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Viewpoints on the Formation of US Federal Indian Termination Policy University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, Department of History History, Department of 4-2010 "The Coming Tide": Viewpoints on the Formation of U.S. Federal Indian Termination Policy, 1945-1954 Samuel H. Herley University of Nebraska at Lincoln Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/historydiss Part of the United States History Commons Herley, Samuel H., ""The Coming Tide": Viewpoints on the Formation of U.S. Federal Indian Termination Policy, 1945-1954" (2010). Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, Department of History. 30. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/historydiss/30 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the History, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, & Student Research, Department of History by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. ³7+(&20,1*7,'(´ VIEWPOINTS ON THE FORMATION OF U.S. FEDERAL INDIAN TERMINATION POLICY, 1945-1954 by Samuel H. Herley A DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Major: History Under the Supervision of Professor Victoria Smith Lincoln, Nebraska April, 2010 ³THE COMING TIDE´VIEWPOINTS ON THE FORMATION OF U.S. FEDERAL INDIAN TERMINATION POLICY, 1945-1954 Samuel H. Herley, Ph.D. University of Nebraska, 2010 Adviser: Victoria Smith Despite the painful legacy of post-World War II federal Indian policy, the issue of termination during the era had nuanced elements that meant different ideas to different groups and individuals. Especially during its formulation prior to its widespread implementation across the United States starting in 1953, there existed division and even confusion as to what termination entailed. Those charged with making difficult decisions on termination during the formative years of the policy also came from diverse backgrounds and held varying, even shifting, viewpoints on the issue. Individual perspectives on termination had much to do with not only race, class, and gender, but also region, personal experience, human interaction, and ideology, among other variables. This study examines the different meanings that termination had for different people, and why. It focuses on four individuals of the era in particular: Napoleon Bonaparte Johnson, a Cherokee, first president of the National Congress of American Indians, and advocate of many of the overarching goals of termination; Helen Peterson, an enrolled Oglala and eventual NCAI executive director who became a steadfast fighter against termination; Oliver La Farge, the Association on American Indian Affairs president, writer, and anthropologist who supported termination early in some instances before his strong opposition; and Hugh Butler, a politically conservative Nebraska senator in the 1940s and early 1950s who consistently and relentlessly supported termination. The goal is to explain the diversity of perspectives and to show how the four individuals ± each representing different groups ± held different views for varying reasons and thus reacted to termination correspondingly. Ultimately, divisions among American Indian rights advocates over termination and its meanings presented serious obstacles to the development of effective resistance to the policy, which had unremitting support from powerful individuals in Congress, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and private enterprise. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When a person looks at the array of cultures that exist in the United States today, both Native and non-Native, one is struck by their vastness and diversity. Nonetheless, there are some common threads. Among the most universal and important is the generally recognized protocol of thanksgiving. My mother ingrained in me long ago the concept that there is never, ever a bad time to send D³WKDQN\RX´QRWH$PRQJ2PDKDVLWLVQHYHUDVPDOOPDWWHUZKHQRQHWDNHVD PRPHQW WR VD\ ³ZtEWKDKRn´ ³, WKDQN \RX´ 3UHVLGHQW +DUU\ 7UXPDQ ± whose administration largely spanned the years covered by this dissertation ± considered ingratitude to be a cardinal sin. With such themes in mind, it is my pleasure to try to find the words, however inadequately, to thank all the people who have made all the difference for me and have been a part of this project. I could never begin to say enough about my adviser, Dr. Victoria Smith, nor could I ever thank her enough. For years now, she has been my biggest fan, champion, and supporter in academia, and she has always been able to see the best in me. She has not only assessed but maximized my abilities to their full potential. Victoria and I still fondly recall when we first met and she encountered ZKDWVKHFDOOHGP\³VKHOO´± something virtually all my teachers have discovered since I was in first grade, often much to their frustration. Undaunted, she as much as anyone helped me assert myself in becoming the instructor and historian I have become. She has been one of my very best