Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?”

5. Jahrgang MBS Te x t e 91 2008

Thomas Schirrmacher Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vinticated?

BUCER IN S T E M

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Pro mundisPro mundis TableInhaltsverzeichnis of Contents

1 Common human knowledge...... 3 2 Is cannibalism a myth?...... 4 3 Nobel Prize winners “offside”...... 5 4 The researches of Erwin Frank an example...... 7 5 Vindication of cannibalism?...... 8 6 Cannibalism in the Old Testament?...... 11 7 Sources for evidence of cannibalism...... 12 8 Cannibalism and evolution: cannibalism in pre-humans and early humans...... 13 9 Human sacrifice vindicated?...... 15 10 The widespread incidence of human sacrifice...... 16 11 Christian human sacrifices?...... 20 Annotation...... 24 The Author...... 30 Impressum...... 31

Nachdruck aus “Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?”. Christianity and Society 10 (2000) Heft 1, S. 11-17 + Heft 2, S. 4-9, Download unter www.kuyper.org/main/uploads/ volume_10_no_1.pdf und www.kuyper.org/main/uploads/volume_10_no_2.pdf

1. Aufl. 2008 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?

Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?1 2 Thomas Schirrmacher

1 Common human knowledge

As far as many are concerned it goes nibalism” thus: “Ritual consumption of without saying that cannibalism is human flesh. Sometimes, but very sel- widespread among so-called primitive dom, cannibalism appears to have been people, that early human beings, Teu- practised with the sole aim of provid- tons and Aztecs similarly fed upon those ing sustenance, whether from necessity of their own species, and that cannibal- (cannibalism through hunger) or incli- ism still exists today. The charge of can- nation (sometimes called ‘gastronomic nibalism against foreigners is universal cannibalism’).”8 and goes back to antiquity. The Encyclopaedia Britannica states Of course the charge of cannibalism further: is not in itself any proof of its existence. Thus, for instance, the African explorer Cannibalism, also called anthropo- and missionary David Livingstone dis- phagy, is the eating of human flesh by covered that almost all blacks were con- men. The term is derived from a Span- vinced that whites were man-eaters,3 ish form of the language of the Carib, a a charge that the first explorers of the West Indies tribe who were well-known River Gambia had countered as early for their practice of cannibalism. A as 1455.4 Similarly, the first Christians widespread custom going back into were suspected by the Romans of being early human history, it has been found cannibals,5 as were the Irish by the among peoples on most continents. Roman historian Strabo and the Scyth- Though many early accounts of can- ians by the Greek historian Herodotus.6 nibalism probably were exaggerated There are numerous other teachings or in error, cannibalism is still prac- and assumptions concerning cannibal- ticed [sic] in interior New Guinea. ism, and it is even suggested that canni- It prevailed until recently in parts of balism and war might have accelerated West and Central Africa, Melanesia the extinction of peoples involved in (especially Fiji), Australia, among the them.7 Maoris of New Zealand, in some of But what is cannibalism? The Taschen- the islands of Polynesia, among tribes wörterbuch der Ethnologie [Pocket of Sumatra, and in various tribes of Dictionary of Ethnology] defines “can- North and South America.9

Pr o m u n d i s 3 Thomas Schirrmacher

Thus the ethnological understand- man of Arizona State University, ing of cannibalism is not individual suggesting the reason why the scholar cases such as occur from time to time continued to be opposed by those in his following an accident, when the surviv- own discipline: “He is a real danger to a ing victims eat the bodies of their dead whole number of anthropologists.”13 companions. Still more infrequent are cases in which the victim has actually Arens had been asked by his students been murdered for that purpose, as was whether he could not sometimes go the case in a spectacular trial in Eng- into more interesting subjects, such as land in 1884.10 witchcraft or cannibalism. The knowledge of what cannibalism is, and the belief that it is practised by Consequently, in preparing for a lecture, “primitive” tribes throughout the world, I turned to the study of man-eaters, is taken for granted by our society. In which was eventually transformed into the scientific field, too, cannibalism this study of the myth of man-eating. I seems not to be questioned. Scientific mention this to make it clear to readers surveys both ancient11 and modern12 that, like themselves, when I began to verify the worldwide incidence of this think about the subject I was already phenomenon. of the opinion that cannibalism in the past and present was a fairly common phenomenon. The essay which follows is 2 Is cannibalism a myth? the result of a conversion process.14

When, in 1979, the New York pro- Arens’ thesis could not be expressed fessor of anthropology William Arens more plainly: “I am dubious about in his book, The Man-Eating Myth, the actual existence of this act as an presented the public with his view that accepted practice for any time or place. there had never been such a thing as Recourse to cannibalism under survival habitual cannibalism, it seemed at first conditions or as a rare instance of anti- that this was the untenable opinion of social behavior is not denied for any an outsider. culture.”15 Thus Arens does not rule out the pos- Since then anthropologists and eth- sibility that under certain unusual cir- nologists have been changing sides in cumstances humans have eaten human ever increasing numbers, as shown last flesh. This is something which he consid- month in an investigative article in the ers possible in any culture. But he fun- US journal Science. But the debate damentally denies that there are proven about consumption of one’s own kind incidences of habitual cannibalism, i.e. continues. “I believe Arens is right,” cannibalism which might have been declared the anthropologist Lyle Stead- accepted as an integral part of religion,

4 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated? culture, warfare or social custom. As a was the only missionary to hold this scientist, moreover, he points out that view.18 no anthropologist can ever confirm that Arens has made an exhaustive survey a practice has never taken place. He can of the sources of cannibalism: only confirm that there is no proof of its occurrence. And this is also the case This conclusion is based on the fact that, with cannibalism.16 As far as he is con- excluding survival conditions, I have cerned all the evidence is inconclusive, been unable to uncover adequate docu- so that cannibalism remains unproven. mentation of cannibalism as a custom In the light of the fact that thousands in any form for any society. Rumors, of scientists have assumed and continue suspicions, fears and accusations to assume that there is thousand-fold abound, but no satisfactory first-hand evidence of cannibalism, this is a very accounts. Learned essays by profession- far-reaching thesis to put forward. als are unending, but the sustaining Arens sees cannibalism as a myth ethnography is lacking. The argument which in almost all cultures has pro- that a critical re-examination is both vided an excuse for blaming other a necessary and a profitable exercise is peoples. It is to be found in the case based on the premise that cannibalism of Herodotus with regard to the bar- by definition is an observable phenom- barians, and similarly Columbus with enon.19 regard to the Indians, the Spaniards with regard to the Aztecs, colonialists with regard to the “natives” and the lat- 3 Nobel Prize ter with regard to whites. Almost every- winners “offside” where cannibalism constitutes the high point of the moral reprehensibleness of It should be pointed out here that the the enemy. It gives grounds for a mix- fact that different peoples accuse each ture of hatred and fear. other of cannibalism is no argument As early as 1874 the African explorer, against the existence of cannibalism. A anthropologist and prominent mission- worldwide phenomenon20 can naturally ary David Livingstone came to a simi- also be used as a worldwide accusation. lar conclusion concerning Africa. He Back in 1932 a specialist was able to travelled through large parts of Africa, write: among other things in order to find evidence of cannibalism. To his surprise he ... though the present range of the prac- discovered that there was no evidence tice is somewhat restricted, it was much which would stand up in a Scottish more widespread within even recent court, but that on the other hand the times, and there is every probability blacks were convinced that white men that all races have, at one period or were cannibals.17 However, Livingstone another, passed through a cannibalistic

Pr o m u n d i s 5 Thomas Schirrmacher

stage, which survived occasionally in the kuru victim would end up in the ritual or in folk custom, or was remem- hungry stomach of his comrades. The bered in legend or folk tale.21 US doctor reacted angrily to scholars who questioned his claim, stating that Even those many examples where “the whole of Australia” knew that the the charge of cannibalism is falsely Fore were cannibals. Anthropologists laid mean nothing. Many nations also who criticized his theory were accused accuse one another of murder. Does by him of being bound to their desks. If that disprove the existence of murder they “got up off their behinds and went and genocide? to New Guinea,” he brusquely informed In Germany Der Spiegel has taken the doubters, they would be able to find upon itself the rôle of spokesman for evidence of ritual cannibalism “in hun- those who deny the existence of can- dreds of cases.” However, those explorers nibalism: who followed the Nobel Prize winner’s advice came back empty-handed. Lyle It would be “beneath his dignity” to Seaman, for example, stayed with the involve himself in scientific controversy, Fore for two years. He was constantly angrily stated the American doctor D. hearing reports of cannibalistic eating Carleton Gadjusek, who had received rituals, but none of them was reliable. a Nobel Prize in 1976 for his work At the end the results drawn by the on kuru, a brain disease occurring in scientist from his investigations were New Guinea. Gadjusek claimed that unequivocal: “There is no trace of man- the virus, which caused fits of shaking, eating in New Guinea.” Gadjusek’s was located in the victim’s brain, and own proofs also showed themselves to was transmitted through cannibalistic be untenable. The Fore men in the Sci- eating habits. Gadjusek had come across ence photo who were sitting in front of the allegedly cannibalistic roots of this a mountain of meat were in fact, as the disease in the 1950s among the Fore, a doctor had to admit when questioned, tribe native to the mountains of New feasting on a pig. On the other hand Guinea. 20 years later, in 1977, Sci- Gadjusek would not on any account ence published photographs from Gad- produce authentic photos of a cannibal jusek’s Nobel Prize dissertation, which feast. The reason he gave for his strict were intended to confirm his thesis of ban on this was that members of the systematic consumption of human flesh tribe would be discriminated against on the Pacific island. One of the pictures on account of the explosive nature of portrayed a victim of this fatal shaking the material. Since Gadjusek’s reports disease. The photo also showed mem- of the alleged cannibalistic practices of bers of the Fore tribe preparing a large the Fore first appeared scientists from amount of meat for a meal. According numerous countries have made the to the conclusion stated on the caption, very difficult journey to research in the

6 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?

