions as a genital organ. movement. The gills, inside H O a certain dance, it is trying (6 km/h) Are located on the 2 the mantle, absorb oxygen to attract the Maximum speed of a fleeing octopus. head. The octopus's 2 PROPULSION sense of sight is from the water. When the opposite sex. Its speed is comparable to that exceptionally well cavity fills, the gills of a fast-walking developed. exchange oxygen for carbon human. dioxide to be emptied from the cavity. Funnel Gill

SKIN The skin is a highly elastic membrane that completely covers the octopus.

HEAD MUSCLES The head compresses and Powerful and versatile, with expands, depending on the self-controlled movements, octopus's breathing and an octopus can move the movements. The head contains entire weight of its body. the brain but without a rigid protective structure.

Attack Grasping Ability SUCKERS Arranged in two rows on To attack, the octopus points its funnel in the An octopus often crawls among the rocks. Using the the lower surfaces for direction opposite to its motion. The common octopus system of suckers, or adhesive discs, on its tentacles, an clinging to rocks and for ( ), a species that can grow up to 40 inches octopus clings to the seafloor or supports itself by grasping prey. Octopus vulgaris The funnel muscles can act (1 m) long and inhabits the Mediterranean Sea and North as a mechanism for fleeing. attaching the suckers to the surfaces it encounters. By Atlantic Ocean, moves among the rocks on the seafloor, Rather than directing the grasping with its forward tentacles, it can drag the rest preferably at night. It surprises its prey and makes skillful funnel forward, though, the of its body in that direction. use of its tentacles and jaws, which can rotate. octopus directs it to advance toward its prey. relaxed 1 muscle chitinous ring

The tentacles stretch forward and outward as Large Predators the octopus advances. Depending on its size, an octopus (like SUCTION other large cephalopods such as the nautilus, cuttlefish, and squid) is carnivorous and eats both fish and other contracted MOUTH invertebrates: mollusks and crustaceans, 2 muscle The mouth of an Using the wide octopus has hard, especially crabs. It secretes a venom area at the base of its chitin-like jaws for with its saliva to finish killing the prey tentacles, it envelops the prey. breaking shells. before swallowing it.

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com COLORFUL ARACHNID COLORFUL ARMOR 36-37 A SPECIAL FAMILY 44-45 Some species of the family Trombidiidae Crustaceans and Arachnids catch our attention because of their CHANGING OUTFITS 38-39 QUALITY SILK 46-47 intense red color and the velvet-like SHARP FRONT LEGS 40-41 SIXTH SENSE 48-48 appearance of their hair. IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CHAIN 42-43 POISONOUS STING 50-51

piders, snakes, ticks, and mites naked eye. In Greek mythology, Arachne to weave forever. That is where these details about their anatomy, their all belong to the same class, was a woman who challenged the goddess creatures get their name. Within the world differences and similarities, and the way Arachnida. They are covered Athena to weave faster than she herself of crustaceans, well-known animals such in which they live that will surprise you. S with sensory hairs so tiny that could. This angered the goddess, who as the shrimp, lobster, and crab are also Some species breathe through gills and they cannot be seen by the turned Arachne into a spider, forcing her discussed in this chapter. You will find also breathe through their skin. www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 36 CRUSTACEANS AND ARACHNIDS INVERTEBRATES 37

PINCERS MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS SHELL are the front pair of All crustaceans have a MOVABLE The shell is hard and Colorful Armor legs. They are used to number of appendages FINGER measures about 2.5 catch food. that are modified for inches (6.0 cm) across. ven though they inhabit all known environments, crustaceans are most different and varied functions, depending on closely identified with the aquatic environment. That environment is where the species.. FIXED E they were transformed into arthropods with the most evolutionary success. FINGER CEPHALOTHORAX FRONT LATERAL EYE Their bodies are divided into three parts: the cephalothorax, with antennae and MANDIBLE MOUTH strong mandibles; the abdomen, or pleon; and the back (telson). Some crustaceans are very small: sea lice, for instance, are no larger than one hundredth of an inch (a EUROPEAN GREEN CRAB Carcinus maenas quarter of a millimeter). The Japanese spider crab, on the other hand, is more is a littoral crab that lives on most than 9 feet (3 m) long with outstretched legs, as it has legs in both the abdomen continents and that has become a and the thorax in addition to two pairs of antennae. plague. It comes in a variety of colors.

THREE-LAYERED SKELETON Its interior part can contain up to 80 percent chitin. Wood Louse Malacostraca (Armadillidium vulgare) is the name given to the class of crustaceans that groups crabs together with sea lobsters, shrimp, wood This invertebrate, belonging to the order lice, and sea lice. The term comes from Greek, and it Isopoda, is one of the few terrestrial means “soft-shelled.” Sea and river crabs have 10 legs, FRONT BRANCHIAL crustaceans, and it is probably the one best and one pair of these legs is modified in a pincer form. BRANCHIA CLEANER adapted to life outside the water. When it Malacostraca are omnivorous and have adapted to a BACK feels threatened, it rolls itself up, leaving only great variety of environments; the number of its exoskeleton exposed. Even though it can BRANCHIA BRANCHIAL Extended segments of their exoskeleton can vary from a reproduce and develop away from the water, it CHAMBER animal minimum of 16 to more than 60. BRANCHIAL breathes through gills. The gills are found in its CHAMBER abdominal appendages and for this reason must be kept at specific humidity levels. That is also why the wood louse seeks dark and humid SHRIMP AND CRABS environments, such as under rocks, on dead or APPENDAGES Macrobrachium sp. fallen leaves, and in fallen tree trunks. EXOSKELETON consist of a lower region The prawn is a 10-legged Divided into from which two segmented crustacean that lives in deep independent parts branches grow, one internal waters and is able to (endopod) and the other ABDOMEN (PLEON) withstand great Antennae external (exopod). Evolution variations in the salinity of its living THE FEWER THE SEGMENTS FORMED environment. Head BY ITS BODY, THE MORE HIGHLY EVOLVED THE CRUSTACEAN.

THE CRAB'S LIFE CYCLE Even though it is well adapted to variations in the salinity of the water, the SEGMENTS The back segments female crab, after mating, always moves to saltier waters and lays her eggs there. The larvae will go through different stages before becoming crabs. Rolled-up are smaller, and animal when they bend, LEGS they help enclose This species the animal THE PACIFIC SPIDER has seven BARNACLES completely. CRAB CAN WEIGH UP TO pairs of legs. WITHOUT 45 pounds A SHELL Anus Egg needs Zoea Megalops Young crab 2 a saline 3 At first, 4 In the sea or river bed, 5 develops pincers (20 kg). environment for the crab is a the larva grows seven to eight and migrates to less BARNACLE its development. swimming larva. times its original size.. saline waters. COLONY Together Forever BARNACLE TRANSVERSAL CUT At birth, barnacles Legs (Pollicipes cornucopia) Spawning are microscopic larvae that travel through extended to 1 Segmented catch food The female lays her eggs in deep-water beds. the sea until they reach a rocky coast. legs Copepoda are tiny crustaceans that form part of plankton. Copepoda play a very Then they attach themselves to the shore important ecological role because they are a source of food for many marine by means of a stalk, which they develop Mouth animals. There are more than 10,000 species of copepoda. Most are marine by the modification of their antennae, and EXOSKELETON species, though there are also some freshwater species. The majority then form a shell. Once they are attached, Soft Shell The greater its number of segments, the less measure between 0.02 and 0.1 inch (0.5-2 mm) long; the smallest ones they remain in one spot for the rest of area highly evolved the species. reach only 0.004 inch (0.11 mm) in length, their lives, absorbing food from the water. (Sphaeronellopsis monothrix) Shell and the largest are 13 inches (32 cm) long. Barnacles are edible. SEA LICE (Pennella balaenopterae)

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 38 CRUSTACEANS AND ARACHNIDS INVERTEBRATES 39 Changing Outfits CEPHALOTHORAX he lobster belongs to the crustaceans, which are characterized by, among other is formed by the abdomen things, an exoskeleton that supports and protects the body of the animal. The and the fused segments of the head and the thorax, Molting of the Exoskeleton T exoskeleton has both advantages and disadvantages. The stiffness of the all of which are covered by the shell. MOVABLE The presence of the stiff exoskeleton means that structure prevents growth, which is why the animal grows only when the shell is EYE crustacean growth takes place during the molting cycle. renewed. This process is called molting. During molting the layers of the new ANTENNULE This phenomenon occurs cyclically and frequently in the young of cuticle harden, and minerals and materials from the old exoskeleton are the species, with longer periods between molts as the crab matures. During ecdysis (when the crab molts), the old shell reabsorbed to create a new exoskeleton. breaks and detaches, and the animal is helpless. Many functions, such as reproduction, behavior, and metabolic processes are directly affected by the physiology of the molt.

ANTENNAE SEGMENTED ABDOMEN LOBSTER EXOSKELETON The lobster is made of Palinuridae argus is made of a substance called segments with appendages FROM THE BURSTING OF chitin, which is strengthened that give its body its THE FIRST SKELETON Shell by calcium salts. In the hardness. exoskeleton molting process, the new layers are formed in Epicuticle PINCER-SHAPED LEG the cuticle; they then detach Endocuticle Cuticle Once the crab from the epidermis and form 1 reaches a new shell. This process Epidermis adulthood, its uses a large amount of exoskeleton covers metabolic energy. its body without any Lower change for about membrane 300 days.

A LOBSTER CAN LIVE Between 30 2 and 40 days before ecdysis, new 100 bristles form, and the epidermis years detaches itself. AND NOT STOP GROWING Hours before the 3 break, the lobster IN ALL THAT TIME. WALKING LEGS takes in large quantities Five pairs of legs, of which of water until it fills up one or more pairs are and breaks the old exoskeleton. modified into pincers. NEW ARTICULATED SEGMENT

THE LOBSTER MOLTS once a Chitinous Exoskeleton year. VULNERABLE While it waits for the The hard pincers help the lobster get food, and the During ecdysis itself, the new exoskeleton to segmented body allows for movement. However, the 4 lobster remains immobile grow, the lobster hides exoskeleton is a disadvantage in small places, because it for approximately 12 hours, so it does not end up a cannot change shape. Even though the while it grows in size because exoskeleton protects the lobster from of hydration. victim of its predators. abrasive contact, it can harm it TELSON once it breaks, because the fissure SEGMENT will not mend until the next molting.

DOLPHIN-LIKE TAIL In a Stranger's Home The tail is used for COLOR Hermit crabs belong to the Paguridae and Coenobitidae families. swimming. The bending of NEW TAIL HERMIT Its color varies from gray Unlike other crustaceans, a hermit crab does not have a hard the tail and the abdomen SEGMENT CRAB to green and yellow, exoskeleton on its abdomen to protect it. This is why it uses propel the lobster including even shadings of Dardanus shells from sea snails as protection for part of its body. backward and forward. red and black. arrosor

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 40 CRUSTACEANS AND ARACHNIDS Sharp Front Legs rustaceans have appendages that generally branch in two directions and are adapted to LOBSTER aquatic life. A characteristic shared by all crustaceans is their articulated shell, which Homarus vulgaris C leaves two pairs of antennae uncovered. They also have a pair of mandibles, two pairs of maxillae, and a pair of appendages in each segment of the body. Their pincers have enough strength so they can trap their prey and feed themselves. The class Malacostraca includes lobsters, crabs, shrimp, and prawns, among other animals.

Shrimp is the name for about 2,000 species of crustaceans of the suborder DUBLIN BAY ANTENNAE Natantia. Shrimp are characterized by their semitransparent and flat The brain receives the information PRAWN sent by the antennae and bodies, with appendages modified for swimming, and by their long Nephrops communicates with the rest of the antennae. Their length varies between 0.1 inch and about 8 inches (from norvegicus body through the ventral nerve. a few mm to 20 cm), depending on the species. They live in salt water, brackish water, and fresh water. They survive by burying themselves for almost the entire day and coming out at dusk to catch their food.

TELSON Fin-like structures used for swimming. The telson makes up the caudal fan 55,000 together with the last abdominal segment and LIVING SPECIES AND AS MANY FRONT the uropods. There are no FOSSIL SPECIES ARE PART OF THIS VIEW appendages. GROUP OF INVERTEBRATES. 3 NERVES SMALL CLAWS Two small, movable pairs of claws bring food to ARTERY NETWORK the lobster's mouth. WALKING PINCERS 2 LEGS are mobile appendages that are situated in the it uses for defense and cephalothorax, and even CUTTING CLAW FLEXOR MUSCLE attack. With its pincers, the CUTTING EDGE though they are rather small in relation to the body, they shrimp can trap its prey with Thinner and with sharp are capable of providing a great deal of pressure so edges, it is used to cut TENDON the meat of its prey. movement. that it cannot escape.

JOINTS AND LEVERS Crustaceans, with slim limbs and little space for UROPODS PLEOPODS PEREIOPODS large muscles, are able to move with great are shaped like a spade. First five pairs of Five pairs of appendages Lobster strength because the majority of their joints function as simple levers, with the lever arm The telson is like a barb. abdominal appendages A lobster is characterized by two enormous pincers 1 corresponding to the limb itself, and the fulcrum Both are used by the FIRST THREE PAIRS formed by the first pair of legs. It lives on rocky CRUSHING CLAW corresponding to the joint. shrimp for its FIRST TWO PAIRS are used to feed itself. bottoms in shallow water, and it migrates seasonally TEETH characteristic escape have been adapted for The pincers catch toward the coast in summer and to greater depths The lobster has thick, strong backwards. sexual functions. and hold prey. in winter. The lobster is typically a nocturnal animal teeth and a muscle capable of crushing snail shells, clams, and seeking its food when the Sun sets. Its food consists even a human finger. mainly of mollusks, bivalves, worms, and fish. LAST THREE PAIRS LAST TWO PAIRS Resistance are similar to each other work as walking legs that power and are used to swim. are aided by the pleopods.