friends, and I can only hope I make her proud. v It has been nearly ten years since I graduated from Gettysburg College and first met Dr. John Wunder. When I returned to begin the Masters program in history at the University of Nebraska in 2004, he became my adviser, and in many ways he has never stopped. As much as anyone, John has shown me what a historian and instructor ought to be ± moreover, what a gentleman ought to be. In my ten years of undergraduate and graduate study, no one has influenced me more, and I know I flatter myself greatly when I say I hope to emulate him. His unwavering dedication for guidance, enthusiasm for graduate student work, and demand for excellence are unsurpassed. It has been and continues to be a true honor to be associated with him, and I know I will never stop learning from him. I also want to thank the two other members of my supervisory committee, Dr. James Garza and Dr. David Wishart. I first took a course under James in 2004, and it was a pleasure to serve as his teaching assistant two years later. I have learned much from him, both as a historian and instructor, and he never failed to help me during all the times I came to him during my time at Nebraska. Likewise, I first came to know David during my time with the Omaha Language Program at UNL. Although his specialty lies in geography, David is constantly called upon for help and committee work by those in the history department. When I became one more in a long line of history graduate students to ask for his SODFH RQ D FRPPLWWHH KH GLG QRW KHVLWDWH IRU D VHFRQG )XUWKHUPRUH 'DYLG¶V works on Nebraska American Indians and other subjects have served as real vi inspirations. The insight, expertise, and assistance provided by both James and David have been invaluable to me, in this work and through the years. Especial thanks also go to Dr. Mark Awakuni-Swetland, head of the Omaha Language Program at the university. Not only has Mark been a great friend and mentor, but he has always been there for assistance and advice ± right up until, quite literally, the day before my dissertation defense. The entire faculty of the history department at UNL deserves thanks for their support, especially Ken Winkle, Ann Tschetter, Will Thomas, Vanessa Gorman, Thomas Borstelmann, Carole Levin, Doug Seefeldt, Andrew Graybill, and Scott Stempson. A long list of outstanding and talented graduate students at Nebraska also has been there for me with constant support. I would like to especially thank Brenden Rensink, Roy Koepp, and Rob Voss ± we all came to the Nebraska history department in 2004 and will be graduating with doctorates this year. Thanks also to Dr. David Nesheim for his friendship and support, as well as Heather Stauffer and Shayla Swift ± somehow, none of them gave up in nudging PHWR JHW RXW RI WKHDFDGHPLF ³VKHOO´ DQGSDUWDNH LQ WKHIUXLWV RI WKH JUDGXDWH student social scene. The staffs at the following archives were instrumental in helping this dissertation with their cooperation, enthusiasm, and hospitality: Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University; Carl T. Hayden Library, Arizona State University; Harry S. Truman Library; National Museum of the American Indian Archive; Nebraska State Historical Society; and Oklahoma State Historical vii 6RFLHW\ , ZRXOG EH UHPLVV WR QRW HVSHFLDOO\ PHQWLRQ -HQQLIHU 2¶1HDO KHDG archivist at the National Museum of the American Indian Archive. She and her staff were not only outstanding when I visited in May 2009, but this dissertation could not have been completed on time without the extra work and source material they provided months later upon request. I also was pleased for the opportunity to work with the great Liz Safly, archivist for the Truman Library for 47 years who retired in July 2009. It has been a real privilege to work with her, Randy Sowell, and the other archivists at the Truman Library on several projects since 2007. Furthermore, I would like to thank the Truman Library and Grants Administrator Lisa Sullivan for bestowing me with generous and invaluable funding. It will be my honor to provide the library with a copy of this dissertation, as requested in accordance with the grant. Two others provided direct assistance for this project. Charles Trimble, executive director of the National Congress of American Indians in the 1970s, loaned me several books and provided me a wealth of insight during a wonderful interview at his home in Omaha in October 2009. I am most grateful for his hospitality, enthusiasm, and knowledge. Dr. Justus F. Paul ± a University of Nebraska graduate and still virtually the only biographer of Nebraska Senator Hugh Butler ± also very willingly and generously provided me with excellent information and insight throughout the latter half of 2009. I am most fortunate for a long line of terrific friends who have made all the difference through the years, and many of them helped directly or provided viii consistent support throughout the production of this dissertation.
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