mountains of New Guinea. It is aston- 60 resulting sources as unquestionable. ishing enough that, as the Neue Zürcher But they refer only to these practices. Zeitung ironically remarked, not one He categorises 25 sources as totally of them concluded his field studies by worthless, while the remaining range becoming a meal. It is clear that the between “uncertain” and “extremely idea that human beings could eat their doubtful.”24 own kind not only in cases of necessity, Frank further accuses the explorers but as a matter of routine, is universally and missionaries of always only finding held as an ineradicable legend about what they had already determined to those uncivilised, barbarian “others.”22 find.25 In conclusion Frank emphasises: “We must hold on to the fact that with regard to both exocannibalism and 4 The researches of Erwin endocannibalistic consumption of meat Frank an example there is only one credible eyewitness account, and only two or three dubi- In 1987 Erwin Frank presented an ous indirect indications of the existence investigation of sources on the sub- of the latter practice (self-accusation of ject of cannibalism in a specific region those involved).”26 for the first time in the German lan- In explanation of these facts he guage.23 Frank investigates the sources writes: for the accusation of cannibalism with regard to 14 or 16 peoples of all kinds Cannibals who in the light of concrete of languages. He traces every scien- experience over a period of time turned tific or popular assertion back into the out to be non-cannibalistic were then sources, until there is a source which more likely to be given as an example of names no other, or even a source which the healthy effect of the contact of these itself turns out to be an eyewitness “savages” with their Christian con- account. It would take us too long to querors than evidence that cannibals go over the individual examples. Frank did not exist. Cannibalism remained comes across eyewitnesses who were an assured element of the generally still in Europe at the time of the alleged accepted “knowledge” irrespective of incident, earwitnesses who had heard any contemporary experience of an reports in languages which they had individual case. As a logical possibil- never learned, and most of all misinter- ity cannibalism is ... too compelling to pretations. Thus it was evident to him allow space for the hypothesis that the that many rituals were the drinking of certainty with which we usually regard the cremated ashes of the dead or inter- this practice as an existing (or formerly ment in pots. Both these might have led existing) behaviour pattern of other eyewitnesses to believe they were seeing peoples might lack a basis in fact. But cannibalism. Frank categorises 5 of the it is possibly the very powerful appeal

Pr o m u n d i s 7 Thomas Schirrmacher

of cannibalism as a logical alternative 5 Vindication of cannibalism? to non-cannibalism, which cannot actually be proved ... which has made It is certainly salutary if those cases it into a universal theme of not only can be revealed in which peoples of this European fantasy, into an ideal meta- earth have been unjustly charged with phor for being “different,” a negative cannibalism. It must be questioned, self-definition.27 however, whether such examples go so far as to prove that there was never any In a later article in the anthology such thing as habitual cannibalism. Authentizität und Betrug in der Eth- It is also evident in too many places nologie [Authenticity and Deception in that the criticism of Arens and Frank Ethnology] Frank, in a similar way to is essentially linked with their view of W. Arens although with completely Christian mission. Since a majority of different arguments, substantiated his the sources stems from the writing of thesis that so far no indubitably histori- Christian missionaries, and it was taken cal sources of cannibalism have been as read that in many places cannibalism produced,28 referring to Latin Ameri- was driven back by Christian influence, can scientists who had for a long time the battle against the credibility of the maintained this thesis. In this Frank countless sources is predominantly a again goes over the question of which battle against Christianity.30 rituals were misinterpreted as cannibal- It is puzzling that the aforemen- ism by outsiders. It is well-known that tioned ethnologists and many of their these included the Lord’s Supper of the colleagues above all reproach others, in first Christians, which many Romans particular Christians and missionaries, could not understand in any other way. for rejecting cannibalism lock, stock In addition he refers to the political and barrel. Instead they try to explain aspect of the accusation of cannibalism. cannibalism, and in so doing to excuse Was not the horror of cannibalism the it. As far as they are concerned canni- reason for many a crusade and many balism has nothing to do with murder, a colonial war? He asks: “How many and no mention is made of the human peoples of Central and South America rights of the victim. It is made out as probably owe their reputation of once if the only men to be eaten were those having been man-eaters ... to the well- who had already died of themselves, known fact that the Spanish crown although in most cases of cannibalism allowed their overseas governors to the victims are killed, or rather mur- engage in hunting free Indians as slaves dered, for the sole purpose of eating only if these were cannibals?”29 them. Hans Helfritz writes, for instance: “Cannibalism, which of all people the cruel Spanish conquerors described as

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‘most extremely horrible’ and regarded of domestic animals.36 This is typically as the consequence of the Indians’ evolutionary. heathenism, has long been radically On the other hand it seems that it is divested by modern psychology of its thought to be a good thing that can- horror and incomprehensibility.”31 nibalism is in the process of dying out. Just in order that another religion Christianity is attacked because of its should not be criticised, it is also abso- anti-cannibalistic attitude. But it is lutely excluded that cannibalism should generally not mentioned that it was this be called into question. Thus Nigel very attitude which caused the retreat Davies writes about another researcher: of cannibalism. “Ewald Volhard stresses that if there We find a typical example as long ago was any such thing as non-ritual can- as 1932 in J. A. MacCulloch. In dealing nibalism, then it was an inferior type with the question of why cannibalism of ritual man-eating. Therefore such a has declined in many places, he dis- practice cannot be condemned out of cusses every possible theory,37 mentions hand without at the same time damn- “the presence of a higher civilization, ing the religion whose rituals were and especially of a higher religion”,38 based on it.”32 refers to the fact that Islam brought an Also typical are the vast variety end to cannibalism in North and East of attempts to explain cannibalism. Africa, and only at the end, almost Michael Harner was right to point out in passing, states that: “Christianity, that the Aztec human sacrifices are together with other European civiliz- the focus of interest, while the paral- ing influences, has also put an end to lel incidence of cannibalism is seldom it in many parts of S. America, in New mentioned or investigated.33 It is well- Zealand, and many islands of the South known that the hearts of the victims Seas, once hotbeds of cannibalism, as were cut out and sacrificed to the sun well as in large tracts of the African god. It is less well-known what hap- continent.”39 pened to the rest of the body. On the In line with this there is little in the basis of contemporary Spanish sources way of memories of cannibalism. In Harner comes to the conclusion that as 1977 in New Guinea Queen Elizabeth a rule arms and legs were eaten.34 II received a framework of skulls (an But the explanation which Michael “ariba”) which came from the Goariba Harner has to offer for Aztec cannibal- Islands, “the only place of which it is ism is both terrible and wrong. Harner, known that missionaries there fell vic- who has made himself a name as an tim to cannibals. In 1901 the pastor ethnologist,35 has formulated the the- James Chalmers, his assistant preacher sis that human sacrifices are the con- and eleven young Papuan converts were sequence of population density and slain.”40 The Queen accepted the pres- lack of protein because of the absence ent without protest,41 and presented the

Pr o m u n d i s 9 Thomas Schirrmacher framework with its two human skulls a watch with a broken spring.” Thus to the British Museum in London.42 the incomprehensible nature of such a There was never any mention of the fact prohibition for the cannibals and head- that this object was clear evidence of hunters stems not only from their own murder. imagination as if someone suddenly The intervention of the missionaries forbade us to slaughter and eat pigs and against cannibalism, human sacrifice cattle but also from their own experi- and headhunting was in those days ence of us white people.43 considered to be an intervention in support of human rights. Nowadays it So forbidding the slaughter of cat- is regarded by so-called human rights tle would be the same as forbidding organizations as being a violation of the slaughter of human beings! What human rights. Then the rights of the do these ethnologists actually think victim were considered most important, about the victims? In any case, it was now it is the rights of the perpetrator. establestablished a long time ago that Some authors even want to turn Mead’s researches were nothing but things on their head. Thus we read the wishful thinking. Mead found what she following in a book by a journalist and wanted to find, and in so doing com- an ethnologist, which is striking in its pletely misunderstood the harsh reality hatred for Christian mission: of the tribe she was studying.44 Accordingly the authors agree with In any case, it was missions which the decision of an Australian judge began the process of cultural decline in who acquitted headhunters, when they the primitive peoples ... This is true not pointed out to him that there was no only in the breaking of their ancestral difference between tribal feuds and the chain of succession ... but also in their wars of the western world.45 How right prohibition of headhunting and can- they are! And since the authors would nibalism, a prohibition which to us probably condemn any war of aggres- too seems obvious and humane. But sion, they ought also condemn and even the prohibition of the inhuman punish tribal feuds. Will the next thing can have effects which are themselves be the justification of murder before a inhuman. Thus in 1950 in her book court, by reference to the existence of Sex and Temperament in Three Primi- wars? Would the authors also have been tive Societies the well-known American minded to maintain National Socialism anthropologist Margaret Mead reported in existence, because the Nazi culture concerning the Mundugumor, a Papuan would be destroyed if they were forbid- tribe of New Guinea, that the prohibi- den to kill Jews and other opponents? tion of head-hunting and cannibalism A culture which makes murder essential had completely destroyed the essential to its existence will, according to bibli- character of the life of the tribe, “like cal teaching, inevitably die. “For all they

10 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated? that take the sword shall perish with the patrols occupied the inaccessible areas sword” (Mt. 26:52). in the interior of the islands in 1964.49 But back to the book we have chosen as our example: It was, however, only in the nine- 6 Cannibalism in teenth century that the inhabitants of the Old Testament? the Fiji archipelago gained the dubious reputation of being particularly terrible In this connection every Bible-believ- cannibals. This reputation was spread ing Christian will naturally be inter- by missionaries, who were not exactly ested in the question of whether canni- delighted by the persistent resistance of balism is known to the Old Testament, the islanders to the scarcely convincing or at least whether it speaks of such examples of Christian “gentleness and peoples. The answer to this question is tolerance.” However we know also, dat- surprising: ing from the year 1847, the statement of (1) Cannibalism is known to the Old an old Fijian chief that the bloody wars Testament. But nowhere is another and constant cannibalism were recent, nation blamed for this cannibalism, as and had not been known to such an we have discovered throughout history. extent in the time of his youth. The It is always the nation of the Jews itself sacral cannibalism of ancient times had which is the target. The Old Testament turned, as a result of the campaigns to does not need to ascribe to other nations eradicate the tribes, into unrestrained things which they have not done or at man-eating that was the observation least reject. and conclusion of contemporaries on (2) Cannibalism is never regarded as the spot.46 normal or right, but is always seen as What sort of argument is that? Nine- the worst kind of transgression. This is teenth century cannibalism was not so the view even of apostate kings: bad, because earlier it was not so wide- In Lev. 26:29 (see vv. 27–29) and Dt. spread and had a religious basis! Not 28:53 and 57 (see vv. 53–57) one of only that, but an example like this con- the high points of God’s judgment on tradicts the evolutionary view of canni- the people’s transgression of the law is balism. Cannibalism is not necessarily declared to be that women will eat the the early stage of a culture, but can also flesh of their own children. The fulfil- take shape only at a much later stage. ment of both declarations is to be found There was also human sacrifice and in Lam. 2:20 and 4:10 and in 2 Kings cannibalism after the Second World 6:28f. (see vv. 25–30). Here, too, it is War.47 In New Guinea the cannibalism only a matter of mothers eating their described by Fredrik Barth48 did not children in the course of a dramatic come to an end until Australian police famine. In 2 Kings 6:25–30 even the