Crab PENDULUM REBOUND EFFECT AT REST SLOW WALK FAST WALK Of all crustaceans, the crab has surprising mobility and The body remains close to the ground, The body operates like the weight Suspended from its joints, the The body, elevated higher agility. It has five pairs of legs, four of which are walking the center of gravity is lowered, and of a pendulum. Close to the ground, body jumps by means of them than its joints, tends to fall legs, despite the fact that it moves laterally instead of movements are slow and rhythmic. it saves energy by moving in a and on them and multiplies the like an inverted pendulum, Joint forward. The crab-like movement is due to the placement swinging motion. energy of its movement. which helps with movement. of its legs and the general design of its body. A crab's walk is funny, but its technique is effective for both Muscle Muscle swimming and walking, even over such varied surfaces as beach sand, rock, and Ωfor some speciesΩ tree branches.

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In the Middle of the Chain 12,000 ooplankton include thousands of distinct species belonging to very different groups. Among SPECIES OF COPEPODS these species are protists, coelenterates, worms, crustaceans, and other small, weakly swimming LARGE APPENDAGES Z organisms. Unicellular, eukaryotic protists constitute a large group of species of zooplankton. They Copepods They form very fine combs are aquatic microcrustaceans, though that filter the water for food. constitute an extensive and varied community in the food network. The phytoplankton, which are capable of terrestrial ones also exist. They are found photosynthesis, provide food for the zooplankton. Phytoplankton also serve as food for echinoderms, in fresh water as well as in salt water. They feed on phytoplankton and are an REAL SIZE crustaceans, and larval-stage fish. Once they grow up, the larvae serve as food for schools of small fish, which important component of plankton, which are in turn food for larger fish, including plankton-feeding whales that sometimes eat these small fish. at the same time serves as food for 0.08 inch numerous marine animals. (2 mm)

CYCLOPOID COPEPOD Megacyclops viridis Malacostraca KRILL REAL SIZE Cyclopoid copepod larvae are luminescent. Are typically oceanic, though some have Euphausia superba EYE 1.5 inches Krill have only one After their developmental stage they adapted to fresh water, and others are even Is one of the most abundant and begin to swim freely. The cyclopoid (3.8 cm) large, compound, adapted to life on land. All have a body successful species on the Earth. black eye. copepod lives in fresh water. It is among divided into a 13-segment cephalothorax Krill can live five to 10 years, the most numerous invertebrate experiencing 10 moltings before species found in Europe. with 13 pairs of appendages, a stomach reaching their maximum length. with six segments, and, at the extreme Krill typically emit a greenish posterior, an unsegmented telson. light that can be seen at night.

NAUPLIUS 6,600 feet LARVA LEGS sp. With their feathery Cyclops (2,000 m) legs krill filter out the This little crustacean small algae on which swims by jumping with DEPTH TO WHICH SWARMS they feed. its legs. It feeds on OF KRILL MAY GATHER animal and plant FEET remains. attract the water current toward the larva's mouth, which HOW IT FLEES TROPHIC CHAIN little particles can enter. The krill makes use of its telson, backward. These crustaceans group in The food cycle is initiated with a vegetable producer, comprising five paddles, to drive itself giant schools, with thousands of which begins the chain for consumers. Those that feed on through the water. It reaches great individuals concentrated in each cubic producers are primary consumers, those that feed on speed and moves jumping forward and yard of water. primary consumers are secondary consumers, and so on. Brachiopods 0.5 second 1 second have a body of variable segmentation, usually a 0 second bivalve shell, supplied with leaflike appendages for locomotive and brachial functions (hence the Tertiary name brachiopod). They are abundant in lakes and consumers 10 Right Whale still water, feeding on debris and microscopic plants. Because there are few males, eggs from a female can develop without fertilization in new 20 inches Secondary individuals, a process known as parthenogenesis. 10 inches (50 cm) consumers 100 Octopuses, penguins, fish (25 cm) WATER FLEA Daphnia sp. Primary 1,000 has two pairs of antennae and feet adapted consumers Zooplankton to swimming and grasping. The second LUMINESCENCE antenna pair serves as a locomotive organ. Each specimen of krill has a photophore in its The water flea feeds on microscopic seaweed abdomen, a structure that allows it to emit light and the remains of dead animals. 6 to 8 weeks because of a chemical reaction that involves oxygen and various other chemical compounds 10,000 IS THE AVERAGE LIFESPAN OF A WATER FLEA. called luciferin, luciferase, and adenosine Producers Phytoplankton REAL SIZE triphosphate (ATP). One order of crustaceans is generically known as krill. 0.1 inch (3 mm)

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EXOSKELETON Growth happens through molting, a process by A Special Family which the spider gets rid of its old exoskeleton. 100,000 In its youth the spider grows through successive rachnids make up the largest and most important class of IS THE NUMBER OF moltings (up to four a year), and once it reaches chelicerata. Among them are spiders, scorpions, fleas, ticks, SPECIES OF ARACHNIDS adulthood, it goes through a yearly change. 1 The front edge of the THOUGHT TO EXIST IN shell comes off, and A GIANT the tegument separates The spider raises and mites. Arachnids were the first arthropods to colonize THE WORLD. HOUSEHOLD from the abdomen. 2 and lowers its terrestrial environments. The fossil remains of scorpions are found SPIDER legs until the skin slips and falls. beginning in the Silurian Period, and they show that these Tegenaria animals have not undergone major changes in their duellica It removes the old 3 exoskeleton, and morphology and behavior. The most well-known This spider is distinguished CEPHALOTHORAX the new one hardens on by its long legs in relation (PROSOMA) contact with the air. arachnids are the scorpions and spiders. to its body.

ABDOMEN (OPISTHOSOMA) CHELICERAE HEART SIMPLE The female can EYE transport up to 30 CLOACA offspring on its back. INTESTINE

OVARIES PEDIPALPS The terminal pedipalp forms a copulating organ through which LUNG the male inseminates the female. VENOM STOMACH PEDIPALPS GLAND act as sensory organs and manipulate food. Males also use them for copulation. SILK GLAND GENITAL EMPEROR SCORPION Scorpions ORIFICE Feared by people for ages, the Pandinus imperator The claws hold FEMUR scorpion is characterized by the Like other scorpions, it has a the prey and immobilize it. fact that its chelicerae (mouth stinger crisscrossed by CHELICERAE parts that in scorpions are large) venomous glands. It move up and down. and pedipalps form a pincer. The measures between 5 and 7 In the more primitive Spiders body is covered with a chitinous are the most common arthropods. They have inches (12 and 18 cm) long, spiders (such as exoskeleton that includes the the surprising property of secreting a though some have reached a tarantulas), the cephalothorax and abdomen. length of 8 inches (20 cm). PATELLA substance that, on contact with the air, chelicerae move side creates very fine threads that spiders skillfully to side like a pincer. manage for diverse purposes. Once a female TIBIA spider mates, she deposits her eggs inside a cocoon of special silk, called an egg sack. The Saliva appearance of spiders is unmistakable: the two Tick WALKING LEGS main sections of the body, the thorax (also glands The spider has four pairs of legs called a prosoma) and the abdomen (also for walking. The hairs help it to called an opisthosoma), are united by a narrow recognize terrain. stalk (the pedicel). Spiders have four pairs of Visible dorsal Mites and Ticks eyes, whose distinctive size and placement capitulum with Both are members of the Acari order. They are differentiated by their size. Mites are help characterize different families of spiders. dorsal projections smaller; ticks may measure up to an inch in length (several centimeters). Mites have many that can be METATARSUS Their chelicerae end in fangs that carry diverse forms and are parasites of animals and plants. Ticks have a common life cycle of Middle stomach removed easily conduits from venom glands. Spiders kill their three stages: larva, nymph, and adult, during which they live off the blood of their hosts. from the tick. prey by using their chelicerae to apply venom. Palps Amblypygi Tick Palps Mite Palps Small arachnids measure between 0.2 TARSUS WITH ITS LEGS SPREAD and 2 inches (0.4 and 4.5 cm). The OUT, A SPIDER CAN MEASURE chelicerae are not as large, though the pedipalps are strong and are used to capture prey. The first pair of legs are Adhesion modified touch-and-sensing material 12 inches appendages, whereas the last three PEDIPALP Infection take care of movement. Because of a ARACHNID (30 cm) spider's flattened body, its walk is Phryna IN LENGTH. similar to that of the crab. grossetaitai

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The amount that a thread of silk can stretch Diverse Uses of Thread Quality Silk 30% from its original length In addition to spiderwebs and traps, and shelter lining, spider silk has other uses. The spider can use it as a thread for tracking its piders are known for the production of silk, position or as a safety thread when it either lowers itself or is suddenly dislodged and falling. A spider can also use the silk thread to suspend with which they construct spiderwebs. With itself in midair. Male spiders use silk as a web where they deposit their S the threads made in their glands, spiders can sperm before leaving in search of a female, who uses the silk to build egg capture prey, defend themselves, or care for their sacks, where she will deposit her eggs. offspring. Seven types of silk-secreting glands are known, but no spider has all seven types at one time. Inside the gland, the silk that spiders produce is liquid, though it emerges as a solid fiber. LINING SPERM

EGG SACK

Threads of Silk SECURITY The silk thread made by spiders is produced in two or three pairs of spinnerets that contain hundreds of microscopic tubes that lead to the abdominal silk- FABRICATION producing glands. The thread emerges as a liquid that hardens upon being secreted by the spinnerets. These masters of weaving produce many threads at once. When secreting the silk substance, a scleroprotein, spiders cover it with a thin, fatty Architecture WEB layer. Scientists believe that some spiderwebs The appearance of a spiderweb depends on the imitate the ultraviolet images of flowers. Such spider that wove it. There are very well-designed imitation lures many butterflies and bees to structures, such as the hammock web built under bushes fall into the spider's sticky trap. by the tiny Linyphia triangularis. Other webs, such as those of the families Linyphiidae and Agelenidae, are not REPLACEMENT made of sticky silk but only a dry variety. The silk of Dry web material breaks from the spider is almost as strong as steel, and it 5 the action of the chelicerae and has double the elasticity of nylon. Some from food trapped in the web. giant tropical spiders build spiderwebs The spider replaces this broken material with stickier and that are as strong as fishing nets, thicker silk. with which they can trap RADIUS even birds. With the silk glands (glandulae 4 ampullaceae), the spider constructs the spokes of the web. Dry strands that run from one spoke to the next SUPPORT form a spiral. The spider creates the support 3 structure that it will attach to a nearby object. This object might be a tree trunk, a wall, or a rock.

SPINNERETS SILK GLAND TRIANGLES The silk emerges through Moves the silk to the spinnerets. The spider adds a loose thread spinnerets; the thin threads are The secretion is a liquid substance 2 fastened to each side of the COMPOSITION joined to each other before they that is insoluble in water. bridge, moves to the middle of The silk is made of complex dry to form a thicker strand. the bridge, and lowers itself to form a triangle with the silk.. proteins. Males as well as females generally have five to seven different types of special silk glands BEGINNING for producing these proteins. The threads set up a bridge. 1 The spider lets itself sway in the wind until it falls and finds its footing. 2,500 THE NUMBER OF RECORDED SPECIES OF WEB-SPINNING SPIDERS

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Sixth Sense Chelicerae and Eyes Chelicerae are formed by two segments: a basal segment that contains the venom gland and the piders do not have good vision and can see rest of the appendage that forms a fang at the end of only a short distance. For this reason, they EYELET which the venom channel opens. Normally spiders S Allows for have eight simple eyes, each one supplied with a single carry out many of their activities at night. 360-degree vision. lens, optical rods, and a retina. The eyes are basically However, some spiders do have sharp vision. To be used for the perception of moving objects, but some EYE can form images. aware of the world around them, spiders use the The retina inside the eye sensory hairs that are located at the ends of their can move in three dimensions, which limbs. Each body hair is sensitive to differences permits the spider to in pressure. Some hairs are also capable of look in all directions and transmitting vibrations to the exoskeleton. focus on an object.

OGREFACED DYSDERA CROCOTA SPIDER Dysdera Hairs Dinopis sp. Six small eyes Two powerful eyes Are used to conduct stimuli to the cells. Some are short and stiff, others long and flexible. According to the form of the hair, the mechanoreceptors provide the spider with information about the world that surrounds it. The stimuli induce the animal to flee from enemies, obtain food, and establish the reflexes needed to walk, run, fight, or mate.

Hair-like sensillae Exocuticle JUMPING SPIDER CRAB SPIDER Phidippus audax Xysticus cristatus Endocuticle Four large eyes on the Eight spread-out eyes front of its head and four smaller eyes on the upper Epidermis part of the head.

Pedipalps: Various Functions Sensory Sensillae The pedipalps consist of six segments and have cell Integumentary gland pincers; they are tactile along almost all of their length, and in the males the ends are modified to form a receptacle that transfers the sperm during copulation. The lower parts of the pedipalps are used for chewing.

