Brookhaven Highlights

BNLS1000 (Ganaral, Miscellaneous, and Progress Reports tNuclur and Nonnuclear) — TID-45001

BROOKHAVEN HIGHLIGHTS

JULY 1976 - SEPTEMBER 1978

HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS NUCLEAR AMD SOLID STATE PHYSICS AMD CHEMISTRY LIFE SCIENCES APPLIED ENERGY SCIENCE

BROOKHAVEN IMATIOIUAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATED UNIVERSITIES, INC. UPTON, NEW YORK 11973 UNDER CONTRACT NO. EY-76-C-0Z-0016 WITH THE United States Department of Energy

.DISCLAIMER. Tfiii two* iVdjprep*feBi)ianaccsum of work sponsored by anagtncy of il.e United States Gowfnmeni. ;iiher the Uniied StaiM Govefnmem nor any agency thereof., nor any of iheir empkyees. makes any jrranty. exoress or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, irt!£)iei£n€?t3. or usefulness o* any information, apparatus, product, or process djsclosod, or IS O represents tnai its use would noi infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein TO anv specific imercial product, proems, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does (1V necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by iho United es Government or any *>sney thereof. The vieivt and opinions of authors e«ressed herein <,'Q noi •ssarily state or reflect thoseot \he Uniiert Slates Governmeniot any •aeftcvlhetoot. \ Contents

INTRODUCTION v HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS 1 General Introduction to the Accelerator and High Energ/ Physics Programs 3 High Energy Physics Research 4 Accelerator Department 13 TheAGS 13 Improvements to the AGS 15 Experimental Facilities 21 Other Projects 24 ISABELLE Conversion 24 Heavy Ion Fusion 24 Heliostat 24 Superconducting Power Cables 25 ISABELLE 27 NUCLEAR AND SOLID STATE PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY 37 Physics Department 39 Low and Medium Energy Nuclear Physics 40 The Tandem Van de Graaff Accelerator 40 Heavy Ion Studies at the Tandem Facility 40 Research with the HFBR 45 Hypernuclear Spectroscopy 48 Nuclear Theory 48 Atomic and Applied Physics 53 Solid State Physics 55 Neutron Scattering Studies 55 Solid State Theory 57 Defects and Disorder 59 Surface Physics 61 National Synchrotron Light Source 65 Chemistry Department 69 LIFE SCIENCES 85 Biology Department 87 Medical Department 103 APPLIED ENERGY SCIENCE 119 Department of Energy and Environment 121 Energy Sciences 122 Environmental Sciences 134 Energy Technology 140 National Center for Analysis of Energy Systems 146 Department of Nuclear Energy 153 Advanced Reactor Systems 153 Reactor Safety 154 National Nuclear Data Center 163 Nuclear Materials Safeguards 164 SUPPORT ACTIVITIES 169 Applied Mathematics Department 171 Instrumentation Division 17S Reactor Division 190 Safety and Environmental Protection Division 195 GENERAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE 199

in Introduction

Brookhaven National Laboratory is operated multidisciplinary work, i? one of the most impor- by Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI) under a tant characteristics of Brookhaven. prime contract with the United States Depart- The first theme deals with the fundamental ment of Energy (DOE) sponsoring a broad range constituents of matter, their properties, and their of basic and applied research in the physical and interactions. Research, which utilizes all the major life sciences. The Laboratory occupies a 21.31 km2 machines at the Laboratory, is done on atoms, nu- tract of land in Suffolk County, approximately at clei, nucleons, and other particles. The most basic the geographic center of Long Island, about 100 questions concern the particles (mesons, neutrinos, kilometers east of New York City. hyperons,and other short lived particles) that are The formation of AUI in 1946 and the estab- created when nucleons collide at high energy, the lishment of Brookhaven National Laboratory at forces with which particles interact and bind to- Upton, New York, provided a new approach to the gether, and the fundamental laws of physics. support of fundamental research by the Federal The second theme encompasses studies of the government, especially for large-scale scientific physical, chemical, and biological effects of radia- enterprises of interest to the academic community. tion and of various chemical substances, particu- The primary objectives of the Laboratory larly those arising in the production of energy. are: The third theme centers on the use of nuclear -To seek new knowledge in the nuclear sciences and other special tools, such as neutrons, charged and related fields, particularly a better under- particles, gamma rays, isotopic tracers, and spe- standing of matter and physical forces at the most cial instruments, in many branches of scientific re- fundamental level, with emphasis on programs search. Wide use is made of isotopic tracers in that require such large-scale research tools as par- many fields to yield information on the mecha- ticle accelerators, m>clear reactors, and special nisms and rates of chemical reactions and biologi- laboratories, which are beyond the scope of most cal processes. or all individual educational institutions. The fourth theme involves research and devel- -To encourage use of its facilities (particularly opment directed toward solving specific problems the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron, the Tan- of national interest in energy analysis and develop- dem Van de Graaff, and the High Flux Beam Re- ment, such as the regional study of energy reactor) by scientists from universities, research in- sources and utilization. stitutions, and industry. The fifth theme, consisting largely of work in -To assist the Department of Energy in the per- support of the other four, is the development of formance of specific tasks that utilize the Labora- specific devices for use as research tools or in prac- tory's unique facilities or the special talents of its tical applications of energy sources. This theme staff. encompasses projects running the gamut from -To serve as an important auxiliary in the very large to very small - from the design and training of scientists and engineers and otherwise building of particle accelerators to the construc- to assist in the dissemination of scientific and tech- tion of new types of radiation detectors, as well as nical knowledge. the development of energy-efficient devices such Several main themes may be discerned in the as the solar assisted heat pump. scientific programs at Brookhaven, and often a re- Under the auspices first of the Energy Research search project relates to more than one theme.* and Development Administration, (ERDA) and This interplay of themes, the special power of then its successor the DOE, efforts in the last two themes have greatly expanded. Almost all of the *For a more complete discussion of the objectives and research at Brookhaven from its beginning has themes of Brookhaven's program, consult the brochure published by AUI entitled "A report from... Associated been relevant in some degree to problems of en- Universities, Inc." 1717 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Wash- ergy. Earlier the main thrust was in nuclear re- ington, DC 20036. search including a large effort in reactor technology which was part of the Atomic Energy Com- Research classification along with some parts of mission's endeavor to develop nuclear energy. the DEE programs. This class covers all work on the Programs in energy, other than reactor technol- effects of energy production systems on all organ- ogy, many of them initiated prior to the oil crisis isms, including man, and on the environment. of 1973-74, have grown in size and diversity. The Energy Technologies classification covers Although most of this work is supported by the development of specific energy-producing DOE, there is a sizable effort supported by the methods or systems, and components. This class is Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) in the significantly different from the first four. Projects area of power reactor safety, and by the National in the technological area are focused on the more Science Foundation and the National Institutes of immediate problems of energy supply, utilization, Health, principally in the life sciences and envi- and conservation, and bring Brookhaven directly ronmental fields. into the national energy picture. The Laboratory The Laboratory programs may be divided into is currently contributing to the development of the following classifications: High Energy Physics; magnetic fusion energy through the areas of fusion Nuclear and Solid State Physics, Chemistry, and systems engineering, magnetic systems develop- Metallurgy; Basic Life Sciences; Medical and En- ment, and production of neutral beams for plasma vironmental Research; and Energy Technology. heating. The Laboratory also has a program on the use of energetic heavy ions to produce fusion High Energy Physics includes research con- energy by heating and compressing small pellets ducted by teams composed of members of the of fusionable material. BNL Physics Department, the Accelerator De- Additional examples of programs in Energy partment, or scientists from universities or other Technology are the flash hydropyrolysis of coal, research laboratories; often the team conducting the development of hydrogen-based energy sys- an experiment will include persons from several tems, the development of materials for radioactive institutions. About 80% of this research is done waste storage, and the development of various by visitors. This program also includes develop- composite materials for such diverse applications ment and design of advanced particle accelerators, as longer lived pavements and extraction of geo- and instruments for studying the particles or radi- thermal energy. Work is also in progress on the ation produced in various nuclear reactions. The development of superconducting ac transmission ukimate objective is to determine and understand lines, and the development of solar-assisted heat the basic forces that govern the behavior of all pumps. These programs will eventually be trans- matter. ferred to industry for final development, demon- Nuclear and Solid State Physics, Chemistry, stration, and commercialization. and Metallurgy are done in the Physics Depart- The general goals are to contribute vigorously, ment, the Chemistry Department, and the De- broadly, and effectively to the national energy re- partment of Energy and Environment (DEE). search and development effort, building on the This includes research relating to nuclear, atomic, strengths and unique facilities of the Laboratory and molecular structure, as well as material sci- and utilizing its special character, particularly its ence and the interactions between energy and devotion to frontier science, its close coupling to matter. the academic community, and its experience in Basic Life Sciences covers most of the research working with industry. in the Biology Department and some of the work Clearly it would be impractical to describe all in the Medical Department. This research, much activities at the Laboratory in sufficient detail to of it using the highly specialized facilities at BNL, be comprehensible; the sheer bulk of the report involves the relationship of molecular structure, would deter any but the most resolute reader. particularly three-dimensional, to the interactions Therefore only a few samples of the most signifi- of biological molecules and structures among cant research accomplishments nf the last 27 themselves and with external chemical and physi- months have been given. cal agents. The rest of the medical research pro- Since the budget is prepared, and statistics are gram belongs in the Medical and Environmental gathered, on a fiscal year basis, it seemed best to keep the HIGHLIGHTS on the same basis. Therefore chrotron Light Source, due for completion in this report covers the period July 1, 1976 through 1981, is described under the Solid State program September 30, 1978, comprising a budgetary of the Physics Department, the Inhalation Toxi- "Transition Period" (July 1, 1976 through Sep- cology Facility in connection with the Medical tember 30, 1976) and fiscal years 1977 and 1978. Department, and upgrading of the Tandem Van In this period the most important event for the de Graaff Accelerator in the program of the Low future of the Laboratory was the authorization to Energy Nuclear Physics section of the Physics De- start construction of the Intersecting Storage Ac- partment. celerator, ISABELLE. This made obvious the In the hope of making things easier for reader choice of the subject for the cover of this issue. who wish to know more about particular items, A second major event was the start of construction references to published research papers and staff of the National Synchrotron Light Source. lists with indication of individuals' particular in- Also since the special facilities are best seen in terests have been appended. The comments of terms of the research that is done with them, the readers would be most welcome. arrangement of the last HIGHLIGHTS has been fol- Finally, the editorial work of Dr. J.B. Homer lowed in which major additional facilities or im- Kuper on this report is acknowledged. provements to existing ones are linked to the research program of the department that is the principal user. Thus ISABELLE is described in the High Energy Physics section, the National Syn- Director High Energy Physics High Energy Physics Research Accelerator Department 1SABELLE General Introduction to the Accelerator and High Energy Physics Programs at BNL

Particle physics research at Brookhaven is car- ergy research at Brookhaven. It facilitates the in- ried out at the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron terchange of information between those who uti- (AGS) which accelerates protons to an energy of lize BNL high energy facilities for their research 29 billion electron volts (GeV). Experiments are and the Laboratory administration. set up in specially designed areas where the par- The Accelerator Department oversees the op- ticle beams extracted from the AGS can be used eration of the AGS and the distribution of high for research. These experiments, which can take energy particles to the various experiments via ex- months or years to do, are performed by visiting ternal beam lines. The Physics Department has a university research groups, or Brookhaven groups, staff of physicists who conduct experiments at the or by collaborations between them. ISABELLE, a AGS and at other laboratories, such as Fermilab large colliding beam accelerator, will be con- and CERN. Physics Department personnel, in- structed at Brookhaven over the next several years. cluding members of the Theory Group, have also In this machine, two proton beams (each with an been involved in the design of ISABELLE. energy of 400 GeV) will collide head-on to pro- The high energy physics program at BNL will duce the highest interaction energy of any accel- be described in three sections. In the first section, erator in the world. some of the important areas of particle physics are Groups wishing to do research at the AGS submit reviewed from a theoretical standpoint, followed formal proposals which outline their physics objec- by a summary of the related experimental research tives, apparatus design, and beam requirements. being carried out at BNL. Next, the activities of These proposals are considered at meetings of the the Accelerator Department are described. Finally, High Energy Advisory Committee (HEAC); ex- progress on the design and construction of the periments which are accepted by the Associate Di- ISABELLE project is reported, along with a rector for High Energy Physics are then scheduled discussion of the high energy physics objectives for beam time in the research program at the AGS. which have motivated the building of this unique The High Energy Discussion Group (HEDG) is accelerator. the organization of experimenters who do high en- High Energy Physics Research

INTRODUCTION ing the hadrons to be singlets under color gives the Since the discovery of the J or ip particle simul- correct statistics. We shall see later that color plays taneously at BNL and at SLAC in 1974, there has an important role in string interactions. been a revolution in high energy physics. It is now The J/ty was the first evidence for the existence of the c (charm) quark. Because it is so long-lived, generally believed that there are only two classes 3 of fundamental constituents of matter: leptons it is interpreted as a Si (round state of cc; such a and quarks. Furthermore, all of the interactions state decays strongly but ;jt a suppressed rate. Sub- among these constituents are described by gauge sequently, experimenters at SLAC found cc radial theories, that is, generalizations of electromagnet- excitations and P-wave svates, and weakly decay- tism. Thus, while many problems remain to be ing cu and cd mesons carrying non-zero charm. solved, we now have a unified theoretical picture Indications of charmed b;iryons have been found of high energy physics. The following discussion is in neutrino interactions at: BNL. The significance intended as a brief introduction to this picture. of the discovery of charm ^vas not just that a new Both leptons and quarks are spin \ particles. quark flavor hadbeenfound. The study of the rich The leptons are those which do not undergo strong cc spectrum made it clear that quarks have real interactions. Only the following ( and their anti- dynamical significance and are not just "book- particles) are believed to exist: the familiar elec- keeping" devices. Furthermore, the existence of tron (e), the muon (/i), the T, recently discovered charm and many of its properties had been pre- at SPEAR, and their respective neutrinos {y , v^, dicted theoretically from gauge models of weak e interactions, and the success of these predictions and vr). The neutrinos have zero electric charge, so that they interact only weakly, and they have led to confidence in the entire picture. More re- zero or very small masses. All known properties cently, physicists at FermiUtb discovered the T, of the leptons are consistent with their having no which is apparently the analog of the J/^ for a internal structure, making them useful as probes fifth quark flavor. of the structure of other particles. Additional evidence for quarks comes from Quarks are hypothetical objects; indeed, if pres- electron-proton (ep) and neutron-proton (inp) ent theoretical ideas are correct, they can never be scattering at large momentum transfer q. The produced as free particles. Nevertheless, we have elastic cross sections for these processes fall rapidly good indirect evidence for them. All hadrons, or with increasing q, as one would expect for scatter- strongly interacting particles, are made up of vari- ing on a large object. However, the inelastic cross ous types, or "flavors," of quarks and their anti- sections behave as if the electron or neutrino quarks. The three flavors which were known be- scattered from a free, pointlike quark within the fore the J/ip was discovered are called u (up), d proton, except that no quarks are produced. This (down), and s (strange). Mesons, the hadrons with requires that the force between quarks must be integer spin, are made from all possible combina- small at distances of order h/q, so that they ap- tions of a quark and an antiquark, while baryons, pear to be free during the scattering, but strong at the hadrons with half integer spin, are made from longer distances, so that they do not escape. The three quarks. (Mesons and baryons made from idea that a hadron can be treated as a collection of more quarks have been suggested theoretically, free constituents in large-momentum-transfer but none has been established.) For this scheme to processes will be used several times below. work, the quarks must be assigned spin §, baryon The strong, electromagnetic, and weak interac- number J, and charges of § or — \. Then the tions of quarks and leptons are all believed to be known baryons fit into representations which are described by gauge theories. Electromagnetism is symmetric in the space and spin variables. Since an exact gauge theory, and it has long been known the quarks have spin \, they should have Fermi- that quantum electrodynamics describes electrons Dirac statistics. It is therefore necessary to suppose and photons with great accuracy. In 1967 Wein- that each quark flavor occurs in three distinct berg and Salam suggested that weak and electro- varieties with an exact SU(3) symmetry among magnetic interactions could be combined in a them. These varieties are called "colors." Requir- larger gauge theory containing two charged weak bosons (W+ and W~), a neutral weak boson (Z°), Many other gauge theories based on different and the photon. To get the right strength for weak groups or representations have been proposed. interactions, the gauge invariance cannot be exact However, within the last year the structure of all but must be broken spontaneously,* causing the the weak currents has been determined experi- otherwise massless weak bosons to acquire masses mentally and found to be in good agreement with of the order of 100 GeV/e2. The spontaneous sym- the original Weinberg-Salam model with charm. metry breaking preserves many desirable features The argument for a gauge theory of strong in- of the unbroken theory, including in particular the teractions is based on the fact that the quarks ability to do systematic calculations to arbitrary within a hadron appear to be free at large mo- accuracy. mentum transfer. The only known field theories In the Weinberg-Salam model the Z° couplings which could give such behavior are gauge theories are strongly constrained by gauge invariance; based on unbroken, non-Abelian symmetries. Since with only three quarks they do not conserve the color symmetry of quarks is such 'a symmetry, strangeness, contradicting experimental results. In the gauge theory of color is the natural candidate 1970, Glashow, Illioupoulis, and Maiani showed for the theory of strong interactions. This theory is that the neutral current would conserve strange- called quantum chromodynamics, and its massless ness if a fourth quark, the charmed quark, with vector bosons are called gluons. At short distances certain specific properties was introduced. The it has essentially free quarks. Corrections to the discovery of the J/ip and the subsequent study of free-quark predictions for ep and vp scattering can charmed particles has shown that this quark in- be calculated and improve the agreement with ex- deed exists and has just the right properties. The periment. At long distances the massless gluons success of the prediction has led to confidence in lead to strong and very complicated forces. It is the whole idea of gauge theories. hoped, although not proven, that these forces are More technically, a gauge theory is a field the- so strong that they confine the quarks and gluons ory which is invariant under local space-time de- within hadrons, explaining why they are not seen pendent transformations which are elements of as free particles. some mathematical group. For electromagnetism The rest of this section uses the ideas just out- the group is U(l), while for the Weinberg-Salam lined as a framework for discussion of the research model it is SU(2) X U( 1). There is one gauge boson in high energy physics at BNL over the last two for each generator of the group, and all other par- years. ticles must be assigned to representations of the group. For example, in the Weinberg-Salam model OVERSEW OF AGS EXPERIMENTS with four quarks, the quarks are assigned to two doublets** under SU(2), The AGS experimental program is naturally divided into neutrino experiments and hadronic experiments. In neutrino experiments it is neces- /' I -dsin0c+scos0c ). sary to produce the maximum possible number of neutrinos, because their cross sections for interac- where 6C is the Cabibbo angle. The W * produce tions are so small. Therefore the entire proton transitions within these doublets, so that the am- beam is kicked out of the AGS and dumped onto plitudes for c—»d and c—>s are proportional to a target, producing it and K mesons. These are sin0c and cos#c respectively. Thus the mathemati- focused magnetically and allowed to decay into cal requirement of gauge invariance strongly re- neutrinos in a tunnel about 50 m long. A thick stricts the physical consequences of the model. shield at the end of this tunnel absorbs all particles except the neutrinos, which pass through it *A familiar example of spontaneous symmetry break- to the detectors. ing is provided by magnetism. All of the interactions are In hadronic experiments the proton beam is ex- invariant under rotations, but the ground state has a tracted slowly from the AGS and split among sev- magnetic field pointing in a particular direction, thus breaking the rotational symmetry. eral users. A given experiment may use either the **To get the V-A form for the W* coupling, only the primary proton beam or, more commonly, one of left-handed components of the quarks are in doublets; the several secondary beams. These are formed by di- right-handed components are in singlets. recting the protons onto a target, focusing the pro- • 4. \ i /1 I \ x^T * ,/

Figure 2. A typical J^e—» i^e event photographed in the Fermilab bubble chamber. The recoil electron radiates Figure 1. The detector used in Experiment 613 photons which produce additional e+e~ pairs, leading to to measure i>^p —» c^p andi>,p —»i>pp. a characteristic shower.

duced particles magnetically and selecting those of detector and for which the range and rate of en- the desired momentum, and transporting these ergy loss are characteristic of a proton. After through magnets to the experimental target. A backgrounds have been subtracted, a total of 135 number of beams also use a combination of elec- vMp —» v^p and 38 iya —»v^p events have been ob- tric and magnetic fields to select particles of a par- served. Because it is difficult to determine the neu- ticular type, especially K mesons and antiprotons, trino flux accurately, the experimenters quote which are produced less copiously than pions. ratios of cross sections:

NEUTRINO EXPERIMENTS »jx-p) Experiment 613 (Harvard/Pennsylvania/BNL) =0.19±0.05. has measured elastic neutrino scattering, ivp-^p *" a(vp- and Pup —* v^p, as a function of the momentum transfer q to the proton. The combined target These errors on Rp and Ry are substantially smaller and detector is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of 30 than in any previous experiment. tons (metric) of liquid scintillator divided into In a gauge theory of weak interactions elastic cells which are viewed by photomultiplier tubes, neutrino-proton scattering occurs by the exchange plus several drift chambers for improved tracking. of a Z° boson. The structure of the proton enters Elastic events are identified by requiring that only in a very simple way, i.e. through form fac- there be a single charged track which stops in the tors which can be determined from other reactions. Thus R,. and R? determine certain combinations of the fundamental Z° couplings. By combining this with other experiments one can determine the Z° couplings uniquely. Within errors they agree with the predictions of the Weinberg-Salam model with charm. In a Fermilab experiment by a Columbia/BNL collaboration (Baltay, Samios, et al.) neutrino interactions were studied in a bubble chamber filled, with a neon-hydrogen mixture. Eleven vê —» cê events were found in 150,000 pictures. The recoil electrons were identified by kinematic cuts and by the electromagnetic showers which they produce. A typical event is shown in Fig. 2. In gauge theories the reaction occurs by Z° exchange, and the rate determines the Z° coupling to electrons. This is found to agree with the Weinberg-Salam model, although the statistics are limited. In the same experiment, dilepton reactions, that is, events of the form ;U,- + e+ + anything, were also studied. It is found that such events contain an average of 0.6 neutral strange particles. This is about what would be expected if the e+ comes from the semi-leptonic decay of a charm particle, and the rate is also consistent with charm production. The major new neutrino experiment at BNL will be Experiment 734 (BNL/Brown/Pennsylva- nia). J»,,e—»pffe and vê-^fê will be measured with about 100 events in each channel and iy?—> ffP and i^p— * »VP W'N be studied with high statistics. The detector, which is now being designed, will use a liquid scintillator, as in Experiment 613, but it will be much larger and have much better resolution.

LEPTON PAIR PRODUCTION EXPERIMENTS Figure 3. The detector of the BNL/CERN/Syracuse/ Yale experiment at the CERN . ntersecting Storage Rings. The two proton beams collide inside a vacuum pipe in the In an experiment at the CERN Intersecting center of the apparatus. The electrons produced are de- Storage Rings by BNL/CERN/Syracuse/Yale tected by lithium transition-radiation detectors and lead- (Willis, et al.) the cross section for p + p —> e+ + e~ liquid argon calorimeters (the gray-white boxes). + anything was measured at center-of-mass energies, \/s, up to 63 GeV. The detector, which is radiation detectors, which rely on the fact that shown in Fig. 3, has several novel features. It iden- charged particles passing through a foil emit X- tifies electrons and measures their energies with a rays with an intensity inversely proportional to lead/liquid argon calorimeter. The electromag- their mass. The measured cross section as a func- netic showers produced in the lead plates ionize tion of the invariant mass M of the e+e~ pair is the liquid argon, and the charge is then collected shown in Fig. 4. on strips with good spatial resolution. Additional The simplest mechanism for producing a high- electron identification is provided by transition mass lepton pair is the annihilation of a quark M IO" - \-

-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 "Pra..