Pr o m u n d i s 11 Thomas Schirrmacher king, who himself does not keep the and we do not mean cannibalism that is law, is terrified when he learns of it. In encouraged and approved, only against Ezk. 5:10 we are told that as a judgment its own people.50 “the fathers shall eat the sons” and “the sons shall eat their fathers,” which could however also be understood as a general 7 Sources for description of mutual killing. In Jer. evidence of cannibalism 19:9 similarly there is a general description: “And I will cause them to eat the Astrid Wendt, in the first part of her flesh of their sons and the flesh of their Tübingen ethnological dissertation on daughters, and they shall eat every one the historical sources for cannibalism the flesh of his friend in the siege ...” in Brazil,51 examines the portrayal of In Ezk. 36:13f we read about Israel the ritual cannibalism of the Brazilian restored by the Spirit: “Thus saith the Indians in Italian, Portuguese, German, Lord God: Because they say unto you, English and Dutch sources from the Thou land devourest up men, and hast period from 1500 to 1654. The writer bereaved thy nations; Therefore thou brings out clearly the varying interests shalt devour men no more, neither of the different European nations, but bereave thy nations any more, saith the (rightly) considers the numerous records Lord God.” It is not clear whether the of and references to cannibalism to be text is to be understood figuratively or fundamentally credible. not. In any case, here as always in the Particularly interesting is the second Old Testament cannibalism is linked to part of the study, dealing with allegori- those belonging to its own people. This cal portrayals of America in carvings, is significant in the light of the previ- atlases and travelogues of the same ously described situation where canni- period, with illustrations reproduced in balism was always an accusation made a comprehensive appendix. It is evident by one nation against another. that the portrayal of cannibalism was So in the Old Testament cannibal- part of the archetypical European por- ism is not tolerated, but features as trayal of America. one of the principal characteristics Compared with the excellent por- of a perverse society. It is always the trayal of the actual material, the intro- people themselves who are involved in duction and conclusion, which deal such transgression in circumstances of with the problem of cannibalism in most severe famine. It is typical of the general, seem to me to be weak, only Old Testament, which condemns other referring to what every ethnologist must nations in the sharpest terms and places and does know about cannibalism. them under the judgment of God, that (Incidentally, to assume a “relationship it directs the charge of cannibalism, in terms of ideas” between cannibalism

12 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated? and Eucharist,52 without going into it may be regarded as having failed.60 In any further, seems to me to be some- addition, Astrid Wendt has pointed out what out of place.) that Staden, although a convinced Prot- Wendt’s final verdict entirely contra- estant, was not in the position of a spiri- dicts that of Arens and Frank:53 tual or colonial leader (he was, after all, a German peasant) who had an interest The fact that ritual cannibalism is in portraying the Indians in a particu- mentioned and in some cases described larly negative light.61 On the contrary, in detail by all the writers, whatever he was surprised by the kind treatment their nationality, status, or relation- he received as a prisoner: ship to the indigenous people, leads to the conclusion that this sort of anthro- First he had to submit to the ritual pophagy did indeed exist. This is all the which was required of him as a future more probable when even those authors human sacrifice. It was only by feigning whose aim it was to portray the way of toothache that he succeeded in escaping life of the Brazilians as an example to be the jaws of death. This prevented him followed (even for Europeans) describe from eating, and made him too skinny cannibalistic rites of this sort.54 to be worth putting in the cookpot. He went on to make some shrewd predic- The most significant German source is tions, and in this way attained the undoubtedly the account of 1556–1557 status of a tribal oracle, and from then by Hans Staden,55 who gives an eye-wit- on was too valuable to be killed.62 ness description “in sensational richness of detail of the events which eventually reached their climax in the consump- 8 Cannibalism and evolution: tion of the slain.”56 So it is that D. For- cannibalism in pre-humans syth made use of Staden as a powerful and early humans argument against William Arens, and produced a detailed rejection of Arens’ Anyone venturing to say anything criticism of Staden.57 about cannibalism will also be required Staden, a peasant from Hessen58 to say something about the cannibal- who was born between 1525 and 1528, ism of the alleged pre-humans and served under Portuguese and Spaniards early humans.63 Cannibalism in pre- throughout the world. In about 1553 and early humans or the links between in Brazil he was captured by the Tupi- animal and human is, for many, some- namba. Before being ransomed over a thing which goes without saying.64 Yet year later by some Frenchmen, he had all the discoveries can either only verify the opportunity to witness at first hand the fact that those of the same species every aspect of the ritual of cannibalism. died or were killed, or else that the flesh All attempts to discredit this witness59 of those who had just been killed was

Pr o m u n d i s 13 Thomas Schirrmacher cut off. The prominent prehistorian and seems to be no secular explanation of evolutionary scholar K. J. Narr emphat- their being set down there). If it was a ically rejects these assertions: matter of remains of a meal, then the These findings have in part been victims must have been consumed else- connected with cannibalism; but such where and their skulls brought later to an assumption can neither be directly this store-place: the assumption of can- deduced from the findings, nor be sup- nibalism in this case is arbitrary and ported by ethnological analogies taken unnecessary. The incompleteness of the from cultures which are in some way skeletons, a feature which is mentioned structurally comparable ... And other with enthusiasm in respect of other putative instances of man-eating are at sites, can be ascribed to the activities of best ambiguous. That applies not least predatory or scavenging animals; and to findings relating to “Australopith- the fairly frequent occurrence of indi- ecines,” to whom at the same time can- vidual skulls or parts of skulls can be nibalism and a “particular interest in explained either in this way or by other the skull” were ascribed, although it is reasons for their being deposited. (The more likely that the smashing up and best evidence is a skull from a cave in distribution of skeletal parts was the Italy, which lay inside a circle of stones work of predatory and scavenging ani- and bones.) The most ancient showpiece mals. Cannibalism as a “distinguish- of Old Stone Age man-eating is the dis- ing” characteristic of early man which coveries made in Krapina (Croatia), elevates him above the animals together where fragments of skulls and other with the consequent anthropological bones together with the remains of ani- conclusions about the removal of inhi- mals lay, partly burned and randomly bitions etc. remains, despite its constant distributed, in the stratum, something repetition, a conjecture without any real which can be entirely explained by foundation.65 digging-up of graves, biting into pieces He goes on to explain in detail the by scavenging animals, penetration into most often quoted discoveries: new excavation strata, and the like.66

The question of cannibalism is linked In parentheses Narr adds the real with that of intentional killing; but reason for the attempt to discover can- “intra-species killing” does not con- nibalism in evolutionary precursors to stitute proof of anthropophagy. The man: “It is basically older than the dis- discovery of Chukutien, where Peking coveries and essentially relies upon an Man was found, cannot be regarded as outdated evolutionary reconstruction evidence, because there it was almost of the history of civilization.”67 entirely skull-tops which were discov- Here we might draw attention to the ered (four of them in a stratum which real problem, which is that Narr merely contains almost nothing else: there substitutes another evolutionary recon-

14 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated? struction for the old one, whereas I sources until the century before last see in this problem a general criticism were not in some measure Christian?– of any attempt at evolutionary recon- but also in consequence takes under its struction. The quest for primitive man, wing cannibalism as something which occupying a lower level of culture, pro- is not reprehensible and which can be vided fruitful ground for every rumour explained in terms of religion and cul- of cannibalism. By going on to assume ture,70 becomes much more evident in that the “primitive” tribes of the world dealing with the example of human occupied the same level as pre-humans sacrifice. and early humans, it was possible with Let us take an example. According the aid of ethnological investigations to to the ethnologist Michelle Zimbalist, reconstruct the everyday scene of early among the Ingolots of New Guinea the man. (This gains popular expression last beheading in the context of head- in such sensational reports as “With hunting took place in 1972.71 Nigel the Stone Age men of Brazil.”) It was a Davies comments: “The anthropolo- short step from this to the cannibalism gist declares that the killing was of a of pre-humans and early humans. Even purely ritual nature, and not influenced if this comparison was only openly by politics.”72 So a ritual, religious kill- shared by a few, its results are still often ing is not bad, whereas a political one encountered at an unconscious level. would be. The ethical system capable of In fact, however, there is not only no making judgments of this nature is not proof of the evolution of mankind, but revealed to us. also no special connection between the Friedrich Schwenn writes similarly evolution of man and cannibalism. J. A. concerning the ancient human sacri- MacCulloch points out that “the worst fices, for which he puts forward many forms of cannibalism”68 are to be found explanations,73 “that the human sacri- not among the people on the lowest fices were by no means the result of cru- cultural level, but among people “with elty or anthropophagy.”74 a certain amount of culture.”69 Against this view, the folklorist K. Beth objects:

9 Human sacrifice The fact that human sacrifices may be vindicated? the result of sheer cruelty is adequately witnessed by such incidences of cruel The phenomenon to which we have slaughter of human beings as those car- already referred, whereby the bias ried out by Nero. But in general they against the Christian religion not only are so strongly linked to a ritual reli- rejects out of hand as incredible innu- gious observance that both their origin merable Christian sources–and which and their continuance find their psycho-