TRICHOBOTHRIA TACTILE HAIR is a long, tactile hair. perceives the sensory flow of the environment. TIBIA

PEDIPALP Appendage used to get to know the environment

Action Contact with THORN Action Contact an object with the air Hairs that feel vibrations and sense the presence of strangers TARSUS CHELICERAE Appendage with Trichobothria a fang that perceives secretes venom HAIR (TARSAL movements. ORGAN) Reaction Reaction Senses The hair does not bend, The hair curves, and TUFT OF HAIR humidity and the angle decreases. the angle is greater. OF A CLAW

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HOW THE Poisonous Sting STINGER WORKS Two conduits run from the venom TELSON glands to openings at the end of the enomous arachnids are the group of arthropods most feared by people. Even if a bite STINGER Is located in telson. When the scorpion stings, muscles press the walls of the may be fatal to another animal, it is unlikely that it will be fatal to a human being, who the last segment. telson against the venom glands to V would be attacked only as a means of defense in cases of fear or danger. The scorpion METASOMA force venom through the hole of the TAIL stinger into a wound. This process is stands out among the most dangerous species. It uses its stinger when it wants to be certain controlled by the scorpion, which administers the proper dose of of catching a difficult prey. Another notable example is the black widow, whose tiny body venom, since it cannot quickly VENOM GLANDS regenerate the venom if it fails. produces one third as much venom as a rattlesnake. The secretion comes out through conduits that open near the tip MUSCLES of the stinger. The Most Dangerous Of the 38,000 known species of spiders, only about 30 have venom that is harmful to humans. Some SCORPIONS are hunters or trappers, but others are small, peaceful 30 Scorpions are grouped in six families, the DESERT SCORPION weavers. The black widow (Latrodectus mactans) is one most important being the Buthidae because Hadrurus arizonensis of the shyest. The venom that it injects (toxalbumin) is a it contains the most dangerous species for the neurotoxin that acts principally on the nerve endings. species potency of their venom. The flat form of their OPISTHOSOMA ABDOMEN Still, the black widow bites only when provoked. The of spiders have truly bodies helps them hide under rocks, tree bark, wandering spider (Phoneutria fera) is one of the most dangerous venom. and various kinds of debris. Scorpions have aggressive arachnids. It is large, and its venom is fast- nocturnal habits. Cannibalism is common among acting, capable of killing most prey in 15 minutes. scorpions, especially after copulation. The only places in the world where there are no scorpions DETECTS are Antarctica and Greenland. 1 THE PREY The scorpion does not go out in search of food; rather, it PROSOMA waits until food passes by it. CEPHALOTHORAX The scorpion can also find food by accident.

CENTRAL EYE

PECTEN PALP OR PEDIPALP This structure is made up of numerous sensory structures, mechanoreceptors, and chemoreceptors.

CLOSES IN The scorpion directs the front of 2 its body toward the animal, approaching to a distance of 2 Conduct of to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm), when it lowers its pedipalps in Capture and Sting preparation for attack. Scorpions have long, fine hairs called trichobothria, located in the pedipalps. These perceive the vibration and movement of the HUNTING SPIDER CHELICERAE wind and help the scorpion detect flying prey Heteropoda venatoria Because the hunting spider and predators. These organs help the scorpion does not have a jaw, it has to use get out of harm's way when danger threatens. its chelicerae to take its food apart when it feeds. The chelicerae are also used during copulation. COMPOSITION OF VENOM ATTACK USE OF THE STINGER Spider venom is a cocktail of substances, Once the scorpion is close to its If the prey resists, the scorpion uses its particularly potassium salts, digestive enzymes, 3 prey, it walks around the victim, 4 stinger to inject the venom. Venom is and polypeptides. The potassium alters the trapping it. Then it uses its PEDIPALP administered by the scorpion until it electrical balance in the nerves and paralyzes pedipalps to contain the kills the animal. the victim. The peptides disable the cardiac attacked animal. muscles and can also attack the nervous CLAW system or cause pulmonary edema.

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com A PECULIAR SENSE OF SIGHT THE SECRET OF SUCCESS 54-55 GREAT WALKERS 62-63 METAMORPHOSIS 70-73 This tropical insect has a pair THE BETTER TO SEE HIGH-QUALITY JUMPERS 64-65 Insects of eyes on each side of its body, ORDER AND PROGRESS 74-75 giving it a very wide field YOU WITH 56-57 THE ART OF FLYING 66-67 GOAL: SURVIVAL 76-77 of vision. TYPES OF MOUTHS 58-59 DIVING, SWIMMING, ONE FOR YOU, SUCKING AND PIERCING 60-61 AND SKATING 68-69 ONE FOR ME . . . 78-79

nsects make up the largest and protected by a form of armor. enable them to see long distances. The because they are small, need less food most varied group of arthropods. Arthropods are currently believed to be diversity and sheer number of insect than larger organisms, and have Most reproduce easily, and there the only living things capable of species, estimated at 1.5 million, are a extraordinarily developed means of I are insects adapted to any surviving a nuclear winter. They have testimony to their evolutionary success. movement that keep them from being environment. Their bodies are highly developed sensory organs that They have been successful, in part, easy victims for predators. www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 54 INSECTS INVERTEBRATES 55

Taking Many Steps The Secret of Success The class Chilopoda (centipedes, including many carnivores and predators) and the class Diplopoda (millipedes) are known as myriapods. ensory antennae, appendages on the head that can be used to chew, crush, or grab, highly Their patterns of movement are both complex developed eyes on the sides of the head, and pairs of jointed legs with functions that and efficient. S depend on the speciesΩall are outstanding common features of insects and millipedes (subphylum Myriapoda). Insects, also called hexapods, have six legs attached to the thorax. Myriapods are multi-segmented arthropods that have developed only on land. Antennae

CENTIPEDE BILATERAL Two Pairs of Wings Scolopendra sp. SYMMETRY HEAD Some ancient species had three pairs of The entire body of wings. Today, however, insects have one or HIND insects and THORAX two pairs. Butterflies, dragonflies, bees, and WINGS Legs myriapods is wasps use two pairs to fly, but other Two pairs per composed of pairs, insects fly with only one pair. segment Segments are called arranged along an metameres. Imaginary ABDOMEN imaginary axis axis OPEN CIRCULATION that passes from A tubular heart pumps the hemolymph AT REST Dragonflies the head to the DRAGONFLY (blood) forward through the dorsal aorta. can place MILLIPEDE Legs lower end of the Accessory contracting organs help push One pair per their wings Sphaerotheriidae sp. segment in abdomen. the blood into the wings and legs. against their centipedes bodies.

APPENDAGE SEGMENTED REGIONS SPIRACLES contains the Insects' bodies are divided into Small entrances to Sensing and genital organs. three parts: the head (6 segments), the tracheae 1 million the thorax (3 segments), and the KNOWN INSECT SPECIES Communicating abdomen (up to 11 segments). Antennae are sensory organs. They enable the insect to communicate, and they contain cells shaped like threads or plates. Antennae are adapted in many ways that enable insects to feel, perceive sounds, sense the temperature KNOBBED FILIFORM and humidity, and taste food. Butterfly Locust RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Muscle Land-dwelling arthropods breathe with tracheae. Tracheoles THORAX Through branching tubes (tracheoles), air containing Body ANTENNAE wall oxygen is brought directly FAN-SHAPED FEATHERY to each cell, and carbon Cedar beetle Moth dioxide is eliminated. Tracheae Jaws The mouth apparatus of insects can be adapted for Legs Adapted for Each chewing, licking, sucking, or biting, depending on the Type of Use species. Beetles (order Coleoptera) have pincer jaws with sensory organs. The shape of the arthropod legs shown here is closely related to their use and to the arthropod's habitat. Some species have taste Finger Side- JAPANESE and touch receptors on their legs. HUNTING joint opening RHINOCEROS BEETLE The front legs pincers Odontolabis wollastoni enclose the prey.

EYES CLAW Sacs STRUCTURE HAWKER FEMUR gives the wings DRAGONFLY great stability. Aeshna cyanea LEGS WALKING JUMPING SWIMMING DIGGING GATHERING TARSAL SEGMENT Cockroach Grasshopper Water scorpion Mole cricket Bee TIBIA Legs

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One Eye, or Thousands The Better to See You With Each ommatidium is responsible for a small portion of the visual field. Depending on the type of light they receive, the pigmented cells around each rhabdom can vary their diameter, regulating ust as people without color vision have a hard time understanding what color is, it is the overall sensitivity of the compound eye. impossible for humans to imagine what it is like to see through the compound eye of an J insect. These eyes are made of thousands of tiny rods called ommatidia, each one a small eye connected directly to the brain. Scientists theorize that the insect's brain composes the images received from each ommatidium, enabling it to perceive COMPOUND EYE movement in any possible direction-in some species, even from behind.

Field of Vision A fly's ommatidia are arranged in circles, and each one covers a portion FLY of the field of vision. Such systems may not yield a high-resolution Drosophila sp. image, but they are highly sensitive to movement. The slightest motion causes a transfer of sensitivity from one ommatidium to another. OMMATIDIUM This is what makes it so hard to catch a fly. ANTENNA

360º ANTENNA Moving FIELD OF VISION object 180° field of vision OF A FLY

Binocular field

Human field Sections of 35 inches THE HOUSEFLY HAS field of (90 cm) of vision vision 4,000 Perceived OMMATIDIA. path RHABDOM Connects each lens with its MOUTH nerve The mouth has apparatus for licking and Eyelet A Bee's sucking. FLY LENS VISION Cone-shaped, to Eye View Retina Distorted direct light to Compared with human vision, a midline the rhabdom bee's vision is somewhat Ommatidia nearsighted. Even the images of nearby objects are blurry. Antenna Its compound eyes have some RETINAL 6,900 ommatidia. CELL HUMANS BEES TYPES OF EYES With binocular In a larger field, the vision, a flat and same image is undistorted image narrower. PIGMENT CELL HEADED FOR NECTAR Sensitivity to ultraviolet light, invisible to the human PROTECTIVE VISION IN THE ROUND CALCULATORS CORNEA eye, enables worker bees The eyelets of the Certain dragonflies have This common blue Hexagonal in shape to find the nectar inside Area with tachinid fly cover a completely spherical damselfly uses its eyes to fit into the rest of the flowers. nectar its eyes. field of vision. to calculate distances. the compound eye

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ar from being a mere opening, the mouth is ANTENNA usually one of the most complex parts F of an insect's body. The simple LOCUST oral appendages of the most Family Acrididae primitive forms were gradually Since ancient times, locusts have been feared as a great modified so that this zoological plague on crops. group has been able to expand its diet. Thus, a hunter's mouth is totally different from that of a sucking insect or a 1 day COMPOUND EYE leaf-eater, such as the locust. THE TIME IT TAKES A LOCUST TO EAT ITS OWN WEIGHT IN FOOD

BITING AND PIERCING AND SUCKING PUNCTURING AND Made to order CHEWING CHEWING SUCKING The oral appendages of Antenna Compound primitive insects were Antenna eye modified considerably, and they Compound Compound took different forms according to eye Antenna eye the species. The first pair of upper jaws is for holding and sucking the food into the mouth. The second Labrum Compound pair of upper jaws fuses at the eye midline during its development to Lower jaw Antenna form the lip, a structure with Labrum different functions, depending on Upper jaws Lower jaw Upper jaws Upper jaw LEFT the diet. The lower jaws and the Lip Lower jaw LOWER first pair of upper jaws are at the Lip Upper jaw JAW side of the mouth, and an upper BUTTERFLY MOSQUITO (FEMALE) lip, the labrum, protects the front LOCUST Lip of the mouth. These parts form FRONT LEG The lip and upper jaws the basic biting-chewing BEE With a small labrum form a tube; the lower apparatus. In more advanced Strong lower jaws Lip for nectar; lower and no lower jaw. jaws are for puncturing forms, its modifications give rise and dexterous jaws to chew pollen and The upper jaws form the skin, and the labrum to structures for sucking and upper jaws mold wax a suction tube. forms a sheath. licking or for biting and sucking. LABRUM PALP (ON LIP)

SEVEN-SPOT Leaf Eaters LADYBUG Insects such as locusts and some Coccinella septempunctata beetles, as well as caterpillars (and the Eyelets feeds on aphids, plant lice, larvae of many other species) need a mouth and sand flies. Right structure capable of cutting leaves into small Left pieces and then putting them into the mouth. serrated lower jaw serrated For this purpose their large lower jaws have a lower jaw series of serrated teeth, whereas the upper jaws and the lip have palps for manipulating and grasping the leaf pieces.

Palps of right upper jaw Left upper jaw, with Lip palps CARNIVORES with use their jaws as palps pincers to grasp Labrum their prey.

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MOSQUITO (FEMALE) Sucking Aedes aegypti This species transmits yellow fever and dengue. Only the 0.001-0.01 ml females bite, in order to obtain the proteins they need AMOUNT OF BLOOD SUCKED BY A during the time when they MOSQUITO IN ONE BITE and Piercing are laying eggs. tarting with lower jaws adapted for chewing, many insects have developed a more sophisticated oral S apparatus, which has enabled them to expand their diet. Mosquitoes, for example, can pierce mammals' skin and feed on their blood using one of the most complex mouths in nature. Flies can eat solid food by using their oral apparatus to begin digestion outside their bodies. Other species have The Fly mouths that enable them only to drink liquids. feeds on soft, damp substances. It uses its mouth to put enzymes onto certain solids to soften them so it can sip them up. Shapes The Butterfly ANTENNAE Head of The mosquito's Its upper jaws are modified into a the fly thread-like sensory organs. To bite, it retractable tube. It feeds on PIERCING SUCKING Eyes brushes them accessible fluids, such as nectar. against the skin of its victim.

UPPER JAW 1 WETTING PALPS Heteroptera Butterfly The fly dampens and (true bug) softens the food with saliva and digestive juices.

When not COMPOUND in use, the EYE tube is rolled up. 2 MAKING SOUP Mosquito Fly To eat, the These digestive juices insect unfurls break the food down How the Mosquito Bites the tube. and turn it into a partially digested soup. 1 PERFORATION 2 ABSORPTION With its stylets, the mosquito After injecting saliva Upper jaw perforates the skin to hold to prevent clotting, itself in place and inserts the the mosquito sips the Tube for labellum (lower end of the blood of its victim. nectar 3 EATING proboscis) through the skin. Once the food is Interlocking bristles liquefied, the fly sips it Head up with its proboscis. DETAIL Epipharynx Eyes CROSS SECTION

Antennae Tube for LIP Labrum Blood Tube food Contains one tube for rises for saliva sucking and another for through Lip discharging enzymes the tube. Lip

Hypopharynx STYLETS Flexible tool used to Upper pierce and hold in place jaw Stylets DETAIL CROSS Blood SECTION Saliva

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JOINTED FEET There may actually be many more than Chilopoda Great Walkers 100: there are from 15 to 191 pairs. These centipedes use venom to paralyze potential prey, generally small invertebrates. It is produced in tymologically speaking, myriapod means “many feet.” The term refers to two very different VENOM GLAND a gland near the head and is applied through the is located on the head of the maxillipeds. When the adjoining nerve connections give classes of invertebrates: Class Chilopoda and Class Diplopoda, better known as centipedes centipede. It is a sac that is put away and stored until it is used. the order to contract the muscle of the maxillipeds, the E mechanism is put into motion, and the venom flows and millipedes. All are animals divided into segments. Centipedes, most of which are through the internal duct. With few exceptions, it is not a carnivores, have a pair of legs on each segment, and millipedes have two pairs of legs per MUSCLES AND NERVES venom harmful to people, although the bite is painful and form a system that allows the centipede to segment. These invertebrates (which are not insects) have so many legs that, to walk, they must squeeze the maxillipeds and apply the produces localized pain. use a highly sophisticated timing mechanism that seems to follow mathematical principles. venom through an internal duct.