Figure 5. Data from several experiments including Ex- periment 687 on J/yji production in ir~p interactions. The

+ curves are a calculation by Donnachie and Landshoff Figure 4. The number of e e~ events as a function of the which assumes that the J/\ji is made by quark-antiquark e+e- invariant mass observed in the BNL/CERN/Syra- fusion. cuse/Yale experiment. Note the peaks corresponding to production of thej/ty and T particles.

cross sections should help to understand the pre- from one proton with an antiquark from the other. cise mechanism. Because the quarks can be treated as essentially In a Fermilab experiment by Yale/BNL (Adair, free, this model leads to a scaling form for the et al.) the longitudinal polarization of muons pro- cross section, duced by 400 GeV protons was measured. They found that the polarization is consistent with zero, do 1 indicating that parity is conserved. From this and other data they conclude that muons are produced where the function F is related to the quark dis- electromagnetically rather than by the weak de- tributions. The data agree with this form, which cay of charmed particles. can then be used to estimate W * production at much higher energies. However, the lepton pairs HADRON SPECTROSCOPY have a transverse momentum which increases with AND REACTIONS energy, indicating that other mechanisms must also contribute. Several experiments were performed in the In Experiment 687 (Rochester/NSF/Fermilab/ Multiparticle Spectrometer (MPS), which is oper- BNL) the process ir~ + Cu —>/*++[i~ + anything ated by BNL as a facility for al! users. The MPS, was measured at 16 and 22 GeV. Both J/i//pro- which is shown in Fig. 6, is based on a large dipole duction and the continuum were studied. The magnet operating at 10 kilogauss. Many planes of J/tp cross section as a function of x = pi/pL,max counters within the magnet are used to record the (PL is the longitudinal momentum in the center of tracks of all the charged particles produced in an mass) is shown in Fig. 5. It is thought that th_ event. A Cerenkov counter downstream of the J/i// is produced by the annihilation of constitu- magnet provides particle identification. In a typi- ents of the incoming hadrons. Since pions and pro- cal experiment, information from several of the tons have different constituents, comparing their counters is combined electronically to determine 8 XUVX MOOULES IN SLOTS 8 YY MOOULES BETWEEN SLOTS

LIQUID w'f — K*K~K*K~n HYDROGEN. TARGET K*K~ EFFECTIVE MASS WITH AT LEAST ONE £ PRESENT

TARGET VETO COUNTERS

TPX2 SCALE APPROXIMATE Tpj<3

CERENKOV COUNTER " HODOSCOPE (C6)

SCINTILLATION COUNTER • HODOSCOPES

Figure 6. The Multiparticle Spectrometer. Particles produced in the liquid hydrogen target are tracked by counter modules inside the magnet, which is 6 m long. The curvature of each track determines its momentum. The Cerenkov hodoscope downstream of the magnet can distinguish different types of particles.

if the event is potentially interesting. If so, the in- 2 formation from all of the counters is recorded on (GeV/c ) magnetic tape and subsequently processed by a Figure 7. The number of»"p —» K+K-K+K~n events computer to reconstruct and analyze the event. observed in Experiment 679 versus the mass of one K+K- In Experiment 557 (BNL/Brandeis/CCNY/ pair with the other K+K.- pair having the <(> mass. The Massachusetts/Pennsylvania) K.~n+ resonances peak indicates a surprisingly large cross section for produced in K~p —•> K~i7+n at 6 GeV were studied using the MPS. In the high-macs region a single resonance with a mass of 1786 MeV was found. The angular distributions indicated that it has mass mesons which decay primarily into baryon- spin 3 and negative parity. In terms of quarks it is antibaryon pairs. These include Experiment 682 interpreted as an sd bound state with orbital angu- (BNL/CCNY/Massachusetts/SMU), Experiment lar momentum 2. 686 (BNL/Stony Brook/Pennsylvania/Syracuse/ In Experiment 679 (BNL/CCNY) *r-p^> Brandeis/Cincinnati), Experiment 688 (Syracuse/ K+K-K+K-n at 22.6 GeV has been studied in Brandeis/Cincinnati/BNL), and Experiment 716 the MPS. A sophisticated trigger was used: the pat- (CMU/SMU/BNL). tern of hits in several counters was compared with In Experiment 703 (Princeton/BNL) an exist- precalculated possible patterns stored in a random ing two-arm spectrometer was used to search for a access memory. Figure 7 shows the number of six-quark state H in the reaction pp—» K+K+H. events versus the mass of one K+K~ pair with the No six-quark states have ever been discovered, but other K+K~ pair having the mass. A peak is ob- this one is predicted to exist by the MIT "bag" served corresponding to w-p —» n with each model, a generally successful model for the bind- decaying to K+K~. Although this reaction should ing of quarks into hadrons. No evidence ror the H be suppressed by the quark line rule, which is used was found, with an upper limit of about 30 nb for to explain why the 0 is so narrow, its cross section the cross section. This is smaller than expected, is about 10% of the allowed ir~p—»K+K~n. but the cross-section estimate is not very reliable. Current MPS experiments are concentrated on Therefore a new detector with improved sensitiv- searching for charm particle production in had- ity is being built to continue the search [Experi- ronic reactions and on studying baryonium, high ment 722 (BNL)]. 10

200 GeV/c concentrated in three areas: gauge theories of weak interactions, applications of quark models to _ 10: various processes, and studies of the structure of £ 0.5: _ 0. \ quantum chromodynamics (QCD). It also has one * 0 2 member working primarily on theoretical atomic 0.1 ; • • • 90° •-30° physics. Some representative papers from each of * 2.0 . •« these areas are discussed below. 1 ..0:-.«- 0 5: Independent analyses of experimental data 90° 30° have been carried out by Langacker and by Sidhu S 10; and Paschos to determine the couplings of the S 0.5; neutral weak boson. Both analyses were motivated

02- by the new, more accurate data on neutrino- proton elastic scattering from Experiment 613. 90° 30° ~a. 2.0- They use these and other data to determine the £ ' °: • couplings without assuming any particular gauge 0.5; +• theory and with fewer theoretical assumptions 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 than had been needed previously. Their results are consistent and in good agreement wkh the Figure 8. The ratios of cross sections observed in a BNL/ Weinberg-Salam model. Cal Tech/Berkeley experiment for various particles to In several experiments parity violation has not produce a 17° as a function of the transverse momentum been observed in atoms at the levels predicted by p.. These ratios can be related to the momentum distri- the Weinberg-Salam model coupled v/ith difficult bution of quarks in the incoming particles. atomic physics calculations. This led Mohapatra and Sidhu to propose and to study extensively a gauge theory based on the group SU(2) X SU(2) In Experiment 641 (BNL/Case) data are being X U(l). In this model there are two neutral weak analyzed to measure the polarization in K+n—» bosons, making it possible to conserve parity in K+n at a momentum of 800 MeV/c. This requires their couplings while fitting all of the neutrino observing a left-right asymmetry in a second scat- scattering data. Recent data on polarized electron tering of the recoil neutron. A bump has been ob- scattering from SLAC show that these couplings served in the K+n cross section at this momentum, do in fact violate parity, thus removing the main and the polarization will determine whether this phenomenological motivation for the model. How- bump is a true resonance. If so, its quark structure ever, models of this type are still of theoretical must be uudds, and it will be the first established interest. five-quark baryon. Peierls, Trueman, and Wang made estimates of In a Fermilab experiment by BNL/Cal Tech W production in high-energy proton-proton col- Berkeley, w° production at large transverse mo- lisions, such as will be available at ISABELLE. mentum px in u^p, K~p, pp, and pp interactions They used a generalization of the Drell-Yan model has been measured. Ratios of the cross sections for in which the W is produced by the annihilation of various particles at an incident energy of 200 GeY a quark from one proton with an antiquark from are shown in Fig. 8. Several models have been the other. Because the W has a large mass, by the proposed which relate such high p± cross sections uncertainty principle it must be produced over a to the scattering of constituents of the incoming short distance, so that the quarks can be treated hadron, Measuring the cross sections for different as free particles. Then the cross section can depend initial particles provides a good test of such models. only on the ratio of the W mass to the total energy, and W production can be related to existing data HIGH ENERGY THEORY at lower masses and energies. The results of the calculations indicate that the W should be easily ob- The impact of the discovery of charm and the servable at ISABELLE by its decays into leptons. development of gauge theories is clearly reflected Kubar-Andre and Paige have considered correc- in the work of the high energy theory group. Over tions to the Drell-Yan model arising from the fact the last two years the group's research has been that the quarks are not really free but have inter- 11 actions described by QCD. These corrections are ness is essential in describing the effects of instan- surprisingly large, although they do not destroy tons in this gauge. Ambiguities also occur in the the qualitative features of the model. absence of instantons, but their significance is not Bound states of heavy quarks like J/iJ' can be yet clear. described phenomenologically by a non-relativistic The gauge specified by setting Ao = O avoids potential. Appelquist, Dine, and Muzinich stud- many of the ambiguities and provides a particu- ied the structure of this potential in QCD pertur- larly simple description of instanton effects. Creutz, bation theory. They find that the long-range part Muzinich, and Tudron analysed the quantization of the potential gets contributions from essentially of QCD in this gauge using canonical techniques. all connected graphs. By contrast, in electromag- They find that the transformation from this gauge netism a similar calculation shows that the long- to a large class of other gauges, including the Cou- range Coulomb potential comes only from one- lomb gauge, is ambiguous. These ambiguities are photon exchange. It is not possible to sum the again needed for the description of instantons. QCD perturbation expansion so as to determine Sternheimer has demonstrated that the excited- the form of the potential, but one can conclude state energy levels of the alkali-metal atom are that its structure is much more complicated than energy-ordered according to the increasing value had been previously thought. of k, defined as k=n + /, where n is the principal Several papers dealt with problems related to and / the azimuthal quantum number of the level. the gauge invariance of QCD. Like electromag- This property has been called the "k ordering" of netism or any other gauge theory, QCD contains the level structure. For states with the same value vector potentials A,, with four components. Only of k, the levels with increasing energy Enj exhibit a two of these components correspond to physical sequence of / values (the "/ pattern") which is degrees of freedom, gluons with helicity + 1 and characteristic of the alkali-atom considered (Na, — 1. The third component is eliminated by gauge K, Rb, Cs), and is independent of k. An example invariance, that is, a transformation at each space- is the / sequence gpdsf for the Rb spectrum, which time point of the fields under the gauge group is exemplified in the k = 9 band, consisting of the which leaves the equations of motion invariant. levels 5g, 8p, 7d, 9s, 6f, in the order of increasing The fourth component is determined by the equa- energy. The k ordering is a very general property tions of motion. To further complicate matters, of atoms and ions with a single electron outside QCD appears naively to have a very large amount closed shells. Altogether 42 spectra have been in- of symmetry, but part of this symmetry is broken vestigated, corresponding to a total of 1274 levels, by particular configurations of the fields known as which show almost perfect k ordering. The region instantons. The instantons produce tunneling be- of validity of k ordering has been explored in terms tween various classical vacuum states; the correct of the /values of the levels, the ionicity Z —N and quantum mechanical vacuum is a super-position atomic number Z. Important correlations have of the classical ones. Since it is known from current been observed between the following three phe- algebra that the symmetry must be broken, it is nomena: k ordering, inverted fine structure, and important to describe instantons correctly. the quadrupole antishielding factors of ions. The The analog of the familiar Coulomb gauge in discovery of the k ordering points to the existence electromagnetism turns out not to specify uniquely of an extended symmetry of atomic spectra and the vector potentials A,, in QCD. Jackiw, Muzin- enables us to systematize the level structure of the ich, and Rebbi showed that this lack of unique- excited states. 12

HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS SCIENTIFIC STAFF

Rau, R.R. Director's Office, Chung, S.U. Omega Group Associate Director for Physics Cobb, J.H. Wanderer, P.J. Director's Office, Donaldson, GJ. BNL-Users Liaison, Flamino, V. H.E. Physics Research Gordon, H.A. Sanford, J.R. Director's Office, Kirk, H.G. Associate Director Lai, K.W. forlSABELLE Lesnik, A. Samios, N.P. Physics Department Chairman, Michael, D.N. H.E. Physics Research Morris, G.R. Willis, WJ. ISABELLE, Montag, M. Head of Detector Division Murtagh, M. H.E. Physics Research Protopopescu, S.D. Shutt, R.P. H.E. Physics Research Rahm, D.C. Thorndike, A.M. ISABELLE, Experimental Halls Rehak, P. H.E. Physics Research Skelly, J.F. Kycia,T.F. Electronic Detector Group Leader Smith, S.D. H.E. Physics Research Stevens, A.J. Electronic Detector Group Strand, R.C. Chiang, J.H. Stumer, I. Johnson, R.A. Tanaka, M. Littenberg, L.S. Connelly, P.L. Bubble Chamber Data Processing Marx, M.D. Kahn, S.A. Electronic Detector Group Leader it Leipuner, L.B. Trueman, T.L. H.E. Physics Theory, Group Head Morse, W.M. Electronic Detector Group Courant, E.D. Lindenbaum, S.J. Spectrometer Group Leader H.E. Physics Theory, H.E. Physics Research Accelerator Theory Ozaki, S. Creutz, M.J. H.E. Physics Theory Foley, KJ. Particle Spectrometer Group Jacobs, L.A. Goldman, J. Muzinich, I.S. Love,W.A. Paige, F.E. Platner, E.D. Pasches, E.A. Palmer, R.B. Omega Group Leader Peierls, R.F. H.E. Physics Research Rebbi, C. H.E. Physics Theory Sakitt, M. Deputy Group Leader Sidhu,D.P. H.E. Physics Research Sternheimer, R.M. Alspector, J.L. Omega Group Tudron, T.N. Ashford, V.A. Wang, L.L. Accelerator Department

INTRODUCTION jectories, the protons are accelerated in rf cavities, located at several points around the ring, up to The Accelerator Department is responsible for an energy of 29 GeV. They are then ejected the operation of the Alternating Gradient Syn- from the main ring and sent down beam lines to chrotron (AGS). This involves accelerating pro- target stations where they can be used by the tons to high velocities and then delivering them experimenters. via external beam lines where they are used for Since the extracted proton beam is often split doing particle physics experiments. The depart- among several experiments simultaneously, it is ment oversees the scheduling of these experiments desirable to achieve the highest possible intensity. and provides services to the user groups such as In this regard, the AGS has been continuously on-line computers, rigging help, and the use of improving during the last several years. The stan- large experimental facilities like the 7-foot Bub- dard intensity is now more th an 0.9 X1013 protons/ ble Chamber and the Multiparticle Spectrometer. pulse while an intensity averaging over 1013 for an Improvement of the AGS through the develop- eight-hour shift has been achieved. The record ment and application of new technologies such as peak intensity is 1.117x1013 protons/pulse. The superconductivity and intense charged particle continually improving performance of the AGS is beams has relevance to other areas of research at reflected in the accumulated total protons accel- Brookhaven. Such projects in the Accelerator De- erated (Fig. 1), and the total hours available for partment include heavy ion-initiated fusion (HIF), doing high energy physics experiments (Fig. 2) for development of intense neutral beams for fusion the past several years. As can be seen in Fig. 1, devices, solar power generation, superconducting 6.9 X1019 protons were accelerated in FY 1978 power transmission, medical diagnostics, and the (the year ending on September 30, 1978), a 23% production of isotopes. The department is also increase over the previous record year of FY 1977. working on the modifications and improvements The operating efficiency, defined as the ratio of necessary to make the AGS suitable for injecting total high energy physics hours over the sum of protons into the ISABELLE storage rings. physics beam hours and unscheduled downtime, was 81% in FY 1978. For 34 weeks of operation THE AGS the average number of high energy physics hours available per week was 122. The average intensity 13 To begin the acceleration process, protons are per pulse in FY 1978 was 0.84 XlO protons/ produced by passing an electrical discharge through pulse; this includes the periods when the machine hydrogen gas. The protons are collected and made was purposefully detuned to meet certain experi- to enter a Cockcroft-Walton preinjector where mental demands. they are accelerated to 750 keV. They are then ac- There are two extraction modes at the AGS. In celerated in a 200-MeV linear accelerator (linac) the slowly-extracted-beam mode (SEB) the circu- and injected into the AGS. lating beam is first debunched and then slowly The AGS is a proton synchrotron of the alter- extracted over many turns. This is accomplished nating-gradient type. The basic element of a syn- by gradually "shaving" oflfsome of the beam par- chrotron is the ring of magnets which guides the ticles with an electrostatic septum and then direct- protons around an approximately circular path, ing them to external beam lines by means of bend- and which also applies a restoring force to paring magnets. The whole beam is extracted in this ticles which leave the centra! orbit. In the AGS way in the course of about one second. This rela- the shape of the magnetic field is reversed (alter- tively long time allows experimenters to take data nating gradient) many times around the ring. This smoothly without overloading their detectors. For provides the strong focusing necessary to keep the neutrino experiments, where the interaction rates beam confined to a small central region, which is are much smaller, it is desirable to receive the full important since the beam circulates entirely within beam over a short period. In the fast-extracted- an evacuated beam pipe lodged in the magnet beam mode (FEB), the proton beam is not de- gaps. While traveling in their almost circular tra- bunched, and is fully extracted in only one turn.

13 14

900r

300

2 ' 3 ' 4 ' 5 ' 6 ' 7 9 ' 10 ' II ' 12 2 ' 3 ' 4 ' 5 ' 6 ' 7 ' a ' 9 ' 10 ' II ' 12 MONTHS FROM BEGINNING OF FY MONTHS FROM BEGINNING OF FY

Figure 1. AGS performance: total number Figure 2. AGS performance: total hours of accelerated protons. of high energy physics research.

In this case, the beam is delivered within a few trino program in the North Area (where experi- microseconds. ments use the fast extracted beam). Not all experiments require the highest pos- 3) Over 50% of the circulating beam was ex- sible beam energy and intensity. The AGS is a tracted and targeted at 1.5 GeV/c in the FEB versatile machine which can be adapted to vari- mode in order to produce low energy neutrinos. ous unusual experimental needs. Several new This made possible a search for evidence of neu- modes of operation were developed in order to trino oscillations. The AGS emittance (defined as satisfy these needs: the "area" of the beam in position-momentum 1) A 5 GeV/c beam of 5 X 10s protons per sec- phase space) was reduced vertically by internal ond was obtained by diffraction scattering from shaving and horizontally by multiturn extraction. an internal target into the SEB beam transport Additional quadrupoles were required to trans- system. An 80% duty factor was thereby attained port the 1.5 GeV/c proton to the neutrino focus- for doing a high sensitivity search for exotic six- ing "horn." quark states. In addition, the 200 MeV iinac (which injects 2) A "trickle mode" was tested in which a small into the AGS) was extensively used by the Brook- portion of the circulating beam was extracted into haven Linear Isotope Producer (BLIP), the Chem- the SEB line while simultaneously extracting the istry Linac Irradiation Facility (CLIF), and the remainder of the beam in one revolution into the Medical Proton Radiogram Facility. Operation FEB line. This allowed the tuning up of experi- efficiency for this work was about 97%. The total ments in the East Area (where experiments use 200 MeV proton current delivered to BLIP in FY the slowly extracted beam) while running the neu- 1978 was 0.3 ampere hours. 15

IMPROVEMENTS TO THE AGS the oscillation of the particle beam in a direction transverse to its central orbit, as it circulates The overall proton delivery efficiency of the around the main ring. AGS can be defined as the product of the extrac- A 30 GeV beam dump will be constructed in- tion efficiency and the splitting efficiency (that is, side the main ring. This will make possible a con- how well the extracted primary beam is divided trolled dump of the beam, rather than depositing and transported among the various external beam particles and radiation indiscriminately around lines). This number is presently 50-75% but the the ring. goal of the Accelerator Department is to improve One essential element of monitoring the energy this to better than 90%. To achieve this goal, the of the accelerated proton beam is the measure- AGS is now undergoing a number of research and ment of the main ring magnetic field. A new mag- development projects. In addition to increased netic field indicator, known as a "Gauss Clock," efficiency, the benefits of this program include will be installed. Monitoring of the energy of the more protons delivered to experiments, a reduc- beam is especially important for the momentum tion in the exposure of people and apparatus to phase space of the ISABELLE injection beam hazardous radiation, increased reliability, and the where a momentum stability of better than 10~5 preparation of the AGS as the injector of ISA- is desired. BELLE. Several of the improvement projects are The Siemens motor-generator set, which sup- listed below. plies power to the AGS main magnet ring, has performed well. However, major electrical or H- SOURCE mechanical failures in the rotating machinery could cause a lengthy shutdown of the AGS pro- One of the fundamental limitations on the gram. Therefore, a previously used motor-genera- number of protons which can be injected into the tor set (made by Westinghouse) is being adapted AGS is imposed by Liouville's theorem (which to current machine conditions for possible use as governs the phase space occupied by a charged a spare in the case of a failure in the Siemens unit. particle beam). This does not apply, however, to A power failure, though not too frequent, can irreversible processes. The H~ scheme involves cause downtimes of several hours at the AGS. accelerating negative hydrogen ions and convert- Especially in the summer when electrical storms ing them into protons by stripping the electrons are frequent, power dips are not uncommon. An in a thin foil before injection into the AGS main improved uninterruptible dc power supply will tx ring. H- injection has been tried at the Argonne built. Such a system will help protect sensitive ZGS and at Fermilab with some success. It is equipment and save some high energy physics hoped that an H~ source can be developed for in- time, particularly when ISABELLE is operating. jection into the AGS. This would result in a higher The aperture of a magnet system is the effec- intensity and a brighter beam with a smaller emit- tive area in the spatial dimension perpendicular tance, useful attributes for a beam which will some to the central orbit direction which the beam may day be injected into the ISABELLE rings. occupy without scraping one of the ring components. In practice this limiting aperture will be the inner diameter of the smallest component. The de- MAIN RING sign of an accelerator like the AGS is a compro- Many improvements in the main ring compo- mise between aperture size and magnet cost in the nents have been accomplished recently or will be first place. Increasing the aperture will decrease during the upgrading projects. Installation of a induced radioactivity (less of the beam will be new main ring vacuum chamber system will take striking the ring components) and increase beam place during regular shutdowns. In the past, the intensity. During the present improvement pro- failure of corroded vacuum chamber connecting gram, several multipole magnets in three of the bellows has caused increased AGS downtime. main ring straight sections will be replaced by Skew quadrupoles were added to correct for magnets with larger apertures. higher order horizontal and vertical betatron There have been several improvements in the coupling resonances. This resulted in a 5% in- control and diagnostic systems for monitoring crease in AGS intensity. A betatron oscillation is AGS activity. A new television information sys- tern has been completed. This improves the interaction between the experimenters and the Accel- erator Department. The Long Radiation Moni- tor (LRM) installed in the linac and the injection area last year has proven to be so useful that a similar system is being installed in the main ring. The AGS computer control system has been en- larged. All low field corrections, as well as main ring power supply diagnostics, are now monitored through the computer system. An effort is also undeiway to improve the beam spill feedback system. This will make possible a better dut) factor.

EXTRACTION AND SPLITTING The AGS accelerates about 1013 protons per pulse, but only about half this number are delivered to the external target stations during slow- extraction running. Losses occnr chiefly in the magnetic septa which extract the beam from the AGS, and which split it into three branches. This "switchyard" area will be rebuilt by the summer of 1979, and will almost double the number of protons delivered. Figure 3 shows the new electrostatic beam splitter. The beam impinges on an anode which consists of a plane of fine wires. The particles traveling on either side of the wires are electrostatically drawn in opposite directions towards the outer electrodes. When the beams have Figure 3. An electrostatic beam splitter; the array of fine been slightly separated in this way, they are split wires constitutes the anode septum, while the outer elec- further apart by a Lambertson septum magnet, trodes, about 6.1 cm apart, are the cathodes. shown in Fig. 4. The fast extraction will also be improved, with the addition of a fast "kicker" septum. This kicker, Figure 4. A Lambertson magnetic septum used in the with a rise time of less than 200 nsec will be fast "switchyard" to further separate two closely spaced pro- enough to rise between AGS bunches and stable ton beams. enough not to increase the apparent horizontal emittance of the ejected beam. This system would not only optimize injection into ISABELLE but would also benefit the present North Area physics program by reducing the background level.

EXTERNAL BEAMS The beam extracted from the AGS is sent either to the North Area (for neutrino experiments) in the fast-extraction mode, or to the East Area in the slow-extraction mode. Figure 5 shows the network of secondary beam lines in the East Area. Table I lists the characteristics of these beams, including the U beam in the neutrino area. Figure 5. The AGS East Experimental Area.

Table I

AGS Beams FY 1979

Flux in thousands/sec/1012 protons on target Prod Beam GeV/c ±> ' Angle fl(msr) K+ K- p p sr+ T- @ GeVA Purity Remarks

Separated Beams for General Use

1.5-6 (K) 12 B4 0.3 270 120 2X10* 300 4X10* 3X10* ir/K~3 Usually 2x 10 ppp; L=81 m. 1.5-9 (p) C2.C4 2 ppp; L=75 m. Cl 3-24 0.8 9000 400 3X106 30 1X105 3X10* 16 Usually 2X10" ppp; L=61 m. in beam Unseparated Charged Beams for Fixed Facilities Al 24 i 1.7 0° 0.3 700 17 6X105 1.5 IX10* 3000 18 MPS; L= 130 m; 1012 ppp. Neutral Beams for General Use A K, n A3 1-10 6° 0.12 10* 1-10 1012 ppp typical; L=6.7 m; alternates with Al 5 B5 6-20 4° 0.4 300 27 2X10* 4X10 6-20 1O10 ppp typical; L=2.6 m.

Neutral Beam for Fixed Facility/General Use V V 7 2 B 2 2 U 10 /m 7xlO /m 9Xl09XlO>12ppr p 7'B.C. and counter area; last typical spill, flux avg. over 0.7 m radius, peaks at 1.5 GeV/c. Table II

Experiments Completed, in Progress, or Under Construction,

A TARGET STATION Al (HEUB to MPS) #679 BNL/CCNY High effective mass K* and Y* spectroscopy. #682 Brandeis/BNL/CCNY/Mass/SMU Search for charmed particles. #686 BNL/Penn/VPI Search for associated charm production and study of direct electron events. #688 Syracuse/Brandeis/Cincinnati Search for charm, inclusive study of dimuons and 2 V° correlations. # 705 BNt/CCNY/Vanderbilt/Tufts/Michigan Search for new resonances. #716 CMU/SMU/BNL Search for exotic (charge 2) baryonium states and for dibaryon states with mass <3 GeV. A2 (Test Beam) Many tests and: #714 NASA Measured spectrum of y's surviving a shield bombarded with few -GeV protons. #721 BNL Search for proton polarization in inclusive production. A3 #676 Yale/BNL Prompt muons and dimuons from p interactions. #696 Yale/BNL Measure the CP violating transverse muon polarization in KL° —> fi+w-j'. #699 LLL Measure the proton induced shower in U238 with passive thermoluminescence dosimeters to check LLL computer code.

B TARGET STATION Bl 1*647 UCSD Study of multiparticle production associated with definite nuclear levels. #671 BNL Investigate the production of single electrons at low S and low P in pp and up collisions. #694 Princeton/BNL Search for new "charmed" particles in p interactions. #703 Princeton/BNL Search for exotic six-quark states. #715 Princeton/BNL Search for high mass pp states in range 1950-2200 MeV. #727 UCSD Study of associated strange particle production produced in association with the 4.4 level. B2(MESBtoMPS) #594 BNL/CCNY Production and decay of boson resonances, production of Vs. #596 CMU/SMU Test of exchange models in two body scattering pp, irp. #673 Brandeis/Florida State/Syracuse/BNL i* resonance study. B4 (MESB) #644 Rutgers/Temple/BNL pp annihilations into neutral V pairs. #722 BNL Search for exotic 6-quark stales. 35 (Neutral Hyperon) #597 Mass/Princeton/BNL A/3 decay. #712 Mass/Princeton/BNL Measure A polarization from pp interactions. #717 BNL/Mass/Michigan A polarization from proton interactions in hydrogen and deuterium targets, map x, pT dependence.