Pr o m u n d i s 15 Thomas Schirrmacher

logical explanation in the most diverse been proved that these victims suffer, forms of heathen religion which share a fight for their rights, and have need of particular attitude to faith.75 state protection just as much as in other cultures.80 The professor of ethnology Hanns J. Prem writes: “Meanwhile the view of life which motivates human sacrifices 10 The widespread incidence has been increasingly understood.”76 of human sacrifice In this “understanding,” naturally the theory of evolution plays an impor- Let us now turn briefly to the distri- tant rôle.77 bution of incidences of human sacrifice. This understanding constantly leads Human sacrifices were spread through- to special treatment of Indian tribes out the world.81 This is especially true and other groups when it is a ques- of the particular form of the sacrifice tion of deeds of violence. This is true of of human beings on the occasion of the once very warlike Kaiapos in Bra- the laying of a foundation stone: “The zil. Chief Paulinhi Paiacan, formerly building sacrifice is a custom to be a shining example for the Brazilian found throughout the whole world, and Indians and the environmentalists, lost among people of every stage of culture his reputation first through his involve- ... Doubtless the original building sac- ment in multi-million-pound indus- rifices were men who were entombed tries in mahogany, gold and chestnut alive in the foundations of the building. oil, and finally as a result of his rape of In this case the sacrifice of children is an 18-year-old girl.78 He refuses to give remarkably common.”82 himself up to the authorities. He said, Unlike cannibalism, human sacrifice “I despise the law of the white man,”79 is widespread, and not restricted to par- and because of this he does not con- ticular cultures. “There are only a few sider them to apply to him. His tribe, races and a few religions with a history the Kaiapos, supports him, so that the which is free of human sacrifices.”83 government is undecided what it should At the same time its existence is con- do. Finally, the tribe is known to be stantly covered up. “It is an essential very warlike, and in 1981 was respon- feature of religious historical writing sible for the massacre of twenty farm- that mention of human sacrifices is sup- workers. Anyone who does not lend pressed. Nonetheless the fact that they his support to Paiacan is regarded as frequently took place is undisputed.”84 having antiquated ideas. But the fact is The world-wide incidence of human constantly overlooked that this is a mat- sacrifice can be demonstrated by a num- ter of a violent crime, and protection is ber of examples from history. enjoyed only by the surviving protago- Greeks and Romans: We may begin our nists, not their victims. And it has long collection of examples with the human

16 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated? sacrifices of the Greeks85 and Romans:86 lost their lives in trying to escape from “When we take into account all the sacrifice at the hands of the Skidi-Paw- works of art of our literature which deal nees.95 with human sacrifices, together with In the case of North America it is, the sagas of classical antiquity, human however, essentially true that “Among sacrifices constitute a relatively not North American Indian cultures evi- insignificant proportion of our intellec- dence of human sacrifices is less easy to tual property.”87 find.”96 In the case of the Romans it was Africa: In Africa human sacrifices only the spread of Christianity which were specially widespread in connection brought an end to human sacrifices: with the burial of kings. Just to give one “Cæsar Commodus (180–192 a.d.), for example: “The Barundi slaughtered instance, killed human beings in rites vast numbers of men, so that the spirit which belonged to the cult of Mithras. of the king should not seek vengeance; This had become very popular in Rome, even many a leading Barundi was killed before Christianity became the official in order to calm down the king’s court- religion.”88 iers.”97 Certain human sacrifices were forbid- China: At the death of many Chinese den for the first time by the Roman Sen- emperors various servants, wives and ate in 97 b.c., but it is not clear which concubines, soldiers or members of the human sacrifices these were. Cæsar royal household had also to die.98 Augustus forbade Roman citizens to Incas: The sun maidens were chosen take part in human sacrifices. Not until throughout the whole kingdom at the Cæsar Claudius was the ban made uni- age of ten years. They were brought up versal. Then under later emperors it was in their own convents, either to become included in the corpus iuris, the impe- brides of the sun god, or else to become rial legal code.89 “But it was difficult to wives and concubines of the officials. get rid of something which had once The Inca was the only man allowed to been a living faith.”90 enter the convent at any time, in order America: A well-attested example to select concubines for his harem. It is that of the “human sacrifices of the was also he alone who decided whom Skidi-Pawnees, formerly inhabitants of they should marry, presenting the sun Nebraska.”91 The last human sacrifice maidens as a mark of honour to offi- took place in 1838.92 The sacrifices were cials, artists and others.99 “Human well-known, because in 1817 and 1818 sacrifices were much more rare among a chieftain and his son Petalesharro pre- the Incas than among their well-known vented two human sacrifices.93 In 1827 contemporaries in Mexico, the Aztecs. an Indian agent succeeded in obtaining In Tahuanti-suyu humans were sacri- the freedom of a captured Cheyenne ficed above all when the health of the girl.94 In 1838 for the last time men ruler or the success of a military cam-

Pr o m u n d i s 17 Thomas Schirrmacher paign was at stake, or with a view to Thor, Freyr, Foiste, Thorgerd and Höl- averting an epidemic and driving it out gabrud.”106 of the country.”100 First of all by way of evidence we have Aztecs:101 The best-known human archaeological discoveries. The well- sacrifices in history are doubtless the known marsh corpses may well, for human sacrifices of the Aztecs, which instance, have been closely connected we have already referred to in connec- with human sacrifices.107 In addition tion with cannibalism. there are many descriptions by Roman and other authors. Friedrich Schwenn The scale of human sacrifice is appall- summarises the report of Tacitus, gen- ing. Some 70–80,000 victims were erally regarded as reliable, in his Germa- sacrificed at the dedication of the main nia:108 “Among the Teutons in spring- pyramid in Tenochtitlan in 1487. time the priest of the Nerthus would Whereas earlier estimates had pointed drive the goddess’s carriage, bedecked to an average annual sacrifice of about with hangings, through the land, and 15,000 human victims in central everywhere there were joyful feasts in Mexico (out of a population of two mil- the amphictyony. After that the car- lion), recent population estimates push riage was washed in the holy lake, and the total as high as 25 million, and the servants who had been involved in suggest that as many as 250,000, one the ceremony were drowned.”109 percent of the total population were sac- R. L. M. Derolez outlines Strabo’s rificed each year.102 reliable account:

This involved above all the offering of For which god the extremely grue- the heart: “The Mesoamerican human some human sacrifice was intended, sacrifices were mainly carried out by the which Strabo ascribes to the Cimri, this excision of the heart.”103 author does not tell us. But he gives a The Latin-Americologist and journal- precise account of the ceremony: “The ist Patrick Tierney underwent great dan- women who went into battle with the gers to unearth contemporary evidence men were led by priestesses who could for human sacrifice in the Andes.104 He foretell the future. These priestesses were states that the authorities and justiciary grey-haired women robed in white seek to ignore the problem. garments ... With sword in hand they Teutons:105 In the case of the Teutons, marched through the camp towards the human sacrifices were the highest sacri- prisoners of war, crowned them with fices offered to almost all the important wreaths, and led them to a bronze caul- gods: “So the most important and high- dron with a capacity of about twenty est sacrifices are human sacrifices: there bucketsful. By the side of this cauldron are numerous testimonies to their being there stood a ladder. They climbed up offered to Zeus, Woden, Donar, Odin, it, cut the throat of each prisoner of war

18 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?

as he was passed up to them. According mans, until in the tenth century they to the way in which the blood flowed were converted to Christianity.”116 into the cauldron, they prophesied the And concerning Iceland we are told: future. Others cut up the bodies of the “On the occasion of the introduction of prisoners of war, and after examining Christianity to Iceland, at the Althing their entrails declared in a loud voice in the year 1000, the heathen offered to that their people would win the vic- their idols two men from each quarter of tory.”110 the country. In contrast the Christians decided to dedicate the same number of Wolfgang Golther mentions another men of excellence and ability to the ser- Teutonic custom which lacks none vice of the Lord.”117 of the cruelty of the Aztecs’ practice However, this rôle of Christian- of excising the heart: “The cruel Nor- ity is not always appreciated. Thus dic custom of the cutting of the blood Nigel Davies writes quite “neutrally”: eagle, whereby the victor would cleave “Human sacrifice in the conventional his opponent’s ribs asunder with his sense will doubtless disappear, as forms sword the length of the spine, and of Western culture penetrate to every remove the lungs through the opening corner of the world.”118 thus formed, was a cultic act.”111 In reality the abolition of human Sometimes the victims could be sacrifices was mostly the result of the prominent people, even though it was courageous intervention by men wish- mainly prisoners of war and criminals ing to introduce Christian standards who were sacrificed by the Teutons: or justice and order. Anyone who criti- “Thus the Swedes sacrificed Olaf, their cises this once again forgets about the king, to Odin in order to obtain a good countless innocent victims, only for the year.”112 sake of not offending some religion and In 743 at the Synod of Liftinae (Bel- culture. But something which is based gium), presided over by Boniface, the on human sacrifices and murder has still performed practice of human sac- no right to exist, however religious and rifice was forbidden.113 But for a long respectable the justification for it may time after that building sacrifices and be made out to be. This is something the walling up of children remained which everyone, even down to the common practice.114 In Oldenburg chil- researcher, will at last realise when he is dren were offered in building sacrifices himself cast in the rôle of the victim. as late as the seventeenth century.115 From the thirteenth century a.d. at It is always the introduction of Chris- the latest, when for the first time a Sul- tianity which spells the end for human tan had a thousand of them incarcer- sacrifices. Thus it is stated of the Nor- ated in Delhi, the Thugs (“stranglers”) mans: “The practice of human sacrifice in India offered sacrificial victims to the continued unabated among the Nor- cruel goddess Kali, whereby they were

Pr o m u n d i s 19 Thomas Schirrmacher throttled (strangled) in an extensive The English explorer Sir Richard Bur- ritual involving a noose. The thousands ton was opposed to the abolition of a of victims were hunted down in a series mass sacrifice which took place in an of raids. It was not until 1799 that the annual ceremony involving 500 to British became suspicious, but despite 1,000 victims in order to produce a this very few “stranglers” were captured medicine in Dahomey (West Africa), before 1830. Eventually Captain Wil- because this would amount to destroy- liam Sleeman was commissioned to put ing the land.121 Is the maintenance of an end to the evil which continued to the culture more important than the claim thousands of innocent victims protection of human life? Ought one each year. By 1837 Sleeman had cap- equally to have maintained at any price tured 8,000 of the about 10,000 “stran- the National Socialist culture, which glers,” each of whom had killed up to similarly cast its spell over millions of 250 people. When in 1876 the future people? King Edward VII visited India Thug- gery had been destroyed, and all he could do was speak to an old Thug in 11 Christian human prison.119 sacrifices? The burning of widows (called “sut- tee,” literally “faithful wife”), i.e. the The main Old Testament report con- cremation of wives on the occasion of cerns the heathen human and child their husband’s death, in India was also sacrifices to Moloch, if one leaves out gradually restricted by the English. It of account the fact that the king of the is true that they at first tolerated this Moabites sacrificed his son before the ritual, which Alexander the Great had eyes of the Israelites, at which the Isra- discovered in the Punjab in 326 b.c., elites were so infuriated and shocked contenting themselves with official reg- that they immediately departed from istration of the cases, but they finally the battlefield (2 Kings 3:27). made up their minds in 1829 to forbid the burning of widows. But in those The word Moloch (or Melech, Melek, regions of India not directly under the Malik) meaning king, is a misvocaliza- control of the English the importance tion of the name of a pagan, the con- of the prince continued to be measured sonants of king being retained and the by the number of wives who were cre- vowels of shame used. Human sacrifices mated at his burial.120 were made to this god, who is identified In contrast to this there were always with the god of Ammon in 1 Kings 11:7, those researchers and ethnologists 33. There are references to Moloch in who spoke out against the abolition of Jeremiah 49:1, 3; Amos 1:13–15; Zeph- human sacrifices, for the sake of main- aniah 1:5; Leviticus 18:21; 20:2–5; II taining the previously existing culture. Kings 23:10; Jeremiah 32:35, etc., and