MAXILLIPEDS This is the name of the appendages located between the mouth and the first pair of legs: they contain venom. Centipedes Applied Math A Thousand Legs They are long and flat and covered by a layer of chitin. They have one pair of legs for each To walk, land-dwelling arthropods arch their bodies and move their six Millipede, or diplopod, is the name of land- dwelling invertebrate species with multi- section that forms the trunk. Centipedes live legs in coordination so that when one leg moves forward in a power segmented bodies that have two pairs of on land and are almost all carnivores; many stroke, the ones in front, behind, and opposite it are in a recovery phase, legs on each segment. They live in damp are venomous. The head of the chilopod has remaining on the ground. Myriapods have a similar mechanism, although it is places and feed on decomposing material. one pair of eyes in the back, consisting of ANTENNAE two groups of eyelets, a pair of antennae, a much more complex because of their large number of legs. The legs are All of them have a pair of simple eyes and It has only one pair. They a pair of antennae, lower jaws, and upper pair of lower jaws, and one or two pairs of jointed, but they do not function independently of each other for the arthropod are segmented and are upper jaws. Almost all seek dark places, jaws. The largest do not exceed 4 inches rarely longer than the body. to move forward. The segmented body moves side to side in a regular wave (10 cm) in length. avoiding the light. These invertebrates can pattern, and the legs are functionally adapted to this body movement. measure between 0.15 inch (4 mm) and 12 Scolopendrida inches (30 cm) long. SCOLOPENDRA CINGULATA SINUOUS PATH (MEGARIAN BANDED SMALL BULLIES 1 An Australian centipede, Not only does an arthropod's CENTIPEDE) like the one in the body move in wave patterns; picture, can make a when the legs on one side of its Typical size 4 inches (10 cm) DEADLY WEAPON person sick for a week body are closest together, those on Holding the prey with the Maximum size 12 inches (30 cm) with its bite, and it is the other side are farthest apart. This 2 back legs, the centipede capable of killing a dog. alternating pattern is repeated all Quantity of segments 20-40 doubles itself over, the tips of It measures 5 inches along its body. the maxillipeds (forceps) (12.5 cm). fasten like claws, and the LIKE CLAWS venom is discharged through The back legs of this the opening at the tip. CRUSHERS 1 centipede, almost 2 Geophilomorpha perpendicular to the rest, A CENTIPEDE'S LIFE have a very long are used to trap and hold body, are yellow in Female centipedes lay eggs in the prey while it injects its color, and have 25 spring and summer. These catch with venom by pairs of legs; the last invertebrates can live up to six means of powerful jaws. years, and it takes them three diverge from the axis years to reach maturity. SIZE OR QUANTITY of the body. Their strategy is to attach There are species of centipedes that add segments throughout their lives; themselves to a others are born with a fixed number worm or earthworm of segments that grow in size. until they crush it.

Predators All centipedes are carnivorous and venomous. The largest tropical centipedes can eat worms, insects, and even small birds and mammals.

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Quality Jump Order of Jumpers FLEAS CAN SURVIVE Fleas are in the class Insecta, order is one of complete metamorphosis. Their 16 Siphonoptera, which includes families include the genera of fleas that leas are well known for their extraordinary jumps. When they wingless insects that are external parasites infest cats and dogs (Ctenocephalides canis are adults, these small, wingless insects take advantage of their and lack wings. Their mouth apparatus is and C. felis), as well as those that infest 3 months for piercing and sucking, and their life cycle hens (Ceratophyllus gallinae). F jumping ability to hunt for their food, the blood of birds and mammals. They are ectoparasites of dogs, cats, and chickens, which WITHOUT EATING. keeps them present in our daily lives. They invariably bite their hosts and suck the blood that circulates through their skin. DOG FLEAS Ctenocephalides canis This species is responsible for HUMAN FLEA 90 percent of Pulex irritans flea infestations usually feeds on Superprotein in dogs. The capacity to jump is related to the the jump. On occasion the jump is useless, and human blood. presence of resilin, a protein of great the flea does not manage to place itself on the Unlike other fleas, elasticity similar to rubber. Flea resilin has the host. Far from being a failure, the fall adds to they do not remain function of building tension in the jumping legs. the tension of the resilin, which makes the on the host. The release of accumulated energy generates rebound a longer jump. 200 3 2 times In Flight A flea can leap 24 inches (60 cm) at one FLEAS IN THE HOME THE DISTANCE A FLEA CAN JUMP bound. Its body is protected by armor- Fleas are very common Action IN TERMS OF BODY LENGTH like overlapping plates that make up its on dogs and cats. The flea accumulates energy by JUMPING LEG The legs are furnished exoskeleton. During a series of jumps, Fleabites generate tensing the muscles of the thorax with extra upper fleas can fall on their backs or heads serious discomfort and legs. When the accumulated segments. These without being injured. for domestic elastic energy reaches a certain supplements allow it animals because level, the flea releases its legs. As to jump with speed. scratching a result the legs generate a irritates and sudden movement that causes injures their skin. the flea to jump. EGGS LARVA Life Cycle A complete cycle, from egg to TOTAL CHANGE Fleas are holometa- adult, can take from two to eight bolous; that is, their months. The length of the cycle varies by typical lifestyle species and by temperature, humidity in includes a complete the environment, and the availability of metamorphosis. food. In general, after feeding on blood, the female lays 20 eggs per day and up PUPA to 600 eggs throughout her life. The eggs are laid on the host (dogs, cats, rabbits, mice, rats, opossums, Key System humans, etc.). ADULT The muscles in the coxa contract, FLEA 1 generating enormous tension. The resistance to the tension is supported by the exoskeleton.

Once the jump is started, within thousandths 2 of a second the direction, intensity, and Edible Blood orientation of the jump are all established by the torque that the muscles and leg segments As parasites of warm-blooded animals, use for their own nutrition. Females use these FLEA VS. MAN 1 create for the flea to complete its jump. fleas are classified as hematophagous nutrients to produce their eggs. The dried A flea jumps a (blood-eating) insects. Adults suck the blood of blood ejected in the adults' feces is also useful distance equivalent their hosts, which contains nutrients that they as food for various types of larvae. to 200 times the Preparation length of its body. To equal this feat, a Within tenths of a second, the flea The front On injecting their 1 2 man would have to prepares itself to jump. It compresses legs are stylet, fleas expel a important for substance that irritates the jump over a 130- the resilin and at the same time feeding. They hold host but helps the fleas by story building. contracts its back legs. The back legs the insect in place keeping the blood from have a system of pads that retain as it prepares to clotting while they are the tension and accumulate energy. bite. sucking it.

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A QUESTION OF NUMBER OTHER FUNCTIONS Most insect species, from dragonflies to Beetles and other The Art of Flying insects have two pairs butterflies, have two pairs of wings. Flies and mosquitoes are among the few exceptions. of wings, but with The vertical muscle contracts distinct functions. ne of the most basic adaptations of insects has and the wings move upward. FLY BUTTERFLY been their ability to fly. Most have two pairs of Thorax 2 wings BEETLES O 4 2 hard elytra wings. Beetles (order Coleoptera) use one pair to Wing 2 wings fly and one pair for protection. For example, the rounded Landing 4 wings body of a ladybug or ladybird is nothing more than the The insect reduces its flight speed. With its covering for a very sophisticated flight system. It wings outstretched, it settles down to touch the surface without gliding. Its hind legs makes these small beetles, which are harmless to help it to stay balanced. The horizontal muscle contracts humans, great hunters in the insect world. and the wings move downward.

BODY ARMOR THORAX The elytra are brought close CICADAS to the body. Then the wings (ORDER HOMOPTERA) are folded underneath. HEAD 2 semi-hard elytra “Ladies” of Land and Air Some 4,500 species of these beetles live throughout the IDENTIFYING SPOTS world. Almost all are brightly colored, with black spots on a 3 red, yellow, or orange background. These colors warn away predators, who usually associate bright colors with poison. In fact, 2 wings some ladybugs are actually poisonous for small predators, such as Flight 7 black lizards and small birds. Ladybugs pose the greatest danger to With the elytra open and spots spread like airplane wings, Adalia Coccinella agricultural pests such as plant lice and gadflies, so they are often ABDOMEN used as a natural biological pest control. the second pair of wings is bipunctata septempunctata free to move. The muscles at their base control the SUPPORT FROM direction of flight. THE LEGS

2 Chilocorus Coleomegilla 1 HIND LEGS stigma maculata remain extended Takeoff Raised from takeoff. 40-80 inches WING Although the colorful elytra elytra 2 FRONT LEGS are not used in flying, the insect needs to lift them in per second Both pairs can stay order to unfold its wings, SEVEN-SPOTTED flexed until the beetle which are seen only (1-2 m/s) LADYBUG touches down. during flight. Coccinella septempunctata Thanks to their help in AVERAGE SPEED OF FLIGHT ON THE FLOWER destroying pests, during WINGS or on the stalks of a FRONT VIEW the Middle Ages these Seen only at plant is where the OF ELYTRA beetles were considered night, they fold ladybug finds the instruments of divine along a joint in aphids it feeds on. intervention from the the middle. Virgin Mary. Wings 1 prepared for flight The insect is Preparation between 0.04 and 0.4 inch (0.1-1 The elytra can separate from cm) long. the rest of the body. They protect the thorax, and also the wings when folded inside. ELYTRON Name of the modified front wing of beetles

Raised elytron APOSEMATISM The opposite of Visible wing mimetism: these insects BACK VIEW use their bright colors to scare away danger.

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Insects of the order Diving, Swimming, and Skating Heteroptera have divided wings (hemielytra), with one half that is hard and the or some insects, such as pond skaters in freshwater, or halobates in saltwater, the biblical feat of other membranous. HIND LEGS walking on water is no miracle, but an everyday task. When the waters are calm, the water insect provide force to slide F known as a pond skater uses the surface tension of liquid (and certain anatomical features of its along the surface. ABDOMEN body) to do honor to another one of its names: “water strider.” But because they need air to breathe, any movement on the surface sends them skittering back to land. Other species have gone further and become divers and swimmers, with mechanisms for breathing and moving underwater. 5 feet per second (1.5 m/s) THORAX AVERAGE SWIMMING SPEED

Underwater On the Water MIDDLE LEGS The middle Used as skates and hind legs There are several aquatic beetle Until recently, it was believed that to glide along grow from species, with two basic insects of the family Gerridae the water separate points adaptations: the hind legs, in pushing skated on lagoons and ponds using a on the body. the beetle forward, work like oars, It rises to the type of wax secreted by their legs. Later presenting a greater surface area when surface to fill the it was discovered that their feet have CABEZA moving backward than forward, and air chamber. large numbers of micro-hairs, 30 times the elytra can trap air as a reserve for finer than a human hair, that trap tiny breathing underwater. These species air bubbles. The trapped air forms a are among the major predators in Chamber under cushion that keeps their feet from THE SURFACE TENSION stagnant freshwater the elytra getting wet, and if the feet begin to sink CAN WITHSTAND environments. The diving they are buoyed to the surface. beetle measures about 1.4 Insect's body inches (3.5 cm) long. ANTENNA 15 WATER STRIDER Neogerris hesione times the AIR WALKING ON WATER This species lives on The legs are arranged on the surface of the liquid in such a freshwater surfaces. It insect's way as to make it an elastic film. The hind legs use this measures 0.5 inch total (1.3 cm) long. property for support and traction. Also, the insect supports itself on segments of its legs, not on just one point. weight.

WATER LEGEND AIR 6 x Points of support on the water

SURFACE TENSION 5 FRONT LEGS 1 are shorter than other The mutual pressure pairs. They are used for among molecules of liquid trapping prey. brings the molecules 2 together so that they 3 resist pressure that would penetrate the surface. 4 SWIMMING LEGS A system of bristles Each molecule exerts WATER varies the amount of pressure in all directions. DIVING BEETLE surface in contact with Dytiscus marginalis the water. The angle of contact The middle Moving forward SHORT between the insect's foot pair of legs decreases the Moving backward FRONT LEG and the water is 167°. is longer. surface area. increases the area.

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Metamorphosis 2 etamorphosis is the change in shape that insects undergo as they grow. Larva or There are two types of transformations: complete, like that of monarch 3 weeks M butterflies, and incomplete, like that of dragonflies or grasshoppers. Insects caterpillari IS THE AMOUNT OF TIME makes its entry into the world by THE INSECT LIVES IN THE with complete metamorphosis pass through an immobile state (called the pupal, or eating its shell. From then on, eating and LARVAL STAGE. chrysalid, phase) in which their body is transformed by hormones within a cocoon. growing will be its main activities. Every time it sheds its skin, the old exoskeleton is broken. The insect forms a new, soft exoskeleton, which is gradually expanded by blood pressure. The exoskeleton then undergoes a chemical reaction that hardens it. 1 In the Beginning, the Egg The adult female lays eggs among the leaves, where they will be protected. Monarch butterfly eggs have colors ranging from grayish-white to cream, and they are shaped like barrels, 0.1 inch (2 mm) in diameter. The larvae grow inside the egg until they hatch; after hatching, they eat the shell. A SIMPLE ASSIGNMENT PREPARATION In the caterpillar phase, the insect focuses FOR THE PUPAL PHASE 7 days solely on eating leaves. In this way it Before passing to the next stage, the larva accumulates the necessary energy for the stops eating and eliminates any food left AMOUNT OF TIME THE LARVA physiological processes of metamorphosis. For in its digestive tract. The juvenile hormone, MATING AND EGG LAYING LIVES INSIDE THE EGG digesting the leaves, the caterpillar has a very which keeps the transformation of the When monarch butterflies mate, they simple digestive track. body in check, starts to become inhibited. stay joined all afternoon and evening, until the next morning, for a total of 16 hours. After their first mating, the females lay eggs.