C TARGET STATION Cl (High Flux Pion) #687 Rochester/BNL/FNAL/NSF Investigation of muon pair and single muon production in liH interactions. #726 NYU/BNL Search for charm in hadronic interactions near threshold. C2 (LESB, alternates with C4) #643 Wm Mary/VPI/CMU/ Wyo/CIT Measurements of X-ray transitions for stopped P- and K- in gaseous H & He. #646 BNL/Princeton/MIT/ Houston/Vassar Hypernuclear spectroscopy of states formed by the coherent interaction of K" with nuclei. ± #692 CMU/Houston K elastic scattering from selected nuclei at —800 MeV/c. #728 BNL/Princeton/MIT/ Houston/Vassar Search for 2) hypernucleus using a deuterium target. C4 (LESB, alternates with C2) ~~#641 BNL/CMU Study of polarization in K+n —> K+n elastic scattering. Measure momentum dependence of backward K±p elastic scattering. #691 LBL/Mt. Holyoke/BNL C6 (LESB II, alternates with C8) Search for y transitions in pp annihilations at rest and low energies. #708 Syracuse/Brown/ Michigan State/BNL C8 (LESB II, alternates with C6) Search for bound states and resonances in nucleon-antinudeon interactions. #701 U.C. Irvine/LASL/New Mexico/Temple Study radiative decays of 2+ —> py from polarized 2+. #702 Yale/BNL U STATION (NEUTRINO) Electronic #613 Harvard/Penn/Wisc. pp—» vp & pp—» pp #693 Columbia/Illinois/BNL Narrow band v beam. #704/706 Harvard/Penn/Wisc/BNL Study the time evolution of vr —> ve transformations. #718 Harvard/Penn/BNL Search for axions in a beam dump experiment. #720 Columbia/IIlinois/BNL Search for axions in a beam dump experiment. 7-FT. BUBBLE CHAMBER #427 BNL vD exposure. #532 Wisconsin vp exposure. #589/639 Col/Rutgers/Stevens pNe exposure, narrow band beam. #629 BNL pp exposure. #719 Columbia/Rutgers/Stevens Search for axions in chamber rilled with heavy neon. 19 The Experimental Planning and Support Divi- 74.8 and 49.2 kV/cm, respectively. Construction sion (EPS) is responsible for the management of of LESB II doubles the number of experiments the experimental program at the AGS. This in- which can be performed simultaneously using low volves setting up running periods for each of the energy kaons and antiprotons. The fluxes for these experiments on the floor, and scheduling the de- particle beams, in this energy range, are the high- livery of the extracted primary protons to the est in the world. major target stations where secondary particles 2) A new high flux pion beam was developed can be produced. The secondary beams are then for Cl. This has been used for a study of dimuon transported to the North Experimental Area (fast production in the J/ip region and will be used for extraction) for neutrino experiments, and to the a forthcoming charm search. East Area (slow extraction) where several experi- 3) A large spectrometer with a momentum ments can receive beams simultaneously. Because resolution of one part in 104 was constructed in of the differing spill requirements of the East and the low energy separated beam for the study of North Areas, and because each area can make ef- hypernuclear reactions. This is shr • n in Fig. 6. fective use of the entire primary AGS beam, the 4) A high energy unseparated •: .'am (HEUB) SEB and FEB programs are usually run separately. was constructed primarily for use > ith the Multi- As experiments are completed, which can take particle Spectrometer (MPS). This beam involved months or even years, they are removed and re- the use of four superconducting 40 kG dipoles, one placed with others. Table II is a listing of all ex- of which is shown in Fig. 7. These magnets, which periments which have been completed in the last have been in routine operation since early 1977, two years as well as those currently in progress or are essentially shorter (but larger in transverse under construction. dimension) versions of the ISABELLE dipoles; In addition to providing proton beams, the EPS each unit is 2.5 m in length, has an aperture of 20 Division also maintains the High Energy Elec- cm, and operates at 4.5 K. The stored energy per tronics Pool (HEEP) which is a stock of logic and magnet at the design field of 40 kG is approxi- CAMAC-related electronic modules. The division mately one megajoule. also oversees the installation of certain large spec- 5) When the internal target at G10 was dis- trometer magnets with the necessary radiation mantled, the number of available secondary beams shielding. All planning and support activities are was reduced by four. Since the demand for beam managed by a staff of physicists and engineers time by experimenters has remained high, how- who provide the liaison between the experimenters ever, construction of a new major target station and the Laboratory. (the D line) is now planned. Several uses for this One of the most important features of the AGS facility have been proposed. A group of users from program is the ability to adapt to new research Argonne National Laboratory have proposed to interests in the field of high energy physics. One continue their work with polarized protons at the example of this was the operation of the AGS at AGS when the Zero Gradient Synchrotron (ZGS) 1.5 GeV/c for study of neutrino oscillations, which at Argonne is shut down. Another proposal has was described above. Another way is to build new come from the Space Radiation Effects Labora- experimental facilities for taking data, and to con- tory (SREL) and Nevis Laboratory users who struct new beam lines. The following list describes would like to have a stopping muon beam facility some of the important projects which have been built at BNL. The D station has also been con- undertaken in the last two years, and some of sidered as the site of one or more ISABELLE test those which will be built soon. beam facilities, a low energy antineutron beam, 1) "Separated" beams are those in which sec- and a 1-3 GeV/c high flux antiproton beam. Fi- ondary particles of identical momentum but dif- nally, the D line would be able to accommodate ferent mass (pions and kaons, for instance) are a beam intensity of 1013 protons per second; no spatially separated using the combined action of other single beam line has this capability at the electrostatic and magnetic beam elements. An present time. electrostatic beam separator development program In order to construct a fourth major target sta- has led to a new low energy separated beam tion, the bend must occupy the smallest possible (LESB II) which employs new 10 and 15 cm elec- longitudinal space and provide the largest possi- trostatic beam separators with field gradients of ble transverse displacement of the beam. This 20

Figure 6. The magnet system of the hypernuclear spec- distinguished from beam pions by liquid hydrogen Ce- trometer; more than 105 K~'s per AGS cycle enter the renkov counters surrounding the target. The downstream target region (under the scaffold) from the left of the pic- part of the spectrometer is mounted on a rotatable plat- ture. Negative pions from hypernuclear formation are form for measuring the v~ angular distribution. 21 Another study has shown that deuterons could be accelerated in the AGS with certain modifications to the existing hardware. A deuteron beam provides, in effect, a source of monoenergetic high energy neutrons. The acceleration of other even heavier ions is also being studied.

EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES The Particle Detector Division (PDD) maintains the 7-foot (2.13 m) Bubble Chamber and the Multiparticle Spectrometer, and provides users with certain special experimental apparatus, such as liquid cryogen targets, and the On-Line Data Facility.

7-FOOT BUBBLE CHAMBER The 7-foot Bubble Chamber is located in the U line in the North Area and is one of the principal particle detector facilities at BNL for neutrino physics. Since the first experimental picture of a neutrino interaction was taken in October, 1973, more than three million pictures have been taken, Figure 7. Superconducting dipole magnets used in the requiring more than five million expansions. About High Energy Unseparated Beam (HEUB) leading to the 1.3 million pictures have been taken with the Multiparticle Spectrometer. chamber filled with liquid deuterium. Approxi- mately the same number have been taken in a necessitates the development and eventual con- heavy liquid neon-hydrogen mixture, and the rest struction of three 2.13 m, 60 kG cold bore super- in pure liquid hydrogen. The chamber, which uses conducting dipoies. These magnets, which would a superconducting magnet, has been cooled down provide a total bend of 21 ° in the primary proton a total of 23 times so far. During the last cooldown beam transport scheme, are similar in design to 1.2 million pictures were taken, setting a world's record for large bubble chambers. An event was the 40 kG 8° bending magnets that have been + used in theNorth Area for more than four years. observed of the type vd —> |U~Ks p7r 77-(ps), which 6) Construction was completed on the C3 line is interpreted as the production and decay of a which is the proton transport to the C target, and charmed baryon. This adds support to the appar- the A3 line which is a short neutral beam from the ent discovery of a charmed baryon three years ago A target. Construction was also begun on a new in the 7-foot chamber. arm (B4) of the Medium Energy Separated Beam (MESB). New focusing horns were introduced for MULTIPARTICLE SPECTROMETER a beam of neutrinos from 1.5 GeV/c incident protons and for a narrow band neutrino beam. The Multiparticle Spectrometer (MPS) is the The Accelerator Department is conducting fea- Laboratory's major electronic particle detector sibility studies of polarize'd proton acceleration in facility, and is a joint project of the Particle De- the AGS. At present the only available high en- tector Division and a research group in the Phys- ergy polarized proton beams are at the Argonne ics Department. The principal features of the ZGS, where recent experiments have had some MPS include a large solid-angle detection effi- very interesting results. If certain technical diffi- ciency, good momentum and angular resolution, culties could be overcome, it is possible that po- and a high data handling capability. The large larized protons could even be injected into aperture of the 700-ton C-magnet provides ample ISABELLE. room for numerous wire chambers and counters, 22

Figure 8. An overall view of the MPS. The beam enters from the left and interacts in the liquid hydrogen target (out of sight). Particles from the interaction are detected and momentum analyzed in cylindrical and planar spark chambers located in the gap of the magnet. Downstream of the magnet, particle identification is performed by scintillation counters, more spark chambers, a low pressure Cerenkov hodoscope, and a high pressure Cerenkov counter (the large cylindrical tank).

Figure 9. A theodolite and a laser beam are used to line up the mirrors in the MPS high pressure Cerenkov counter. The Cerenkov light exits through holes, some of which have already been filled with reflective light collectors, and then is detected in photomultiplier tubes. Various gases can be used in the counter up to a maximum pressure of 413 kPa (60 psi). 23

very fine cell size. In order to facilitate the readout Table III of so many signal wires (20,000 wires for the full Results of Improvements to the project) special microelectronic integrated circuit Multiparticle Spectrometer chips are being developed. With this improvement, the MPS will be able to accommodate ten times Present MPS Improved MPS the present incident beam intensity, and spatial measurement resolution will be improved by at Beam rate capability (incident protons/sec) 3X105 107 least a factor two. Using the RAM system, with its Resolving time 3/eec <70nsec highly selective trigger, to keep data taking at a Reconstructed track manageable rate, the measurement of sub-nano- resolving time 3f

crease particularly helps the monitoring of MPS Heavy ion induced fusion appears particularly at- experiments. tractive in that the basic accelerator technology exists, and the high density of energy deposition OTHER PROJECTS compares very favorably with lasers and electron beams. The principal job of the Accelerator Depart- The first study of heavy ion accelerators for in- ment is the operation of the AGS and the external ertial confinement fusion was begun in 1974 at beam lines, and to oversee the program of research BNL. The first work on space-charge limited experiments which use the particle beams. Several transport was carried out in 1975, and snowed that other important research projects are carried out heavy ion beams, in low charge states, could be ef- by physicists and engineers in the Department. ficiently used to obtain the required power and These are described below. energy densities needed for pellet ignition. An experiment at the AGS demonstrated experimen- ISABELLE Conversion tally, for the first time ever, that a rapidly bunched The AGS will eventually serve as the injector to beam could override the space charge limit for cir- ISABELLE, the 400x400 GeV intersecting stor- cular machines. age accelerator being built at BNL. As such, the Since funding began in April 1977, the Heavy AGS must undergo certain modifications and im- Ion Fusion (HIF) group has designed and con- provements in order to make it compatible with structed a 500 keV high current heavy ion pre- the larger machine. A joint AGS-ISABELLE task accelerator and a 2 MHz linac. This accelerator force has been set up to generate the necessary has a heavy ion current limit which is about ten performance criteria for the AGS, and to evaluate times higher than any previous machine. the conversion process. They will also propose Work is being carried out in the design of elec- AGS beam studies, and manage the design and trostatic focusing for heavy ion accelerators. In construction of extraction and transport hard- particular the first measurements of field quality ware. Several specific items in the conversion pro- have been made for the Gabor Lens, an electro- gram have already been proposed or implemented. magnetic trap containing a cloud of electrons The proposed fast extraction system consists of which focuses the heavy ion beams. A systematic a.new kicker (described above) with a rise time of parameterization of this novel lens is now under- less than 200 nsec at section H5 and an ejector way. Magnetic insulation of rf accelerating gaps, magnet at section H10. This system optimizes and beam neutralization for dc and bunched ISABELLE injection and also benefits the North beams are also being studied. Area experiments. A new wide band pickup electrode system with Heliostat a bandwidth of several GHz will be built to mea- The BNL Heliostat is a spherical reflecting mir- sure the transverse and longitudinal emittance of ror 4.88 m in diameter with 18.6 m2 of reflecting the AGS beam. The successful transfer of the beam surface area. It is a two axis tracking device which between the AGS and ISABELLE depends on a follows the sun from east to west each day, con- good emittance match. A separate transverse emit- centrating and redirecting the sun's energy to the tance monitor will be developed for use outside the collector. The angle of elevation and rotation are AGS in the transport lines to ISABELLE. modified to accommodate changes in the position of the sun in the sky. The reflecting surface is Heavy Ion Fusion made from an experimental material known as The use of fusion reactions as an almost unlim- aluminized polyester film which is laminated to a ited source of energy has not been realized due to light weight support structure. On a clear day the complex scientific and technological problems with eight hours of sunlight and a reflecting effi- which must be overcome. Magnetic confinement ciency of 84%, the Heliostat can collect about of the hot plasma has proven to be particularly 22.7 X106 joules per square meter per day. It is difficult. In recent years the inertial confinement hoped that larger systems, employing many helio- method, where pellets are ignited to fusion tem- stats, can be constructed and used to produce perature by pulsed laser light or charged particle steam which can be used for winter heating and beams, has emerged as an alternative approach. summer cooling for small industrial complexes 25

and certain residential dwellings. A proposed sidering the economic and technological scale of solar steam plant at BNL would pay for itself in the power industry, the possible implications of about six years using savings in the cost of fuel for superconducting applications are enormous. It was a conventional steam generating system. concluded that superccnducting ac cables would be technically and economically attractive for cir- Superconducting Cables for Power Transmission cuit loads above 2000 MVA. Brookhaven's use of superconducting devices, An outdoor test facility (Fig. 10) has been con- both to reach high current and to reduce power structed which enables 100 m of cable (NbaSn) to consumption, began in 1964 with the construc- be tested at 1000 MVA (138 kV). A major systems tion of a superconducting solenoid magnet. Since study completed last year was performed in coop- that time the usefulness of superconductivity has eration with the Philadelphia Electric Company. been demonstrated for momentum analyzing Taking into account many factors, the Brook- magnets, beam transport (dipoles and quadru- haven design was estimated to be the least costly of poles), beam splitter magnets, rf cavities, and the the several designs studied (two other designs were magnet for the 7-foot bubble chamber. comparable in cost). The route considered was 108 BNL is also doing research on an underground km long and required the transmission of 10,000 superconducting power transmission system. Con- MW.

Figure 10. The 100 m cryogenic enclosure at the superconducting power transmission test facility. Helium storage tanks and high voltage equipment are in the background. 26

ACCELERATOR DEPARTMENT SCIENTIFIC STAFF

Sanford, J.R. Chairman, ISABELLE Chiang, I.-H. H.E. Physics Research Smith, L.W. Deputy Chairman Yamin, S.B. it Grisoli, JJ. Associate Chairman for Manage- DeVito, B. Engineering ment Walker, W.G. II Lazarus, D.M. Associate Chairman for Business and Finance, Heavy Ion Fusion H.E. Physics Research Adams, R.R. Gammel, G.M. AGS Maschke,A.W. Lee, Y.Y. Division Head Mobley, R.M. H.E. Physics Research Magnet Design Davis, D.A. Assistant Division Head- Allinger, J.E. Engineering Ahrens, L.A. H.E. Physics Research Particle Detectors Barton, D.S. it Louttit, R.I. Division Head Gefers, W.F. Controls Engineering Prodell, A.G. Deputy Division Head Glenn, J.W. Operations Tuttle, W.A. Assistant Division Head Menasian, S.C. Accelerator Improvements Etkin, A. MPS, H.E. Physics Research Grossman, M.W. H~ Ion Source Morris, T.W. M Lam, C.K. ii Saulys,A.C. MPS McKenzie-Wilson, R. •• Wheeler, D. MPS Prelec, K. it Willen,E.H. MPS Sluyters, T. •i 7-foot Bubble Chamber WeUberg, H. Accelerator Physics H.E. Physics Research Goodzeit, C.L. Weng, W.-T. Accelerator Physics Sondericker, J.H. H.E. Physics Research Superconducting Power Transmission Bussiere, J.F. Experimental Planning and Support Forsyth, E.S. Lowenstein, D.I. Division Head, Jensen, J.E. H.E. Physics Research Minati, K. Danby, G.T. Deputy Division Head-Magnet Morgan, G.H. Research Thomas, R.A. Brown, H.N. H.E. Physics Research Bunce, G.M. ti Solar Power Steam Generator Carroll, A.S. M Cottingham, J.G. ISABELLE

STORAGE RINGS stationary target in the "laboratory" frame. This energy loss shows up in transforming to the center- In particle interactions, the most important of-mass frame. An approximate relation between frame of reference is the "center-of-mass" system the two energies can be written as Ec.o.m. = V^Eiab- between projectile and target particles. It is in In other words, to equal the center-of-mass energy this frame that, using momentum and energy con- available at ISABELLE (E = 400+400=800 servation, one can most easily calculate the amount GeV), a fixed-target accelerator would have to of energy available for producing new particles. In produce a beam with an energy of 320,000 GeV. order to probe the structure of hadrons further, The plot in Fig. 1 shows the available energies for and to create new and heavier particles, it is nec- several accelerators and their dates of construc- essary to make the available center-of-mass energy tion. as large as possible. In a colliding beam accelera- Other than center-of-mass energy, the impor- tor, like ISABELLE, two countercirculating beams tant parameter in accelerator physics is the lumi- are directed at each other in such a way that head- nosity, which is defined as the product of the effec- on collisions occur at several intersection areas lo- tive densities of the two beams. Since the rate of cated around the ring. In this case the center-of- interaction is equal to the product of the reaction mass frame and the "laboratory" frame coincide, cross section and the luminosity, it is desirable to and maximum use of the collision energy can be make the luminosity as large as possible. In a col- made. For a fixed-target accelerator, like Fermi- liding beam accelerator, both the projectile and lab, where beams strike stationary targets, much target particles are present as beams, whereas a of the apparent energy is lost in the recoil of the stationary target is made of solid material or a liquid (—1026 target particles as opposed to —1014 -1015 for an intense beam). For this reason, storage rings have a much smaller luminosity, and • ISABELLE A hence a smaller interaction rate for the same kinematic conditions. Still, in certain areas of particle physics research at this time, the need to achieve / high center-of-mass energies far outweighs the dis- PROTON STORAGE RINGS --^_-/ advantage of smaller luminosity, and the construction of powerful storage ring accelerators becomes

/ a necessity. ISABELLE will have the highest luminosity of any colliding beam facility, as much as 1033 sec~x cm"2. This is roughly fifty times o >FNAL larger than luminosities presently available in 1 fNAL yS DOUBLER a storage rings, and 1000 times larger than the pro- PETRA spective pp collision scheme at CERN. What are o PROTON SYNCHROTRONS ^1 / these important physics areas, and what role will ISABELLE play in thb future research? ^» SERPUKHOV / AGS^/ /° SPEAR II j /o DORIS PHYSICS AT ISABELLE /**DUBNA ^SPEAR 1 /?'BEVATRON *COSMOTRON fADONE According to the current leading model, protons and other hadrons are made up of point-like / ^^^ ELECTRON STORAGE RINGS spin one-half constituents (quarks) whose weak and electromagnetic interactions resemble those

1970 of the leptons. Their strong interactions are such 1950 that only aggregates of such constituents can exist Figure 1. Growth of the center-of-mass energy for high as stable or metastable states. That is, quarks have energy accelerators and storage rings over recent decades. not been observed in the laboratory, but only col-

27 28

lections of quarks in the form of hadrons. The Total Cross Section point-like nature of the constituents has been sug- Figure 2 shows a plot of the total cross section gested by the results of deep inelastic lepton scat- as a function of incident proton momentum (in the tering. The terms "quark" and "parton" are now laboratory frame). The rise in cross section at high used rather interchangeably to describe these con- momentum was rather surprising when first dis- stituents. covered. With ISABELLE this measurement can This general picture of the proton as an extended be extended to much higher energies (100 times composite of point-like constituents leads to the higher). need for three kinds of experimental information. First of all protons can be used as a source of W-Meson Production quarks and the properties of colliding quarks or The most direct way to test the underlying the- annihilating quark-antiquark pairs studied, lead- ory of weak interactions is to search for the W- ing to production of the hypothesized W-mesons mesons, the weak vector bosons whose coupling to and charmed particles. fermions is assumed to be responsible for the weak Secondly, results of quark-antiquark annihila- force. The mass of the W-meson must be large tion into a "heavy" photon which decays into lep- since it is inversely proportional to the range of the ton pairs can be studied. This annihilation-and- weak interaction, which is very short. The observa- decay is a well understood quantum electrody- tion of neutral currents implies that they exist in namic process. These observations can then be both charged and neutral types. Current theories, used to draw conclusions about the distribution of such as the Weinberg-Salam model, predict a mass quarks in the proton. for the W in the range of 60 - 100 GeV/c2. Thirdly, there are experiments dealing with In order to make predictions for interaction processes in which the quarks in a single hadron rates, it is necessary to have some estimate of the act collectively, but in which the transfer of mo- cross section for producing W-mesons of this mass mentum may change the configuration of the range at ISABELLE. Such an estimate can be quarks within the hadrons. This accounts for the made using the hypothesis of conserved vector cur- bulk of the hadronic total cross section. rent (CVC) which relates the production of a W- meson of mass mw to the cross section for production of a lepton pair of the same mass,

iiii| mnfflp^ a >0.1 M3 do w dM M=mw where da/dM is the cross section for the process p + p—> /+/+X, and M is the mass of thedilepton pair. The cross section estimate for W production is shown in Fig. 3. Kinematically, experiments performed at ISABELLE energies would be in a good 4- BARASHENKO (1961) position to observe the W meson. The most im- V SCHWALLER (1971)- * OZHELEPOV (1955) portant signature for a charged W would be a lep- 0 BUSG (1966) • FOLEY (1967) ton of high transverse momentum up to one-half & OENISOV (1971) r CARROLL (1974) " the mass of the W. The principal backgrounds are o CPRS (1976) likely to come from electromagnetically produced lepton pairs and from the decay of hadrons produced with large transverse momenta.

• • mini t t mini i muni—I I mini—I Hlltlll—' ' '" High Mass Particles 10"' 10° I01 10s I03 10* I05

pL (SeV) The high energy available at ISABELLE will .)c advantageous in searching for high-mass par- Figure 2. Total proton-proton cross section as a function ticles since generally in hadronic interactions the of incident proton momentum (in the lab frame). energy must be much larger than the threshold for 29

3 io- V crease, for px<9 GeV/c, goes only like a power of px, rather than exponentially. For fixed large px) however, the cross section rises rapidly with y s (center-of-mass energy). ISABELLE will therefore be able to extend substantially the accessible range in px, perhaps as high as 40 GeV/c. Jets Confidence in the validity of constituent models has been greatly increased by the observation of "jets" in large px events. In some current theories it is believed that quarks are prevented from escaping (none have yet been observed) by a force which behaves roughly like an elastic string. When the quarks are sufficiently separated it becomes energetically favorable to break the string. But instead of resulting in free isolated quarks, the string fragments form themselves back into hadrons. This process has been compared to the sawing of a bar magnet in half; one succeeds only in making two separate magnets, and not in isolating two magnetic monopoles. The hadrons formed by breaking the hypothetical quark string will some- times have high energy and emerge in a relatively tight cone. Evidence for the production of such Figure 3. Quark-parton model prediction for W meson "jets" of hadrons during high energy interactions total production cross section, s is the square of the total would be the detection of clusters of particles with center-of-mass energy. The arrow corresponds to mw=70 limited transverse momenta relative to the jet and ISABELLE energies. axis (the original quark direction). The general features p'^dieted by this picture have been confirmed by studies of correlations the production of that particle to be significant. among particles with large transverse momenta. Massive, narrow vector mesons like the J/ip, or At higher px the separation of the particles in the the newly discovered T are of particular interest. jets from those coming from the spectator consti- The T is believed to be a bound pair of a fifth type tuents (unscattered quarks) should be much of quark with a mass of about 5 GeV/c2; some cleaner. Since it is ' nlikely that a single particle models of weak interactions suggest that there would carry most of the momentum of a jet, the should be at least one more quark to forra a doub- cross section for the production of a jet with a given 2 let with the 5 GeV/c one. The number of quarks px should be much larger than that for a single (and their masses), and the multiplets of hadrons particle with the same px. There are some data made from them, (.an be investigated when ISA- from Fermilab which indicate that this is so. So BELLE is operational. far most of the available data are at trigger momenta of about 5 GeV/c. ISABELLE should Large Transverse Momentum greatly extend the range of px over which such A characteristic signature of the presence of correlations can be studied (perhaps up to p±~:50 point-like constituents in the proton is the produc- GeV/f). tion of hadrons with large transverse momenta (px), reflecting the importance of small impact THE ISABELLE PROJECT parameters in the elementary collisions of the constituents. Cross sections drop rapidly with increas- The Intersecting Storage Accelerator (ISA- ing px, but experiments first done at the CERN BELLE) began as a development project of the colliding beams (ISR) have shown that the de- Accelerator Department. "A Proposal for Con- 30

SMALL ANGLE HALL

Rf CAVITY STRUCTURE/ OPEN AREA

Figure 4. ISABELLE layout at Brookhaven. 31

Table I WAUM RETURN

Abridged Table of ISABELLE Parameters

Energy Maximum energy 400+400 GeV Equivalent accelerator 320,000 GeV Magnet System Circumference (4% x AGS) 3834 m Bending field for 400 GeV 49.8 kG Number of dipoles/ring 366 Number of quadrupoles/ring 176 Vacuum chamber diameter 8.8 cm Injection AGS energy 29.4 GeV NOTE: DIMENSIONS SHOWN IN METERS ISA current/ring 8A Number of protons/ring 6.4X10" Acceleration Duration 4min Energy gain/turn 25.6 keV Peak rf voltage 48 kV Experimental Regions Figure 5. Cross section of the ISABELLE tunnel con- Number 6 taining the two magnet rings. ring). Successive pulses of 29.4 GeV protons will struction of a Proton-Proton Storage Accelerator," be captured, and debunched in each ring. The prepared by a Brookhaven-User collaboration, process will be repealed about 300 times for each was submitted to ERDA (now Department of En- ring until, in about fifteen minutes, a circulating ergy) in July, 1975. The final version of the design current of about eight amperes is accumulated. proposal was completed in earlv 1977 and received The stacked beams will then be rebunched and the first priority recommendation of the June slowly accelerated to full energy over a four- Woods Hole meeting of the High Energy Physics minute interval. The peak rf accelerating voltage Advisory Panel (HEPAP) sub-committee for new will be 48 kV and the energy gain per revolution facilities. This was followed by the first Congres- 26 keV. sional action on the project, an appropriation of $5 The long acceleration cycle and the storage op- million for FY 1978. Full authorization was rec- erating conditions at ISABELLE motivate the ommended by the President in January 1978 for use of superconducting magnets. Not only is power a total cost of $275 million to be spread over a 5 - 7 consumption reduced, but high current densities year construction period, with a request of $23 (necessary for producing high magnetic fields) can million for FY 1979. Ground was officially broken be achieved. Brookhaven's extensive superconduct- in October, 1978. ing magnet program is developing magnets exhib- Figure 4 shows the layout of ISABELLE at the iting excellent stability and having qualities which Brookhaven site, while Table I contains some im- meet the severe ISABELLE constraints on field portant machine parameters. A circular tunnel precision, reproducibility, and reliability. Severe 3800 m in circumference (4.75 times the size of the conditions are also placed on the cryogenic system AGS) will contain two rings of magnets which sit necessary to refrigerate the magnets, and on the side by side (Fig. 5). Each ring will consist of super- vacuum system used in the beam pipes and for in- conducting dipole and quadrupole magnets which sulation. These technological areas will now be de- cnjry the high energy beam of protons. These two scribed in more detail. beams, circulating in opposite directions, will intersect at six straight sections located symmetrically ISABELLE Magnets around the ring. There are approximately 700 dipole and 350 Protons from the AGS will be injected into both quadrupole magnets in the full ISABELLE lat- ISABELLE rings at the "six o'clock" position (us- tice. The dipole magnets, which are about 5 m ing the clock notation for positions around the long, have a "cos 0" design. This means that the 32

STAINLESS STEEL SUPPORT TUBES

IRON LAMINATIONS

EPOXY SPACERS

FIBERGLASS-EPOXY WITH HELIUM COOLING CHANNELS

COLD BORE TUBE

WARM BORE TUBE FIBERGLASS-EPOXY WITH (VACUUM CHAMBER| HELIUM COOLING CHANNELS

Figure 6. Isometric view of a dipole magnet showing the configuration of the coil ends.

