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The Female Quest for Enlightenment: Compassion and Patience In The female quest for enlightenment: Compassion and patience in transforming gender bias in Tibetan Buddhism, with specific reference to Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns and Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo. by Elizabeth Swanepoel A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PhD in the Department Biblical and Religious Studies at the UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA FACULTY OF HUMANITIES SUPERVISOR: Dr. Jaco Beyers August 2013 ii © University of Pretoria ABSTRACT This thesis investigates the nature of gender bias in Tibetan Buddhism and the specific role Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns have played in transforming such prejudice. The afore-mentioned gender bias pertains particularly to the unavailability of full ordination (bhikshuni ordination) for nuns in the Tibetan tradition. The research highlights the specific contribution made by Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo, a British woman and currently the most senior Tibetan Buddhist nun. Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo attained fame for spending twelve years meditating in a cave in the Himalayas, and for her statement that she intends to attain enlightenment in a female body. She is also the founder and abbess of a Tibetan Buddhist nunnery Dongyu Gatsal Ling in India. Tenzin Palmo is particularly outspoken in her efforts to transform gender bias within the ranks of Tibetan Buddhism, and serves as an inspiration to countless lay and monastic Buddhist women worldwide. The researcher postulates that gender equality has not yet been attained within Tibetan Buddhism. Androcentric record keeping, certain misogynistic meditation practices, and cumbersome decision making processes within the Tibetan ecclesiastic system have maintained gender bias within its institution, despite His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama’s efforts to assist in the transformation of monastic attitudes. The Dalai Lama, spiritual head of Tibetan Buddhism and one of its most learned scholars, has made his position clear as far back as 2007 when he expressed his full support for the establishment of the Bhikshuni Sangha in the Tibetan tradition. Two years earlier, in 2005, he had already urged Western bhikshunis to become more involved in the issue of full ordination in Tibetan Buddhism. Western nuns in particular have therefore played a leading role in their attempts to transform gender bias in a true Buddhist spirit of patience and compassion. His Holiness the 17th Gyalwang Karmapa has been equally outspoken on the issue. In 2010 in Bodhgaya, India, he made a commitment in front of an international audience to ordaining women as bhikshunis, and stated unequivocally that he was prepared to ordain these women himself. However, he did caution against expecting quick results, asking the audience to have patience. iii © University of Pretoria In conclusion the thesis suggests that despite a favourable doctrinal attitude to women, ambiguity still characterises the Tibetan Buddhist approach towards females. There is tension between an underground tradition of highly accomplished female practitioners and the institutional preference for male practitioners. Institutionalised gender bias in Tibetan Buddhism therefore has no sound doctrinal basis in view of the fact that the Tibetan Buddhist pantheon is rife with female Buddhas, goddesses, dakinis, and other highly spiritual and enlightened women. Present times are characterised, especially in the West, by accomplished female academics and Tibetan Buddhist teachers, as well as prominent nuns. The yogini-tantras furthermore attest to the reverence and honour the male should afford to the female. Gender hierarchy and male dominance cause untold suffering and pain, especially devastating for female monastics, and is therefore both contradictory to Buddhist principles and to the norms of a progressive society. iv © University of Pretoria KEY WORDS Buddhism Gender bias Tibetan Buddhism Western Buddhist nuns Full ordination Bikshuni Ordination Enlightenment Compassion Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo Misogynism . v © University of Pretoria ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My supervisor, Dr. Jaco Beyers, for his continued support, interest, enthusiasm, and expertise. Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo, for her time and generosity in granting me a lengthy interview, and for perusing parts of the text for accuracy. The Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns who responded to the questionnaires, especially Venerable Bhikshuni Thubten Chodron and Venerable Bhikshuni Jampa Tsedroen who showed a keen interest in this research and generously provided additional information. Theo de Vries, for his fine-toothed editing, and words of encouragement. My children Alexander and Rebecca, for sacrificing time that could have been spent with them. My husband, Pieter, for fetching and carrying library books, for finding rare and interesting books, and for his abundant systems of support. vi © University of Pretoria DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo who has served as an inspiration of wisdom, patience, and compassion in the female quest for enlightenment to thousands of women, Buddhist and non-Buddhist alike. vii © University of Pretoria TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: SANDPAPER SISTERHOOD 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 6 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 7 1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN 7 1.4.1 Limitations of the research 8 1.5 RESEARCH METHOD 8 1.6 ETHICS 9 1.7 FOREIGN TERMS 9 1.8 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS 10 CHAPTER TWO: WHAT THE BUDDHA TAUGHT 2.1 INTRODUCTION 12 2.2 WHAT IS BUDDHISM? 13 2.2.1 The fundamental tenets of Buddhism 13 2.2.2 The Four Noble Truths 14 2.2.2.1 The First Noble Truth 14 2.2.2.2 The Second Noble Truth 15 2.2.2.3 The Third Noble Truth 15 2.2.2.4 The Fourth Noble Truth 15 2.2.3 Further characteristics of Buddhism 16 2.3 THE VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM 17 2.3.1 Theravada Buddhism 17 2.3.2 Mahayana Buddhism 18 2.4 TIBETAN BUDDHISM 19 2.4.1 Tantra 20 2.4.2 The Nyingma School 23 2.4.3 The Sakya School 25 2.4.4 The Kagyu School 26 2.4.5 The Gelug School 27 viii © University of Pretoria 2.5 MASTERS OF TIBETAN BUDDHISM 29 2.5.1 His Holiness the fourteenth Dalai Lama 30 2.5.2 His Holiness Sakya Trizin 33 2.5.3 His Holiness the 100th Ganden Tri Rinpoche 33 2.5.4 His Holiness the seventeenth Gyalwa Karmapa Ogyen Trinley Dorje 34 2.5.5 The eighth Khamtrul Rinpoche Dongyud Nyima 34 2.6 BUDDHISM IN THE WEST: HOW THE SWANS CAME TO THE LAKE 35 2.6.1 Thomas William Rhys Davids and Caroline Rhys Davids 36 2.6.2 Sir Edwin Arnold 37 2.6.3 Helena Petrovna Blavatsky 37 2.6.4 Alexandra David-Neel 38 2.6.5 Walter Yeeling Evans-Wentz 40 2.6.6 Carl Gustav Jung 41 2.6.7 James Hilton and T. Lobsang Rampa 41 2.6.8 Ayya Khema 42 2.6.9 Other influential individuals 42 2.6.10 His Holiness the fourteenth Dalai Lama 43 2.7 CONCLUSION 44 CHAPTER THREE: THE LAND OF SNOWS 3.1 INTRODUCTION 46 3.2 THE ROOF OF THE WORLD 47 3.3 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 49 3.3.1 The Dalai Lamas 50 3.3.2 The British presence in Tibet 50 3.3.3 Tibetan society before the Chinese invasion 52 3.4 THE CHINESE INVASION 53 3.4.1 The national uprising 55 3.4.2 The Cultural Revolution 58 3.4.3 The aftermath 59 3.4.4 The Tibetan environment 61 3.4.5 Tibet today 64 3.4.6 The role of Tibetan women in the protest movement 68 ix © University of Pretoria 3.5 THE DIASPORA 69 3.5.1 Tibetans in exile 71 3.5.2 Imprisoned Tibetans 74 3.6 TIBETAN BUDDHISM IN THE WEST 76 3.6.1 Tibetan Buddhism in South Africa 78 3.7 CONCLUSION 79 CHAPTER FOUR: DAUGHTERS OF THE BUDDHA 4.1 INTRODUCTION 83 4.2 SISTERS IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE BUDDHA 86 4.2.1 A Buddhist definition of feminism 88 4.2.2 Fear of the feminine? 89 4.2.3 Sisterhood 92 4.2.4 The divine feminine 94 4.2.5 Ambiguities and contradictions 98 4.3 FEMALE DEITIES IN TIBETAN BUDDHISM 101 4.3.1 Training the imagination 103 4.3.2 Tara 105 4.3.2.1 Green Tara: Quintessence of compassion 106 4.3.2.2 White Tara: The seven eyes of wisdom 109 4.3.2.3 Red Tara 110 4.3.3 Vajrayogini 111 4.3.4 Other Tantric goddesses 112 4.4 YOGINIS 113 4.4.1 Yeshe Tsogyel 114 4.4.2 Machig Lapdron 115 4.5 DAKINIS 116 4.6 PRESENT FEMALE INCARNATIONS 117 4.6.1 Khandro Rinpoche 117 4.6.1 Ahkon Norbu Lhamo 118 4.7 THE FEMALE QUEST FOR ENLIGHTENMENT 119 4.8 CONCLUSION 121 x © University of Pretoria CHAPTER FIVE: BLOSSOMS OF THE DHARMA: LIVING AS A WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUN 5.1 INTRODUCTION 124 5.2 YOU ARE BECOMING A WHAT? 126 5.2.1 The contribution of Western nuns 128 5.3 MONASTIC TRAINING 129 5.3.1 Training for Western nuns 130 5.3.2 The precepts 132 5.4 WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNS: A NEW PHENOMENON IN AN ANCIENT TRADITION 133 5.4.1 Transforming obstacles 137 5.4.2 The daily life of a Western Tibetan Buddhist nun 138 5.5 THE MISSING PILLAR: FULL ORDINATION FOR TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNS 139 5.5.1 Full ordination and the reconstruction of religious traditions 140 5.5.2 The full ordination ceremony in Bodhgaya 140 5.5.3 The Upasampada ritual 144 5.5.4 The instatement of the Mulasarvastivada bhikshuni ordination 146 5.6 GENDER POLITICS 147 5.7 PROMINENT WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNS 148 5.7.1 Venerable Jampa Tsedroen 149 5.7.2 Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo 151 5.7.3 Venerable Thubten Chodron 152 5.7.4 Venerable Pema Chodron 153 5.8 OTHER DISTINGUISHED WESTERN NUNS IN THE TIBETAN TRADITION 153 5.8.1 Venerable Kunga Chodron 154 5.8.2 Lama Gelongma Zangmo 155 5.8.3 Venerable Robina Courtin 156 5.8.4 Venerable Kelsang Wangmo 157 5.9 WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNNERIES 158 5.9.1 Gampo Abbey 158 5.9.2 Sravasti Abbey 160 5.9.3 The Chenrezig Nuns’ Community 161 xi © University of Pretoria 5.9.4 Samye Ling Tibetan Buddhist Centre 162 5.9.5 The Dharmadatta Nuns’ Community 163 5.10 BUDDHIST WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS
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