FIVE CHANGES Change When it hatches, the insect is shaped like a to pupal worm. This caterpillar will molt its exoskeleton phase CREMASTER five times as it grows in size. Its internal The caterpillar secretes structure will not change, however. Each new a fibrous cushion that sticks to the stalk of a exoskeleton is larger than the one before. plant. It hangs from the cushion with hooks on the end of its abdomen. Hatching from the egg The exoskeleton hardens. As the HANGING AND Fourth IMMOBILE insect grows, the exoskeleton To leave the larval becomes too small. Eventually it shedding stage behind and splits and falls off. become a pupa, the caterpillar quietly awaits the transformation. Second shedding EXOSKELETON Crossed with yellow, black, and white stripes, it is soft after every shedding and later hardens. The insect always emerges head first. Third shedding

Simple Metamorphosis 3 IMAGO (ADULT) Also called incomplete metamorphosis, because, unlike INSIDE THE LARVA FAREWELL complete metamorphosis, it does not include a pupal EMPEROR The insect's heart, nervous TO THE OLD BODY phase. The wings and legs develop gradually, so that the DRAGONFLY system, and breathing The larva's last insect does not need to spend a certain amount of time Anax imperator system are almost exoskeleton begins to completely developed immobile. Locusts, cockroaches, termites, and dragonflies fall off and is replaced during the larval stage, by a greenish tissue have this type of metamorphosis. From an evolutionary and they change very little that will form the standpoint, it corresponds to ancient or primitive insects. afterward. The cocoon, or chrysalis. INTESTINE One of its characteristics is the nymph stage of young reproductive system is insects. The nymph gradually changes in shape as it grows. formed later. When it sheds its exoskeleton, the adult emerges. 1 EGG 2 NYMPH

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Adult 4 After reaching its final shape, the butterfly will not grow 3 15 days any more. When the butterfly emerges from its cocoon, its wings are still wrinkled and damp. It will need to hang upside LENGTH OF THE PUPA, down to stretch them out to dry, so that they will be useful for Pupa (chrysalis)i OR CHRYSALIS, PHASE flying. This will take several hours of waiting and struggling. After getting rid of its larval exoskeleton, the insect From then on, the butterfly will feed on nectar. hangs immobile from a branch, protected by a cocoon. Inside, it will develop its distinctive butterfly form. Although it does not eat during this period, it FLY AWAY, BUTTERFLY is intensely active biologically and undergoes The lifespan of this insect in its adult considerable change. Histolysis, a process in which phase will depend on its luck, its the larva's structures are transformed into the migrations, and the attacks of material that the insect will use to develop adult predators . . . structures, takes place at this time. BREAKING FREE To permit the butterfly to BUTTERFLY SHAPE emerge, the mature capsule from 5 to The adult butterfly's wings and legs splits along its length. The develop from the cuticle, or skin tissue, insect gradually stretches its new body and activates the HISTOGENESIS which is composed mostly of chitin. 7 weeks circulation of the hemolymph. New tissues are generated from hemolymph Other organs are preserved or rebuilt (the equivalent of blood), the Malpighian from regenerative cells. tubules (the energy-producing organ in insects), and histolyzed tissue, including the larva's muscles. The monarch butterfly pupa is called a chrysalis because of the color and structure of the capsule that protects it. It is oval-shaped with gold and black spots.

HORMONES IN FULL SWING Metamorphosis is governed by three hormones. One is the YOUNG ADULT cerebral (brain) hormone, which Once free of its covering, the stimulates the prothoracic adult is usually pale in color, gland. This gland produces the molting hormone ecdysone, and its wings are soft and which causes the loss of the old folded. After about 40 minutes skin. The third hormone is the the wings expand, harden, and juvenile hormone, which slows take on their full color. down the transformation to the adult stage.

WITHIN SIGHT As the time draws near for the adult to emerge, the ELIMINATING WASTES CAMOUFLAGE While emerging, the butterfly The chrysalid capsule has chrysalis becomes thinner, secretes a fluid containing the shapes, textures, and colors changes color, and becomes waste produced during the that help keep it from being transparent. The chrysalis phase. This fluid, noticed, to protect it from transformed insect can be called meconium, is considered predators. The capsules rather foul-smelling. typically resemble leaves or seen inside. bird droppings.

Mouth

TRANSFORMATIONS Antennae JOINED, BUT NOT FOREVER OF THE FLY After leaving the chrysalis, This side diagram shows the monarch butterflies from the same changes in the organs of a fruit litter stay together for a period of INTERNAL ORGANS Eyes three to eight days before they go Inside the chrysalis, the fly (Drosophila sp.) from the pupa their separate ways. insect's body is changing into stage to the adult stage. The that of an adult. The intestine cuticle of the last larval stage Legs rolls into a spiral shape to protects the pupa. This assimilate liquid food, and the reproductive organs are transparent membrane allows the developing for the adult stage. wings, the antennae, and the Wings UPS AND DOWNS OF LIFE folded legs to be seen while they AS AN ADULT are forming. The pupa already has Mating, reproducing, and laying tiny INTESTINE eggs to give rise to new generations the dimensions of the adult flying Reproductive will be the main activities of the adult insect, and it will not grow any organs insect. Each female lays an average of bigger during the rest of its life. 100-300 eggs during her life.

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ANTENNAE EYES The Castes perceive odors can see only a Order and Progress and transmit few inches. Antennae Each ant plays a role in the nest and is messages. Eyes assigned its role at birth. Drone, soldier, nts are one of the insects with the highest social organization. In Head worker, and replete worker (which stores food reserves) are the castes that distinguish the anthill, each inhabitant has a job to do. The head of the family is what chores each ant will have. A the queen, the only one that reproduces. All the rest of the ants are VELVETY her offspring. During mating, queens and drones (males) from various Thorax Four wings QUEEN TREE ANT The largest ant. Liometopum colonies mate on the wing. The queens need to mate several times, Petiole She lays the eggs that will become occidentale because the sperm they receive will have to last their lifetime. workers, drones, and new queens.

Two wings DRONE LEGS Legs His only function Although the legs is mating; afterward lack muscles, he dies. JAWS MAIN they are very strong. Weapons for LEGS ENTRANCE Abdomen attack and Agile defense and thin WORKER The worker ant may have the role of BLACK GARDEN ANT gathering food, Lasius niger cleaning, or The Anthill COMMUNICATION protecting the anthill. An ant communicates with its antennae After mating, the queen loses her wings and through chemical means, by capturing chooses a place to lay eggs. At first she lives on particles of certain substances reserves derived from the muscle mass of her (pheromones) that enable it to recognize wings and some of the first eggs she has laid. another ant from the same colony. Ants She takes charge of raising the first generation do not have a well-developed sense for of worker ants, which will then take care of perceiving sound. finding food while the queen focuses exclusively on laying eggs. Feeding UNUSED TUNNEL will be reopened when Ants cannot eat solid food. The plants and animals the anthill gets too hot. they eat are mixed with saliva to form a paste, which is used to feed the whole colony. FOOD STORAGE Honeypot ants Food Defense coordinate the reserves in The most widely used defense is biting and spraying streams of formic acid. food supply. abdomen Soldier ants have the job of scaring away the enemy because they have larger heads than worker ants.

METAMORPHOSIS THERE ARE ABOUT In the egg stage, the future ant remains near the UNUSED JAW REPLETE queen but leaves her during the larval stage. Other TUNNEL The jaw is the ant's ANTS ants then take care of the larva, and it will become a 10,000 main weapon of nymph and form a cocoon to cover itself. ANT SPECIES. defense, with a bite that can scare away or Storage harm a rival. The jaw is also used for hunting American Clamping and feeding. farmer ant jaw

VENOM may contain formic acid and can kill or paralyze the prey. It comes from INTERCHANGE OF FOOD special glands in the lower abdomen. NYMPHS Having two stomachs, an ant can share food. The EGGS LARVAE NYMPHS COCOON 3 are fed and taken care transfer begins when the receiving ant uses its front 2 LARVAE of in another area. legs to touch the lip of the donor ant. are carried to another SOUTHERN WOOD ANT chamber to grow. Stream of Formica rufa poison Stomach Individual pouch Poisonous EGGS stinger 1 are laid by the queen TRAP-JAW in the lowest area. ANT 4 COCOONS Odontomachus The new ants hatch bauri ready to work. YOUNG ANTS QUEEN Crop Poison ANT Social pouch Abdomen sac

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 76 INSECTS INVERTEBRATES 77 Goal: Survival AUSTRALIAN STICK Disguise BRIMSTONE BUTTERFLY INSECT volution has molded some striking traits into living beings. In particular, These insects use survival strategies sp. BODY Extatosoma sp. Gonepteryx designed to keep predators from some insects, disguised as branches or leaves, can escape notice so as to The profile of the wings Branch-shaped This stick-like insect seeing them. This disguise is their E resembles the shape of abdomen sways back and forth as hunt or to hide from predators. To avoid being attacked, other insects if tossed by the wind. only means of defense. develop colors and shapes that deceive other animals and keep them from cut leaves. attacking. Hiding and showing off are two opposite strategies that LEGS imitate twigs have been favoring the survival of the fittest for millions of years. with dry leaves.

VEINS PEACOCK BUTTERFLY In an extraordinary Inachis io simulation, the The flashy, aposematic veins look like (warning) coloration WINGS the veins These wings look like keeps predators of leaves. away by warning leaves, with a similar of the danger color, shape, and the insect structure. poses.

FALSE EYE The scales are Warning Signals pigmented to look Mimetism is the imitation of like eyes. characteristics belonging to Defense dangerous or bad-tasting animals. The most widely imitated insects Replicating the colors and shapes of are ants, bees, and wasps, because dangerous animals is known as Batesian they produce toxic substances that mimicry. On the other hand, if an insect can be deadly. produces foul-smelling substances to disgust the predator, that is called Mullerian mimicry. THISTLE MANTIS Blepharopsis mendica These mantises use EYES camouflage to hunt Compound; enable unsuspecting insects that them to monitor get too close to their their environment powerful front legs.

FRONT LEGS DOUBLE PROTECTION move slowly so sp Caligo . that the prey Owl butterflies combine Batesian Masters of Simulation will not detect and Mullerian mimicry. Predators them. can confuse the owl butterfly Camouflage, or crypsis, is a phenomenon with leaves, but if a predator in which animals use amazing disguises succeeds in finding it, the as advantageous adaptations. Camouflage is butterfly folds its wings to look used both by hunters and by potential prey. Insects' bodies may be disguised as various like the shape and eyes of an substrates and parts of trees, such as bark, owl. The predator, confused, leaves, and branches. These masking backs off from attacking. techniques are a convenient way for the insect to fade into the background.

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APHID PARTNERS Sugar Extracts nutrients from the leave's ribs Sugars are the product that One for You, Currents with its stylet links these insects. Generally, aphids form colonies Antennae Stomach Horn-shaped APHID DROP OF ANT that live on a single plant. appendages HONEYDEW Its antennae caress the Salivary abdomen of the aphids and One for Me ... They usually place themselves gland stimulate sugar secretion. on the underside of a leaf, Caudal where the aphids can reach Anus he biological relationships between species the leaf's veins. The veins carry sugars from the leaves can have both positive and negative consequences. Rectum to the remainder of the plant, LEAF T One relationship that has good results is mutualism, a KEPT IN RESERVE and the aphids use this flow of Vein of relationship between species in which the organisms benefit each other. For Aphids need protection from sugar as a source of food. the leaf Stylets predators, such as butterfly example, ants and aphids (plant lice) have established a beneficial interaction. larvae. Ants pick up eggs and Ants defend and nurture the development of aphid colonies on a plant. In return, nymphs in their jaws and carry them into their anthills, out of the aphids provide a sugary substance to feed their protectors. the reach of any predator. 2,200 pounds (1,000 kg) of honeydew ARE EXTRACTED FROM A COLONY OF APHIDS BY ANTS EVERY YEAR.

Chain Reaction The beneficial interaction between aphids and ants can produce secondary effects. In some cases, plants benefit indirectly from the presence of aphid-protecting ants. These guardian insects drive away the herbivores that feed on the tender leaves. In this way, plants invest less energy to replenish their photosynthesizing organs. BLACK GARDEN ANT Lasius niger is between 0.1 and 0.2 inch (3 to 5 mm) long. The thorax is fused to the first abdominal segment.