SUPPORT STRAP

STAINLESS STEEL HELIUM _' ,^_\_\ / / VESSEL AND SUPPORT TUBE

Figure 7. Isometric view of two dipole magnets assembled in their cryostats. 33

inner diameter is round, instead of square, and When it was decided to increase the maximum that the current-carrying coils are distributed in a energy of ISABELLE from 200 to 400 GeV, the cos 0 pattern; the coil density is larger near the dipole operating field was increased to 50 kG. This midplane and smaller toward the top in just such change was possible with relatively minor altera- a way so as to produce a uniform field in the beam tions in the basic dipole design, the main adjust- pipe running down the center of the magnet. A ment being a lower operating temperature, 3.8K. cutaway view of a dipole, near the end where the The testing of magnets is proceeding, including coils loop around, is shown in Fig. 6. Also shown the test of magnets fabricated outside the labora- there are the cold bore tube just beneath the coil tory. Some have been tested in a horizontal, assembly (maintained at liquid helium tempera- forced-flow, cooling mode, while others have been ture), the warm bore tube (through which the cir- tested in a vertical, liquid "pool boiling" mode culating proton beam passes), the stack of iron using a new vertical Dewar. In 1978 the first mag- laminations which provide mechanical strength net specifically designed for 50 kG was assembled and a return path for the magnetic flux, and the and successfully operated at the design field. In- outer stainless steel support tube. Helium at a tem- dustrial contracts have been awarded for con- perature of 3.8 K flows through the magnet to struction of coils for a further set of eight magnets. keep the coil in a superconducting state. Figure 7 It is planned that these magnets will actually be shows the fully assembled magnet supported in its installed in the first cell of the machine ring struc- cryostat as it would look in the tunnel. ture. The coil is fabricated from a conductor of high current capacity; it is braided from multifilamen- Cryogenics tary NbTi superconducting wi re by means of a The most significant development in cryogenic high pressure molding technique. The magnet de- systems associated with the superconducting mag- sign allows the full stored magnetic energy to be nets is the introduction of forced circulation cool- dissipated without coil damage (in case the mag- ing (FCC) in place of pool boiling. Cooling in the net "quenches," reverting to a normal conducting pool boiling system is accomplished by immersing state), meets the stringent requirements on field the magnet in liquid helium. FCC, in contrast, uniformity in a storage accelerator (one part in uses helium gas, under pressure, at temperatures 5 10 across the effective inner aperture of 8 cm), slightly lower than for pool boiling. The apparent and is well suited for mass production. Correction advantages of FCC include: coils are built right into the magnets in order to adjust for errors in the field shape. In late 1976 a full scale dipole magnet, MK-V, exceeded 41 kG on the first quench during prelim- Figure 8. ISABELLE half-cell under test. Shown here inary testing (at a temperature of 5.6K), and are the two dipoles (the quadrupole is out of the picture reached 49 kG after nine quenches. The first in the left foreground) in a tunnel section, and in the rear quadrupole tested reached its design gradient of the cold box of the refrigeration system. 5.1 kG/cm. After fourteen quenches this was increased to 7.1 kG/cm. In 1977 a new phase of industrial participation in the magnet fabrication process was inaugurated, including industrial production of the basic braided conductor and the completed coils. Five complete dipole units were delivered by different contractors. Also in 1977 a "half cell" was assembled and operated. This unit, shown in Fig. 8, incorporates two dipoles and one quadrupole, and operates in series electrically and cryogenically. The magnets were pulsed repeatedly to over 40 kG without incident. One of the objectives of this test was the study of quench propagation in such a system and evaluation of effective quench protection schemes. 34

QUADRUPOLE DOUBLETS Ql AND Q2 SHIELDING WALL

LEPTON DETECTOR

Figure 9. Schematic view of an experimental hall located at one of the intersection regions at ISABELLE.

1. The temperature of magnets is not sensitive complished by using stainless steel tubes which to return line pressure drops, which allows a single have been heat treated at 950 °C for 4 h in a refrigerator to be used for the entire complex. vacuum furnace. Prior to assembly, the tubes 2. Because the cooling flow is in series through a were cleaned with a glow discharge in argon and large number of magnets, the number of control oxygen. elements required is reduced. This eliminates the The pumping speeds for hydrogen and CO, many liquid level controls needed by the pool which are the two most abundant residual gases, boiling technique. are 1600 and 1000 liters/sec, respectively. After 3. The required helium inventory is reduced. an assembled sector has been leak checked, the 4. No liquid helium storage is required. whole system is baked in situ at 300 °C. It was 5. Items 1 to 4 all involve a reduction in the shown on an experimental half-cell that a pres- cost of the system. sure of less than 1 X10-11 Torr can be achieved System studies of FCC have been undertaken. routinely in the system. The cycle which will be used for ISABELLE involves a two-stage "cold" turbocompressor func- ISABELLE TIMETABLE tioning as a vacuum pump to attain a pressure of 0.1 atm at 2.5K.The refrigeration will be delivered With the funding provided by Congress for FY to the magnets as a stream of supercritical helium 1978 and the President's recommendation for full at a pressure of 5 atm. The FCC mode has been authorization, a formal organization of the ISA- tried successfully with several of the full-scale ISA- BELLE project has taken place. Five divisions BELLE prototype magnets, improving magnet have been created: Accelerator, Experimental performance. Areas, Detectors, Construction, and Administra- tion. The Accelerator Division, in turn, consists of Ultrahigh Vacuum Systems seven sections: Accelerator Physics, Injection/ Residual air molecules in the beam tubes inter- Ejection Magnets, Cryogenics, Vacuum, Electrical act with the circulating high energy beam par- Components, and Engineering/Design/Produc- ticles, reducing the effective intensity. This prob- tion. Research and development is proceeding lem is particularly important for storage rings. At in all of these areas. Table II shows the high- ISABELLE the vacuum system will operate at lights of the work at ISABELLE over the past two 10-n Xorr (3 X105 molecules/cm3). This is ac- years. 35

Table II Table III

ISABELLE Highlights of the Past Two Years Timetable for ISABELLE

1. Ground breaking in October, 1978. Fiscal Year Item 2. President's recommendation for full authorization; S23 million appropriated for FY 1979. 78 Architect-Engineer work authorized 3. Raising the maximum energy to 400x400 GeV. Start detailed design 4. Reconfiguration of the machine lattice; six experimen- 79 Project authorized tal regions located at "clock face" positions of 2,4,6,8, Start procurement 10, 12 o'clock. This made possible a change in the in- Full ceil tested jection scheme. A typical experi nental area is shown 80 Magnet factory operational in Fig. 9. 5. ISABELLE formal organization into five Divisions. 81 Beneficial occupancy of first segment 6. Testing of a "half cell" (two dipole and one quadru- Start installation of magnets pole magnets in series electrically and cryogenically) 82 Tunnel construction complete completed. Midpoint magnet fabricition 7. A field of 50 kG achieved in a dipole magnet. 83 Conventional facilities complete 8. Detailed designs begun for conventional construction; 84 Start sextant test environmental impact statement filed. Start beam transfer test 85 One ring cold Twenty three million dollars have been appro- 86 Installation complete priated for ISABELLE in FY 1979. This money Rings cold; start beam injection will be used to develop the magnet "factory" where Circulating and accelerated beam superconducting magnets will be constructed on Colliding beams an assembly-line basis, as well as procurement of Project completed material for the first hundred magnets. Construc- tion of a section of the main ring tunnel will begin, eration of electrons in a separate ring inside or including one of the experimental areas, the "wide outside the ISABELLE tunnel, or within one of angle" hall. Table III shows the timetable for the the two main rings themselves, would permit project as a whole; if the funding schedule can be electron-proton experiments. The relatively minor speeded up, the construction period could be addition of a bypass to one ring would allow pro- shortened accordingly. ton-antiproton experiments to be carried out. Ac- The overall design of the machine permits sev- celeration of deuterons in one or both rings could eral options that would enhance the versatility of be possible (the feasibility of deuterons in the the ISABELLE facility. This is always an impor- AGS is being studied already). This suggests the tant consideration in high energy physics, where possibility of neutron-proton and neutron-neutron new ideas and new experimental results so often scattering. The use of polarized beams in ISA- change the emphasis of research interests. Accel- BELLE has also been considered. 36

ISABELLE PROJECT

Sanford, J.R. Project Head Humphrey J.W- Computers and Controls Hahn, H. Assistant Project Head Bambcrger, J.A. Cryogenics Spiro, J. Brown, D.P. Buchannan, J.V. Schlefke.A.P. Bleser.EJ. Accelerator Physics, Magnets Chou, T.-S. Device Development Bozoki, G.E. Accelerator Physics White, D.H. Experimental areas, Division Head Claus, J. H.E. Physics Research Dahl, P.F. Accelerator Physics, Magnets Giordano, S. Electrical Engineering Foelsche, H.WJ. Accelerator Physics, Plotldn,M. it H.E. Physics Research Frankel, R.S. Electronics Herrera, J.C. Accelerator Physics Aronson, S. Experimental areas, Kaugerts, J. Accelerator Physics, Magnets H.E. Physics Research Mclnturff, A.D. ii Thorndike, A.M. Experimental areas, Raka, E.G. Accelerator Physics H.E. Physics Research Sampson, W.B. Accelerator Physics, Magnets Hodcr, R.S. Mechanical Engineering Schewe, P.F. tt Kassner, D.A. M. Director's Office, editing Lasky,C. Mechanical Engineering, Magnets Stevens, A.J. Accelerator Physics, Magnets Polk, I.J. Mechanical Engineering H.E. Physics Research Theisen, CO. II Courant,E.D. Accelerator Theory Edwards, D. Vacuum, Month, M. Solid State Physics Research Parzen, G. Halama, H.J. Vacuum Dexter, E.W. Administration Nuclear and Solid State Physics, and Chemistry Physics Department Low and Medium Energy Nuclear Physics Atomic and Applied Physics Solid State Physics National Synchrotron Light Source Chemistry Department \ \ Physics Department

INTRODUCTION clear Theory group has a close interaction with the experimental groups, as well as a wide-ranging The Physics Department carries out fundamen- program in many exciting topics in nuclear theory. tal research in elementary particle (or high en- The Laboratory thus provides an opportunity for ergy, nuclear, solid state, and atomic physics. In a very broad program of fundamental nuclear each discipline, the experimental program is physics. In addition, the Tandem Van de Graaff based in large part on Brookhaven's major facil- is used for investigations of the atomic physics of ities. These research facilities provide unique ca- highly excited and stripped atoms. pabilities not only to the BNL staff but also to the The solid state research effort is concerned with national scientific community. the cohesive forces that bind atoms together to Because research in high energy physics is perform the various phases of condensed matter. The formed by members of the BNL Physics Depart- facilities such as the High Flux Beam Reactor and ment, university users, and members of the Accel- the National Synchrotron Light Source, now un- erator Department, frequently in teams represent- der construction, provide unique probes for studying more than one group, it seemed best to report ing the properties of solids on the atomic scale. that work in a separate section. Particular emphasis is placed on the studies of ma- The low and medium energy nuclear physics terials exhibiting phase transformations where a programs carried out by members of the BNL delicate balance of the interatomic forces exists Physics Department and many university commu- such that a slight change in the external environ- nity users address questions of the fundamental ment (such as temperature or pressure) can pro- nature of the structure and interaction of nuclei duce a significant modification of the atomic ar- and nucleons. Beams from the Tandem Van de rangement. These results provide a means of test- Graaff Facility, the High Flux Beam Reactor, and ing the various theories of phase transformations the AGS are used in a variety of experiments to and lead, in many cases, to the prediction of inter- study new phenomena. Heavy-ion beams are used esting new types of solid structures. Other studies for diverse investigations of the reaction mecha- try to unravel the properties of "real" solids, i.e., nisms of heavy ions and the forces between them, solids in which the symmetrical arrangement of the production of the y-decay of nuclei in states of atoms is disturbed by impurities and crystallo- very high angular momentum, the existence and graphic defects. The changes in the interatomic production of nuclei way off stability, and nuclear forces and properties are not always predictable electromagnetic properties such as y-transition and the experimental results provide a phenome- rates and static moments. Reactor neutrons are nological understanding of imperfect solids. A fur- used to perform detailed studies of the structure ther region of growing interest is the study of sur- and dynamics of nuclei utilizing the (n,y) reaction, faces. The intriguing problem arising in this field as well as for studies of resonance parameters and is how the interatomic forces and their arrange- neutron cross section of interest to applied fields. ment vary when atoms are bound on one side The AGS nuclear physics program is presently only. Frequently, a different atomic species can be concerned with the spectroscopy of hypernuclei - attached to a surface and a new type of atomic ar- nuclei which contain a A or 2 hyperon. The Nu- rangement is obtained.

39 Low and Medium Energy Nuclear Physics

The research in this field centers on two major such as 130 MeV oxygen, 210 MeV chlorine, etc. facilities, the Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator These energies exceed by far the energies attain- and the High Flux Beam Reactor. Although there able elsewhere with dc accelerators. is an inherent link and complementarity between The installation of a very versatile and reliable the work at the two facilities, it is convenient to ion furce system in the injector machine was discuss them separately. This discussion will focus completed during this period and has led to a on three or four particularly exciting highlights of dramatic increase in the number of available research in the last two years at each facility. Fol- maximum energy beams. To date, about 55 dif- lowing this is a short discussion of an important ferent ion species have been accelerated and used new undertaking in hypernuclear research, occur- and the number is continuously growing in re- ring at the AGS accelerator, which represents a sponse to new experimental requirements. The pioneering meld of high energy and nuclear phys- stability in terms of energy, intensity, and position ics. Finally, this section ends with a summary of of all the accelerated beams has also been further some of the most interesting research done in the improved by replacing the old belt charging sys- area of nuclear theory. tem in the main accelerator by a new chain charging system. THE TANDEM VAN DE GRAAFF The data collection and analysis facility as well ACCELERATOR as experimental instrumentation and techniques also undergo continuing improvements. For ex- At the BNL Tandem Van de Graaff facility a ample, the possibility of live, high rate multi- wide variety of light and heavy ions is accelerated parameter data collection for two simultaneous to high energies which are very precisely known experiments is being implemented. New tech- and easily variable over a wide range. Tightly niques have been developed for calibrating the focused dc and pulsed beams of such ions are used BNL Quadrupole-Dipole-Dipole-Dipole (QDDD) mainly for nuclear physics research performed by spectrometer which is ideally suited to making scientists from BNL and from many other labora- extremely precise energy measurements of ener- tories and universities. Investigations in other fields getic charged particles. This capability has been such as solid state and atomic physics are also used to measure the masses of several palladium important components of the research program. isotopes, and to study the mechanism by which fast The Brookhaven Tandem Van de Graaff facil- heavy ions lose energy in matter. In making these ity is the largest and most powerful electrostatic energy loss measurements it is important to be accelerator facility now in operation. The capa- able to look directly at the beam from the acceler- bilities of the facility are continuously upgraded in ator with the QDDD spectrometer. The accelera- response to the needs of the on-going programs tor beams are generally greater than 109 particles and to open new areas of research. During the last per second, far too high a rate for any detector to two years energies higher than before were handle. By a careful choice of beam optics and the achieved, many new beams were developed, and location of apertures the beam can be attenuated the beam stability was considerably improved. to only a few hundred particles per second so that Routine operation of the main accelerator at ter- the beam itself, and the energy loss of the beam, minal voltages between 13 and 14 MV was imple- can be studied. This procedure has been used in mented, considerably exceeding the original up- the energy loss measurements mentioned above, grade plans calling for 13 MV operation. The as well as in studies of the ultimate energy resolu- maximum voltage at which an experiment was tion obtainable with QDDD spectrometer and the actually performed was 14.2 MV which is higher accelerators. than the voltage achieved with any other (even physically larger) tandem accelerator. Several of HEAVY ION STUDIES the accelerator improvements which led to this AT THE TANDEM FACILITY performance are original BNL developments. This main accelerator, together with the injector accel- The field of heavy ion nuclear physics is cur- erator, form a system capable of delivering beams rently one of extremely high interest and activity.

40 41

The reasons are obvious, namely that by bom- square of rotational frequency for such bands barding a target nucleus with a heavy ion at high shows an S-shape and gives this phenomenon its energy, one effectively brings enormous amounts name, backbending. A number of attempts to un- of energy, angular momentum, and mass to bear derstand backbending were developed and the on the target. By suitably choosing the experimen- most successful involved the idea of a "crossing tal conditions one can thus investigate the realms band," that is, another rotational band, starting at of high excitation energy, high spin states, and higher energies and with overall much smaller new, normally inaccessible nuclei. For example, if spacings than in the ground band. This crossing the projectile and target nuclei merge and form a band is viewed as consisting of two particles broken compound system, that system will be very neu- off from the rest of the underlying core. The spin tron deficient and therefore not correspond to a obtained by aligning these particles reduces the normally stabie nucleus. Furthermore, the resid- rotational motion needed to obtain a given total ual nucleus will be formed at high energy and spin and thus leads to a smaller spacing between spin and the rich variety of interesting effects that levels. Due to these smaller spacings, the ground occur in this excitation regime can be probed. Al- band energies "gain" on those of the crossing band ternatively, if the projectile and target are made to and, at some spin, the two should cross. Since the pass each other so that they undergo a grazing col- levels that had been associated with the ground lision one can study either the scattering process band were always the lowest with a given spin in which each retains its identity, or the transfer (yrast levels), the crossing had been seen as an process in which a couple of protons and/or neu- apparent change in the relation between energy and trons pass from one to the other. spin. To highlight some of the most interesting recent A successful test of this interpretation should be work, the paragraphs below will describe three ex- one in which the higher crossing band itself is ob- periments, one in each of the above three categories. served. However, this is normally difficult experimentally since heavy ion reactions tend to popu- Studies of High Spin States with Heavy Ions late only the yrast levels. In the last two years at BNL, however, very careful Y-ray spectroscopy1 For a number of years much heavy ion research 164 has sought to produce and study very high spin has led to the identification, in Er, of not only states. These are particularly interesting because one higher lying band but of several. The experiments involved the (9Be,5n) reaction on 1G0Gd, the generation of such high spins requires the 164 alignment of the individual angular momenta of a and the resultant level scheme for Er is illus- number of particles and thus the formation of trated in Fig. 1. very correlated nucleon motions. Furthermore, The results mark a significant step forward in there are very few different ways in which a given that, now, several separate but interacting se- high spin can be created and so there are only a quences of high spin states are observed. First of few other states with which the high spin levels all there is the ground state band and the crossing can interact. One therefore expects, first, that they band, namely that labelled A in the figure. Sec- will be relatively simple and pure in character and ondly, there is the y band (band D) which consists therefore more tractable theoretically, and sec- of odd and even spin members. The even spin ondly that the interactions they do undergo should members also intersect the crossing band. Thus, be more easily isolated and identified. 164Er is the first nucleus in which the crossing Up until recently most such research in even- band intersects two distinct lower bands, first the y even final nuclei has centered on the study of the band at spin 12 and then the ground band at spin behavior (energy vs. spin) of the ground state 16. The backbending plots for y and ground bands rotational band. A strange anomaly was soon dis- are shown in the inset to Fig. 1. The odd spin covered, called backbending. Normally, the members of the y band have no counterparts in spacings between adjacent members of the band the crossing band and so do not interact with it. should increase [as 1(1 +1)] with increasing spin I. An interesting phenomenon here is that despite But it was found that, at a certain spin, this spacing these band crossings there is very little interaction between the band members of the same spin. As suddenly decreased and that, for higher spins, the 2 spacings, though again increasing, did so much Bohr and Mottelson have pointed out, this finds a more slowly. A plot of the moment of inertia vs. nice explanation in the difference in structure of 42

g.s. BAND

(24*')5728.l (221(5678)

(691)

Figure 1. Deexcitation level scheme of 164Er populated in the 16OGd(9Be,5n) reaction at 59 MeV. The levels are grouped into rotational bands on the basis of energy and Y-ray deexcitation patterns. Each band is given a label at the top. Note that the 12+ level of band A occurs below the 12+ of band D (the y band) and that the 16+ of band A is lower than the 16+ state of the ground state (g.s.) band. The inset at lower right shows a "backbending" plot of the moment of inertia vs. the square of the rotational frequency for the ground and y bands and the 0.08 crossing band with even parity and even spin levels.

the ground and crossing bands. The former, for The other bands in Fig. 1 (bands B, C, and E) spin I, consists almost solely of I units of rotation of consist of rotational excitations superimposed on the underlying core whereas the latter is mostly a various two particle configurations whose detailed two particle configuration with minimal rotation. character has been interpreted, by Bohr and Mot- Two configurations of such widely differing struc- telson, in terms of specific quantum numbers for ture should not be expected to "mix" much with the orbiting nucleons. 164Er is the first nucleus to each other. have been studied in such detail at high spins and 43

They have the same angular dependence as the square of the Legendre polynomial of order 2 26,P26 (cos0) (inset, Fig. 2). This suggests that the operative orbit responsible is one corresponding to an orbital angular momentum of the projectile relative to the target of approximately 26. But this is just the value corresponding to a grazing collision in which the two projectiles just touch in passing. This observation is striking evidence for the sensitivity of such data to the nuclear potential and suggests that the strongly absorbing potential normally used (and which gives the dashed curve in Fig. 2) is modified by the presence of a resonance for a partial wave of /=26. The predictions for such a potential are shown by the solid curve in Fig. 2.

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Following these initial discoveries, a number of subsequent experiments have been performed to probe these manifestations of resonant behavior Figure 2. Angular distribution for the elastic scattering of further. One important set of measurements4 is the 16O on 28Si. The inset at upper right shows the back angle 16 a study of elastic and inelastic scattering of O on data compared to the oscillations given by a |P2s(cos9)| 28Si near 0= 180° as a function of bombarding en- function. ergy. These data provided the first evidence that the type of resonant scattering observed long ago 12 12 the wealth of bands and transitions observed is in lighter systems, such as C + C, also occurs expected to provide a significantly more sensitive with heavier nuclei, although the widths of the ob- test of the ideas of rotation-particle alignment, of served peaks were narrower in the present case. band crossings, and of the relation between the interactions between the crossing bands and their Studies of Heavy Ion Induced microscopic structure. Few Nucleon Tranfer Reactions Heavy ion induced transfer reactions can be Heavy Ion Scattering Studies viewed semiclassically and hence deviations from The largest probability for elastic scattering of expected behavior are particularly interesting. heavy ions from a target nucleus occurs at forward For transfer of a few particles from a heavy ion scattering angles since these correspond to a large projectile to a target nucleus the two nuclides can- distance (impact parameter) between projectile not interpenetrate because they are strongly ab- and target and, consequently, a weak interaction sorbed and would thus lose their identity. Yet they and negligible change of projectile direction. For must come close enough together to interact with smaller impact parameters the stronger interac- one another. Hence the transfer process occurs al- tion tends to result either in inelastic scattering or most exclusively for trajectories on which the transfer processes. Thus, the elastic cross section nuclei are just grazing. The angular distribution should fall off very sharply, becoming many orders of the scattered ions reflects the conditions of in- of magnitude weaker at back angles. Thus it was teraction. If one selectively looks at heavy ions that surprising to observe, in an experiment performed have transferred a couple of particles to the target at BNL3 in collaboration with a group from one expects a bell-shaped angular distribution SUNY at Stony Brook, a rise by two orders of curve: that is, heavy ions passing too far from the magnitude in the cross section for elastic scatter- target will not interact and, thus, ions detected in ing of 16O by 28Si at angles near 180° (see Fig. 2). the forward direction will not have undergone a Figure 2 also shows another dramatic empirical transfer reaction. Ions observed at back angles observation, namely the sharp oscillations in the usually correspond to too close a collision to have data for tf>150°. These oscillations in fact, how- resulted in such a simple process as few particle ever, provide a clue to the proposed explanation. transfer. Therefore only those ions scattered at an 44

• 74Ge( l8O,'60)76Ge(2+, 0.562) 75 MtV » 76Gc (l60,IB0l7*Ge(2+, 0.597) 77.6 MeV

10 20 30 40 50 60

Figure 3. (a^) £e/i saWe: Angular distributions illustrating the disagreement between data and distorted wave Born approximation calculations for L= 1 transfer in heavy ion collisions. Sub- sequent to this work, other examples have been found, as well as cases that do not exhibit the disagreement, (b) Right side: Angular distributions for excitation of 2+ states in two "inverse" reactions. The differences in the two distributions provide a clue to the reaction mechanism.

intermediate angle will have a large probability of phase behavior seems to appear only for L = 1 for having undergone this process. A complication transfer reactions and is still not understood al- arises, however, due to a purely quantum mechan- though the recent theoretical literature reports ical effect. Ions that impinge on different sides of a several attempted interpretations. target nucleus and which are scattered in the same Another deviation from the simple semiclassical direction travel different distances and therefore behavior described above, which is understood, is can interfere with each other (analogous to light shown in Fig. 3b. The reactions 74Ge(18O,16O) and interference in a two-slit optical experiment). This 76Ge(16O,18O) were studied.7 Since these two reao- leads to oscillations in the angular distribution, es- tions are presumably the precise time reverses of pecially at forward angles. each other, a fundamental principle of modern A puzzle which has still not been resolved is physics states that they should give identical results. demonstrated in Fig. 3a for the (13C,12C) and As expected, the reactions leading to the ground (13C,14N) reactions on Ca isotopes.5 The solid states of the residual nuclei are identical. However, curves are the expected angular distribution. as shown in the figure the angular distributions Whereas, for the (13C, 12C) reaction (not shown) leading to the 2+ states are strikingly different. This excellent agreement is obtained between calcu- is due to a more complicated transfer mechanism lated and observed distributions, for the (13G,14N) than the one-step transfer. In this case a compet- reaction the calculated oscillations are almost ex- ing mechanism, inelastic excitation, followed by actly out of phase with the data. More recently, transfer, interferes quantum mechanically with experiments6 have shown other cases where this the direct transfer, constructively in one case and effect occurs, and some where it is absent. Exten- destructively in the other. Theoretical calculations sive analysis of the theory of these reactions is par- do quite well in reproducing the observed behav- ticularly simple because the angular momentum ior, provided a careful analysis of the nuclear transfer L = 1. Such analysis shows that the solu- structure of the excited states is made. Thus, for tion to the problem does not come from simply the 2+ states, the reactions are not single-step and changing parameters in the calculation. This out therefore not the exact time reverses of one another. 45

The success of the theoretical explanation in this For example, in one8 centered on the strength of case vividly highlights the complementarity of certain transitions depopulating two different cap- light and heavy ion nuclear physics and of nuclear ture states in 36C1 high correlations in intensities structure and nuclear reaction mechanism studies. were found. Thus, the statistical model, heretofore The anomaly arose in heavy ion experiments deal- successfully employed for heavier masses, does not ing with reaction mechanism theory and required appear to work in this mass region. Another aspect for its elucidation a theoretical approach incorpo- of this study was the discovery of anomalous rela- rating reaction theory along with knowledge of the tive El and Ml strengths. structure of the states involved, knowledge largely Among the studies carried out during this pe- gleaned by earlier light ion and y-ray studies. riod three are of considerable importance and rather general interest and have been selected for THE HIGH FLUX BEAM REACTOR more detailed discussion here.