20 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?

the location of Moloch worship in Israel refers to alleged parallels to be found was the Valley of Hinnom (Jer. 32:35; in the Old Testament and in Christen- II Kings 23:10). Moloch worship was dom.125 Moloch, the offering of Isaac, not limited to Ammon. various prophecies and not least the Moloch is “the king” or “king- Supper instituted by Jesus are made ship.” The name of Moloch is also given to serve as evidence of the suppressed as Milcom (I Kings 11:5, 7, 33) and desire for human sacrifice. Moloch? Yes, Malcam (Jer. 49:1, 3, RV; Zeph. 1:5). Moloch, however unlikely that sounds. Moloch was an aspect of Baal (Jer. Tierney writes: “It is true that Moloch 32:35), Baal meaning lord. Under the has been stylized as one of the greatest name of Melcarth, king of Tyre, Baal demons of Judaeo-Christian literature, was worshipped with human sacrifices but there are conclusive proofs that this at Tyre.122 Moloch was in fact far from being a demon, but simply the name for child Children passed through the fire,123 sacrifices to Yahweh.”126 which resulted in their death (2 Kings It is biblical criticism which makes 16:3; 21:6; Ezk. 16:20f). This happened this possible! Moloch, the embodiment especially in the Valley of Ben Hinnom of all that is evil, whose place of sacrifice (Jer. 7:31; 19:5) near Jerusalem, which near Jerusalem became the source of the consequently became a name for hell biblical concept of “hell,” was allegedly (Heb. “gehenna”). Named as the gods none other than the Creator God Yah- which received these child sacrifices weh himself. Sometimes one has the were Moloch (Lev. 18:32; 20:2; 2 Kings feeling that historical-critical research 23:10; Jer. 32:35; 1 Kings 11:7; Zeph. means nothing other than that every- 1:5), “Baal” (Jer. 19:5; 32:35), and thing was exactly the opposite of what “idols” in general (Ezk. 23:37; 16:20f). it appears to be. In reality, Tierney’s To make children pass through the fire observation constitutes nothing less counted as a particularly reprehensible than the worst of blasphemies, uttered combination of murder and idolatry, in the name of science. which was therefore subject to the death Paul Volz127 includes under the head- penalty (Dt. 18:10; Lev. 20:2–5). ing of human sacrifices in the Old Tes- It has long become the practice to tament the redemption of the first-born “discover” numerous human sacrifices in Ex. 34:19; 13:12f; etc.; the offering by the Israelites themselves, with the of Isaac in Gen. 22; the offering of obvious purpose of undermining the Jephthah’s daughter in Judg. 11:34f; idea that the biblical faith has contrib- as well as 2 Sam. 21:9; 1 Kings 16:34; uted throughout the world to the stem- Ps. 106:37; Mic. 6:7; and mixes these ming of the practice of human sacri- up together with the human sacrifices fice.124 In connection with the human to Baal and other heathen gods in Jer. sacrifices in the Andes Patrick Tierney 3:24; Ps. 106:38; 2 Kings 3:27.

Pr o m u n d i s 21 Thomas Schirrmacher

Undoubtedly the favourite parallels his sons through human sacrifice would are those of the redemption of the first- probably not have been understood as a born128 and the offering of Isaac, which curse, whereas the undesired loss of his from the viewpoint of the biblical crit- children was. ics allegedly naturally had its origin in In Mic. 6:7f. God replies to the ques- an actual human sacrifice.129 tion whether human sacrifice would be Friedrich Schwenn even understands acceptable (Mic. 6:7), that man knows the crucifixion as a human sacrifice: what is good and is required, i.e. to “This is how a practice of heathen- practise justice, mercy and humility ism or of unenlightened Jewish reli- (Mic. 6:8). Jer. 7:31; 19:5 state expressly gion was spiritualized.”130 But he has that God has never commanded that the to go on: “Since then there has been first-born should be actually sacrificed. no more offering of animal, or indeed In Ps. 106:37 it is reported that the human, sacrifices anywhere where faith Israelites sacrificed their children “to in Christ really influenced the whole demons,” because they worshipped the of a nation. But the spiritual powers idols of the heathen. Here the divine which it sought to suppress all too often criticism of human sacrifices is clearly remained clandestinely alive, and often spelt out. In 2 Sam. 21:9 we have only enough Christianity was only out- the report of the carrying out of the wardly the victor.”131 death penalty. It is only by importing a There has been a long tradition of mysterious background that any human anti-Semitism, according to which the sacrifice can be suspected here. Jews were allegedly “committed to rit- It is often questioned whether the ual murder”132 on the basis of the law. judge Jephthah in Judg. 11:31–39 is Even the Romans accused both Jews133 described as actually having sacrificed and Christians134 of offering human and killed his daughter. In Judg. 11:31 sacrifices, which in fact they themselves Jephthah makes a vow that if victory practised. is obtained the first person who then But let us now turn to the particular meets him “shall surely be the Lord’s, texts and accounts which are put for- and I will offer it up as a burnt offer- ward in support of human sacrifices in ing.” In the event the first to meet him the Old Testament. after the victory is his only child, his In 1 Kings 16:34 it is merely stated daughter (Judg. 11:34), and he says to that, in fulfilment of Joshua’s curse her: “You have brought me very low. You in Jos. 6:26, that anyone who rebuilt are among those who trouble me!” (Judg. Jerusalem would lose his oldest and 11:35). The result was that his family youngest son, and in fact two sons of had to become extinct. The daughter Hiel did die. There is no question of keeps the vow made by her father, and human sacrifices, even if it had involved consequently a lament is sung for her a Canaanite sacrifice. For Hiel to lose each year (Judg. 11:39f). But she asks

22 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated? for “two months” to “bewail [her] vir- would have been. James Jordan makes ginity” (Judg. 11:37, repeated in Judg. the assumption that Jephthah wanted 11:38). Judg. 11:39 goes on to report to set up a hereditary royal dynasty the fulfilment of the vow: “and he car- in opposition to the will of God, and ried out his vow with her which he had this God prevented through the vow, vowed. She knew no man.” Does this whereby his daughter did not marry mean that he offered his daughter as a and therefore could not bear an heir to “burnt offering”? That this was not the the throne.136 case is indicated135 by the fact that the In the case of the offering of Isaac, text speaks of a burnt offering before which was commanded by God (Gen. the Lord, which would have been a sac- 22:1–19), it must be very clearly empha- rifice on the altar of the Tabernacle. In sised that it did not in fact take place, addition the Tabernacle was in Shiloh, which is evidenced by the fact that the in the territory of the Ephraimites, with historical figure of Isaac continued the whom Jephthah was in dispute, so he history of Israel. The “offering of Isaac” would have been unable to go to Shiloh. was indeed a foreshadowing of the sacri- But above all, the fulfilment of the vow fice of Jesus, the only Son of God. Isaac excludes its being understood as a sac- could not have taken away the guilt of rifice of the daughter on the altar of mankind, which only the later descen- Yahweh. How would the vow then be dant (“seed”) of Abraham, Jesus Christ, fulfilled? The text states: “and he car- was able to do. ried out his vow with her which he had The only actual sacrifice of a human vowed. She knew no man” (Judg. 11:39). being according to the will of God is the Thus the vow involved the daughter not death of Jesus.137 And this does not apply knowing a man throughout her life- to the Lord’s Supper, which is not a time, thus remaining celibate and being repetition of the sacrifice, but a remem- entirely consecrated to the Lord (“shall brance of it. In the first place it must surely be the Lord’s”). That makes sense certainly be established that Jesus was of the daughter wanting to bewail her killed by those who opposed him, who “virginity.” You don’t bewail your vir- on that account rendered themselves ginity because you are to die as a virgin, liable to punishment. No human being but because you have to live as a virgin. is, or ever will be, called upon to offer In addition, Jephthah was a God-fear- human sacrifice. God used the death of ing man (Judg. 11:11), who knew the his Son at the hands of his enemies in a books of Moses (Judg. 11:15–18). For way which cannot be explained to pro- this military campaign and this vow vide atonement for sin. By human sacri- “the Spirit of the Lord came upon” him fice we normally understand something (Judg. 11:29). All this makes it unlikely quite different, i.e. that human beings that here he commits one of the great- sacrifice a human being to God. Even est crimes of Israelite history, which is in the case of the crucifixion, there can what the sacrifice of a child to the Lord be no question of that. C&S