BLACK BEAN APHID Aphis fabae is between 0.05 and HONEYDEW 0.1 inch (1.5 to 3 mm) is a secretion with a long. It has very high concentration short antennae. of simple sugars.

www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com THE HIVE THE NEVER-EMPTY HOME 82-83 HUNGRY TOGETHER 88-89 Movable frames allow the Relationship with People beekeeper to remove a frame AFLOAT WITH DUST 84-85 BENEFICIAL VAMPIRES 90-91 with young bees and in this way BEEKEEPING 86-87 start a new colony.

piculture, or keeping bees to honey from the beehives; they also other products, such as pollen, royal and stomach upsets. In this chapter you use their products, is a very mixed it with water and left it to jelly, and propolis, or bee glue, are also will also learn what happens when old practice. Originally, ferment so they could make alcoholic obtained from the hive. Just as useful as insects such as locusts reproduce at A people only hunted beehives. drinks. Today the production of honey bees, leeches have always been used as dangerous rates. Not only did they eat the has been perfected in such a way that therapeutic tools to soothe headaches www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 82 RELATIONSHIP WITH PEOPLE INVERTEBRATES 83

A COLONY OF 60,000 “Magic” Carpet TERMITES CAN EAT The Never-Empty Home Keeping carpets clean within the home is critical, because few are the insect species that live in a he home can be another place colonized by invertebrates. Some arrive seeking humidity, carpet and are nice to humans. 2 ounces shelter, or food; others are attracted by the scent of skin, wool garments, or wooden (5 g) OF WOOD PER DAY. FLEAS COCKROACHES T ceilings. Generally, they are considered a threat and are fought, but some can be truly sp. Ctenocephalides WASPS beneficial. There are insects, for instance, that can act as a plague control in the garden. AUGER BEETLES Xylopsocus sp. Apis mellifera build their nests Various strategies can help keep some “ecologic balance” in the home. The adult beetle lays eggs, and (hives) under the the larva burrows into wood, eaves. creating tunnels 0.25 inch (0.6 cm) wide in the wood. HOUSE In the Garden Plagues and Illness DUST MITES Dermatophagoides farinae TERMITES The home garden is a natural environment in which When the females feed on human blood, mosquitoes (such Some dust mites carry parasites; Nasutitermes sp. food chains become established. Species such as snails, as those belonging to the family Anopheles, bearers of others cause allergic reactions. Live inside the wood which feed on plants, can be destructive. But malaria) and other insects become vectors for illnesses, they feed on. carnivorous species can keep harmful species at bay. since they can transfer microscopic parasites to people. For CENTIPEDES Earthworms and some beetles serve as environmental this reason, bodies of stagnant water, which is where cleaners because of their eating habits. mosquito larvae develop, should be avoided. MOSQUITO Aedes aegypti is the vector for yellow BLOODSUCKING BUG fever and dengue fever. In the Roof LADYBUG (TRIATOMINE) The wood in roof beams and spaces Coccinella Triatoma infestans between them forms a unique septempunctata Triatoma transmits Chagas disease to LARVAE environment within a house, especially eats fleas and gnats. humans. Chagas disease produces for the insect order Hymenoptera. cardiac, digestive, nervous, and Likewise, several species of beetles respiratory complications. When feed on wood and lay their eggs in it. Triatoma bites a human, it excretes SNAIL waste on the skin that can contain Helix aspersa the parasite Tripanosoma cruzi. The is a nightmare for TO CONTROL PLAGUES parasite then enters the bloodstream Many plants, alone or in combination the green leaves in when the victim scratches the bite. with other plants, are effective and the garden. This insect lives mainly in makeshift selective. dwellings, between thatched roofs and unbaked bricks.

RUE Ruta graveolens Soaked in water this plant repels insects. PILL BUG Armadillidium vulgare

BURYING BEETLE Nicrophorus sp. LAVENDER THYME Lavandula angustifolia repels ants (10 ounces in a Thymus vulgaris This herb attracts BLOODSUCKING BUG quart [300 g in about 1 l] pollinating bees and (TRIATOMINE) of boiled water). repels flies.

SPINY-HEADED WORM SPIDERS Phylum Their presence indicates Acanthocephala that there are many insects in the house.

FLIES CARRY AT LEAST BLACK At Night ANTS infectious Some “inhabitants” of the house Lasius niger 65 illnesses. avoid daylight and prefer the cover of can go from their nest to EARTHWORM darkness so they can go unnoticed by ORIENTAL COCKROACH the interior of the house. Lumbricus sp. people or predators. Blatta orientalis

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Afloat with Dust DUST MONSTERS Humidity 3 House dust mites are so tiny that up to 5,000 of the animals can live in ust mites are minuscule arachnids that move among dust A fact that many people are not aware of is that just one grain of dust. Their characteristics include a bulky body, eight HAIRS the presence of mites is closely linked to humidity. particles searching for food. The larvae of the smallest come out of the mites' These minuscule animals can cause severe harm short legs, and short sensory hairs. They have appendages next to their legs. These are actually at home. They can cause many respiratory mouth that they use to tear or bite and, to their side, pincers with which D species barely reach .004 inch (100 microns). Ticks are sensory organs. illnesses, including asthma. Because dust mites they hold objects. The body is almost monolithic, practically without larger and can reach .5 inch (1 cm) in length. Their body is full need humid conditions in order to live, every differentiation among its parts. Even though dust mites do not bite and room should be well-ventilated. are themselves harmless, their eggs and feces cause severe symptoms in of grooves that absorb humidity, and their life spans fluctuate 0.001 inch people who are allergic to them. between three and four months. They adapt to almost any (0.2 mm) habitat: marine, freshwater, or land. DUST MITE Each of its legs has six parts. It does not fly; the air carries it. Flying Waste

CUTICLE Matter Even though it is solid The microscopic fragments of fecal Small, They are Found Everywhere and flexible, it must matter of the dust mite are carried be kept humid. through the air very easily, blending Dust mites are part of the oldest, most their bodies can also be oval, round, cone-shaped, with dust particles. In this way they varied, and largest group of animals that or rhombus-shaped, and the colors depend on the Liquid Food are transported for great distances, have existed since life appeared on the planet-the species. There are green, red, violet, orange, and When they come in contact with and they are one of the most what will be their food, dust common causes of allergic reactions. arthropods-and, within the arthropods, the even transparent mites. These insects are mites secrete digestive juices that arachnids. Their body form is highly varied. distributed throughout the world, and they have soften and liquefy solids because Contributing to this variety is the arrangement adapted to every environment: they live on the their mouth or ingestion system and appearance of their legs and hairs. They can ground, in plants, in storage products, in the lets them ingest only liquid food. have a thin, elongated body or a short, wide body; water, and in the skin of animals.

MOUTHPIECES In these bugs the mouthpieces are in a small front projection, the capitulum (gnathosoma), formed by the appendages that surround the mouth. On each side there is a chelicera that tears, crushes, or bites the food.

1 SARCOPTES MITE The Sarcoptes scabei is a tiny mite that lives presence of this mite under the skin produces under the corneal layer of the epidermis in intense itching, which can be severe and which passages that the female makes in the skin, where can worsen at night. There are special creams and she lays her eggs. Between 10 and 14 days later lotions to treat this infection. If boils appear, the these eggs become adult sarcoptes mites. The infections must be treated with antibiotics.

2 TICK The tick is the largest acarid; its body has no divisions, and it feeds on the blood of its hosts. It is generally found among tall grasses or in plant leaves, waiting to hook onto any 0.10-0.25 inch animal or person that passes by. When a tick (3-6 mm) succeeds in doing so, it uses a hook-like Favorite Places House dust is a conglomeration of small, suspended structure in its mouth to penetrate the skin animals. A dust particle can contain fibrous material, skin particles. The content of household dust varies from home scales, animal hair, bacteria, mold, and other natural or and to begin to suck blood. Once its body to home, and it depends on, among other things, synthetic materials. Mites can live among such particles swells with blood, the tick lets go. construction materials used and the presence of domestic because they feed off those materials.

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THE ARTIFICIAL HIVE Beekeeping has movable panels and frames that permit extraction of the hive's products without destroying the bee colony. This system he bee is the only insect that humans have kept from was invented in 1851 by Langstroth, an American. antiquity for their own benefit. Thanks to ROOF The upper surface of the Tbeekeeping, people have been able to hive can be made of wood or wood collect the honey that bees produce. Honey panels. was the most widely used sweetener in Europe and Asia until the spread of sugarcane during the Middle Ages. With the introduction of new techniques, modern apiculture also obtains pollen, propolis, and royal LOFT jelly from bees. Shown here are some details of This space acts as an air chamber and the basic components of a beehive. prevents the sugar super from coming into 60 pounds contact with the exterior. (25 kg) of honey Nature's Engineering IS STORED INSIDE A HIVE SO THE Honey is one of the substances that the bees themselves eat. The BEES CAN SURVIVE THE WINTER. bees make honey out of flower nectar and pollen from the green parts of plants. They carry the pollen to the hive as a source of protein SUPER is the name given to and use propolin, a tree resin, as a form of antibiotic. Apiculture seeks to each detachable promote natural production processes in order to make use of these MOVABLE FRAMES module. The upper ones substances for human benefit. Each super has about 10 are the sugar supers, movable frames that are and the lower ones are attached to a burr comb used to raise the young. with a hexagonal The Bee's Work pattern. Worker bees, the real workers of the hive, carry out their 1 duties from the minute they are born: they build and maintain the cells, feed the larvae and the queen, and clean and protect the hive. Outside the hive, they are in charge of collecting flower pollen and nectar.

SIGNALING A worker bee finds NECTAR a source of pollen The bee takes the nectar and lets the rest of from the flower, ingests it, the hive know. mixes it with its saliva, and transports it to the hive.

HONEY REGURGITATION The bees deposit Open cells with honey honey in all of the THE CHOSEN ONES cells of the hive. Flowers with a good content of glucose and protein.

NECTAR, HONEY'S SOURCE Nectar is made up of 80 percent water and is QUEEN secreted at the base of the flower's corolla. SEPARATOR Honey's flavor depends partly on its aromatic Worker bees can pass through the composition, and the beekeeper can select the Worker separator, but the principal flowers that are the source of the nectar bee queen, which is by changing the location of the hive. larger, cannot. As a The queen lays her eggs Closed cells result, honey is by moving in a spiral- containing stored throughout shaped pattern. larvae the hive, but eggs and young bees are found only in the BROOD FRAME bottom section of Is the part of the hive the hive. 30,000 used for bee Queen bee reproduction. Here is BROOD CHAMBER bees live in a where the queen lays This structure is her eggs. generally located in typical hive. the bottom part of THE POPULATION OF THE HIVE the hive. Their cells include IS KEPT STABLE AS LONG AS NO larvae. SUPERS ARE ADDED.

Honey Collection 2 The beekeeper chooses a super, removes it from the hive, and takes out the movable frames by hand. To FLOOR handle these frames, the beekeeper uses a special suit Base of and other equipment to protect against bee stings. The the hive honey is removed from the detachable frames in a centrifuge, and the frames are then put back into the hive. OPENING BOTTOM BOARD at the bottom of the hive allows worker bees to enter This part is placed at a the beehive chamber where the young are raised. It is height that will protect THE SUIT located between the floor and the first super. the hive from ants or Made of a thick and frogs. generally white material. The ventilations are made of double plastic material in both Hat and front and back. mask with a grille The frames are Mechanical centrifuges separated from each typically rotate at 200 rpm. other by about 0.2 inch Some are (6 mm), the distance two-piece between panels in a suits. natural beehive. Filtering and Bottling 6 The honey is stored in steel tanks From 25 to 50 pounds for a week and up to a month to (11 to 23 kg) of honey allow any impurities to separate. are obtained from Bottling and storage require an each super. Centrifuge environment that is dry to prevent the honey from absorbing moisture Smoker Boots The frames have and that is free of any odors, which a wire might contaminate construction. the honey.

The Smoke Extraction of the Frames The Centrifuge 3 Applied by means of a smoke-producing 4 The movable frame system allows for frame removal 5 is a machine that rotates. The honey mechanism, it scares the bees and causes without affecting the young brood, and the frames can is heated to a temperature that them to eat honey, reducing their tendency to be used again. Before Langstroth's invention, these liquefies it. It is drained from the fly and sting. frames were fixed in place. frames and separated from the wax. www.MemarJoon.com www.MemarJoon.com 88 RELATIONSHIP WITH PEOPLE INVERTEBRATES 89

Hungry Together How Does the Plague Start? When rainfall creates the appropriate that point the locusts mutate into their gregarious conditions for their reproduction, locusts phase and change not only their movements but nder specific environmental conditions, locusts reproduce very rapidly and form that live in desert or semiarid regions multiply at a also their morphology. Each female is capable of a swarm. In Africa, the Middle East, and India locust plagues destroy vegetation dizzying rate. If the species is in the solitary phase, laying 120 eggs, so that an area of 2.5 acres (1 ha) U it is harmless, but when rains come and bring can breed up to 600 million locusts, which will and produce great crop losses. Consequently, this type of plague represents a about abundant plant life, the locusts gather gather into mile-long swarms that travel large great danger to agriculture and causes great economic loss, hunger, and illnesses in together, increasing their reproductive capacity. At distances in search of food. affected populations. Chemical, physical, and biological methods are used to repel the locusts, reducing the harmful effects of the invasion.

SUMMER BREEDING AND WINTER AND SPRING BREEDING AND 100 tons CONSECUTIVE MIGRATION ZONE CONSECUTIVE MIGRATION ZONE OF VEGETABLES ARE WHAT A Locusts reproduce at a rate of millions at a time, The swarm of locusts moves to other zones in order MEDIUM SWARM OF LOCUSTS, and they devour all of the food that lies along their to reproduce and feed itself. Afterward, during FORMED BY 50 MILLION path. The map shows the two main summer winter and spring, the locusts retrace their path, breeding zones. and the cycle starts over again. INSECTS, EATS IN ONE DAY. 1931 IS THE YEAR WHEN A Pest Control LOCUST PLAGUE ATE ALL The countries victimized by locusts defend OF THE CROPS AND LEFT themselves by chemical or biological means on the land CLOSE TO 100,000 or from the air. Pesticide use is restricted, and pesticides can PEOPLE DEAD IN NORTH be used against a swarm only when it has begun to form, AFRICA. because misapplication of a pesticide can affect other insects and crops. The locusts are controlled by the application of poisonous bait and by plowing up the ground to bury the eggs.

Locust Plague The species that causes plagues of locusts on the African continent is the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria. This insect belongs to the Acrididae family and to the order Orthoptera. The locust has an elongated body, about 2 to 3 LOCUSTS IN inches (6-8 cm). The locust modifies its behavior ANTIQUITY and appearance in response to environmental The devastating effects conditions. It also feeds on most crops, on wild of locusts can be traced plants, and on some trees, such as sapwoods. back thousands of years. Locusts were known as one of the seven plagues of Egypt.