The period 1976-1978 has been a highly pro- (n,y) STUDIES AT THE HFBR ductive one for the research program in nuclear structure carried out with the experimental facilities of the Brookhaven High Flux Beam Reactor. Experimental Tests of the Interacting Boson Model During this period an extensive collaboration A. THE O(6) SYMMETRY between BNL and the Institut Laue-Langevin A few years ago, a study of the deexcitation, by (ILL) in Grenoble, France was initiated. These gamma ray emission, of certain excited states (0+ two laboratories, which probably represent the two levels) in the osmium isotopes showed a strange most active programs anywhere involving the (n,7) pattern. Although no precise interpretation was reaction for nuclear structure studies, employ large- then available, it seemed clear that the ultimate ly complementary facilities and frequently the explanation would somehow involve the idea of combination of experiments at the two centers leads boson or phonon excitations. These are collective to experimental results not otherwise obtainable. modes of excitation involving many protons and The existing facilities at the reactor include two neutrons which are considered, in such models, to thermal neutron beams, a monochromator, and a move in pairs rather than individually. fast chopper which provide complementary beams At about this same time, two physicists, F. Ia- of epithermal neutrons, and two "filtered" beams, chello and A. Arima, were developing a new model so called because the neutrons are forced to pass called the Interacting Boson Approximation (IBA) through filters of either Sc or Fe which selectively 9 model, which is, in fact, based on the boson idea pass neutrons near ~2 and ~25 keV, respectively. and which was intended to explain the extremely These beams which, by design, are not monoener- varied properties of different nuclei within a single getic can be used to simultaneously populate a unified treatment. Although this model is thus number of capture states in a nucleus of interest able to treat a multitude of types of nuclear excita- and thereby to average over the normally occur- tions, in three specific cases the model excitations ring statistical fluctuations in intensities of emitted are particularly simple and display the properties y radiation. This averaging process, called average ofcertair nuclear symmetries. Two of these sym- resonance capture, is tremendously useful in test- metries were already well known and correspond ing nuclear models because, with it, one is guaran- to the ideal cases envisioned by two existing mod- teed of populating all low-lying levels of certain els, namely the vibrator model in which the excita- spins in the final nucleus and therefore one is as- tions are oscillations in the shape of the nucleus sured of having the complete set of levels. If a about an average spherical shape, and the rotor model predicts additional ones, one immediately model which depicts a non-spherical but axially demonstrates a shortcoming of the model, or con- symmetric nucleus which can rotate about the versely, a one-to-one correspondence with some non-symmetry axis (analogous to a tumbling mo- model thereby provides it with a more significant tion of a poorly thrown football). confirmation than obtained solely by the statement that some predicted model states exist. The IBA model also predicts, however, and on the same footing, a third symmetry, called O(6) With these facilities a wide variety of experi- after its group theory classification, which roughly ments has been performed during this period. corresponds to a non-spherical nucleus which has 46

no axis of symmetry (for example, a squashed foot- below ~1.8 MeV, but there was found to be a ball). The excitations form completely different one-to-one correspondence between experimental patterns of level energy and y-ray decay modes and model levels. The comparison of 196Pt and the than found in the other symmetries. Figure 4 com- O(6) limit is illustrated in Fig. 5. pares the three symmetries. The first few levels in the O(6) limit are a 0+ ground-state, a 2+ level B. STUDIES OF O(6) SYMMETRY BREAKING and, at 2.5 times the 2+ energy, a doublet with These results, therefore, have shown the exis- spins 4+ and 2+. The lowest excited 0+ state has tence of a new nuclear symmetry, the O(6) limit, completely different properties from the 0+ level and further have provided a major confirmation of the "twophonon triplet" of the vibrator. lachello of a very promising new model. They also, how- and Arima expected that, if this symmetry existed ever, lead to further significant developments. The in nuclei, it should be found just before closed entire set of Pt and Os nuclei spans a region of nu- shells, for example in the Os or Pt nuclei. clei in which the nuclear shape changes drastically As an experimental sequel to the earlier study and in a manner heretofore considered extremely of the y-ray decay modes in Os, a study of the level complex and basically not understood. With the 196 scheme of Pt was undertaken which involved new perspective that 196Pt closely resembles the nearly all the different experimental facilities for O(6) limit and the knowledge that the very light (n,y) research at the BNL reactor as well as com- Os isotopes approach the ideal limit of the rotor, plementary data taken at the ILL. A comparison one can try to reinterpret the nuclei in this region 10 was made of the predictions for the O(6) sym- as undergoing an O(6) —> rotor transition. Using 196 metry with the level scheme for Pt. Quite sur- the IBA model one can calculate the predictions prisingly, even given our prior expectations, we for such a transition region very simply. It turns found that the agreement was nearly perfect, far out that the calculations11 correctly reproduce the better in fact than one normally finds even for experimental trends for nearly all relative y-ray models considered successful. Furthermore, be- decay intensities, including those for the stra'nge cause of the special features of the (n,y) reaction, 0+ states in Os mentioned earlier, and for abso- the experiments were known to have found all low lute transition rates as well. spin excitations in 196Pt. Thus not only did the model correctly predict the y-ray decay of the levels Fragmentation of Nilsson Strength and Nuclear Shapes A second study utilizing the (n,y) reaction at Figure 4. Comparison of the lowest levels and allowed y-ray transitions for the three symmetries predicted by BNL centers on the failure of another model, the the IBA, the vibrator or SU(5), the rotor or SU(3), and Nilsson model, to account for certain excitations the O(6) symmetries. For the vibrator, the transitions at higher energies in odd mass nuclei. This model from the highest group of levels to the next highest com- has enjoyed enormous success in interpreting states prise a number of transitions which, to keep the figure within the first MeV of energy in nearly all non- uncluttered, are schematically indicated as a group by circles. Strictly speaking in the pure SU(3) symmetry the spherical odd mass nuclei. However, just above second and third 2+ levels have the same energy and sim- this energy it suddenly and dramatically fails. ilarly for the 4+ states. The displacement shown in the This is an excitation energy region previously little figure demonstrates a typical situation found in many studied due both to experimental difficulties and actual deformed nuclei.

ROTOR 0 (6) 47

to the lack of adequate models. The (n,y) reaction, of many of the properties of some individual levels using the technique of average resonance capture, or small groups of levels. Results such as these sug- provides an ideal probe, though, because it leads gest that, suitably modified, the Nilsson model can to a complete "mapping" of all the states (of cer- be used to understand regions of nucleus and ex- tain spins) so that a detailed perspective is ob- citation energy heretofore considered beyond its tained. Earlier (n,v) experiments had been com- domain. bined with existing data from the (d,p) reaction for Hf and W nuclei. The hope was not to explain Difficulties with Particle-Rotor Models the details of the data for individual states but to A third study concerns the nucleus 109Pd and see if at least the broad features of this uncharted an important model which has been proposed, and excitation energy region could be qualitatively heretofore generally found successful, for interpret- understood. This hope was fulfilled with an inter- ing the lowest energy high spin states (yrast states) pretation in terms of a modified Nilsson model in odd mass nuclei. These states are populated in that incorporated a new shape, called hexadeca- reactions initiated by beams of heavy ions produced pole, that transforms a football-like shape into one in particle accelerators such as the BNL Tandem more square, resembling a pin-cushion. Van de GraafF. According to this model these In the last two years, additional data, on states form so-called "decoupled bands" in which 12 191,1930s, have been taken at Brookhaven, using the odd particle is essentially uncoupled from the the 2 keV neutron beam from the tailored beam motion of the rest of the nucleus, that is, of the core. facility, to further study the "fragmentation" of If the angular momentum of this particle is aligned Nilsson strength in these two nuclei. With this new parallel to that of the core a sequence of states is information a more extensive test of the earlier in- formed composed of this particle combined with terpretation has been possible, especially since the successively faster rotations of the core. The energy size of the hexadecapole shape component is much spacings of these levels are exactly those displayed 13 different in Os than in Hf and W. The result is in the neighboring even mass nucleus which acts not only that the original interpretation, in a as the core for the odd mass nucleus. parameter-free set of calculations, can account for This model has important consequences in the the broad trends in the Hf-Os region but that in entire, and currently very active, field of high spin fact it provides a much more detailed explanation nuclear structure physics and therefore merits more thorough testing. Since the mode) was ex- Figure 5. Level scheme for positive parity states in pressly designed to explain the "yrast" levels, its compared to the O(6) limit. The predicted O(6) levels success is perhaps not surprising. However, the are indicated to the left of each group of empirical levels same model also predicts a myriad of other states, by short dashed lines and the associated O(6) quantum numbers. The upper (lower) row of numbers on the trans- many with low spin. These latter are accessible to ition arrows give the measured (predicted) relative B(E2) the (n,y) reaction and have been identified in the values (proportional to squares of reduced transition study14 of 109Pd. The results are indeed surpris- matrix elements).

n,(2oo>

196Pt ;•'""' .(4201 QUANTUM NUMBERS 1.0 0.2 100 O o -100 n 1 1 '•"•"Snw..*: 0 Tl 42 J i n1 9 100 0.01 O2« 0.3 P.7 0.4 100 () C ( 9 ) 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 100 2* 1 1 1 * i 14001^' IT 0 100 <9. I I 1 1 11 )2 4*0100 3 C C 125 100 1.7 92 100 0+ | 0 110 100 I , I 0.14 105 100 l 0. 290100 )l

Z 0.001 100 0 100 • 8* 4_ is .1610),-- I * »"«< —-*J

Til. E»p. Th. E»p. Th. E«p. 48 ing. While some states agree in energy and y-ray nate pion light is used to give positive identifica- decay properties with those predicted, others are tion of kaons in the beam. A liquid hydrogen Cer- dramatically different and cast serious doubt on enkov counter is used to identify pions after the in- the model. These others correspond to cases in teraction. The experiment uses two focusing spec- which the particle and core angular momenta are trometers to accurately measure the pion and not aligned exactly parallel. Further work is clearly kaon momenta. For an incident kaon beam of needed. Pending this, however, these results show small spatial extent each point on the final focal that great caution must be exercised in assessing plane would correspond to a unique hypernuclear the adequacy of models, such as those for "decou- excitation energy. pled bands," based solely on a small subset of the The spectrometer which detects the outgoing states predicted by the model. pions can rotate up to 30° with respect to the beam As the above paragraphs indicate, the field of axis. Change of angle can be accomplished in a studies that can be attacked with the versatile and few minutes, allowing the preferential population prolific (n,y) reaction is very wide and rich, it pro- of particular hypernuclear states, the study of the vides a potent tool for probing nuclear structure spin and parity of states through their angular dis- and for testing nuclear models, and often its great- tribution of formation, and the selection of kine- est utility arises when the data from it are utilized matic regions with favorable signal to background in conjunction with complementary data from levels. other reactions. The preliminary data were taken during May- June 1978 on 12C. Two groups of states were pop- EXPERIMENTS ulated. One is the ground-state configuration of 12C, believed to consist mostly of a ground state IN HYPERNUCLEAR SPECTROSCOPY A with spin and parity 1 ~. To reach this configura- 12 This period marked the beginning of a promis- tion in the (K.-,ir-) reaction, a neutron :n C is transformed into a lambda in a different orbi: in ing set of pioneering experiments at BNL in hyper- 12 nuclear spectroscopy. Very little is known about A C. This gives rise to an angular distribution the interaction of certain hyperons, called A which is expected to peak at an intermediate angle (lambda) particles, with the neutrons and protons in good agreement with the data. The second in a nucleus, and it is through such spectroscopic group of states occurs roughly at an excitation en- determinations as these experiments provide that ergy of 11 MeV and proceeds by transforming a neutron into a A in a similar orbit. The A can cou- the various components of this interaction are 12 likely to be understood. ple to the other nucleons in C to form several A beam of particles called kaons, produced by states near this excitation energy. A favored con- the AGS accelerator, is used to bombard a nucleus, figuration consists of 0+ states for which the cross say 12C. By properly choosing the experimental section peaks in the forward direction. As the conditions, one can in effect study the reaction in angle of w~ detection is increased, 2+ states of the which the kaon (K~) interacts coherently with the same configuration begin to dominate the cross nucleus with the net result that one neutron in the section. With the even better energy resolution ex- nucleus is replaced by a A particle and a pion (ir~) pected in forthcoming experiments one can hope is released. The experiments measure the energy to resolve individual final states and thus to study and angle of the emitted ir~. Although similar ex- the characteristics (e.g., spin-orbit coupling) of the periments have been done at CERN they were re- A in different orbits and also to provide important clues to the interactions between A and nucleon in stricted to one angle only (ffw = O°) and therefore were unable to distinguish the different angular the nucleus. These interactions are expected to de- distributions resulting when different final states pend on both the specific orbit of the A and on its 12 coupling to the other particles. in A C were excited. The BNL experiment makes use of the energy difference spectrometer pictured in Fig. 6. It con- NUCLEAR THEORY sists of eight quadrupole and two dipole magnets with multiwire proportional and drift chambers Major efforts in nuclear theory have been di- to measure particle positions. A differential Ceren- rected into several areas: the study of heavy-ion kov counter using total internal reflection to elimi- direct reactions, nuclear structure investigations, 49 and intermediate energy physics. The latter has a the nuclei essentially merge and all memory of the frequent overlap with what are generally consid- initial system is lost. Theoretical studies at this ered problems in particle physics. Heavy-ion in- laboratory have emphasized the first of these cate- duced reactions, so prominently examined at the gories but are now concentrating on reactions Brookhaven Tandem Van de Grjiaff Facility, are which bridge the gaps between the three processes. often divided into three categories: (1) quasi- From earlier studies on few nucleon transfer reac- elastic reactions in which small amounts of matter, tions at forward angles much was learned about energy, and angular momentum are transferred the average interaction during peripheral colli- between target and projectile; (2) deep inelastic sions between target and projectile. This average reactions in which a large portion of the incoming ion-ion interaction, often referred to as the optical kinetic energy is converted into target and projec- potential, possesses both a real, generally attract- tile excitation, but the residual nuclei still strongly ive, part, and an imaginary, absorptive part. A resemble the incoming colliding nuclei; and (3) key idea pioneered at this laboratory15 was that compound nuclear and fusion reactions in which the absorption between target and projectile, rep-

Figure 6. The hypernucleon physics spectrometer at the and it can be rotated to intercept pions at various angles AGS consists of two major elements: the first element to the incident beam. Shown above is the second half of analyzes a K-meson beam from the AGS, which produces the spectrometer. In the right center of the photo two qua- hypernuclei in a target located at the center of the spec- drupole magnets, separated by a dipole magnet, are visible, trometer. The second element analyzes w-mesons which while at bottom right the beam line ends with several are created in the process of hypernucleus production, multi-wire proportional counters and scintillator detectors. 50

resenting flux lost from the simpler two-body tant application17 of the structure theory has been channels to more complex nuclear configurations, made to the search for the presence in nuclei of the was especially weak for grazing collisions of the very weak parity-non-conserving forces. There is ions. Thus, even in the rather gentle quasi-elastic definite indication that careful structure studies reactions, the nuclei could approach quite closely, are necessary to detail the nature of these weak where their orbits then come under the influence forces, and indeed there is evidence for the pres- of the inner, interesting portions of the real poten- ence of the weak neutral currents advocated in re- tial. This provides the connection to the deep in- cent particle physics theories. elastic and fusion processes, since these latter de- Progress has been made in theoretical interme- pend very directly on the inner regions of ion-ion diate energy physics in both the baryon-antibaryon interaction. and kaon-nucleus systems. Theoretical studies18 A particular reaction examining distances of strongly support the possible existence of deeply rather close ion-ion approach is the backward bound nucleon-antinucleon states, perhaps already angle scattering discussed in the Tandem Facility observed in the spectrum of high energy y-rays portion of this report (see Fig. 2). Of particular in- emitted during proton-antiproton collisions. Cal- terest is the observation of a phenomenon, previ- culations are able to predict roughly the energy ously seen in almost mass-symmetric, relatively light and number of y-rays observed experimentally heavy ion systems such as 16O + 12C, in heavier and also point out that additional important tests more asymmetric systems such as 16O+28Si and will result from observations of sr-mesons emitted 12C + 28Si. The large rise and oscillatory structure in the decay of such states. The production of hy- seen near 180° in the center of mass elastic scatter- pernuclear states (in addition to the earlier ob- ing, coupled with a strong energy dependence of this served ground states of A-nuclei) by means of the rise constitute the observed features of this phe- (K~,n~) reaction has been reported by both CERN nomenon. Earlier theoretical work at this Labora- and BNL. The richness of the spectra possible for tory was able to describe the detailed angular dis- the A-nucleus systems seems likely to be uncovered tributions at isolated center of mass energies but in ongoing experiments at these laboratories. The- failed to explain the overall energy dependence. oretical work19 at the laboratory, both on the de- More recent work16 has indicated families of real tailed structure of such states and on the reaction potentials exist which will successfully describe the mechanism producing them, highlights the most strong fluctuations in backward angle scattering interesting information likely to result from mea- as a function of energy. The phenomenon is still surements on these novel systems. something of a mystery but is closely related to semi-classical orbiting of the ions, suggesting the existence of short-lived molecular states of target REFERENCES

and projectile at rather high excitation energy in 1. O.C. KlSTNER, A.W. SuNYAR, AND E. DER MATEOSIAN, the compound system. In another effort, a very in- Phys. Rev. C17, 1417 (1978). teresting shell model structure program emphasiz- 2. A. BOHR AND B.R. MOTTELSON, Invited lecture at the ing the group SU(3) has been developed to deal International Conference on Nuclear Structure, with light nuclei in the p and (s,d) shells. Impor- Tokyo, September 1977, NORDITA preprint 77/38. tant components in shell model wave functions 3. P. BRAUN-MUNZINGER, G.M. BERKOWITZ, T.M. CORMIER, CM. JACHCINSKI, J.W. HARRIS, J. BAR- arising from selective excitation into higher shells KETTE, AND M.J. LEVINE, Phys. Rev. Lett. 38, 944 are included in the model framework. In particu- (1977). lar, the study of high spin states in these light nu- 4.J. BARRETTE, M.J. LEVINE, P. BRAUN-MUNZINGER, clei, seen both in y-ray and nucleon cluster trans- G.M. BERKOWITZ, M. GAI, J.W. HARRIS, AND CM. fer experiments, can be more meaningfully studied. JACHCINSKI, Phys. Rev. Lett. 40,445 (1978). 5. P.D. BOND, C. CHASMAN, J.D. GARRETT, C.K. The rather low density of such high spin states in GELBKE, OLE HANSEN, M.J. LEVINE, A.Z. SCHWARZS- these nuclei makes them a very fruitful ground for CHILD, AND C.E. THORN, Phys. Rev. Lett. 36,300 (1976). the discovery of components from highly excited 6. P.D. BOND, M.J. LEVINE, D.J. PISANO, C.E. THORN, shells. Another result of this structure study is a AND L.L. LEE, Phys. Rev. C, to be published. greatly increased knowledge of the effective nu- 7. P.D. BOND, HJ. KORNER, M.C. LEMAIRE, D.J. PISANO, cleon-nucleon force inside nuclei, in particular AND C.E. THORN, Phys. Rev. C16, 177 (1977). 8. R.E. CHRIEN AND J. KOPECKY, Phys. Rev. Lett. 39,911 about components otherwise hidden. An impor- (1977). 51

9. A. ARIMA AND F. IACHEIXO, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 99, 253 14. R.F. CASTEN, G.J. SMITH, M.R. MACPHAIL, D. (1976); Phys. Rev. Lett. 40, 385 (1978). BREITIG, W.R. KANE, M. STELTS, S.F. MUOHABGHAB, 10. J.A. CIZEWSKI, R.F. CASTEN, G.J. SMITH, MX. STELTS, J.A. CIZEWSKI, H.G. BORNER, W.F. DAVIDSON, AND W.R. KANE, H.G. BORNEK, AND W.F. DAVIDSON, K. SCHRECKENBACH, Pkys. Rev. C, to be published. Phys. Rev. Lett. 40, 167 (1978). 15.A.J. BALTZ, P.D. BOND, J.D. GARRETT, AND S. 11. R.F. CASTEN AND J.A. CIZEWSKI, Pkys. Letts. 79B, 5 KAHANA, Phys. Res. C12, 136 (1975). (1978), Nucl. Phys. A309,477 (1978). 16. S.H. KAHANA, B. KIM, M. MERMAZ, to be published. 12. R.F. CASTEN, R.C. GREENWOOD, M.R. MACPHAIL, 17. D.J. MILLENER, E.K. WARBURTON, K.A. SNOVER, R. R.E. CHRIEN, W.R. KANE, G.J. SMITH, AND J.A. VON LINTIG, ANDP.G. IKOSSI, Phys. Rev. G18,1878 (1978). CIZEWSKI, Mel. Phys. A285, 235 (1977). 18. C.B. DOVER AND J.M. RICHARD, Phys. Rev. D17,1770 13. R.F. CASTEN, D.D. WARNER, AND J.A. CIZEWSKI, (1978). Nucl. Phys., to be published. 19. A. GAL, G. WALKER, AND C.B. DOVER, to be published.

TANDEM VAN DE GRAAFF Staff Members - Major Research Activities D.E. Alburger Production of new off-stability isotopes S. Kubono Heavy-ion elastic scattering and transfer re- by heavy-ion bombardment. Measurements of lifetimes, actions particularly with relation to spin-orbit inter- decay characteristics and masses of such nuclei by /?- action. Study of back angle elastic scattering in medium ray and y-ray energy release determinations. mass systems. C. Baktash Study of high-spin states in medium to heavy- M.J. LeVine Design and development of magnetic nuclei by y-ray spectroscopy. Lifetime and g-factor spectrographs and spectrometer focal plane detectors. measurement of high spin states. Multiple coulomb ex- Heavy-ion reactions: transfer, "molecular states," in- citation relating to quadrupole moment measurements. elastic scattering. Quadrupole moments of excited J. Barrette Surface phenomena in light heavy ion scat- states by reorientation methods. High spin states in the tering as observed in back angle elastic scattering and continuum of light nuclei. reactions. Other aspects of heavy-ion reactions. C.J. Lister Nuclear structure studies in light nuclei. P.D. Bond Transfer reaction studies with heavy-ion High spin states of nuclei in the f-p shell excited by projectiles. Reaction mechanism studies with heavy-ion heavy-ion reactions. Searches for new off-stability nu- projectiles. Elastic and inelastic scattering of heavy ions. clei in heavy ion fusion-evaporation reactions. Multistep processes in transfer reactions. Deep inelastic A.M. Nathan Study of high spin state phenomena in light processes. nuclei excited in heavy-ion induced reactions. Search C. Chasman Chairman, superconducting cyclotron pro- for y-decay of T=2 states in light nuclei. Production of posal and design study group. Heavy-ion direct reactions. new far off stability light nuclei by heavy ion bombardment and study of their decay properties. Study of reso- E. der Mateosian Heavy-ion induced reaction y-ray 12 12 studies. Studies of high spin state phenomena in medium nances in C+ C system via radiative capture. to heavy nuclei. Reaction y-ray linear polarization mea- J.W. OIness Heavy-ion induced reaction y-ray studies. surements. Reaction y-ray lifetime measurements. C. Flaum Studies of high spin states in medium weight W.F. Piel, Jr. Heavy-ion induced reaction y-ray studies nuclei excited in transfer reactions using heavy-ion and study of high-spin states in medium-weight nuclei. projectiles. Quadrupole moments. Study of y-ray deep A.Z. Schwarzschild Member of superconducting cyclo- inelastic scattering of heavy ions. Study of mass and tron proposal and design study group. Direct heavy-ion charge distribution of fusion products and of critical reactions and fusion-fission reactions. distance effects in fusion. A.W. Sunyar Heavy-ion induced reaction y-ray and G.S. Goldhaber Study of the ramifications of the Vari- nuclear structure studies. Studies of high spin state able Moment of Inertia Model by heavy ion reactions phenomena in medium to heavy nuclei. Reaction y-ray in off-stability nuclei in the Z<50 region (nuclei whose linear polarization measurements. ground states are slightly deformed or spherical). P. Thieberger Facility operation and development; O.C. Kistner Liaison member of Tandem Program Ad- heavy ion research. visory Committee in charge of coordination of Outside C.E. Thorn Instrumentation for QDDD spectrometer; User activities at BNL Tandem Facility. Heavy ion in- research with spectrometer and study of heavy ion duced reaction y-ray and nuclear structure studies. transfer reactions. Study of high spin state phenomena in medium to E.K. Warburton High spin states studies in light nuclei heavy nuclei. excited in heavy-ion induced reactions. Reaction Y-ray J.J. Kolata High spin states studies in light nuclei ex- lifetime measurements. cited in heavy-ion induced reactions. Reaction y-ray H.E. Wegner Reaction mechanism studies of fusion- lifetime and polarization measurements. Transfer reac- evaporation reactions. Study of elastic and inelastic scat- tion studies with heavy ion projectiles. Hypernuclear tering of heavy ions to demonstrate presence of mokcu- •y-ray studies with K~, n~ reactions. Shape resonances lar structure in 12C+12C system. Member of supercon- and intermediate structure in light ion fusion reactions. ducting proposal and design study group. 52

NEUTRON NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Staff Members - Major Research Activities R.E. Chrien Resonance neutron capture y-ray spec- M.J. Kenny Nuclear structure with resonance and ther- troscopy; medium energy physics; average resonance mal neutron capture gamma rays. capture experiments; strength functions; hypernuclear B.K. Koene Nuclear structure studies with resonance physics, neutron cross sections. and thermal neutron capture gamma rays. W.R. Kane Nuclear structure studies with resonance H.I. Liou Neutron cross sections, resonance capture. and thermal neutron capture gamma rays; construction of conversion electron spectrometer at HFBR. G.J. Smith Nuclear structure studies with resonance R.F. Casten Nuclear structure studies with resonance and thermal neutron capture gamma rays. and thermal neutron capture gamma rays; average M.L. Stelts (n,a) angular distributions; average reso- resonance capture experiments; charged particle trans- nance capture; instrumentation development; data ac- fer; collective effects, boson models. quisition codes.

NUCLEAR THEORY Staff Members - Major Research Activities S.H. Kahana Nuclear reactions, nuclear structure, R.C. Fuller Nuclear reactions, heavy ion. medium energy. M. Golin Nuclear structure and nuclear reactions. E.H. Auerbach Nuclear reactions. D J. Millcner Nuclear structure (shell model), heavy ion A.J. Baltz Nuclear reactions, heavy ion. reactions. F. Darema-Rogers Nuclear structure. J. Weneser Nuclear structure, weak interactions. C.B. Dover Medium energy, nuclear reactions and M. Zabek Medium energy, relativistic heavy ion reac- structure (heavy ions). tions.

MEDIUM ENERGY PHYSICS

Staff Members - Major Research Activities H. Palevsky Medium energy physics. R.J. Sutter Medium energy physics. M. May Medium energy physics. R.E. Chrien Medium energy physics (also listed in Neutron Nuclear Physics Group). Atomic and Applied Physics

The atomic physics program uses the wide range Beam foil spectroscopy measurements at the of very energetic heavy ion beams from the Tan- Tandem Facility make possible the study of atomic dem Van de Graaff Accelerator Facility for stud- states produced when heavy-ion beams pass ies of x rays produced in heavy ion-atom collisions through a carbon stripping foil. Spectra can be and for beam foil spectroscopy measurements. measured as a function of charge state by chang- Measurements of x-ray production by light ing the beam energy, and lifetimes of individual charged ions such as protons or alpha particles states can be determined by measuring a line in- have been in progress for many years. Interest in tensity as a function of distance from the exciting the past five years has increasingly turned to con- foil. Our work utilizes a 2.2-m grazing incidence sideration of the processes involved in x-ray pro- spectrometer and has concentrated on the wave- duction in the collision of a partially stripped heavy length region from 5-50 nm. One point of particu- ion with heavy targets. Measurement of the impact-parameter dependence of the x-ray production is a particularly sensitive test of the reaction mechanism involved. An extensive set of these 60 HMO measurements has been made with Ni, Nb, and I beams incident on a variety of targets. Typical re- 40 200 MeV q=28 1 sults for the probabliity of target and projectile 20 K x-ray production, PK, as a function of impact parameter dependence, b, are shown in Fig. 1- O ^ w^. II.