Pr o m u n d i s 23 Thomas Schirrmacher

AnnotationAnmerkungen

1 Translated from the German by Peter Beale. 9 “Cannibalism,” p. 511f. in Encyclopedia Britan- 2 Reprint of “Ehrenrettung von Kannibalismus nica, vol. II (of 30 vols) (Chicago/London: Ency- und Menschenopfer? 1. Teil,” Factum 6/1994: clopedia Britannica Inc., 198215) (9th Edition). pp. 46–50 and “Ehrenrettung von Kannibalis- 10 A.W. Brian Simpson, Cannibalism and the mus und Menschenopfer? 2. Teil,” Factum 7 and Common Law: The Story of the Tragic Last Voyage 8/1994: pp. 36–41. This contribution represents of the Mignotte and the Strange Legal Proceedings a thoroughgoing revision of my partly retracted to Which it Gave Rise (Chicago: University of article “Die Kannibalen: Mythen der Wissen- Chicago Press, 1984). schaft 1,” Factum 5/1988: pp. 184–188. 11 E.g. Richard Andree, Die Anthropagie: Eine 3 Cf. David Livingstone, The Last Journal of ethnographische Studie (Leipzig: Verlag von David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 Veit, 1887); P. Bergemann, Die Verbreitung der to his Death, ed. Horace Waller, vol. 2 (London: Anthropagie über die Erde und Ermittelung einiger John Murray). Wesenszüge dieses Brauches: Eine ethnographisch- 4 Charles Verlinden, Eberhard Schmitt (ed.), ethnologische Studie (Bunzlau: G. Kreuschmer, Die mittelalterlichen Ursprünge der europäis- 1893); Rudolf S. Steinmetz, “Endokannibalis- chen Expansion, Dokumente zur Geschichte der mus,” Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen europäischen Expansion 1 (Munich: C.H. Beck, Gesellschaft in Wien 26/NF16 (1896), pp. 1–60; 1986), pp. 300–303. Ewald Volhard, Kannibalismus, Studien zur Kul- turkunde 5 (Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder, 5 Die Menschenopfer bei Cf. Friedrich Schwenn, 1939) (although he has the remarkable theory den Griechen und Römern , Religionsgeschichtli- that cannibalism stems from “identification with che Versuche und Vorarbeiten 15/3 (Giessen: A. the plants” [p. 485]); as well as from the years Töpelmann, 1915), pp. 193–195; Hans Dieter 1884/1887 (see Erwin Frank ... y se lo comen: Stöver, Christenverfolgung im Römischen Reich: Kritische Studie der Schriftquellen zum Kannibal- Ihr Hintergrunde und Folgen (Düsseldorf: Econ, ismus der panosprachiger Indianer Ost-Perus und 1982), p. 86 et passim. Cf. also the examples Brasiliens, Mundus Reihe Ethnologie 7 (Bonn: below of ethnologists bracketting together can- Mundus, 1987) XXVIII), or from the year 1939 nibalism and the Lord’s Supper, thereby indi- (see Annegret Nippa, “Nahrung,” pp. 145–149 in rectly removing blame from antiquity. Bernhard Streck [ed.], Wörterbuch der Ethnologie 6 Cf. the examples given by Erwin Frank. “’Sie [Cologne: Du Mont Buchverlag, 1987], p. 146). fressen Menschen, wie ihr scheußliches Aussehen 12 E.g. Peggy Reeves Sanday, Divine Hunger: (‘They eat human beings, as their hideous beweist ...’ Cannibalism as a Cultural System (Cambridge: appearance indicates ...’) : Kritische Überlegungen Cambridge University Press, 1986); Reay Tan- zu Zeugen und Quellen der Menschenfresserei,” nahill, Fleisch und Blut: Eine Kulturgeschichte des pp. 199–224 in: Hans Peter Duerr (ed.), Authen- Kannibalismus (Munich: W. Goldmann, 1979); tizität und Betrug in der Ethnologie (Frankfurt: Christian Spiel, Menschen essen Menschen: Die Suhrkamp, 1987), pp. 200–203. Welt der Kannibalen (Munich: C. Bertelsmann, 7 Contrary to this e.g. Herbert Tischner (ed.), 1972); Garry Hogg, Cannibalism and Human Völkerkunde, Das Fischer Lexicon 13 (Frankfurt: Sacrifice (London: Robert Hale, 1958); cf. also Fischer Taschenbuch-Verlag, 1959), p. 282. Ioan M. Lewis, Schamanen, Hexer, Kannibalen: 8 Michel Panoff, Michel Perrin, Taschenwörter- die Realität des Religiösen (Frankfurt: Athenäum, buch der Ethnologie (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1989), esp. pp. 93–104; and from the year 1983 Verlag, 19822), p. 155. P. Brown, D. Tuzin (ed.), The Ethnography of Cannibalism (Washington, 1983).

24 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?

13 “Kannibalismus Zäher Mythos,” Der Spiegel 22 “Kannibalismus Zäher Mythos,” Der Spiegel, (Hamburg) 28/1986, pp. 154–156. op. cit., p. 154. 14 William Arens, The Man-Eating Myth: Anthro- 23 Erwin Frank, ... y se lo comen, op. cit. pology and Anthropophagy (New York: Oxford 24 Ibid., p. 178. University Press, 1979), p. v. 25 Frank further concludes that cannibalism, if he 15 Ibid., p. 9. came to be convinced of it, would not be a matter 16 Ibid., p. 180f. of dishonour (ibid., p. 166). He is thus free of any 17 David Livingstone, The Last Journal of David suspicion, even now in reversing his conclusion, Livingstone ..., op. cit., vol. 2, p. 98 and elsewhere; of wishing to save the honour of the people he cf. William Arens, The Man-Eating Myth, op. cit., is investigating, although this motive still keeps pp. 85–87, and “Kannibalismus Zäher Mythos,” coming to the surface. It would have been good Der Spiegel, op. cit., p. 55. to have a comprehensive consideration of the 18 international discussion. Also, although in 1979 As a modern evangelical counterexample to Arens’ work was only available in manuscript, Livingstone the account of the missionary Don it would by 1987 have been possible to quote Das Frie- Richardson (also the subject of a film), extensively from it, cf. ibid., p. XXVIII. Again, denskind Wandlung einer (“The Peace Child”), it would have been useful to discover whether Dschungelkultur grausamer Tücke in Neuguinea Frank was the student extensively referred to by (Bad Liebenzell: Verlag der Liebenzeller Mission, William Arens (The Man-Eating Myth, op. cit., 1979) is often put forward. Without wishing to p. 173f), who with his finals dissertation stood doubt the existence of cannibalism in the tribe by his professor in the face of sharp criticism. where Richardson was a missionary, this must Although I am familiar with the Bonn Ethno- be treated with some reservation. Don Richard- logical Seminary, where Frank studied, I have son, who is known to me personally and whose not so far been able to ascertain this. foundational book Eternity in Their Hearts I was 26 responsible for publishing through the same Erwin Frank, ... y se lo comen, op. cit., p. 180f. publishing house, does believe the tribe success- 27 Ibid., p. 190f. fully evangelised by him to have been formerly 28 Erwin Frank, “’Sie fressen Menschen, wie ihr cannibalistic, but has not been an eye-witness to scheußliches Aussehen beweist ...’,” op. cit. cannibalism, and does not refer to any eye-wit- 29 Ibid nesses, but portrays cannibalism as something ., p. 205. which had ceased before his time. Typical are p. 30 Roger M. Keesing, Cultural Anthropology: A 170f, where he records how astonished he was, Contemporary Perspective (New York: CBS Pub- in a society which he thought to be character- lishing Japan, 19812), p. 154, criticises Arens’ ised entirely by headhunting and man-eating, to position, appealing to the eye-witness account become acquainted with the peaceful implement by his great-grandfather, also an ethnologist, of of a child of peace. a cannibal feast in the islands of Fiji. Arens’ view Schamanen, 19 William Arens, The Man-Eating Myth, op. cit., is also rejected by Ioan M. Lewis, Hexer, Kannibalen, op. cit. p. 21. , p. 100f, although in many cases he does not regard the accusation of 20 Cf. Paula Brown, “Cannibalism,” pp. 60–62 in cannibalism as being historically tenable, and is Mircea Eliade (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion cautious because he was himself once thought to (New York: Macmillan, 1987), vol. 3; J.A. Mac- be a cannibal (ibid., p. 94). Culloch, “Cannibalism,” pp. 194–209 in James 31 Inka, Maya und Atze- Hastings (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Hans Helfritz, Amerika: ken (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1937), vol. 6. (Vienna: Ueberreuter, 1979), p. 259 (on the cannibalism of the ancient Indian tribes in the 21 J.A. MacCulloch, “Cannibalism,” op. cit., p. Cauca Valley, in what is now Colombia). 194. 32 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer: Glaube, Liebe und Verzweiflung in der Geschichte

Pr o m u n d i s 25 Thomas Schirrmacher der Menschheit (Düsseldorf: Econ, 1981), p. 192f, 43 Peter Baumann, Helmut Uhlig, Kein Platz referring to Ewald Volhard, Kannibalismus (Stut- für “wilde” Menschen: Das Schicksal der letzten tgart: Stricker und Schröder, 1951). Naturvölker (Vienna: Molden, 1974), p. 220. 33 Michael Harner, “The Ecological Basis for Aztec 44 Thus especially Derek Freeman, Liebe ohne Sacrifice,” Ethnology 4 (1977), pp. 117–135. Aggression: Margaret Meads Legende von der 34 Ibid., p. 120. Friedfertigkeit der Naturvölker (Munich, 1983). 45 35 Especially through his book on the Jivaro, Ibid., p. 220f. their head-hunting and their famous shrunken 46 Ibid., p. 121. heads: Michael J. Harner, The Jivaro (Los Ange- 47 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, op. les: University of California Press, 1973); cf. cit., pp. 312–323. Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, pp. 48 Ritual and Knowledge among 313–316. Fredrik Barth, the Baktaman of New Guinea (Newhaven [USA]: 36 Michael Harner, “The Ecological Basis for Yale University Press, 1975). Aztec Sacrifice,” op. cit. His thesis is supported 49 Opfertod und Menschenop- by: Marvin Harris, Kannibalen und Könige: Thus Nigel Davies, fer, op. cit. Aufstieg und Niedergang der Menscheitskulturen , p. 316. (Frankfurt, 1978), pp. 153–159 (in English: 50 For further study, cf. the commentaries of Carl Marvin Harris, Cannibals and Kings [New York: F. Keil and Franz Delitzsch in their series of Random House, 1977]). His thesis is rejected by: commentaries on the relevant texts. B.R. Ortiz de Montellano, “Aztec Cannibalism: 51 Astrid Wendt, Kannibalismus in Brasilien: Eine An Ecological Necessity?,” Science 200 (1978), Analyse europäischer Reiseberichte und Amerika- pp. 611–617; M. Sahlins, “Reply to Marvin Darstellungen für die Zeit zwischen 1500 und Harris,” New York Review of Books 28 (1979), 1654, Europäische Hochschulschriften XIX B June: p. 52f.; Nigel B. Davies, Opfertod und Men- (Ethnologie) 15 (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1989). schenopfer, pp. 9, 262–267; G.W. Conrad, A.A. 52 Ibid., p. 6. Also Ioan M. Lewis, Schamanen, Demarest, Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Hexer, Kannibalen, op. cit., p. 101f. sees in ritual Aztec and Inca Expansionism (Cambridge, 1984), cannibalism “a special form of communion” pp. 165–170; Peggy Reeves Sanday, Divine (ibid., p. 101), like that to be found in the eucha- Hunger, op. cit., pp. 15–20; W. Hebephrenia, rist. “Das Hochtal von Mexico,” pp. 19–86 in Glanz 53 und Untergang des Alten Mexico: Die Azteken und The discussion of William Arens and his pupils ihre Vorläufer (Mainz, 1986), here pp. 80–82. consists unfortunately only of remarks made in passing (ibid., pp. 79, 219) and brief disparag- 37 J.A. MacCulloch, “Cannibalism,” op. cit., p. ing comments. Here one might have expected a 206. thorough discussion of the matter. Wendt does, 38 Ibid. however, counter Arens by appealing to Donald 39 Ibid. W. Forsyth, “Three Cheers for Hans Staden: The 40 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, p. Case for Brazilian Cannibalism,” Ethnohistory 318. 32 (1985) 1, pp. 17–36. 54 Kannibalismus in Brasilien, op. 41 In contrast to this, right up to the present cen- Astrid Wendt, cit. tury missionaries were still profoundly shocked , p. 152. (On pp. 227–230 there is an excel- by such phenomena. A classic example of this is lent table setting out what details of cannibalis- Wilson S. Naylor, Daybreak in the Dark Conti- tic rites have been recorded from which sources nent, The Forward Mission Study Course (New between 1500 and 1654.) York: Laymen’s Missionary Movement, 1908), p. 55 Hans Staden, Brasilien: Die wahrhaftige His- 90f. (human sacrifice) and p. 92f. (cannibalism). torie der wilden, nackten, grimmigen Menschen- fresser-Leute 42 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, p. (Tübingen: G. Faber, 1982). 318.