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BLOOD CLOT TEETH Lifesaving Saliva While feeding on blood, the Beneficial Vampires With 300 teeth in its triple jaw, Every time these worms bite a host, leech secretes its own the leech cuts the victim's skin substances are mixed into their anticlotting agents so that the and sucks the blood with its saliva from glands in their mouth. blood will not spoil inside its eeches are worms that have been used as therapeutic tools for powerful pharynx and the body while waiting to be sucker on its mouth. Between Anticlotting components, vasodilators, digested. Its salivary glands thousands of years. History relates that they were used as a remedy for the teeth it has glands that and anesthetics have been identified produce hirudin, a specific L secrete hirudin, which keeps among these substances, which are thrombin inhibitor. headaches, stomach complaints, eye diseases, mental illness, and other the victim's blood from clotting. extracted and used in clinical medicine. conditions. As the use of drugs increased, the medicinal use of leeches was Researchers are also trying to fabricate synthetic leech saliva through the use of gradually forgotten. In the 1980s, however, leeches once again began to be bioengineering techniques. used in microsurgery and reconstructive surgery.

A LEECH CAN ABSORB AN AMOUNT OF BLOOD EQUAL TO THE DECAMERON MOUTH Illustration of a chapter of the Decameron by Boccaccio, which shows the use of leeches to treat illnesses. The 10 patient is the Roman emperor Galerius, who has a disease that times causes the putrefaction THE MASS OF ITS BODY. of the body. The three doctors, aghast at his condition, have put leeches on his body to cure him.

SUCKING MOUTH Once the leech's mouth is placed on the body, it begins to suck blood at the rate of one cubic inch every 2 hours and TWISTING 40 minutes. The sections of the leech's body allow it to flex and assume HOW A LEECH TRAVELS different postures. At either end of the leech is a cavity that the leech can use to attach itself to a surface. To move forward, it attaches one end on the ground and, with an undulating movement, FRANÇOIS J.-V. BROUSSAIS draws the other end Ancient Uses (1772-1838) toward it. The use of leeches in cure anything from local pains to French doctor who believed that most diseases were 50,000 medicine goes back over inflammation and mental disease. In caused by the inflammation of 3,000 years. In Greece, Rome, and the 18th and 19th centuries, leeches the intestines and who BREEDING FARM Syria these worms were used to were sold in European pharmacies, preferred bleeding with leeches 1 2 THE ONLY FARM IN THE WORLD THAT as a cure. His opinion became remove blood from many areas of and they became very popular in The leech advances its front When its rear end reaches SUPPLIES LEECHES IS LOCATED IN so popular that in 1833 he had end and attaches it to the the attached front end, the the body. It was believed that the therapies of the day, especially 40 million medicinal leeches WALES, IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. IT bloodletting, or phlebotomy, could in France. underlying surface. It then leech attaches the rear end imported into France. draws its rear end forward. to the underlying surface, HAS MORE THAN 50,000 LEECHES and the sequence of THAT ARE SHIPPED TO motions is repeated. LABORATORIES AND HOSPITALS TYPES OF LEECHES IN 30 COUNTRIES. Leeches are classified according to how they feed. One group of leeches includes animals whose pharynx has no teeth and 2 cannot be turned outward. A second group EUROPEAN includes leeches whose pharynx is toothless MEDICINAL LEECH but can be turned outward like an This leech is used in 1 LEECHES medicine to treat the elephant's trunk, projecting out of the There are 600 species of leeches. in freshwater environments, but a few congestion of veins leech's mouth, and can be inserted into the Leeches usually have 34 segments, but live in saltwater, and some have adapted in reconstructive and ELASTIC BODY host's soft tissues. The third group includes they can have 17 or 31. They live mainly to life on land in warm, damp places. plastic surgeries. The The segmented body of the leech allows it to highly specialized leeches in which the bite causes a move with undulating movements when hemorrhage where the necessary, for example, to walk. The leech can SUCKER pharynx cannot be turned outward but is tissue graft is placed, also put on a show when it is on alert in the The leech has two suckers, one at its armed with three chitinous jaws with imitating the circulation presence of a host. At such times it manages front end, where the mouth and jaw are serrated edges. of the blood. to stand itself up on one of its ends. located, and another at the rear.

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called spermatozoids and female gametes are Abdomen Bilateral Symmetry Chelicera Cuticle Epidermis called ovules. Posterior portion of the body of arthropods Corporal form whereby the right and left First pair of appendages in crabs, sea spiders, An organic, noncellular protective covering The outermost layer of cells. consisting of similarly formed segments, halves of an organism are approximate mirror and arachnids, usually in the form of pincers secreted by the epidermis. Gastrovascular Cavity containing the reproductive organs and a part images of each other. or fangs. Epithelial Tissue of the alimentary canal. In insects and Defecation A digestive cavity with an opening, arachnids, it is the posterior section of the body. Biology Chitin Type of tissue that surrounds a body or characteristic of the phyla Cnidaria and The part of an organism's digestive process structure or covers a cavity. Epithelial cells Ctenophora. It has digestive and circulatory Adaptation The science that studies living organisms-their Tough, durable polysaccharide that contains that consists of eliminating undigested matter. form one or more regular layers with little functions. constitution, structure, function, and relations. nitrogen and is found in the exoskeleton of intercellular material. A structural, physiological, or behavioral trait arthropods or other surface structures of many Genus that allows an organism to live in its invertebrates, and also in the cell walls of fungi. Dermis environment. Brachyopods The internal layer of the skin below the Etology A category in taxonomy that groups species together. A group of marine invertebrates whose soft Class epidermis. The comparative study of animal behavior in Ambulacral Groove body is protected by a shell consisting of two its natural habitat, and the evolutionary, parts called valves. One of the many divisions into which scientists genetic, ecological, and physiological factors In echinoderms, any of the radial grooves Deuterostoma Geotropism classify animals. The invertebrates form a that influence its manifestation. through which the hydraulic system's tube feet separate class of their own. An animal in which the anus is formed in or A directional response to gravity. protrude. Calcite near the developing embryo's blastophore Evolution A form of the chemical compound calcium Classification zone, and whose mouth is formed afterward in Gonopore Anaerobe carbonate. another location; the echinoderms and the The changes in the genetic reservoir from one A pore in the reproductive apparatus through The process of establishing, defining, and chordates are deuterostoma. generation to the next, as a consequence of An organism that can live without free oxygen. which gametes pass. ordering taxa within a hierarchical series of processes such as mutation or natural Carrion Eaters groups. Dimorphism selection, among other things. Annelids An animal that feeds on dead animals it finds. Hemocell One species that exists in two distinct forms. Animals with a long cylindrical body consisting Given the occasion, some large carnivores such Cocoon Exoskeleton A blood-filled cavity inside the tissues; of ring-formed segments. as lions and hyenas can behave like carrion A protective sheath usually made of silk. Many characteristic of animals with an incomplete eaters. The external covering supporting the body, co- insects make cocoons to protect themselves Echinoderms circulatory system, such as mollusks and mmonly found in arthropods. It is like an arti- Antennae during the pupa stage, until they become adults. arthropods. Caste Invertebrate marine animals. The bodies of culated shell made of chitin; it serves as a su- A pair of long sensory appendages on the head the adults have a pentagonal symmetry. pport for muscles and the soft internal organs. of many arthropods. A social group that carries out specific tasks, Colony Underneath the skin they have a calcareous Hermaphrodite skeleton with spines and protuberances. characteristic of ants and bees, among other A group of animals of the same species that Eyelet An organism that has both reproductive insects. They have an internal hydraulic system, Arachnid live and work together to survive. connected with ambulacral feet, that makes systems, male and female; hermaphrodites Simple light receptor, common among may or may not self-fertilize. An eight-legged arthropod. locomotion possible. Celoma Community invertebrates. Hormone Arachnologist A cavity formed between layers of mesoderm The entire population of organisms that inhabit Endemic Family in which the alimentary tract and other A scientist who studies arachnids-spiders and an environment in common and who interact Native to a particular geographical region and An organic molecule, secreted in small internal organs are suspended. A category in taxonomy that groups genus related groups. with one another. restricted to it. amounts by one part of an organism, that together; lower than order and higher regulates the function of other tissue than genus. Arthropod Cephalopod Compound Eye Endoderm or organs. A class of exclusively marine mollusks with An animal with articulated appendages and a In arthropods, a complex eye made of many One of the three layers of the embryonic tissue Fossil tentacles or legs attached to the head. These Host segmented body, covered by an exoskeleton. separate units, each of which has light-sensitive of animals; it originates in the epithelium that appendages have rows of suckers that are The preserved remains of an organism that cells and a lens that can form an image. covers certain internal structures. An organism in which a parasite lives. Asexual Reproduction used for capturing prey and copulation. disappeared a long time ago. Crustacean Epicuticle Hydrostatic Skeleton Any reproductive process, such as the Cephalothorax Gamete production of gemmae or the division of a cell An animal of the arthropod group, with The thin, outermost layer of the arthropod A skeleton in which fluid is contained by or organism into two or more approximately The head and thorax combined in one single antennae and articulated appendages, that exoskeleton, consisting primarily of wax. The mature reproductive cell that combines muscular walls that transfer the force from equal parts, that does not involve gametes body segment. uses gills to breathe and has a body protected with a gamete of the opposite sex to form a one part of the body to another when joining together. by a thick covering. zygote that is usually diploid; male gametes are subjected to pressure.

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Invasive Metazoa Order Predator Social Insects Taxonomy Relating to a species or organism that was Main group in the animal kingdom (including Taxonomic category that includes families; Organism that feeds on other living beings. Insects that live with others of the same Study of the principles of scientific brought into an environment and harms mollusks, annelids, and arthropods) in which category lower than a class and higher than species, looking after the young and gathering classification. The organization, grouping, and biodiversity, agricultural or fishing the mouth is formed at or near the blastula in a family. Pseudocoelom food for the community. denomination of living things. productivity, or human health. the developing embryo. Organ Body cavity consisting of a fluid-filled space Species Tentacles Invertebrate Microorganism between the endoderm and the mesoderm, Body part made of various tissues grouped into characteristic of nematode worms. A group of individuals that recognize one Long and flexible organs located around the Animal without a spinal column. Some, such as Organism that can be seen only with a a structural and functional unit. another as belonging to the same mouth of many invertebrates, often prehensile worms, have soft bodies. Others, such as microscope. Pseudopod reproductive unit. and tactile. arthropods, are protected by a hard Organic Material exoskeleton. Migration Temporary cytoplasmic projection of an Thorax Animal or plant material in any stage of amoeboid cell whose movement and feeding Spiracle Seasonal travel of animals from one region to decomposition, found on or within the soil. occur through phagocytosis. One of the external openings of the respiratory In crustaceans and insects, the fused segments Kingdom another to reproduce or to seek food, better system in terrestrial arthropods. located between the head and the abdomen to Taxonomic category that includes phyla or climate, or better living conditions in general. Organism Radial Symmetry which the legs are attached. divisions. Until the appearance of the category Statocyst of domain, the kingdom was the highest-level Mimetism Any living creature, whether single-celled or The regular disposition of body parts around a Tissue category in biological classification. multicellular. central axis in such a way that any plane that A balance organ consisting of a sac-like Property of certain animals and plants to Group of similar cells organized in a structural cuts through the axis divides the organism in structure that contains grains of sand resemble living things or inanimate objects halves that constitute mirror images of each and functional unit. Larva that live nearby, mostly by means of color. Parasite (statoliths) or some other material that other. It is seen in adult echinoderms. stimulates the sensory cells when the organism Animal in a developmental stage, after leaving Organism that lives at the expense of another. is in motion. Trachea the egg. It can feed itself but has not yet Mollusk Safety Thread acquired the shape and structure of the adults In insects and some other terrestrial Invertebrates of the phylum Mollusca, with a Phylum of its species. A silk thread that a spider leaves behind when Substrate arthropods, the system of air conduits covered soft body divided into a head, foot, and visceral Taxonomic category that includes classes; it is moving, attaching it from time to time to with chitin. mass. They have a fold called a mantle that The surface that constitutes an organism's category lower than a kingdom and higher various surfaces. Mandible envelops all or part of the body. habitat or life support. than a class. Venom Appendage immediately below the antennae, Salinity used to trap, hold, bite, or chew food. Molting Swarm Chemical agent injected into other animals in Plankton Measurement of the amount of common salt in order to kill or paralyze them, or to ward off Removal of all or part of the outer covering of Insects that act in a group for eating, mating, Group of small living beings, whether plants water or soil. Common salt is a sodium salt, an attack. an organism; in arthropods, a periodic or finding a new location for a nest. Mantle (phytoplankton) or animals (zooplankton), that sodium chloride, common in nature, that gives changing of the exoskeleton that enables them live suspended in freshwater or ocean water. a salty flavor to ocean water and salt lakes. In mollusks, the outer layer of the body wall or to grow in size. Zoology a soft extension of it. It usually secretes a shell. Tagmosis Segmentation Discipline or science dedicated to the study of Nutrients Planula The process of segment formation animals. Medium Successive cell divisions in the egg of an animal (metameres) into corporal regions (tagmata) Chemical elements essential for life. Examples Type of unattached, ciliated larva of many to form a multicellular blastula. with differentiated functions. Element or substrate where organisms live. are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, organisms of the phylum Cnidaria (jellyfish, sea phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium. anemones, and coral). Mesoderm Sexual Dimorphism Taxism Polyp Also known as taxia, it is the orientation of The middle layer of the three layers of Ommatidium An assembly of external morphological characteristics that make it possible to movement in those organisms that, being able embryonic tissue. The simple visual unit of a compound eye in The immobile stage in the life cycle of animals distinguish the males from the females of the to move freely from one place to another, arthropods; it contains light-sensitive cells and of the phylum Cnidaria. same species. track their course in the direction of an Metamorphosis a lens that can form an image. external stimulus. Population Abrupt transition from the larval form to the Omnivore Sexual Reproduction adult form. Group of individuals of the same species that Living being that feeds on plants and animals. live in a certain area during a specific time. Reproduction involving meiosis and fertilization. www.MemarJoon.comwww.MemarJoon.com 96 INDEX INVERTEBRATES 97 Index