Ro indicated on the figure is the Thomas-Fermi, 60 radius of the combined atom. The results are compared with predictions of a molecular orbital 40 model which assumes a single important coupling 20 (2pir-2pu) and a statistical model which can be applied in a more general way to parameterize 60 the data. These results show that the rotational- coupling model fails to fit the data and that the 40 statistical model fits the general trend of the data. 20

58Ni+ Mn ENi-45MeV 58Ni io°l- — STATISTICAL MODEL — 2 p7T-2po- COUPLING 0 10" 200 - - 30 MeV 5=15 2 !l0" 100 \ \ Ro I0"3- 1 A 300 - 200 1 • > 1 III 1 \ „ ,. io-i2 io-"> I0-" 100 b(cm)

Figure 1. Comparison of experimental K-shell ionization 30 probabilities PK for Ni + Mn and Ni+Sn at 45 MeV X(nm) with the predictions of the statistical and molecular- orbital models. Open circles represent data after correc- Figure 2. Beam foil spectra of molybdenum tion for estimated multiple collision processes. for mean charge states from q= 13 to 28.

53 54 lar interest is that the range of charge states that ence, and other fields. Particle beams from the can be produced by the Tandem Van de Graaff 3.5-MV Research Van de Graaff, Tandem Van is comparable to those produced in plasmas with de Graaff and High Flux Beam Reactor (HFBR) electron temperatures of a few keV. Results from facilities are used to identify isotopes through these experiments can thus be compared with the production of unique atomic and nuclear signa- radiation emitted by heavy ion impurities in toka- tures. Spatial localization is achieved by use of mak plasmas, an important source of energy loss, particle microbeams or alternatively by use of and can serve as an aid in the plasma diagnostics. position-sensitive detectors. Other techniques, such As an example, Fig. 2 shows the beam foil spec- as x-ray fluorescence analysis and scanning elec- tra of molybdenum for mean charges states from tron microscopy are used where they augment 13 to 28.2 Molybdenum is an important construc- and complement the developments of new meth- tion material in tokamaks and it is important to odology. Particular attention has been given to know the molybdenum spectra. the use of stable isotope tracers for use where ra- Methods for measuring the quantity and loca- dioactive tracers are not suitable. A detailed de- tion of stable isotopes are of basic importance to scription of the program is given in the Instru- work in all areas of physical and life sciences in mentation Division Section. both pure and applied research. The task of the applied part of the program is thus twofold: first, REFERENCES to develop new techniques for the quantitative measurement and precise spatial localization of 1. B.M. JOHNSON,K.W. JONES,VV. BRANDT, F.C. JUNDT, G. GUIIXAUME, AND T.H. KRUSE, Pkys. Rev. A19,81 stable isotopes and, second, to demonstrate their (1979). utility in application to significant problems in 2. B.M. JOHNSON, K.W. JONES, J.L. CECCHI, AND T.H. solid state physics, biology, medicine, marine sci- KRUSE, IEEE Trans. Mud. Sci. NS-26, 1317 (1979).

ATOMIC AND APPLIED PHYSICS

Staff Members - Major Research Activities K.W. Jones X-ray production in heavy ion-atom col- R.E. Shroy Atomic and nuclear analytical methods. lisions, beam foil spectroscopy, atomic and nuclear an- H.W. Kraner Atomic and nuclear analytical (Instru- alytical methods. mmmentationt,hm)) methnHmethodse. B.M. Johnson X-ray production in heavy ion-atom collisions, beam foil spectroscopy. Solid State Physics INTRODUCTION temperatures. To reach this end it is useful to study systems where other interactions compete The main goal of the solid state physics research with those necessary for the existence of supercon- effort is to understand the interatomic forces that ductivity. The interactions among electrons which bind atoms together to form the various phases of lead to magnetic order tend to compete with the condensed matter. These forces are modified by electron pairing mechanisms necessary for super- variations in external parameters such as tempera- conductivity.1 In fact, it was previously thought ture and pressure, or by introducing defects and that the coexistence of superconductivity and disorder into the lattice. Brookhaven possesses sev- magnetism was impossible. However, recent stud- eral facilities which provide unique probes for ies on the compounds ErRh^B.!,2 HoMoeSs,3 studies of these forces. The primary tool is the TbMoeSs,4 and DyMosSg 5 have shown that mag- High Flux Beam Reactor (HFBR) which provides netic order and superconductivity may indeed co- an intense beam of low energy neutrons for studies exist. These materials have superconducting trans- of the structure and dynamics of condensed mat- ition temperatures between 2 and 9 K. In each ter. Several irradiation facilities are also available compound, a transition to a magnetic state occurs to investigate the nature of defects in solids. Under at a temperature below the superconducting trans- construction is the National Synchrotron Light ition. Two distinct types of behavior occur. In Source (NSLS) which will provide intense beams ErRh4B4 and HoMoeSs the development of mag- of tunable x rays and ultraviolet radiation. These netic order ultimately destroys the superconduc- probes will complement the existing techniques in tivity and a transition to a normal conducting the studies of the atomic and electronic structures state occurs as the temperature is lowered. These of solids and surfaces. The solid state theory group materials are called reentrant superconductors. interacts strongly with the experimental sectors in Neutron diffraction studies show that these mate- providing guidance and interpretation of the ex- rials develop a ferromagnetic ordering of the rare perimental results. earth ions. However, there appears to be a small temperature range between the magnetic transi- NEUTRON SCATTERING STUDIES tion and the reentrant transition in which both Thermal neutrons have energies and wave- superconductivity and magnetism coexist. In that lengths comparable to the elementary excitations range these materials appear to be ferromagnetic and interatomic spacings in solids. This makes the superconductors. 4 5 neutron the ideal tool for probing the interactions TheTbMo6S8 andDyMo6S8 samples behave dominant in the solid state. Additionally, the mag- dramatically differently. When they become magnetic moment of the neutron can interact directly netic at temperatures below the superconducting with the magnetic moment associated with un- transition temperature they do not reenter the paired electrons, so the neutron also serves as a normal non-superconducting state. Measurements probe of the magnetic nature of solids. The High of the resistivity show no effects of the magnetic Flux Beam Reactor (see discussion in Reactor Di- order on the superconductivity. The neutron dif- vision) is one of the most intense sources of ther- fraction patterns in Fig. 1 for TbMogSs show new mal neutrons in the world and allows for the peaks at low temperatures which are absent at study of a wide variety of problems. The follow- higher temperatures. This confirms the antiferro- ing examples were selected from the research pro- magnetic ordering of the rare earth ions. From the gram to illustrate the range of problems of current intensities of these peaks the magnetic moments of interest. the rare earth ions are calculated and found to be lower than the value for an isolated, free ion. This Coexistence of Superconductivity indicates that the surrounding environment of the and Magnetism rare earth ion plays an important role in deter- The major goal in the studies of superconduc- mining the magnetic behavior of these antiferro- tivity is to understand the superconducting state magnetic superconductors. and to use the knowledge to predict and fabricate The behavior of the magnetic superconductors materials with high superconducting transition has also been studied in an externally applied

55 number of electrons occupy the 4f level. Over the past several years, there has been considerable interest in materials exhibiting a non-integral occupancy.6 These materials are called mixed valence materials because the valence is also non-integral and can vary in response to a temperature or pressure variation, or as a result of alloying. Cerium and the compounds of Ce and Sm have been the most extensively studied. In these mixed valence systems the atomic-like 4f electron is usually situated at a small energy below the conduction band. As the pressure, temperature, or amount of alloying is varied, the conduction bands broaden and move closer to the 4f level and finally, according to current thinking, at some critical value the 4f level is pinned at the Fermi level. There is generally no change in crystal symmetry but the lattice parameter usually shows a large contraction as the 4f level and conduction band approach each other. A convenient system to study is the alloy Cei_x Thx where the change in valence occurs as a function of temperature.7 For x = 0.26 the 4f level is 10 15 20 25 30 never completely occupied by one electron, but SCATTERING ANGLE <20) has on the average occupation of 0.8 of an electron. As the temperature is lowered the occupation Figure 1. Neutron diffraction powder patterns for decreases to 0.7 and changes abruptly at the trans- Tbi^MogSs- The lower data show the first two nuclear Bragg peaks when the sample is paramagnetic and not ition temperature to 0.5. The occupation contin- superconducting. The upper data show the first three ues to decrease to 0.4 as the temperature is lowered magnetic Bragg peaks (labeled M), as well as the nuclear to 4.2 K. The susceptibility of this system was Bragg peaks, when the sample is an antiferromagnetic studied as a function of temperature by inelastic superconductor. neutron scattering. In the high temperature phase, the susceptibility exhibits a peak near ftw~20.0 magnetic field. Ferromagnetic order is induced by meV. This energy corresponds to the hopping fre- the field at a value less than that necessary for quency of the f electron as it moves back and forth complete destruction of the superconductivity. between the conduction band and the f level. As Thus there is a range of magnetic fields where the temperature is lowered below the transition both ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic order temperature, the susceptibility becomes extremely occur while the sample is still in the superconduct- broad and the peak is shifted out beyond 70.0 ing state. However, it cannot be concluded that meV. This is interpreted as a feature of the mixed the ferromagnetism coexists with the supercon- valent state where the f level is locked onto the ductivity in the same manner as the antiferromag- Fermi surface and now the f electron is free to netism. The ferromagnetism may occur in small move within the conduction band. The energy be- regions of the sample with the superconductivity ing probed is interpreted as the linewidth of the occurring in other regions. conduction band.

Dynamics of Mixed Valence Materials Correlations in Hydrogen Bonded Systems The existing theories of magnetism have been Hydrogen bonded solids exhibit a rich variety largely verified by the extensive studies on rare of cooperative phenomena. In many of these sys- earth metals and compounds. The magnetism tems, the hydrogen atoms may occupy either of arises from the interactions between the electrons two sites on a bond. A polarization variable, a, is occupying the inner 4f electronic shell of each associated with each bond, and the value o= ±1 atom. In most rare earth compounds, an integral indicates which of the sites is occupied. These vari- 57

ables may interact with each other or with other subsystems such as the lattice. The most famous example of such a system is potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP).8 At high temperatures, the hydrogens are disordered, but, at the transition temperature to the ferroelectric state, the hydrogens become ordered and there is a finite average value of a. The ordering is accompanied by substantial shifts of the heavy atoms as well. In the early lattice-statistical models for KDP certain configurations of the a network were completely forbidden, and among the allowed configurations, energetic preference was given to those having a net-local a pointing along a particular direction. The effective interaction between the o's gave rise to an ordering of the hydrogens. The interaction between the Figure 2. The quasielastic diffuse neutron scattering measured in CFT in the disordered phase. The scattered o's varies among the different hydrogen bonded intensity is plotted as a function of the two in-plane re- systems and can lead to interesting and unexpected ciprocal lattice coordinates (H,K) measured about (0 4 3) behavior. This was highlighted recently in a neu- superlattice Bragg reflection. The dip in the intensity at tron scattering study of the positional correlations the origin indicates that the long wavelength fluctuations between hydrogen atoms in copper formate tetra- of the polarization of the hydrogen bond network are hydrate (CFT).9 suppressed. CFT is a layered structure consisting of planes of hydrogen bonded water molecules alternating H and K (which is what one measures in a scatter- with planes of copper formate. At room tempera- ing experiment), has a pronounced dip at the ori- ture, there is positional disorder in the two-dimen- gin, approaching zero in a way which depends sional hydrogen bond network. As the tempera- upon how the averaging is performed. In effect, ture is lowered, a phase transition into a state of this model is so highly constrained that fluctua- almost complete order occurs. Figure 2 shows tions at small H and K, corresponding to long measurements of diffuse neutron scattering from wavelengths, are largely suppressed. The results CFT in the high temperature disordered phase. shown in Fig. 2 are the first clear physical example The quantity plotted is proportional to the spatial of this. Fourier transform of the correlation function between the a's. In most cases heretofore studied, this SOLID STATE THEORY quantity would show a broad peak centered at the origin (H = K = 0 in Fig. 2) and the intensity would Incommensurate Phase Transitions be a measure of the fluctuations of the network to- In most solids with which we are familiar, there wards its ordered phase. As the temperature is is a simple commensurate relationship between the lowered towards the ordering temperature (Tc), different sublattices constituting the material. the range of these fluctuations typically increases However, the past several years have witnessed a giving rise to an increasingly sharper peak. Finally, growing number of examples of materials which a delta function peak appears at Tc signaling the exist in a peculiar quasi-crystalline state of matter onset of long-range order. In CFT, on the other referred to as an incommensurate phase. In these hand, the fluctuations shown in Fig. 2 appear to phases, the sublattices are characterized by wave be suppressed at the origin and peak instead at vectors which are incommensurate with one another wave vectors even though below the phase other. Examples are electron charge-density transition there is a delta function at the origin. waves10 or ordered spin systems in solid,11 and This behavior can be understood in terms of the monolayers adsorbed on a crystal surface.12 It fre- two-dimensional KDP model. Within this model quently happens that, when the temperature, it can be shown that although the differential cross pressure, or density is changed, one of the wave section at small H and K is not smooth and well vectors varies, and it may pass through a sequence behaved, its average over a small neighborhood of of values which are commensurate with that of the 58

AsFg host lattice together with planes of mercury chains stacked one on top of another (see Fig. 3).13 The ratio of the AsF6 lattice spacing to the mean distance between mercury ions within a chain is 3-8, where 8 is about 0.2, but depends on temperature. This incommensurability leads to a number of remarkable properties of the mercury chains, which have been explored by neutron scattering experiments at Brookhaven and accompanying theoretical analysis. At room temperature, the chains are essentially independent of each other and behave as one-dimensional liquids, with well- defined phonon excitations (shown in Fig. 3) which have a small, intrinsic energy width associated with the lack of long-range order.14 As the temperature is lowered, the coupling between the mercury chains becomes increasingly effective and finally causes them to "freeze" at a temperature of 120 K. This transition is quite unusual in that it is continuous, and is initiated by the appearance of a sinus- oidal variation of the conduction electron density of the mercury ions, a so-called charge density wave (CDW). As the amplitude of the CDW increases, other charge density waves are generated harmonically and only at T = 0 K is the whole assembly equivalent to an ordered lattice.14 Below the "freezing" temperature the phonon spectrum acquires an energy gap for certain values of the momentum perpendicular to the chain direction. Figure 3. (a) The arrangement of the 1-D Hg chains within the body-centered tetragonal unit cell of the host The excitations at the gap are defects in the lattice (AsF6-) lattice of Hg3-sAsF6. There are two orthogonal structure of the mercury chains and their proper- non-interacting chains parallel to the ai, and 1>L axes. ties may be evaluated explicitly by using results (b) The idealized phonon dispersion surfaces in the (101) from quantum theory. plane. The cones represent the dispersion surfaces of the host lattice. The dispersion surfaces of the 1 -D phonons of Roughening Phase Transitions the Hg chains are shown as sheets at (3-5,0,0) since frequency is independent of wave vectors perpendicular to For many years it has been expected that an interface within a physical system might undergo a transition from a smooth phase to a rough phase, host lattice. An analysis of a zero temperature in which there are large local fluctuations in the model showed that, in certain circumstances, the location of the interface. This idea is important for variation of the wave vector takes place in a con- understanding the perfection and growth rates of tinuous but nonanalytic manner, corresponding to crystals in contact with vapor. Various interface an infinite number of phase transitions, known as models have been studied by using the recently a "devil's stair." This behavior may have been ob- developed theory of systems close to a phase trans- served recently in the magnetic structure of CeSb.11 ition. It was found that there is a roughening For strong coupling between the subsystems, there transition for interfaces with dimension between is a global hysteresis analogous to a solid friction one and two, and that the rough phase is a line of in the system, and this feature may allow us to critical points.15 The borderline case of two dimen- identify devil's stair transitions in other materials. sions corresponds to a physical interface, and has Another example of a compound containing in- a number of properties which have been explored dependently periodic subsystems is the mercury by computer calculations. It was shown that they chain compound Hg3_jAsF6, which consists of an may readily be understood by making use of the 59

known mathematical relationship between inter- goal the development of a more complete under- face models and a gas of positive and negative standing of the behavior of real solids, i.e., imper- charges. A proper exploitation of this analogy ap- fect solids. Aside from its basic scientific interest, pears to offer the best way of understanding the this program also has important practical signifi- properties of interfaces. cance as knowledge of the factors which determine the properties of solids is a prerequisite for the Computer Studies of Shock Waves in Solids creation of new materials tailored to the needs of a nation which depends heavily upon sophisticated The technique of molecular dynamics consists energy technologies. The examples to follow indi- in using a computer to find a direct solution of the cate three of the methods used to address these equations of motion for a many-particle system. problems with the tools of basic research, and il- The number of particles that can be handled in lustrate the kinds of information obtained from this way is limited but, for many purposes, it is their application. large enough to give a realistic representation of the various physical properties. Examples of the Studies of Defects by Positron Annihilation use of molecular dynamics are the investigation of Positrons are the only readily available form of the generation and propagation of shock waves in antimatter. They are emitted by radioactive nuclei a solid and the study of high pressure-high tem- which are created during nuclear reactions. The perature properties.16 The equation of state was positrons annihilate with electrons, and most often obtained for a wide range of compressions, and it two energetic gamma rays are created in this proc- was found that parameters which are constant in ess. The general behavior of positrons introduced less extreme conditions turn out to depend upon into condensed matter, and the variety of tech- temperature. niques used to study it are well documented. The By such simulation techniques the dynamical positron enters a medium, comes to thermal equi- response of these solids to shock waves was also in- librium with the lattice, encounters an electron vestigated and the results related to the equation and annihilates with it. Annihilation may occur of state. The computer simulations yielded ? linear while the positron is in a defect-free region of the relation between shock velocity and particle veloc- solid or it may take place after the positron has ity in agreement with many experiments. It was become trapped at an attractive defect center such shown that by combining the equation of state as a vacant lattice site. with conservation relations one can understand Observation of the Doppler shift of the gamma the generality of the above linear relation. At high rays from thermalized positron annihilation pro- shock velocities the onset of a thermal catastrophe, vides detailed information about electron momen- which results in a maximum shock compression, is tum distributions in materials. To reach the in- predicted from this model. terior of an atom of the host material, a thermalized positron must tunnel through the high poten- DEFECTS AND DISORDER IN SOLIDS tial barrier created by the positive nuclear charge. Consequently, the positron annihilates mostly with Atomic defects and lattice disorder play a major weakly-bound conduction electrons. Whereas role in determining the macroscopic properties of these more probable events have been studied solids. At Brookhaven this aspect of solid state extensively, investigation of annihilations with physics is investigated in various ways. One ap- strongly-bound core electrons required the modi- proach involves the use of energetic particles and fication of the conventional Doppler broadening photons as probes to furnish basic information technique. This was accomplished in a collabora- about the nature of solids, and also to create de- tion between Brookhaven and Bell Laboratories.17 fects and disorder in a controlled manner. Another By means of a coincidence measurement of the approach makes use of thin film techniques to pro- Doppler energy shifts of both emitted gamma rays, duce metastable and amorphous materials, and in it becomes possible to obtain momentum spectra many cases the approaches are combined by study- over five orders of magnitude in intensity as oping ion implantation in films and introducing disposed to the two orders of magnitude covered by order into their film materials by energetic par- conventional methods. The high-momentum core- ticles. These approaches have as their common state annihilations could then be observed. Accu- 60 rate measurements of these events are important for several reasons. First they must be subtracted from measured total momentum profiles to obtain Al 0.09% Si a reliable determination of conduction-electron momentum distributions. Second, they provide a convenient means of testing the theory of the positron-electron interaction in condensed matter. Third, comparisons between simple model calculations and experimental momentum distributions for deep-core electrons in samples containing positron trapping centers can yield quantitative information about these defect centers. This new approach to the measurement of positron annihilation was applied to samples of alumi- 18 num. The probability of a positron annihilating H—i i i i mi -i—i i i 11 II with a high-momentum electron was followed as a function of temperature, and therefore as a function of increasing vacancy concentration. Through Figure 4. The temperature dependence of a, which is a a comparison with theory, the vacancies were iden- measure of the depolarization of the spin of the muon tified as monovacancies. The monovacancy forma- and is related to the inverse of the muon diffusion constant. The structure observed in the figure is attributable tion energy was then extracted from the experi- to trapping and detrapping of the positive muon at dif- mental high-momentum tails of tLe Doppler- ferent clusters of one, two, and three silicon impurities. broadened annihilation photopeak. This procedure can be performed in a very direct manner whereas the determination involving lifetime data Investigation of muon spin relaxation (/-tSR) in or the central portion of the photopeak relies upon niobium of high purity or doped with oxygen re- a rather complicated numerical analysis and some vealed the high sensitivity of muons to trace con- questionable assumptions. Thus, investigations of centrations of impurities.19 The most interesting positron annihilation with high-momentum elec- facet of these measurements involved muon be- trons may prove to be the only means to study de- havior observed at low temperatures. A sudden fect properties in certain metals using positrons. decrease in the depolarization rate around 20 K could be interpreted as the onset of rapid muon Muon Diffusion in Solids diffusion. It was later shown that this behavior is A second unstable particle, the positive muon, related to the purity of the niobium, and hence to has also been employed as a probe of solids in a release of muons from impurity traps. It appears series of experiments involving collaboration be- that the phenomenon of muon spin relaxation tween scientists from several institutions on the may offer the best hope of unraveling quantum East Coast. The positive muon can be regarded as diffusion effects and hydrogen behavior in metals. a light radioactive hydrogen isotope which can be In high-purity aluminum no evidence of muon implanted into a solid one at a time. A spin polar- spin depolarization was observed over the temper- ized muon enters the solid, thermalizes, and de- ature range 2.8 to 300 K, implying rapid muon cays into a positron and a neutrino-antineutrino diffusion.20 On the other hand, a small admixture pair. Under an applied transverse magnetic field of Cu produced trapping, as inferred from the the asymmetric pattern of decay positrons rotates temperature dependent depolarization which was at the Larmor frequency of the muons. The rate detected. Subsequent measurements on Al alloyed of decay of the amplitude of the asymmetry oscil- with 0.1 at.% Ag, Cu, Mg, Si, or Zn also exhibited lations is a measure of the muon spin depolariza- temperature dependent structure in the depolar- tion rate. This quantity is exceedingly sensitive to ization rate (Fig. 4).21 The observed peaks are at- the muon's local environment. Three cases of spe- tributed to trapping of the muons by various im- cial interest are identified: a muon localized at a purity complexes. These results thus suggest that particular site, muon diffusion, and diffusion ac- the technique of/uSR can be used to study solute companied by trapping at defects. clustering in alloys. Use of single crystals also will 61 make it possible to determine the symmetry of the which will be available at the National Synchro- trapping sites. tron Light Source (NSLS). Besides work directly related to the facilities at NSLS a broad program Defects and Superconductivity of the study of surface problems is underway in- The previous two research programs involving volving studies of reactions on surfaces, the inter- positron and muons utilize these particles as action of slow positrons with surfaces, the inter- probes of the solid state. Another way to use en- action of ions with surfaces, and studies of elec- ergetic particles is to let them create lattice defects tronic and structural properties of surfaces with and disorder by impinging upon a solid. The ef- photoemission spectroscopy. The program in pho- fects thus produced are then observed by a variety toemission spectroscopy has recently been started of techniques after an irradiation. This approach and the techniques of x-ray and ultraviolet photo- was used to study the relationship between defects, emission spectroscopy (XPS and UPS) have been disorder, and the superconducting properties of a applied to studies of the surface of Pd. The power class of high temperature superconducting com- of this approach will be greatly advanced with the pounds. Energetic neutrons, alpha particles, or elec- availability of synchrotron radiation as a source trons were employed in this series of experiments. for UPS and XPS measurements. The effect of high energy neutron irradiation on Considerable progress has been made on the the transition temperature Tc was measured in mechanism of sputtering on surfaces. Experiments 22 Nb3Sn, Nb3Ge, Nb3 Al, V3Si, and Nb3Pt. In each with ions of different isotopes coming off surfaces case Tc was depressed to a value of —2-4 K fol- have provided new insights into the sputtering lowing irradiation to a total exposure of ~2-5 X process. It was found that the lighter isotopes had 1019n/cm2. The degree of long-range order was much higher yields as compared with the heavier found to decrease considerably while the lattice pa- isotopes. This was tried in the case of H~ and D~,25 rameter ao increased as a result of the irradiation. and 16O~ and ISO-.25 For the same sputtering con- To obtain a clearer understanding of the im- ditions, the yields of the heavier isotopes D~ and 18 portant parameters affecting Tc, alpha particle O~ were a factor 5 and 0,7 lower than the re- and electron irradiations were performed on spective H~ and 16O~ yields. These results gave 23 24 Nb3Sn and Nb3Ge samples. - Tc and p0, the the first direct evidence that these ions were electrical resistivity of the normal state at 25 K, formed during the break-up of the surface bond- were measured as a function of integrated flux. ing, and not when they were escaping from the Tc was found to correlate with p0 which implies surface. The large difference in yields is a conse- that Tc is affected mainly by the total defect con- quence of the different escape velocities of the ions centration and not the state of the defects. The coming off the surface, with the heavier species shape of the Tc vs p0 curve at low fluence was used spending more time in the surface regime and f to distinguish between different models o Te de- thereby having a greater chance for neutralization. pression. It was shown that the strong depression Another important result has involved the de- of Tc with increasing po can be attributed to pendence of secondary ion yields on surface over- smearing of the electronic density of states near layer structures. Bombardment of oxygen-covered the Fermi edge. Any defect that changes the scat- tungsten and molybdenum surfaces by low energy tering length and, therefore, p0 will alter the den- ions has led to a new way to characterize surfaces 26 sity of states and hence Tc. This explains the simi- by secondary ion mass spectroscopy. In this tech- larity in Tc vs integrated flux data for different nique low energy (500 eV or less) ions of a rare types of incident radiation. It also suggests that gas such as neon are used to bombard a surface the approach which is required in the search for and an analysis is made of the secondary ions methods to increase Tc involves a determination which come off the surface. The important result is of the shape of the density of states near the Fermi that the secondary ion yields from the low energy level. ion bombardment can be correlated with changes in the surface structure of the overlayer, as determined by the low energy electron diffraction SURFACE PHYSICS (LEED) measurements of other workers. For instance, the O~/O+ ratio decreased abruptly when In recent years the surface physics program has grown in anticipation of the unique facilities randomly adsorbed oxygen atoms formed an or- 62