26 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?

56 Astrid Wendt, Kannibalismus in Brasilien, op. 72 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, op. cit., p. 75. cit., p. 319. 57 Donald W. Forsyth, “Three Cheers for Hans 73 Friedrich Schwenn, Die Menschenopfer bei den Staden,” op. cit. Griechen und Römern, op. cit., p. 317 58 Cf. Astrid Wendt, Kannibalismus in Brasilien, 74 Ibid., p. 5, summarizing the convictions of op. cit., p. 74f. Euaristus Mader. 59 Especially William Arens, The Man-Eating 75 K. Beth, “Menschenopfer,” columns 156–174 Myth, op. cit., p. 25f. in Hanns Bächthold Stäubli (ed.), Handwörter- 60 Cf. especially D. Forsyth, “Three Cheers for buch des deutschen Aberglaubens, vol. 6 (Berlin: Hans Staden,” op. cit.; cf. Astrid Wendt, Kan- Walter de Gruyter, 1987 [reprint from 1935]); nibalismus in Brasilien, op. cit., pp. 79–81. this quotation col. 158. 76 61 Ibid., p. 81. Hanns J. Prem, “Geschichte Altamerikas,” Old- enbourg Grundriss der Geschichte 23 (Munich: 62 Opfertod und Menschenopfer, op. Nigel Davies, E. Oldenbourg, 1989), p. 172. His principal ref- cit. , p. 303. erence is to M. León-Portilla, “Die Religion,” pp. 63 Critical of this is William Arens, The Man- 236–258 in Hanns J. Prem, U. Dyckerhoff (ed.), Eating Myth, op. cit., pp. 116–136; Erwin Frank, Das Alte Mexico (Munich, 1986). “’Sie fressen Menschen, wie ihr scheußliches 77 Particularly blatant in A.A. Demarest, “Over- op. cit Aussehen beweist...’,” ., p. 205f. view: Mesoamerican Human Sacrifice in Evo- 64 E.g. Encyclopedia Britannica, op. cit., vol. 8, p. lutionary Perspectives,” pp. 227–243 in E.H. 1034 declares the cannibalism of homo erectus; Boone (ed.), Ritual human sacrifice in Meso- ibid., vol. 14, p. 985 the cannibalism of the neo- america (Washington, 1984). lithic and paleolithic ages, 78 According to Die Welt No. 140 (18/6/1992), 65 K.J. Narr, “Beiträge der Urgeschichte zur p. 3. Kenntnis der Menschennatur,” pp. 3–62 in 79 Ibid. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Paul Vogler (ed.), 80 Kulturanthropologie, Neue Anthropologie 4 Cf. especially Derek Freeman, Liebe ohne (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag and Aggression: Margaret Meads Legende von der Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, 1973), this quo- Friedfertigkeit der Naturvölker, op. cit. tation p. 32. 81 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, op. 66 Ibid. cit.; Kay A. Read, “Human Sacrifice,” p. 515f. in Mircea Eliade (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Reli- 67 Ibid .; cf. also the critique of cannibalism in gion (New York: Macmillan, 1987) vol. 6; A.E. Cro-Magnon Man in H. Helmut, “Kannibal- Crawley et al., “Human Sacrifice,” pp. 840–867 ismus in Paläoanthropologie und Ethnologie,” in James Hastings (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion Ethnographisch-Archäologische Zeitschrift and Ethics, vol. 6 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, (1968) 5, pp. 101–119, this quotation p. 101f., 1937); Karl Bruno Leder, Todesstrafe (Munich: Der Mensch and Gunther Pilz, Hugo Moesch, Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, 1986), pp. und die Graugans (Frankfurt: Umschau Verlag, 49–56 (although this includes some disputed 1975), p. 159f. Old Testament examples). 68 op. cit J.A. MacCulloch, “Cannibalism,” ., p. 82 Stübe, “Bauopfer,” sec. 962–964 in Hanns 205. Bächthold Stäubli (ed.), Handwörterbuch des 69 Ibid. deutschen Aberglaubens, vol. 1 (Berlin: Walter de 70 Explanations of and excuses for cannibalism Gruyter, 1987 [reprint from 1927]), this quota- are discussed by Christian Spiel, Menschen essen tion sec. 962 (along with further literature). Menschen, op. cit., pp. 201–212, 217f. 83 A.E. Crawley, “Human Sacrifice (Introductory 71 Michelle Zimbalist Ronaldo, “Skulls and Cau- and Primitive),” pp. 840–845 in James Hastings sality,” Man (London) 12 (1977) 1, p. 168f. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 6

Pr o m u n d i s 27 Thomas Schirrmacher

(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1937), this quota- 85–88 (with further literature and sources), and tion p. 840. also Miloslav Stingl, Inka: Ruhm und Untergang 84 Patrick Tierney, Zu Ehren der Götter: Men- der Sonnensöhne (Leipzig: Urania-Verlag, 19892), schenopfer in den Anden (Munich: Droemer pp. 197–199. Knaur, 1989), p. 13. (Sadly, by this Tierney 100 Ibid.. p. 197. Cf. on the human sacrifices of means, as we shall see, also the Bible.) the Maya: Klaus Helfreich, Menschenopfer und 85 Friedrich Schwenn, Die Menschenopfer bei Tötungsrituale im Kult der Maya, Monumenta den Griechen und Römern, op. cit., pp. 18–139; Americana 9 (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1973); Wil- A.C. Pearson, “Human Sacrifice (Greek),” pp. fried Westphal, Die Maya: Volk im Schatten 847–849 in James Hastings (ed.), Encyclopedia of seiner Vater (Herrsching: Manfred Pawlak, 1986) Religion and Ethics, vol. 6 (Edinburgh: T. & T. (reprinted by C. Bertelsmann, Gütersloh [Mayas, Clark, 1937). see Register p. 398]); Paul deParrie, Mary Pride, Ancient Empires of the New Age (Westchester: 86 Die Menschenopfer bei Friedrich Schwenn, Crossway Books, 1989), pp. 103–120. den Griechen und Römern, op. cit., pp. 140–196; 101 R. Wünch, “Human Sacrifice (Roman),” pp. Cf. on human sacrifice in ancient Mexico, 858–862 in James Hastings (ed.), Encyclopedia of especially the Aztecs, the standard work by Y. Religion and Ethics, vol. 6 (Edinburgh: T. & T. González Torres, El sacrificio humano entre Clark, 1937). los Mexicas (Mexico, 1985). Intelligible to all is Nigel B. Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer 87 Die Menschenopfer bei den Friedrich Schwenn, (Düsseldorf: Econ, 1981); cf. also Hanns J. Prem, Griechen und Römern , op. cit., p. 2. Geschichte Altamerikas, Oldenbourg Grundriss 88 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, op. der Geschichte 23 (Munich: E. Oldenbourg, cit., p. 52. 1989), p. 172f.; Michael Harner, “The Ecologi- 89 In all cases sources in Nigel Davies, Opfertod cal Basis for Aztec Sacrifice,” op. cit.; M. Harris, und Menschenopfter, p. 186f. Kannibalen und Könige: Aufstieg und Nieder- gang der Menschheitskulturen (Frankfurt: 1978) 90 Ibid., p. 187; examples ibid., pp. 188–193. (English version Cannibals and Kings [New 91 Sonja Brigitte Ross, Das Menschenopfer der York: Random House, 1977]); David Carrasco, Skidi-Pawnee, Völkerkundliche Arbeiten 1 “Human Sacrifice: Aztec Rites,” pp. 516–523 (Bonn: Holos, 1989), p. 7. The whole of the book in Mircea Eliade (ed.), The Encylopedia of Reli- discusses the evidence, sources and background gion (New York: Macmillan, 1987), vol. 6. On of individual cases. cannibalism of the descendants of the Incas, 92 Ibid., p. 7. Aztecs, etc., i.e. of the South American Indians, 93 Ibid., p. 8f. cf. Alfred Métraux, “Warfare, Cannibalism, and Human Trophies,” pp. 383–410 in Julian 94 Ibid., p. 10f. H. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American 95 Ibid., p. 11. Indians, vol. 5: “The Comparative Ethnology of 96 Ibid., p. 7. South American Indians,” Smithsonian Institu- tion: Bureau of American Ethnology: Bulletin 97 K. Beth, “Menschenopfer,” op. cit., col. 160. 143 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 98 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, pp. 1949) (with bibliography). 37–40; J. Dyer Ball, “Human Sacrifice (Chi- 102 Roger M. Keesing, Cultural Anthropology: nese),” pp. 845–847 in James Hastings (ed.), A Contemporary Perspective (New York: CBS Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 6 (Edin- Publishing Japan, 19812), p. 153, referring to burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1937). Michael Harner, “The Ecological Basis for Aztec 99 Cf. the excellent short brief study by my Sacrifice,” Ethnology 4 (1977), pp. 117–135. The teacher, Wilfried Westphal, Unter den Schwin- older estimate comes from S.F. Cook, “Human gen des Kondor: Das Reich der Inka Gestern und sacrifice and warfare as factors in the demogra- Heute (Gütersloh: C. Bertelsmann, 1985), pp. phy of pre-colonial Mexico,” Human Biology 18