arthropod pearls, 30 Canadia (fossil), 9 hermit, 39 A small, 13 black bean aphid, 79 caramote prawn, 14 life cycle, 37 E success, 14 black garden ant (black ant), 74, 79 caterpillar, 70–71 movement, 40–41 amber Asian tiger mosquito, 12 black vine weevil, 13 cedar beetle, antennae, 55 urchin, 15 earthworm, 13, 82 auger beetle, black widow spider, centipede, crab spider, air bubbles, 11 83 50 13, 55, 83 49 anatomy, 26 Australia, blood–fluke Cramer's blue morpho echinoderm ancient life–forms, 11 Ediacara Hills fossils, 6, 8–9 (bilharzia), 17 Australian, 63 (butterfly), 12 Australian centipede, blood–red ant, crayfish, white–clawed, color, 10 63 13 characteristics, 63 17 classes, 20 Australian stick insect, bloodletting cricket, mole, fossils in, 10–11 77 (medicine), 90 Geophilomorpha, 63 54 five–radial symmetry, 22 Aysheaia , bloodsucking bug crustacean, properties and characteristics, 11 (fossil) 9 (triatomine), 82, 83 legs, 62 35 history, 24 body plan resin, 11 life, 62 anatomy, 40 number, 25 Amblypygi, 45 bilateral symmetry, 54 megarian banded, 63 body forms, 36–37 species, 20, 22 American farmer ant, 75 radial symmetry, 15, 20–21, 24 walking, 62 environments, 34 spiny skin, 20 brachiopod, cephalopod, Ediacara Hills fossils, anemone, beadlet, 15 B 43 19, 29, 32 freshwater adaptations, 16 6, 8 brimstone butterfly, Chagas disease, elytron wing annelid, 26 76–77 82 marine, 14 (elytra), 66, 67 barnacle, brittle star, Chancelloria Emeraldella Anomalocaris (fossil), 6, 7, 9 36 20 (fossil), 9 species, 14, 40 (fossil), 9 ant beadlet anemone, 15 broadclub cuttlefish, 14 Charnia (fossil), 8 cuttlefish emperor dragonfly, 16, 70 bee Broussais, Francois J. V., chelicerae, emperor scorpion, American farmer, 75 90 44, 49 broadclub, 14 44 brown garden snail, European green crab, anthill, 74–75 apiculture, 80–81 13, 28–29 hunting spider, 50 common, 29 37 Burgess Shale fossils, chitin, European hornet, aphids, 78–79 dances, 13 6, 8, 9 38 13 Burgessia Christmas tree worm, European medicinal leech, black garden, 74, 79, 82 history of beekeeping, 80–81 (fossil), 9 15 17, 91 burying beetle, chrysalis: pupa exoskeleton, blood–red, 13 hive, artificial, 4, 80–81, 86–87 13, 82 See moulting, 39 butterfly cicada, eye castes, 75 honey collection and processing, 87 67 D clam, communication, 74 mouth, 58 antennae, 55 31 flatworms, 26 click beetle, desert locust, defense, 75 nectar, 86 brimstone, 76–77 13 88 insects, 56–57 clown fish, desert millipede, diet, 75 organized communities, 5 Cramer's blue morpho, 12 23 13 spiders, 49–50 Cnidaria desert scorpion, metamorphosis, 74 queen, 87 metamorphosis, 70–73 51 Dickinsonia mutualism, 78–79 vision, 56 monarch, 12, 70–73 common characteristics, 22 (fossil), 8 disease, social organization, 74 worker, 86, 87 mouth, 58, 60 number of species, 21, 23 and invertebrates, 82, 85 beekeeping, diving beetle, southern wood, 75 4, 5, 86–87 owl, 76 types, 20–21 68 F beetle cockle shell, diving bell spider, species, 74 peacock, 76 29 17 cockroach, dog flea, flatworm, trap–jaw, 75 antennae, 55 shape, 72–73 54, 70, 83 64–65 26 cocoon: pupa dragonfly, flea, velvety tree, 75 aquatic, 68–69 See 54, 70 64, 83 common cuttlefish, Antarctic krill, 14 auger, 83 29 emperor, 16, 70–73 bites, 65 common European oyster, antenna, 55, 74 burying, 13, 82 31 hawker, 54–55 dog, 65 common furniture beetle, anthill, 74–75 click, 13 C 13 nymph, 17 food chain, 12 common octopus, drone, aphid, and ants, 78–79 common furniture, 13 15 ants, 75 human, 65 caddisfly, common pond skater, Dublin Bay prawn, apiculture, 86–87 diving, 68 larva, 17 16 40 jumping ability, 64 Cambrian Period common starfish, dust mite, aposematism (defense mechanism), 66, 76 flying, 66–67 15 82 life cycle, 65 arachnid great diving, 17 Burgess Shale, 8–9 copepod (Copepoda), 17, 37, 43 allergies, 85 water, 43 coral, fly color, 34 jaws, 55 trilobite predator, 6–7 22 anatomy, 84–85 dust mites, 84–85 species, 13 trilobites, 9 cnidarians, 21 humidity, 85 diseases, 82 camouflage (crypsis), most dangerous, 50 wings, 67 76–77 reefs, 14, 22 size, 85 metamorphosis, 72–73 bigfin reef squid, cowry, tiger, Dysdera crocota name source, 34 15 octopus, 32 15 (spider), 49 mouth, 60 bilateral symmetry, crab species, 44, 45 54 pupa, 72 vision, 56–57 bivalve, Canada, venomous, 50–51 29 Burgess Shale fossils, 6 European green, 37 wings, 67

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flying, insects, 66–67 ladybugs, 82 skating, 68 food chain, 12 changes, 70 food chain pillbugs, 82 sucking and piercing, 60–61 identifying, 67 emperor dragonfly, 70 O described, 42 snails, 82 water strider, 68 seven–spotted, 58, 67 fruit fly, 72–73 levels, 12 spiny–headed worm, 82 wings, 54 species, 66 hormones, 72 octopus fossil honey invertebrate leech monarch butterfly, 70–73 characteristics, 29 amber, 10–11 bees, 5 body plans, 15 ancient uses, 90 simple, 70 color, 32 ancient life–forms, 10 collection and processing, 80, 86, 87 camouflage, 18 body, 91 millipede, 55 common, 15 Burgess Shale, 6, 8–9 honeydew (aphid excretion), 79 freshwater, 16–17 European medicinal, 90–91 anatomy, 62 diet, 32 Cambrian explosion, 8 house dust mite, 82 honey, 5 medicinal, 17, 90 characteristics, 54 environment, 14, 32 Ediacara Hills, 6 human flea, 65 human environment, 82–83 mouth, 90 desert, 13 head, 32 evidence of ancient life, 10 hunting spider, 50 known species, 4 movement, 91 walking, 62 ink, 33 trilobites, 9 land, 12 saliva, 91 mimetism (defense mechanism), 76 movement, 32 fruit fly, 72–73 largest, 14 types, 90 mite, 44 speed, 33 furniture beetle, common, 13 marine, 14–15 life–form, first, 6 anatomy of dust, 84–85 suckers, 33 I lobster dust, 82 ogrefaced spider, 49 American, 14 sarcoptes, 84 Olenoides (fossil), 9 insect anatomy, 41 mole cricket, 54 Opabinia (fossil), 9 G anatomy, 54 J color, 38 mollusk oriental cockroach, 83 ants, 74–75 environment, 41 body, 28 otter shell, 29 garden, 82 aquatic beetles, 68 Japan, pearls, 30 exoskeleton, 38–39 buried in sand, 29 Ottoia (fossil), 9 garden snail, brown, 13 antennae forms, 55, 58 Japanese rhinoceros beetle, 55 movement, 41 common characteristics, 28 owl butterfly, 76 gastropod, 28 beetles, 67 Japanese spider crab, 36 pincers, 41 gastropods, 28 oxygen, gills, 15 Geophilomorpha centipede, 63 body symmetry, 54 jellyfish, 15, 18–19 shape change, 38 types of, 28 oyster, 15 giant household spider, 44 camouflage, 76–77 cnidarian characteristics, 21 locust, 70 molting (ecdysis), 39, 45, 72 anatomy, 31 giant squid, 15 carnivores, 58–59 Ediacaran fossils, 8 antennae, 55 monarch butterfly, 12, 70–73 common European, 31 gills, 15 cicadas, 67 habitat, 21 best control, 89 mosquito pearls, 30–31 grasshopper, 54 common characteristics, 54 life cycle, 21 breeding zones, 89 Asian tiger, 12 great diving beetle, 17 diving, swimming, and skating, 68–69 white, 15 desert, 88 diseases, 82 great pond snail, 17 environments and life stages, 16 jumping spider, 49 history, 89 face and mouth, 61 green mussel, 29 evolutionary development, 5 mouth, 58–59 female head and mouth, 61 P eyesight, 56–57 plagues, 88–89 life cycle, 16 flying, 66 rainfall, 89 mouth, 58 palp (pedipalp), arachnids, 49 hardiness, 52–53 K luminescence, 42 mussel, 29, 31 parasite, 17, 44, 65 H human environment, 82–83 mutualism, 78 parthenogenesis, 43 jumping, 65 krill (crustacean) peacock butterfly, 76 hair, 48, 49, 68 known species, 54 Antarctic, 14 pearl hawker dragonfly, 54–55 ladybugs, 66–67 description, 42 M cultivation, 30 hermit crab, 39 leaf eaters, 58 luminescence, 42 N formation, 30 hive, artificial, 86–87 living in trees, 12 Malacostraca (crustacean), 36, 42 oysters, 31 home, human living near water, 16 mantis, thistle, 77 nautilus (mollusk), 29 producers, 31 black ants, 82 locusts, 59 Marrella splendens (fossil), 9 nymph, 17, 70, 74 types, 30 burying beetles, 82 metamorphosis, 70–73 L mayfly, 16 pecten, scorpions, 51 dust mites, 85 mimetism, 76 megarian banded centipede, 62–63 pedipalp (palp), arachnids, 49 earthworms, 82 mouths, 55, 58 ladybug (ladybird), 82 metamorphosis, 70–73 phytoplankton, 42 invertebrates, 82–83 plagues and illness, 82 flying, 66–67 ants, 74 pillbug, 13, 82

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plague of locusts, 88–89 emperor, 44 senses, 48–49 digestive system, 26 plankton, 37 families, 51 sensory hairs, 48 earthworm, 13 poison: See venom habitat, 51 silk, 45, 46 U known species, 27 pond skater, common, 16 hunting, 50 uses of silk thread, 47 leeches, 90–91 Porifera (sponge), 21 sea anemone venom composition, 50 urchin crab, 15 longest, 26 prawn anatomy, 23 web use, 5 uropod (anatomy), 40 reproduction, 27 anatomy, 40 cnidarian characteristics, 21 See also arachnid caramote, 14 dangerous, 23 spiderweb description, 37 preferred environment, 23 architecture, 47 Dublin Bay, 40 shape adaptation, 23 silk, 46 V X praying mantis, 12 sea angel, 28 use, 5 Precambian period, Ediacara fauna, 8 sea cucumber, 15, 20 spinneret, 46 velvety tree ant, 75 Xandarella (fossil), 9 Prosobranchia (mollusk), 28 sea lice, 36, 37 spiny–headed worm, 82 venom pupa, 71, 72 sea lily, 20 sponge, 15, 20 ants, 75 sea slug (Opisthobranchia), 15, 28 squid arachnids, 50–51 sea urchin, 20 bigfin reef, 15 centipedes, 62, 63 Y photoreceptors, 24 characteristics, 29 octopus, 32 Q radiant, 15 starfish sea anemones, 23 Yohaia (fossil), 9 varieties and characteristics, 25 anatomy, 24–25 scorpions, 44 queen seven–spotted ladybug, 58, 66 common, 15 spiders, 45, 49 ants, 75 shrimp, 40 movement, 25 bees, 87 Sidneyia (fossil), 9 photoreceptors, 24 Z silk, spiders, 45, 46–47 red, 15 silkworm, 13 suckers, 22 W zooplankton, 17 silverfish, 13 stick insect, Australian, 77 krill, 42 R slug stinger, scorpions, 51 wandering spider, 50 Malacostraca, 42 characteristics, 28 suction, 24, 33 wasp, 13, 83 phytoplankton, 42 radial symmetry, 15, 20–21 sea, 15 pollination, 5 species, 42–43 radiant sea urchin, 15 snail, 82 water beetle, 17 razor clam, 29 brown garden, 13, 28–29 water boatman (back swimmer), 16 red starfish, 15 great pond, 17 T water flea, 43 reef, coral, 14, 22 southern wood ant, 75 water measurer, 16 resilin (protein), fleas, 64 spider, 13, 83 tellin shell, 29 water scorpion, 54 anatomy, 45 telson (anatomy), 40, 42, 51 water strider, 68, 69 black widow, 50 termite, 83 weevil, black vine, 13 crab, 49 thistle mantis, 77 white–clawed crayfish, 17 S diving bell, 17 tick, 13, 44, 84 white jellyfish, 15 Dysdera crocota, 49 tiger cowry, 15 Wiwaxia (fossil), 9 salt, adaptation to freshwater environments, 17 food chain, 12 toxin: See venom wood louse, 36 sarcoptes mite, 84 fossilized in amber, 10–11 trap–jaw ant, 75 worker scallop, 29 giant household, 44 trichobothria hair, 48 ants, 75 scorpion hunting, 50 trichodina, 17 bees, 86, 87 anatomy, 51 jumping, 49 trilobite (fossil), 9 worm, 82 description, 44 ogrefaced, 49 trophic chain, 42 Christmas tree, 15 desert, 51 reproduction, 45 classes, 26

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