dered overlayer structure on the (100) surface of 4. W. THOMLINSON, G. SHIRANE, D.E. MONCTON, M. tungsten at room temperature. At 800° C, the O~ ISHIKAWA, AND 0. FISCHER, Proc. Conf. Magnetism and yield also showed a series of maxima and minima Magnetic Materials, Cleveland, November, 1978. J. Appl. Pkys. 50, 1981 (1978). as the oxygen overlayer went through a sequence 5. D.E. MONCTON, G. SHIRANE, W. THOMLINSON, M. of surface structures at increasing coverages on the ISHIKAWA, AND 0. FISCHER, Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 1133 (100) surface of molybdenum. This correlation is (1978). lost in the usual case where the surface is bom- 6. CM. VARMA, Rev. Mod. Phys. 48, 219 (1976). barded with ions having higher energies. Once 7.S.M. SHAPIRO, J.D. Axe, R.J. BIRGENEAU, J.M. this correlation is made for a single crystal sample, LAWRENCE, AND R.D. PARKS, Phys. Rev. B16, 2225 (1977). the technique can be used to analyze polycrystal- 8. See Ferroeleclricity, edited by E. Fatuzzo and W. Merz line samples of a single crystal plane which are not ( J. Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1967) p. 172. suitable for LEED. Furthermore, surface changes 9. R. YOUNGBLOOD AND J.D. AXE, Phys. Rev. B17, 3639 at high temperatures can also be seen, whereas (1978). LEED is not suitable due to thermal smearing of 10. R. COMES, G. SHIRANE, S.M. SHAPIRO, A.F. GARITO, AND A.J. HEEGER, Phys. Rev. B14, 2325 (1976). the diffraction pattern. 11. J. VON BOEHM AND PER BAK, Phys. Rev. Lett. 42, 122 A monoenergetic beam of slow positrons has re- (1979). cently been developed to obtain information on 12. J.K. KJEMS, L. PASSELL, H. TAUB, AND J.G. DASH, the interaction of slow positrons with metallic sur- Phys. Rev. Lett. 32, 724 (1974). faces. It has been found that low energy positrons 13.1.U. HEILMANN, J.D. AXE, G. SHIRANE, J.M. HAST- incident on single crystal surfaces predominantly INGS, A.J. HEEGER, AND A.G. MACDIARMID (to be 27 published). form positronium (electron-positron bound state). 14. V.J. EMERY AND J.D. Axi., Phys. Rev. Lett. 40, 1507 The number of positronium atoms formed per (1978). unit time decreases as the incident energy in- 15. V.J. EMERY AND R.H. SWENDSEN, Phys. Rev. Lett. 39, creases. Similarly, this number decreases as the 1414(1977). sample temperature is increased. This latter effect 16. D.O. WELCH, A. PASKIN, AND GJ. DIENES, J. Phys. C39, 389(1978). is attributable to the trapping of the positron at 17. J.R. MACDONALD, K.G. LYNN, R.A. BOIE, AND M.F. lattice defects which are known to act as attractive ROBBINS, JVucl. Instrum. Methods 153, 139 (1978). centers. It is concluded from these new results that 18. K.G. LYNN, J.R. MACDONALD, R.A. BOIE, L.C. the positron comes to thermal equilibrium with FELDMAN, J.D. GABBE, M.F. ROBBINS, E. BONDERUP, the solid and then diffuses to the surface and es- AND J. GOLOVCHENKO, Phys. Rev. Lett. 38, 241 (1977); J.E. DICKMAN AND K.G. LVNN, J. PAys. F8, L295 capes as positronium. This positronium fraction (1978). has been found to be sensitive to impurities on the 19. W.F. LANKFORD, H.K. BIRNBAUM, A.T. FIORY, R.P. surface. Another surprising result is that the posi- MINNICH, K.G. LYNN, L.H. BIEMAN, W.J. KOSSLER, tron work function has been found to vary from AND J. LINDEMUTH, Hyperfine Interactions 4, 833 positive to negative for different metals. Experi- (1978). ments that measure the low-energy positron re- 20. W.B. GANSTOR, A.T. FIORY, K.G. LYNN, WJ. KOSS- LER, D.M. PARKIN, C.E. STRANACH, AND W.F. LANK- flection coefficients have also been made. From FORD, J. JVucl. Mater. 10,147 (1978). these types of experiments an understanding of 21. WJ. KOSSLER, A.T. FIORY, W.F. LANKFORD, J. how antimatter interacts with surfaces will be LINDEMUTH, K.G. LYNN, R.P. MINNICH, K.G. PETZ- gained and it will be ascertained whether posi- NIGER, AND C.E. STRANASH, Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 1558 trons will become a useful new surface probe. (1978). 22. A.R. SWEEDLER, D.E. COX, AND S. MOEHLECKE, J. JVucl. Mater. 72,50 (1978). REFERENCES 23. A.K. GHOSH, H. WIESMANN, M. GURVITCH, H. LUTZ, O.F. KAMMERER, C.L. SNEAD, JR., A.N. GOLAND, AND 1. M.B. MAPLE in Magnetism, edited by G.T. Rado and M. STRONGIN, J. JVucl. Mater. 72, 70, (1978). H. Suhl (Academic, New York, 1973), Vol. V, p. 289. 24. H. WIESMANN, M. GURVITCH, A.K. GHOSH, H. LUTZ, 2. D.E. MONCTON, D.B. MCWHAN, J. ECKERT, G. K.W. JONES, A.N. GOLAND, AND M. STRONGIN, J. Low SHIRANE, AND W. THOMLINSON, Pkjis. Rev. Lett. 39, Temp. Phys. 30,513 (1978). 1164(1977). 25. M.L. Yu, JVucl. Inslrum. Methods (to be published); 3.J.W. LYNN, D.E. MONCTON, W. THOMLINSON, G. Phys. Rev. (to be published). SHIRANE, AND R.N. SCHELTEN, Solid State Commun. 26, 26. MX. Yu, Appl. Phys. Lett. 30,654 (1977). 493(1978). 27. K.G. LYNN, Phys. Rev. Lett, (to be published). 63

SCIENTIFIC STAFF MEMBERS AND RESEARCH ASSOCIATES

SOLID STATE-NEUTRON SCATTERING GROUP

G. Shirane - Group Leader J.D. Axe Neutron scattering, lattice dynamics, phase J.P. Pouget (10/76-10/77) Lattice dynamics, phase transitions, light scattering transitions R. Currat (10/77-11/78) Lattice dynamics, phase D. Semmingsen (9/76-9/77) Neutron scattering stud- transitions ies, hydrogen bonded crystals J. Eckert Neutron scattering studies under high pres- S.M. Shapiro Neutron scattering, phase transitions, sure, solidified rare gases superionic conductors W.D. Ellenson (5/76-9/78) Neutron scattering studies, G. Shirane Neutron scattering, phase transitions, solidi- monolayer fied rare gases, magnetic transitions E. Gurewitz (8/77-8/78) Magnetic scattering J.A. Tarvin (9/76-4/78) Neutron scattering studies, H.B. Meller (2/77-6/77) Neutron scattering studies, magnetic scattering magnetic structures W.C. Thomlinson Low temperature physics, neutron Y. Noda Neutron scattering studies, phase transitions scattering studies L. Passell Neutron scattering, liquid He, monolayer, R. Yo'jngblood Neutron scattering studies, hydrogen magnetic critical scattering bonded crystals •

SOLID STATE THEORY GROUP

V.J. Emery - Group Leader S.Aubry (1/77-12/77) Statistical mechanics, phase V.J. Emery Many body proble/ns in solid state and low transitions temperature / M. Blume (Deputy Department Chairman until Octo- J.N. Fields (9/77-7/78) Mixed valence compounds, ber, 1978) Theory of magnetism, phase transitions, one-dimensional conductors; neutron scattering B. Gyorffy (10/77-8/78) Theory of metals and alloys H. de Raedt (4/78-7/78) Phonons, molecular crystals, J F. Herbst (9/74-8/77) Theory of metals magnetism S. Krinsky (8/73-10/77-to AGS) Accelerator design, statistical mechanics G.J. Dienes Radiation enhanced diffusion, effects of R.H. Swendsen Phase transitions, crystal growth radiation on phase transformations, theory of defects R.E. Watson Theory of metals and defect clusters in solids, order-disorder theory, D.O. Welch (8/72-10/77-to DEE) Solid state theory, radiation theory, radiation biophysics. defects, x-ray scattering, anharmonicity efforts

PARTICLE-SOLID INTERACTION GROUP

A.N. Goland - Group Leader D.E. Cox Materials preparation and characterization, means of thermoluminesce'nce; radiation effects in high-temperature ceramics, radiation effects on super- pseudostable materials. conducting alloys, neutron scattering. A.N. Goland Radiation effects, electron irradiations, H. Engstrom (3/75-6/77) Optical properties of solids, positron annihilation in perfect and imperfect solids, Raman scattering from defects, optical absorption. channeling, intense neutron source development. G.F. Dell Radiation damage analysis J.E. Dickman (6/77-10/78) Positron annihilation stud- J.B. Hastings X-ray scattering, x-ray experiments us- ies using Doppler broadening and slow positron beam ing synchrotron radiation apparatus. D.L. Hayslip Geophysics, physical and geological prop- B.C. Frazer Electrical and optical properties of non- erties of uranium-bearing minerals, thermolumines- metals, synchrotron-radiation facility planning, lattice cence of synthetic and natural quartz. dynamics. C.P. Khattak (5/74-4/77) Electrical properties of high- G.E. Fuller Optical absorption and luminescence in( temperature MHD applications, preparation high synthetic and natural quartz; uranium exploration by materials. 64

PARTICLE-SOLID INTERACTION GROUP (CONTINUED)

R.W. KlafiVy Effects of radiation on ceramics at high A.R. Moodenbaugh Electrical properties of high- temperatures for application to fusion reactors, elec- temperature oxides for MHD applications, prepa- trical resistivity, dielectric breakdown strength. rations and characterization of high temperature P.W. Levy Radiation effects in ceramics: optical ESR, materials. thermo- and radioluminescence studies. Applications Y.M. PJatov (10/76-1/77) Radiation damage in metals of luminescence to geoscientific problems. The in- and alloys fluence of radiation on decomposition reactions, optical B.H. Rose (9/74-10/77-to DEE) Effects of radiation properties of minerals. on ceramics at high temperatures for CTR applica- K.G. Lynn Positron annihilation studies on perfect and tions, electrical resistivity, dielectric breakdown. imperfect solids, vacancy formation energies, electronic J.S. Rosner Ion-solid interactions, Rutherford back- structure of metals, radiation effects. scattering, channeling.

SuPERCONDUcnvrry AND SURFACE STUDIES GROUP

M. Strongin - Group Leader A. Ghosh Superconductivity, specific heat in thin films, conductors, electron beam deposition of A-15 super- superconducting alloys. conductors. Properties of amorphous silicon. H. Lutz (9/74-1/79) Magnetic properties, properties of J.A. Strozier (9/74-9/78) Surface properties, low en- A-15 films, electron beam deposition of films. ergy electron dim-action, reactions on surfaces, catalysis D.L. Miller (5/74-7/77 DAS) Physics of superconduct- studies. ing ultra-thin films, superconductivity at metal-semi- R. Viswanathan (8/74-3/78) Specific heat, instabili- conductor interfaces, catalysis studies ties, A-15 superconductors. R.J. Smith Photo-electron spectroscopy of metal sur- H. Wiesmann Electron beam deposition of films. Prop- faces. Optical properties of metals. erties of amorphous silicon. M. Strongin Superconductivity, physics of supercon- M.L. Yu Ion formation and desorption from surfaces, ducting ultra-thin films, surface properties of super- secondary ion mass spectrometry. The National Synchrotron Light Source

INTRODUCTION electrons travel at relativistic speeds (near the velocity of light) some startling changes take place. The fact that accelerated charges radiate elec- The radiation pattern becomes intensely concen- tromagnetic energy was appreciated a century ago trated in the direction directly ahead of the elec- and analyzed by such pioneers as Hertz and Max- trons and is directed in a narrow cone whose width well. Out of their work came the art of wireless becomes narrower as the electrons' energy is in- communication, using the radiation from electrons creased. At an energy of a billion volts (1 GeV), accelerated in metal wires. The spectra produced for example, the radiation cone is only a fifteenth by the end of the century were still in the wireless of a degree wide. So, when electrons are forced to wavelength range. Early in the twentieth century travel in a circle (by a magnetic field) they emit a relativity was discovered and analysis indicated concentrated sheet of radiation in the plane of that much shorter waves could be produced by ac- their orbit. celeration in free space (i.e., vacuum) of highly The intensity of radiation emitted depends energetic, and therefore relativistic, electrons. strongly on the electrons' energy, increasing rapidly The first half of the century was almost over be- with increasing electron energy. For example, in fore electron energies were achieved at which the the '/2 ampere, 2500 MeV beam as is planned at effects of the radiation could be observed [some Brookhaven, the energy emitted in the highly col- tens of millions of electron volts (MeV)]. As elec- Iimated radiation pattern will be some hundreds tron energies reached the hundred MeV range, of kilowatts. This will be a lethal beam and must the energy losses by electromagnetic radiation in- be treated with respect. Not only will it be neces- creased very rapidly. Since the electron accelera- sary to prevent people from carelessly exposing tors were being built for use in high energy physics, their hands but great care will be required in the and since it appeared that radiation energy losses design of optical equipment to be part of experi- would set an upper limit to achievable energy at a mental apparatus. few thousand MeV, the radiation, now come to be known as "synchrotron radiation," was generally GENESIS OF BROOKHAVEN'S regarded for some time merely as an obstacle in NATIONAL SYNCHROTRON the way of high energy physics. LIGHT SOURCE During the past two decades, however, it has In 1970 interest began to arise at Brookhaven been appreciated that the radiation has some in the possibility of construction of a synchrotron highly desirable features and, indeed, can be an radiation facility. Only two dedicated facilities ex- extremely useful tool in the study of materials, ist in the United States - relatively low energy ma- solid, liquid, or gaseous. These features include chines at the National Bureau of Standards and at well-collimated beams of broad, essentially con- the University of Wisconsin. Other efforts to use tinuous spectra, with high intensity, a high degree synchrotron radiation were parasitic at machines of polarization, and a very steady output. The built, used, and scheduled for use in high energy spectrum, depending on the energy of the elec- physics. trons, can be peaked in the visible, ultraviolet, or x-ray ranges, and provides radiation in many spec- Discussions in Brookhaven's Physics and Chem- tral ranges where no other source is available. istry Departments led to a "Study-symposium" held at Brookhaven in September, 1972 and attended by over 100 interested scientists from ma- SYNCHROTRON RADIATION terials-study groups elsewhere. Intense interest in CHARACTERISTICS a possible dedicated synchrotron radiation source evidently existed, culminating in formation by the When electrons are forced by application of National Research Council of a Panel to perform electric fields to move back and forth in an an- "An Assessment of the National Need for Facili- tenna, a characteristic radiation pattern is emitted. ties Dedicated to the Production of Synchrotron By looking at a TV antenna and the way it is di- Radiatiion." Its highly favorable report appeared rected one can imagine this pattern. But when the in mid-1976.

65 66

larger ring in which electrons will be accelerated to 2500 MeV (2.5 GeV) will provide a radiation spectrum that extends through the ultraviolet int i the "soft" and on into the "hard" x-ray region. Ground was broken for the facility on Septem- ber 28, 1978 (Fig. 1). The ceremony was attended by Dr. G.F. Tape, President of AUI and by Dr. Donald K. Stevens of the Division of Basic Energy Sciences of the U.S. Department of Energy. Figure 2 shows the overall layout of the NSLS facility. The major feature is the 2.5 GeV ring, with 28 beams shown, radiating through beam ports distributed around the ring. These will not all be available on the first day of operation but beam lines will be added over a period of several years. The intermediate size ring, shown with sixteen emitted ultraviolet beams, is the 700 MeV ring. The smallest ring (the "booster") is a 700- MeV synchrotron which will serve as injector for both rings. In the storage rings, it will be necessary to supply energy to the beam, through a radio- frequency system, to make up for the energy lost in radiation. In the 2.5 GeV ring the rf system will be required to accelerate from 700 MeV to 2.5 Figure 1. Groundbreaking for the NSLS. Shown are Dr. GeV as well as to supply the radiation energy A. van Steenbergen, Project Head of the NSLS and Dr. D.K. Stevens of the Department of Energy, who holds a losses. symbolic hv (the quantum of radiation) which was un- The original source of the beam is a 70 MeV earthed at the site. electron linac which has been acquired from several sources and is already in operation. Figure 3 is an artist's conception of the building The late Dr. G.K. Green, who had been a con- which will house the NSLS complex. sultant to the NRC Panel, already had developed rather advanced ideas for the design of a dedicated THE USES OF SYNCHROTRON synchrotron radiation facility. In this he was joined RADIATION by the late Dr. Renate Chasman who evolved a very advanced and sophisticated structure for the Although the synchrotron radiation facility will electron storage rings that were to be the important look remarkably similar to the apparatus that is components of the machine. These design efforts familiar in Brookhaven's high energy physics pro- culminated in construction proposals submitted to gram, its purpose is completely different. It will be the Energy Research and Development Adminis- used to study the basic properties of matter. In- tration (now the Department of Energy) in Wash- numerable problems exist in this field, in the ar- ington. A proposal for construction beginning in FY rangements of atoms in crystals, in the behavior of 1978, estimated at $24 million, was accepted and surfaces, in liquid behavior, in biological samples, the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) and elsewhere. It must be understood that this will became Brookhaven's first important construction not be a tool for studying the nucleus and its prop- project in over a decade. erties - its object is the understanding of complete The Light Source will consist of two "electron atoms and their interactions. storage rings" in which electron currents of the An illustrative example is the study of catalysts. order of an ampere will circulate, guided by mag- A catalyst is a material which promotes a chemi- netic fields. The smaller ring will use electrons of cal reaction without, apparently, taking part in energy up to 700 MeV. They will emit spectra the reaction. Platinum, for example, is useful in which cover the ultraviolet and visible regions. A this way. The processes of catalysis are quite im- 67

X-RAY STORAGE RING

EXPERIMENTAL BEAM UNES (28)

VUV STORAGE RING

—\ EXPERIMENTAL -SEAM UNES (16)

NATIONAL SYNCHROTRON LIGHT SOURCE ENTRY BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY

BROOKHAVEN AVENUE

Figure 2. Plan view of the NSLS. The large ring is the x-ray radiation source. The next smaller ring will provide ultraviolet radiation and the smallest ring is a synchrotron that will serve as injector for both storage rings.

Figure 3. Sketch of the building that will house the whole synchrotron radiation facility. 68 perfectly understood but find very extensive use nents. Here probably the x radiation from the in industry — an important case is the oil refining higher energy ring will be most effective. field. With synchrotron light, we can observe the A final example is in the area of etching of atomic behavior on the surface of a catalyst and microcircuits and microscopy. Here synchrotron learn how to improve its action. radiation has no competition. There is no other Another area to be explored and one which has source in the ultraviolet and x-ray ranges that brought considerable industrial support to the has the intensity, the stability, and the broad NSLS is the study of semiconductors and their be- spectrum of synchrotron radiation for use in havior as transistors and other electronic compo- photolithography.

NATIONAL SYNCHROTRON LIGHT SOURCE Staff Members A. van Steenbergen, Project Head B.C. Frazer, Assistant Head, Administration J.B. Godel, Assistant Head, Construction Coordination H.R. Manning, Administrative Manager

G.P. Bagley E. Bozoki J.B. Hastings H.C.H. Hsieh J.C. Schuchman K. Batchelor B.B. Culwick R. Hawrylak S.Krinsky A. Seifert J. Bittner J. Galayda R.Heese T. Oversulizen J.F. Sheehan L.N. Blumberg J. Goldstick M. Howells M. Ferlman R. Watson Chemistry Department

INTRODUCTION ment. Much of the work described is the result of collaborative efforts with departmental colleagues, The broad range of subjects and techniques de- with scientists from other BNL Departments, and scribed in the following pages is indicative of the with scientists from university and industry. central role played by chemistry in the field of science. Scientists studying enzyme mechanisms and the effect of specific compounds on cellular proc- RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH esses have as colleagues chemists investigating nu- Recent efforts by the Chemistry Department's clear processes occurring in the sun's core. radiopharmaceutical research group have been The special facilities and equipment at the Lab- concentrated on design, development, and evalua- oratory have allowed Chemistry Department tion of a new class of radiopharmaceuticals labeled members to develop and exploit atypical chemical with positron emitters. The positron emitters of in- subjects such as nuclear chemistry and radiophar- terest are isotopes of short half-life such as carbon- maceuticals as well as to permit unique contribu- 11, oxygen-15, nitrogen-13, and fluorine-18. These tions to more common chemical interests such as isotopes are produced at the BNL 60-inch cyclo- the structure and function of molecular systems tron and are subsequently incorporated into mate- and the dynamics of chemical reactions. rials of medical and biological interest which are One important aspect of the work not specifi- known to localize in specific organs or tissues. cally discussed in the following pages is the coop- Thus they can be used to trace physiological and erative nature of the research done in the Depart- metabolic functions of these organs or tissues.

GLUCOSE METABOLIC RATES MEASURED BY POSITRON EMISSION -TACTILE- TOMOGRAPHY USING Figure 1. Areas of higher glucose metabolic rate in vari- THE '8F-2-FLU0R0-2- AUDIO DEOXY-D-GLUCOSE ous levels of the brain are shown with increasing bright- METHOD FRONTAL CAUDATE ness. The effect of various stimuli on one side are shown, va|flL and also the relatively low metabolic rate in the forebrain RATES GIVEN IN of a non-treated schizophrenic patient as compared to a mg/IOOml/min E normal subject at the same level. Note the crossing of area of increased rate versus the side being stimulated, except with audio input where the increase is seen on the right side of the brain regardless of which ear is being stimulated.

OM 4

15.0 NORMALS I.B TACTILE STIMULATION LEFT VISUAL STIMULATION EITHER EAR, AUDIO STIMULATION

SCHIZOPHRENIC NORMAL

OM 4

69 70 In 1976 the synthesis of a new radiopharmaceu- and salts of [HW2(CO)io]~- Recently, a very un- tical 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (18F-FDG)1 usual six-coordinate "interstitial" hydrogen atom was accomplished at BNL. This compound mimics has been found in an octahedral cluster, [HCo6- glucose and its transport through the blood stream (CO)i5]-[(Ph3P)2N]+. Such species can serve as to brain cells. The first human experiment con- molecular models for the behavior of hydrogen in ducted with this material was the result of the ef- metal lattices. forts of a multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional Ionic conductors, such as sodium-/8-alumina program between the scientists at BNL, the NIH, and silver iodide, have been studied.3 These neu- and the University of Pennsylvania. At that time tron diffraction experiments are providing detailed the only available scanning instrumentation was information on the distribution of mobile ions as a located at the University of Pennsylvania. Since function of temperature. that time BNL has acquired its own scanner, a A combination of x-ray and neutron diffraction PETT III, Positron Emission Transaxial Tomo- techniques is being used to examine the electron graph which allows the scientist to map, in 3 di- density in hydrogen bonds. These investigations mensions, regions of the human brain and to mea- show that the electrostatic picture of the hydrogen sure regional "glucose" metabolic rates in normal bond as originally advanced by Pauling and others and diseased states. 18F-FDG holds great promise is basically correct, and that charge rearrange- as a unique tool for pursuing non-invasive and ment occurs upon hydrogen-bond formation, safe dynamic studies of physiological relevance in thereby strengthening the interaction. In a study the intact functioning human brain and the im- of a very short O . .. H . . . O hydrogen bond in proved management of patients suffering stroke, pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid (quinolinic acid) head injury, epilepsy, schizophrenia, etc. substantial charge density was detected in both A synthetic route to produce nC-2-deoxy-D- halves of the hydrogen bond. glucose has also been developed. The short half Computers and computer graphics are also an life of UC, 20 minutes, will extend the utility integral part of the Structural Chemistry program. of the positron emission tomography method to Interactive computer graphics are used as a visual permit serial studies on the same patient under a aid in the analysis of structural results. variety of conditions and stimuli, thus furthering our knowledge of the human brain.

STRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY Neutron diffraction has a unique role as an experimental technique in structural chemistry. Us- ing this technique, it is possible to determine the positions of hydrogen and other light atoms to great accuracy, and to probe for subtle details in disordered or partially-ordered structures. At BNL, neutron diffraction is being used alone or in combination with x-ray diffraction to study a variety of compounds where a knowledge of the exact location of the hydrogen atoms is crucial to understanding the nature of the chemical bonding and the relationship between structure and chemical properties. Such compounds include transition metal hydride complexes, hydrogen-metal alloy systems, amino acids, carbohydrates, and other biochemically important molecules. The nature of the chemical bonding in certain metal-hydride complexes can be understood only Figure 2. Deformation electron density map for quino- when the structure of the metal-hydrogen bonds is linic acid, computed with x-ray and neutron diffraction accurately known. This is being determined in data measured at a temperature of 35 K. Negative con- 2 3 compounds such as HFeCo3(CO)9(P(OME)3)3 tours are dashed; the contour interval is 0.05 e • A~ . 71