28 MBS Te x t e 91 Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vindicated?

(1946), pp. 81–102. The later estimate by Harner 112 M. Beth, “Kinderopfer,” col. 1361–1364 in refers to Borah. Hanns J. Prem, Geschichte Alta- Hanns Bächthold Stäubli (ed.), Handwörterbuch merikas, op. cit., p. 273, refers to a letter from des deutschen Aberglaubens, vol. 4 (Berlin: Walter Borah stating that Harner’s interpretation is a de Gruyter, 1987 [reprint of 1932 edition]), this mistaken one.103 quotation col. 1361. On the saga of the Swedish 103 Hanns J. Prem, Geschichte Altamerikas, op. cit., King Aun, who sacrificed his sons, cf. R.L.M. p. 173. Cf. the contribution by a heart surgeon, F. Derolez, Götter und Mythen der Germanen, op. Robicsek Hales,”Maya Heart Sacrifice, Cultural cit., p. 104f. Perspective and Surgical Technique,” pp. 49–90 113 K. Beth, “Menschenopfer,” op. cit., col. 161. in E.H. Boone (ed.), Ritual Human Sacrifice in 114 Ibid., col. 166. Mesoamerica (Washington, 1984). 115 Eugen Mogd, “Human Sacrifice (Teutonic),” 104 Patrick Tierney, Zu Ehren der Götter, op. cit. op. cit., p. 867, referring to L. Strackerjan. 105 Cf. Eugen Mogk, Menschenopfer bei den Ger- 116 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, p. manen, Abhandlungen der Königlich-Sächsischen 44. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Philologisch- 117 Handbuch der germanis- historische Klasse 27 (1909), pp. 601–643 (= Wolfgang Golther, chen Mythologie op. cit No. 17, pp. 1–43); R.L.M. Derolez, Götter , ., p. 563. und Mythen der Germanen (Wiesbaden: VMA, 118 Nigel Davies, Opfertod und Menschenopfer, p. n.d. [reprinted Einsiedeln: Benzinger, 1963]), 312. pp. 103, 105, 149, 193, 226–228, 236–239, 119 All ibid., pp. 104–15, 91, 93, 96, 159, 134. 242–243, 249; Wolfgang Golther, Handbuch 120 Cf. ibid., pp. 133–141. der germanischen Mythologie (Kettwig: Magnus, 121 19852 [reprint of 1908 edition]), pp. 561–565; K. Cf. ibid., pp. 173–178, esp. p. 176. Beth, “Menschenopfer,” op. cit. (with further lit- 122 Rousas J. Rushdoony, Institutes of Biblical Law erature); Eugen Mogk, “Human Sacrifice (Teu- (Philipsburg: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1973), tonic),” pp. 865–867 in James Hastings (ed.), p. 32. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 6 (Edin- 123 Cf.Paul Volz, Die Biblischen Altertümer (Wies- burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1937). baden: Fourier, 1989 [reprint of 1914 edition]), 106 Wolfgang Golther, Handbuch der germanischen p. 180f. Mythologie, op. cit., p. 561 (examples for sources, 124 Z.B. Reay Tannahill, Fleisch und Blut, op. ibid., pp. 561–565). As the oldest compilation cit.,pp. 31–41. of such sacrifices Golther cites P.G. Schütze, De 125 cruentis Germanorum gentilium victimis humanis Patrick Tierney, Zur Ehren der Götter, op. cit., (Leipzig, 1743). pp. 360–445. 126 107 Cf. especially the famous marsh corpse Tol- Ibid., p. 391. land (Jutland), depicted e.g. in R.L.M. Derolez, 127 Paul Volz, Die Biblischen Altertümer, op. cit., Götter und Mythen der Germanen, op. cit., plate pp. 177–181. 28 (next to p. 241). 128 M. Beth, “Kinderopfer,” op. cit., col. 1363. 108 Friedrich Schwenn, Die Menschenopfer bei den 129 Thus Patrick Tierney, Zu Ehren der Götter, op. Griechen und Römern, op. cit., p. 32 (p. 32f. note cit., p. 368, referring to Rabbi Hyam Maccoby. 2, also Latin text from Germania 40). 130 Friedrich Schwenn, Die Menschenopfer bei den 109 Ibid., p. 32. Griechen und Römern, op. cit., p. 1. 110 R.M.L. Derolez, Götter und Mythen der Ger- 131 Ibid. Cf. the rejection of such accusations in manen, op. cit., p. 227f. Derolez considers that Hermann L. Strack, Der Blutaberglaube in der the sacrifice was intended for Woden. Menschheit, Blutmorde und Blutritus, Schriften 111 Wolfgang Golther, Handbuch der germanis- des Institutum Judaicum in Berlin 14 (Munich: chen Mythologie, op. cit., p. 562. C.H. Beck, 1892).

Pr o m u n d i s 29 Thomas Schirrmacher

132 Friedrich Schwenn, Die Menschenopfer bei den Alte Testament, Leipzig: Dörffling und Franke, Griechen und Römern, op. cit., p. 3. Schwenn 1863), pp. 293–301; Robert Jamieson, “Judges,” rejects this viewpoint, but names proponents pp. 70–127 in Robert Jamieson, A.R. Fausset, from the nineteenth and twentieth century (ibid., David Brown, A Commentary, Critical, Experi- p. 3, note 3) and opponents (ibid., p. 4, note 1). mental, and Practical, on the Old and New Tes- 133 This accusation was known to Josephus, tament, 3 vols. (Grand Rapids (MI): Wm B. Contra Apion, II, 8, 95; cf. Friedrich Schwenn, Eerdmans, 1990), vol. 1, part 2, this reference Die Menschenopfer bei den Griechen und Römern, pp. 103–105; James B. Jordan, Judges: God’s War op. cit., p. 193. Against Humanism (Tyler (TX): Geneva Minis- tries, 1985), pp. 199–204, 190–192. 134 Ibid., pp. 193–195. 136 James B. Jordan, Judges, op. cit., pp. 199–204, 135 Biblischer Thus especially Carl Friedrich Keil, 190–192, 329–334. Commentaar über die Prophetischen Geschichts- 137 bücher des Alten Testamentes, vol. 1: Josua, Rich- Thus also Rousas J. Rushdoony, Institutes of ter und Ruth (Biblischer Commentaar über das Biblical

TheÜber denAuthor Autor

Thomas Schirrmacher (*1960) earned four doctorates in Theology (Dr. theol., 1985, Netherlands), in Cultural Anthro- pology (PhD, 1989, USA), in Ethics (ThD, 1996, USA), and in Sociology of Religions (Dr. phil., 2007, Germany) and received two honorary doctorates in Theology (DD, 1997, USA) and International Development (DD, 2006, India). He is professor of ethics and world missions, as well as professor of the sociology of religion and of international development in Ger- many, Romania, USA and India, and is president of Martin Bucer Theological Seminary with 11 small campuses in Europe (including Turkey). As an international human rights expert he is board member of the Interna- tional Society for Human Rights, spokesman for human rights of the World Evangelical Assocation and director of the International Institute for Religious Freedom. He is also president of Ge bende Hände gGmbH (Giving Hands), an internationally active relief organisation. He has authored and edited 74 books, which have been translated into 14 languages. Thomas is married to Christine, a professor of Islamic Studies, and father of a boy and a girl.

30 MBS Te x t e 91 BUCE Martin Bucer Seminar N R I S T E Berlin • Bonn • Chemnitz • Hamburg • Pforzheim R M

A I

Ankara • Innsbruck • Prag • Zlin • Zürich N

Studienzentrum Berlin 1

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P Martin Bucer Seminar, Breite Straße 39B, 13187 Berlin H E-Mail: [email protected] Studienzentrum Bonn Martin Bucer Seminar, Friedrichstr. 38, 53111 Bonn E-Mail: [email protected] Publisher: Studienzentrum Chemnitz: Thomas Schirrmacher, Martin Bucer Seminar, Mittelbacher Str. 6, 09224 Chemnitz E-Mail: [email protected] Prof. Dr. phil., Dr. theol., DD. Studienzentrum Hamburg Editor: Ron Kubsch Martin Bucer Seminar, c/o ARCHE, Editorial Committee: Doerriesweg 7, 22525 Hamburg Thomas Kinker, Titus Vogt, E-Mail: [email protected] Contact: Studienzentrum Pforzheim [email protected] Martin Bucer Seminar, Bleichstraße 59, 75173 Pforzheim www.bucer.de E-Mail: [email protected] Website: www.bucer.de E-Mail: [email protected]

Studycenters outside Germany: MBS-Te x t e (MBS-Te x ts ) Studienzentrum Ankara: [email protected] Studienzentrum Innsbruck: [email protected] Pro Mundis Studienzentrum Prag: [email protected] Es erscheinen außerdem Studienzentrum Zlin: [email protected] folgende Reihen: Studienzentrum Zürich: [email protected] (The following series of MBS Martin Bucer Seminary is no university according to German Texts are also being published:) law, but just offers courses and lists all courses in a final di- ploma. Whitefield Theological Seminary (Florida, USA) and Reformiertes Forum other schools outside of Europe accept thoses courses un- (Reformed Forum) der their own legal responsibility for granting their degrees Theologische Akzente to students. Much of the teaching is by means of Saturday (Theological Accents) seminars, evening courses, extension courses, independent Geistliche Impulse study, and internships. (Spiritual Impulses) The work of the seminary is largely supported by the contributions of donors. North American supporters may send Hope for Europe contributions to our American partner organization, The Ergänzungen zur Ethik International Institute for Christian Studies. Checks should (Ethics) be made out to IICS, with a note mentioning MBS and sent Philosophische Anstöße to: (Philosophical Initiatives) The International Institute Vorarbeiten zur Dogmatik for Christian Studies: P.O. Box 12147, Overland Park, KS 66282-2147, USA (Preliminaries for a Systematic Theology) EU: IBAN DE52 3701 0050 0244 3705 07 BIC PBNKDEFF