CHEMICAL DATA BASES system would not be expected to produce a large response since the system is already spontaneously The great wealth of chemical data generated magnetized in this direction; or, in other words, over the past decades throughout the world is of the parallel susceptibility would not be expected value only to the extent it is available for use. to diverge. It has been shown, however, that if we Computerized data bases are helping to make consider spontaneous fluctuations in the degree of such information available to an extent not pos- correlation of the spins, a strong coupling exists sible previously. BNL has been active in this area between transverse and parallel modes which, in for several years. fact, causes the parallel susceptibility to diverge. The Protein Data Bank, an archival file of data In real systems, domain effects and crystalline an- for macromolecular structures is maintained at isotropies are expected to make it impossible to BNL under the sponsorship of the National Sci- observe the predicted longitudinal divergence and, ence Foundation. The Bank's holdings include in fact, it has not been seen in normal susceptibil- more than 100 sets of atomic coordinates, plus ex- ity measurements. tensive bibliographic information and selected sets The strong coupling of transverse and longitu- of measured X-ray diffraction intensities, all of dinal modes responsible for the divergence of the which are proving extremely useful to the commu- longitudinal susceptibilty in the isotropic,/erro»!fl^- nity of investigators concerned with protein net afso leads to an interesting prediction for the structure. isotropic antiferromagnet. The successful observation In addition, BNL in collaboration with the Na- of this effect by means of neutron scattering, which tional Institutes of Health and the Environmental we report here, constitutes the first experimental Protection Agency, has been heavily involved in evidence for this strong coupling. the NIH-EPA Chemical Information System, Spontaneous spin fluctuations in an antiferro- which provides access to a wide variety of chemi- magnetic crystal below its ordering temperature cal data to scientists throughout the world. Data give rise to local regions in which there is a net ranging from mass spectra to toxicological effects ferromagnetic moment. The longitudinal compo- to spill clean-up methods are maintained by BNL nents of these local excitations decay by a diffusion on a commercial computer facility for interactive process, giving rise to inelastic scattering of neu- use by over 300 scientists in 150 institutions. trons which depends on the change in momentum of the neutron in the scattering process. Based on the idea of strong coupling of the transverse and SPIN DIFFUSION IN AN ORDERED longitudinal fluctuations, it is predicted theoreti- HEISENBERG ANTIFERROMAGNET cally that the energy width of this inelastic peak should vary as the 1.5 power of the neutron mo- In an ideal Heisenberg ferromagnet, the Hamil- mentum change. We have succeeded in carrying tonian of the system contains only isotropic ex- out this measurement of the ideal Heisenberg change terms, but, in the ground state, these ex- antiferromagnet, RbMnF3, and have obtained the change forces align the spins parallel to one an- exponent 1.45 ±0.12 in very good agreement with other in a common direction which is not deter- the prediction.4 mined by the Hamiltonian. The symmetry of the In the conventional language of diffusion theory, state is thus lower than that of the Hamiltonian. this result is equivalent to a breakdown of the The isotropic ferromagnet is a prototype of a class hydrodynamic approximation and the appear- of systems with so called "broken symmetry" that ance of a divergent diffusion coefficient. have been extensively studied theoretically in recent years. If, in such a system, an infinitesimal magnetic GASEOUS ION CHEMISTRY field is applied at right angles to the aligned spins, they will rotate into the field direction, since all di- An approach to the generation of power by nu- rections are otherwise equivalent. The transverse clear fusion that is currently receiving much atten- susceptibility, which is given by the finite moment tion involves the use of converging beams of heavy induced in this direction divided by the infinitesi- ions, travelling at very high speeds, to implode fuel mal applied field, is thus infinite. On the other pellets of deuterium or tritium. In this connection, hand, application of a field parallel to the spin it is important to have values of the rates at which 72

the ions collide with neutral atoms or other ions MOLECULAR BEAMS during the acceleration process. Electron capture by multicharged positive ions in collisions with The most fundamental way to study chemical neutral atoms or molecules can be investigated on reactions is to cause molecular beams of the reac- time scales of the order of 10~15 seconds; these tive chemicals to collide in a vacuum, and to ob- processes are of scientific interest because they pro- serve the distribution of states within the reaction vide an experimental approach to the study of products as they fly away from the collision center. processes in which the speed of atomic nuclei is These detailed data are then used to test theoret- comparable to that of the orbital electrons in the ical models of the collision process. Once the models system. have received experimental verification in this way, The post-acceleration ion detection system de- they can be used for predictions of other chemical signed for the study of energetic ion impact proc- reactions in such diverse applications as combus- esses and the Brookhaven Electromagnetic Isotope tion, air pollution control, chemical laser develop- Separator were used to investigate electron capture ment, and atmospheric chemistry. and ionization reactions of xenon and argon ions Up to the present time, the crossed molecular with the respective neutral inert gases. Cross sec- beam method has been limited in its application tions of the order of 10~14 cm2 were observed for to simple reactions with large cross sections (i.e., electron capture processes with 1.60 MeV Xe+4 very fast reactions). The extension to other, more ions in collision with neutral xenon atoms. Cross chemically interesting, reactions has been restricted sections roughly two orders of magnitude smaller by the insensitivity of the detectors used to observe (~10-16 cm2) were found for the ionization of the scattered products. In the Brookhaven Chem- Xe+X and Xe+2 to give Xe+2 and Xe+3 ions, re- istry Department, a new technique has been de- spectively. The electron capture processes were veloped which involves the use of radioactive spe- found to be independent of velocity over the en- cies with short half-lives (lO"1 to 10~5 seconds).6 ergy range investigated. A theoretical model based The radioactivity allows detection by counting in- on the assumption of a purely classical electrostatic dividual nuclear disintegrations, while the short interaction of the charge on the ion with an orbital half-life acts like a pump, to remove unwanted electron on the target atom provides an estimate background species from the scattering chamber. of electron capture cross sections in agreement This technique has been used in prototype ex- with experiment to an accuracy of the order of 25%. periments in which a long-lived progenitor is the The model has the virtue of simplicity, requires no source of the short-lived activity. Most of the work scaling parameters, and was found to apply to has utilized the sequence data available in the literature on argon ion cap- 225Ac( 10.0 days) -^217At(0.032 seconds). ture processes as well as to the Brookhaven results on xenon.5 Astatine is a halogen species, appearing below I in the periodic table. Beams of At, HAt, and CHsAt have been produced in this way, and the HAt Figure 3. 400 keV post-acceleration terminal used with the BNL Electromagnetic Isotope Separator to study beams were used to study the reactions electron capture and ionization processes in collisions of Cl + HAt->ClH+At multicharged ions. and Br+HAt^BrH+At. Soi_ie of the results are given in Table I and Fig. 4. The fact that about half of the At atoms are scattered backward in the reaction is very surprising, indicating that collisions are more complex than the direct pick-off of the hydrogen atom by the halogen. The dependence of cross section on energy in the reaction of Br with HAt (Fig. 4) indicates that there is a small energy barrier ( < 3 kcal/ mole) for this process. The total cross sections for the Br reaction are about 1 A2, near the sensitivity limits for conven- 73 tional molecular beam experiments. Full-scale ex- grams are under development and continual re- periments involving on-line generation of radio- finement and are available in the Chemistry De- active species at a nuclear accelerator could giv? partment and elsewhere at the Laboratory. Note- sensitivities higher by —10s. In addition, radio- worthy among these is a dedicated minicomputer active forms of many of the elements in the peri- system for carrying out large scale calculations of odic table (including B, C, N, and O) could be reaction dynamics which represents the Labora- generated. tory's first venture into personalized general-pur- These reactions and other reactions of HAt pose computing. have been used to fix the bond energy of HAt at Much of the current research effort devolves 58+6 kcal/mole - the first thermochemical data upon generation of potential energy surfaces with- for a compound of this element. This bond energy in the theoretical frameworks mentioned. Dynam- is about 12 kcal/mole less than that of HI (the ical reactivity studies then employ these surfaces nearest analog), indicating that relativistic con- in conjuction with equations of motion of varying traction of the 6s and 6p orbitals of At is not im- sophistication. Examples of such studies range portant in determining the HAt bond strength. from the highly empirical least motion analysis for relative reaction rates in families of large molecules to the more exact and detailed classical and THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY semi-classical trajectory studies for individual atom Various effects of structure upon reactivity in and charge transfer processes in smaller systems. real and model chemical systems are currently Static properties such as structural geometry but including equilibrium and transport distributions under theoretical investigation at BNL. The re- also make use of such surfaces; however these are search is directed both toward elucidation of spe- usually of more local (geometrically restricted) cific experimental observables and toward develop- and at the same time exact nature. ment of quantitative generalizations encompass- Several recent advances in methodology have ing reactivity details for families of related mole- made it possible to treat theoretically chemical cules. A broad spectrum of analytical and compu- problems considerably more complicated than tational techniques are employed within the frame- hitherto possible. Among these advances are: the works of ab initio and semi-empirical quantum incorporation of long-range solvation effects into mechanics, classical mechanics, linear free energy quantum mechanical models of discrete molecular theory, and reactivity statistics. Many of the stud- clusters, thus allowing an examination of the degree of chemical, as well as physical, continuity ies undertaken ultimately involve detailed and 7 highly repetitive computations and/or graphical between gas and liquid phases; the use of so-called displays, including motion pictures, means for pseudopotentials to simulate the effects of inner- shell (non-valence) atomic electrons in atoms of which in terms of equipment, software, and pro- high atomic number, making it possible to apply Table I accurate ab initio techniques to the study of properties of molecules containing these atoms,8 and the Some experimentally measured data for chemical extension of theoretical and computational tech- reactions using the new radioactive crossed beam method. Collision energy in the center-of-mass system is 6.5 kcal/mole 2.0 I l i Cl + HAt^ § - 5 j - HCl+At HBr+At T i 2 5 - Total reaction cross section, A 26±4 1.5±0.3 ! n i SECTI C Mean product translational on energy (kcal/mole) 7.2±0.6 1.0+0.2 i FWHM of product transla- nn i i i tional energy distribution 3 6 (kcal/mole) ~7 ~1 COLLISION ENERGY Ikcal/mole) Forward:backward ratio of reactively scattered At Figure 4. Cross section of the reaction Br + HAt—>HBr+ (center-of-mass system) 1.0 1.0 At as a function of collision energy, measured using the new radioactive crossed beam method. 74

niques to treat the dynamics of more complicated processes.9 Examples of the kinds of problems being worked on at BNL are the following: (1) Detailed quantum mechanical models have been constructed for treating the equilibrium and transport properties of excess protons and electrons in polar media. A variety of predictions based on these models have been verified by magnetic resonance, neutron diffraction, and infrared spectroscopy, and it has been 4' 3' 34 demonstrated that solvent shell reorganization 5V7 KV t>ipy=2.2'-bipyrldir>e plays a key role in the activation step for proton 6' ' 16 and electron transfer in aqueous solution. (2) Of a related nature are studies of relative bulk and 3 phen=l,IO-phenanthro!ine non-nearest neighbor individual polar molecule solvent effects on the transmission of substituent effects in large molecule reactivities. (3) Examina- tion of the interaction between small organic mole- Figure 5. Octahedral arrangement of the three 2,2'- cules and transition metal clusters which has bipyridine or 1,0-phenanthroline groups around a central yielded information about the nature of ch~mi- metal (iron, ruthenium, or osmium) ion. At the bottom of the figure the parent (unsubstituted) 2,2'-bipyridine and sorptive bonding, a phenomenon of fundamental 1,10-phenanthroline ligands are shown. The oxidation- importance in understanding heterogeneous chem- reduction potentials of the complexes and their excited ical catalysis. (4) By a combination of potential states may be varied by changing the ring substituents, energy and dynamical calculations for the proto- i.e. by replacing — H with — CH3, — Cl, etc., or by chang- type C + H2 and O + H2 reactive systems, detailed ing the metal center. predictions have been made regarding the effects of kinetic energy and atomic spin state on the competition between insertion and direct abstrac- *Ru(bpy)|* tion mechanisms. These predictions have simulated new experimental hot-atom studies in this Department, with results thus far consistent with eVM +e the theory. (5) Dynamical calculations have been carried out for the various electron, proton, and Ro Cbpy)| atom transfer processes that are possible in the H2 + H2"1" system and its isotopic variants. In the above studies, computer-generated movies have played a crucial role in revealing important features of the reaction dynamics.

Figure 6. Free energy diagram illustrating the deactivation of the metal-to-ligand charge-transfer excited state of INORGANIC SOLUTION KINETICS 2+ AND PHOTOCHEMISTRY Ru(bpy)3 to the ground state via Ru(bpy)3+ or Ru(bpy)33+. Electron-transfer (oxidation-reduction) reactions are the most useful type of photochemical reaction for solar energy conversion and storage. Certain The polypyridine complexes of iron(II), ruthe- metal complexes absorb light strongly in the visible niurn(II), and osmium(II) (ML32+) strongly ab- region and readily exchange electrons with suit- sorb visible light (Amax=450 to 520 nm) and able substrates. Metal complexes, then, may be undergo oxidation [Eq. (1)] or reduction [Eq. (2)] useful mediators for the collection and storage with potentials in the range +0.7 to +1.3 V for of solar energy, and the photochemistry of Eq. (1) and -0.9 to -1.3 V for Eq. (2), depend- metal complexes is being investigated in this ing on the metal and the ring substituents (see 10 Laboratory. Fig. 5). 75

2 (1) filled with an aqueous solution of RuL3 +. When 2 this compartment is illuminated, excitation occurs ML3 ++e-=ML3+. (2) 2+ and *RuL3 formed near the electrode surface 2 2 injects an electron into the conduction band of the When RuL3 + and OsL3 + absorb light of wave- 2 lengths shorter than —600 nm, the metal-to-ligand semiconductor. The electrons released by *RuL3 2 charge-transfer excited states (*RuL3 + and flow from the semiconductor electrode through the 2+ *OsL3 ) are formed. These are long-lived (life- external circuit to the platinum electrode where times are 0.02 to 5.0 fisec in water at 25°C) and they effect the reduction of water (or hydrogen they decay, in part, by the emission of red light. ion) to hydrogen. The excited states are both stronger reductants The most attractive source of the reducing and stronger oxidants than the ground state mole- equivalents in Eq. (3) is water itself [Eq. (9)]. In cules to the extent of 2 eV, corresponding to the this case the net reaction excitation free energy (see Fig. 6). H O='/2O +2H++2e- The strongly reducing properties of the excited 2 2 (9) states themselves (E°=-0.8 to -1 V) and of is the photodecomposition of water, their reduction products ML3+ suggests their potential utility in the photoreduction of water to H2 (10) [Eq. (3)] or the production of other fuels, The same polypyridine complexes are also useful as mediators in water oxidation; e.g., oxidation of 3 3+ light + 2 Red + H2O -* V2 H2 + OH- + 2 Ox . (3) water by Ru(bpy)3 +, Fe(bpy)3 , etc. to oxygen occurs in alkaline aqueous solution. Thus in a suit- The photoreduction of water mediated by 2+ able system, for example a modification of the Ru(bpy)3 has recently been brought about by above photoelectrochemical cell, the net photo- two different strategies. In the first, a sequence of decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen homogeneous electron transfer reactions was used might be brought about using visible light and to carry out the net reaction of Eq. (3), with 2+/3 2+ ML3 + as a mediator. Red=Euaq or ascorbic acid. This sequence is given in Eqs. (4) to (8). Excitation: LASER-INDUCED CHEMICAL REACTIONS Ru(bpy) 2+-^*Ru(bpy) 2+ • (4) 3 3 A recently discovered phenomenon currently Excited state reduction: receiving a great deal of theoretical and experi- 2 mental attention is that of infrared multiphoton *Ru(bpy)3 + + Red->Ru(bpy)3++Ox . (5) absorption leading to unimolecular reaction. Un- Generation of metal hydride: der conditions such that energy transfer by collision is negligible, as many as 40 infrared photons 2 Ru(bpy)3++Co(II)L^Ru(bpy)3 ++Co(I)L must be pumped into a single molecule by laser irradiation before the energy threshold for reac- CO(I)L + H+-H>CO(III)L(H-) . (6) tion is reached. The currently accepted model for Production of hydrogen: the absorption process postulates the existence of a dense "quasi-continuum" of vibrational-rotational Co(III)L(H-)+H+^Co(III)L+Hz . (7) levels, strongly coupled to each other, to which the molecules are excited by the ir radiation. This Regeneration: model predicts that the energy fluence and not the Co(III)L+Red^Co(H)L-|-Ox . (8) intensity of the laser pulse determines the reaction yield, and that the rate of pumping in the quas- In another approach, the homogeneous electron continuum should be independent of the initial donors and acceptors are replaced, in part, by the internal energy (or temperature) of the reactant. electrodes of an electrochemical cell. The cell con- These hypotheses have been tested by studying sists of an n-type TiO2 semiconductor electrode the CO2 laser-induced reactions of ethyl vinyl connected to a platinum electrode dipping into ether (EVE), which undergoes two competing 1 M H2SO4. The semiconductor compartment is reactions: 76

CH3CH2CH2CHO «-2- CH3CH2-O-CH=CH2 AMPLIFIER/ MULTICHANNEL DISCRIMINATOR - SCALER - TELETYPE -^i» CH3CHO+CH2CH2 •

The critical energy for reaction (1) is about 21 SOLAR BLIND kcal/mole lower than that for the competing re- PHOTOMULTIPLIER

action channel. The effect of laser fluence and RESONANCE/MICROWAVE pulse duration on the yields and branching ratio LAMP / CAVITY (k2/ki) has been determined by analysis of the products.11 With a 0.2 fisec pulse, the higher energy channel is competitive with the lower energy channel even at the energy threshold of ~0.5 TO CAPACITANCE z MANOMETER J/cm . With the same fluence spread over a 2 /isec TO GAS HANDLING pulse, the lower energy channel is the exclusive MANIFOLD pathway. These results indicate that the rate of absorption depends on peak laser power and not Figure 7. Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus on the total energy absorbed by the reactant mole- for measuring the rate of the reaction 03+ + O —» 2 O2. cules, and that during the short laser pulse energy randomization many not be attained. Further information has been obtained by carrying out experiments in which EVE is irradiated at an ambi- k'»4.5xlO"l2<;m3moleciile"lse<:"1 I ent temperature of 510 K, so that the initial vibrational energy content of reactants has been increased. The branching ratio is lower by a factor two (by comparison with 293 K measurements), indicating again that the rate of intramolecular vibrational energy transfer is comparable to the rate of vibrational pumping by the laser. CO2 LASER PULSE ' I In various schemes designed to increase rates of 2 4 6 8 10 bimolecular reactions by adding vibrational en- t (msec) ergy to one of the reactants (for example, with a Figure 8. First order plots for the measured and calcu- laser) there is a potential competition between lated O(3P) decays. The experimental O(3P) decay curve, chemical reaction of the excited molecule and its represented by the cross-hatched region, is an average of deactivation by collision. This competition has 256 individual decay curves. Samples were changed after been investigated for the following reactions in- every 32 laser pulses. Sample pressures were 03=0.50 Torr and Ar= 19.39 Torr. The CO2 laser is triggered at volving ozone and oxygen atoms: t=5.4 msec and produces an initial excited ozone population [Oatjo —0.05 Torr. An O3+ vibrational deactiva- 4 1 O3+ (11) tion rate (A) of 2.5 X IC sec" was used to calculate the oxygen atom decay curve displacements. (12) (13) pendence on the concentration of O atoms gave a O3+O -i. O2+O2 (14) bimolecular rate constant (k + k*) larger by a factor 150 than the rate constant for deactiva- (The dagger indicates vibrational excitation and tion by O2 molecules. T M is any species other than O3 .) First, the rate of To determine the extent to which deactivation T disappearance of O3 was measured by observing of 03+ proceeds by the reactive pathway (12), it the intensity of ir emission from the vibrationally was necessary to observe the time dependence of excited molecules as a function of time, after ex- the O atom concentration. This was done using citation by a 0.1-fisec laser pulse. A flow system atomic resonance fluorescencea t 130 nm. The O was used, in which O atoms were produced from atoms were produced in situ by a pulse of red light O2 by a microwave discharge. This led to a mea- from a dye laser; the decrease in their concentra- surement of the total rate of O3+ deactivation due tion due to reaction (14) was determined for a to both reactions (12) and (13). The observed de- period of a few milliseconds, then the ir laser was 77

fired to produce O3*, while the O atoms concen- these reactions are among the largest known and tration was continuously monitored. Thus, three limit the ion concentrations to 1011 per cm3 or types of light, ranging in energy from the vacuum less, which-will lead to an infrared absorption of at ultraviolet to the infrared, were used in this exper- most 0.01% of the incident light. Such small sig- iment (Fig. 7). The results (Fig. 8) indicate that at nals can be measured with a spectral resolution of most about 30% of the excited molecules react; about 20 cm-1 by averaging signals over a large the remainder lose vibrational energy in non- number of pulses. reactive collisions. This points to an inherent diffi- Infrared spectra were observed for three proton- + culty in the acceleration of chemical reactions by water complexes, H3O(H2O)3+, H3O(H2O)4 , vibrational excitation of a reactant molecule, if the and HsO(H2O)5+.13 A comparison with theoreti- other reactant is an atom.12 cal calculations shows that lengthening the OH bonds by only 0.04 A, as a result of hydrogen bond formation, leads to large shifts of 800 cm"1 in the STUDIES OF TRANSIENT IONS infrared band positions. Somewhat smaller changes AND FREE RADICALS are seen in the more weakly hydrogen-bonded + ammonia complexes, NH4(NH3)2 , NH4(NH3)3+, The Chemistry Department has two-electron and NH4(NH3)4+. In the first two, some protons of accelerators, a 2-MV Van de Graaffand a 2-MeV the NH4 are not hydrogen bonded, and it is inter- Febetron, both of which deliver pulses of radiation esting to note that the frequencies associated with to samples in times sufficiently short that unstable these bonds are at about 3380 cm-1, very similar species produced can be observed. Such species to the N-H stretch frequencies of ammonia itself. may be produced in other ways (in chemical reactions or by photolysis, as examples) but often pulse radiolysis offers the simplest way to study PROPERTIES OF EXCESS ELECTRONS them. IN HYDROCARBON FLUIDS As examples, spectra and reactions have been studied for the unstable valence state Tl(II) in Basic to the understanding of radiation effects aqueous solution, for the electron adduct of CeFe in fluids is a knowledge of the behavior of elec- in hydrocarbons, and for HOa and O%- in aque- trons generated by ionization. In polar liquids, a ous solution. shell of oriented molecules forms around the electron, which is said to be "solvated"; its physical Infrared Spectra of Gaseous Ions properties resemble those of a molecular ion. In The parent ions of most compounds have un- monatomic liquids such as liquid argon and in paired electrons and react rapidly with other mole- some other liquids such as methane, the electron cules to form more stable ions. Thus, H2O+ will is said to be "quasi-free," it moves through the liq- react with water to form H3O+, which is isoelec- uid as though it were in the conduction band of a tronic with ammonia, and N2+ will react with semiconductor. The important measurable physi- many compounds to produce HN2+ which is iso- cal properties of the electron are its mobility (as electronic with HCN. At atmospheric pressure, determined in electron drift experiments); its en- and at ordinary temperatures, these ions will react ergy Vo in the mobile state, relative to the energy further to form clusters, even with argon. Very of an electron in a vacuum or a dilute gas; and stable clusters are produced if hydrogen bonding (for a solvated electron) its optical absorption. occurs. Examples are H3O(H2O)n+ where n Recent measurements of electron properties in ranges up to eight, and NH,j(NH3)m+ where m fluids as a function of density, from dilute gases to may be as large as five. The infrared spectra of the normal liquid density, have provided a new these ions give much information about the nature perspective for understanding electron behavior of the hydrogen bonds to complement kinetic and in liquids.14 It is now clear that the single-scatterer thermodynamic information already available approximation applies to electrons only for gases from mass spectrometric studies. up to pressures of several atmospheres. At higher The concentration of ions which can be pro- densities (pressures) the electron mobility is found duced and studied on microsecond time scales by to increase and reach a maximum in methane, pulse radiolysis techniques is severely limited by neopentane, and Si(CH3)4, at a density around recombination reactions. The rate constants for two-thirds of the liquid density, the mobility then decreases as the liquid density is approached. This radical in these biological systems are not yet well discovery shows that mobility maxima are quite understood and it is hoped that, through the study common and not limited to the liquid rare gases. of the chemistry and kinetics of individual reac- The explanation for these maxima has now been tions in isolation, information will be obtained shown to be related to a minimum in the energy which will shed some light on the deleterious ef- level (Vo) of the electron in the fluid. At low den- fects the superoxide radical has in the living cell. sities Vo continuously decreases with increasing The availability of aqueous superoxide radical density because the polarization energy increases solutions, free of interfering chemicals, is one of the with density. However, as the fluid becomes more most essential requirements for the study of the and more dense the electron is subjected to i ncreas- chemistry of this species. As a result of ultra-purifi- ingly stronger repulsive interactions and Vo in- cation of chemicals and water, it is now possible to creases. At an intermediate density the electron prepare 60 fiM solutions of O2~ by gamma radiol- energy level (Vo) is found to be a minimum and it ysis at pH 11.0. These solutions can be frozen and is at this same density where the electron mobility stored for two months. The loss of O2~ upon thaw- is a maximum. This correspondence suggests that ing is approximately 20-30%. Once frozen, the in dense fluids electrons are scattered as a result of loss at — 70°C is only about 1% per day. Thus, density fluctuations which produce changes in the O2~ can be easily transported to laboratories potential energy of the electron. These changes in which do not yet have facilities for its controlled potential are least where Vo is a minimum and production. consequently the mobility is a maximum. A new O2~ generating technique has been de- The chemical properties of the electron in hydro- veloped which is based upon photodecomposition carbon liquids have also heen investigated. The of water by a microwave-powered argon plasma 15 electron reacts rapidly with a wide variety of sub- lamp. The concentration of O2~ in these solu- stances. But the reverse process, thermal electron tions is reproducible within 5% up to 200 pM. In detachment, also occurs readily for a number of our laboratory one such lamp has become an inte- substances and the equilibrium, gral part of a stopped-flow spectrophotometer and another is used with an electron spin resonance spectrometer for continuous flow studies. has now been studied, where X is CO2, several In studies of various reaction of O2~, it has been aromatic hydrocarbons, difluorobenzene, or meth- shown that: anol aggregates. Aggregates are known to exist in a) The Haber-Weiss reaction (in which super- solutions of methanol and the results in this case oxide radicals react with hydrogen peroxide to give insight into the mechanism of electron solva- yield the more powerful oxidizing agent hydroxyl radical) is biologically unimportant in the absence tion. The electron does not react with methanol 16 itself; the reaction with methanol pentamers is re- of metal catalysts. versible but the electron reacts irreversibly with b) The essential amino acids are relatively unre- larger aggregates. Thus, the electron has a dy- active toward O2~ and its conjugate acid, the per- hydroxyl radical HO2. The upper limits for the namic nature and can attach and detach many -1 1 times in the process of solvation. rates of reaction vary from 0.1 to 600 M sec" . c) Metal cations like Mn++ and Cu++ form transient complexes with O2~. The results suggest STUDIES OF SUPEROXIDE RADICALS a new Cu++ catalyzed dismutation mechanism for O2-, Since the discovery of superoxide dismutase (the enzyme which destroys C>2~) there has been a surge of research interest in the superoxide radical. In biological systems this radical (C>2~) and its "active oxygen" derivatives (OH, JO2, H2O2, H2O3, O3, etc.) have been implicated in such phe- THE BROOKHAVEN SOLAR nomena as hydroxylation of metabolic intermedi- NEUTRINO PROGRAM ates, inflammation, bacterial activity of leukocytes, aging, radiation therapy, and carcinogenesis. The The sun produces energy by a series of thermo- mechanisms of the involvement of the superoxide nuclear reactions starting with the fusion of two 79

hydrogen atoms to produce deuterium nuclei as tant in the proton-proton chain. The present intermediate products and leading ultimately to (1978) revised theory predicts that the neutrino helium atoms. Other intermediate products in the capture rate in 37C1 should be 4.7 SNU, where thermonuclear cycle are nuclei of 3He, 7Be, SB, SNU stands for a solar neutrino unit (SNU = 15O, and 13N. These reactions take place at the 10~36 captures per second per target atom). Mea- center of the sun where the temperature is highest surements with the Brookhaven detector extend- (some 15 million degrees). ing over the last seven years give an average neu- The overall rate of the thermonuclear cycle, trino capture rate of 2.2±0.4 SNU, a factor 2.1 and that of the primary proton-proton reactions, below the theoretical expectation are related directly and simply to the observed en- Various explanations have been advanced to ac- ergy flux from the sun (the solar constant). The count for the low solar neutrino flux. Most are proportions of the various intermediate reactions based upon the fact that the 37C1 detector is par- in the thermonuclear cycle depend on the detailed ticularly sensitive to the high energy neutrinos model assumed for the sun and its composition. from 8B decay, and the production of 8B in the The primary proton-proton reaction produces sun is a very sensitive function of the temperature. neutrinos and so do some of the decay processes of Mechanisms such as continuous mixinu. high in- the intermediate products. Each source of neutri- ternal rotation, internal magnetic fields, and low nos has a characteristic energy spectrum. Thus heavy element compositions, all of which lead to those from the primary reaction have a maximum lower internal temperatures, were considered. Al- energy of 0.42 MeV while those from the decay of 8 though models based upon these variations of our B have the highest energy (14 MeV). accepted ideas of solar structure and composition In the years 1964-1967 Brookhaven built a large could explain the low flux of high energy neutri- scale neutrino detector to test these theoretical nos, they have not been generally accepted. An- predictions. Neutrinos are observed by a radio- other explanation that has been advanced is that chemical method that depends upon their capture 37 37 the neutrino has properties that have not been in C1 to produce the radioactive rare gas Ar revealed by the laboratory experiments. The pos- (half-life 35 days), sibility now being considered is that during the 500 seconds needed for a neutrino to pass from the 37 Cl + p 37Ar+e- (threshold sun to the earth the neutrino oscillates between decay various states, v *± v^ «=s v ^± etc., that we now energy 0.816 MeV). e T identify as separate distinct neutrino types ve, ?„, v , etc. Oscillations of this sort, which violate the Since neutrino capture cross-sections are extremely r currently accepted principle oflepton conserva- small (10~45 to 10~42 cm2), it was necessary to use tion, are not regarded as very likely. However, a very large mass of 37C1 to observe the solar flux. this neutrino property probably cannot be tested The chlorine-containing compound perchloro- ethylene, C2GI4, was chosen. Furthermore it was by earth-bound experiments. 37 necessary to place the detector in a deep mine to The results of the C1 experiment have stimu- avoid background effects from cosmic rays. The lated an interest in developing new experiments detector consists of 380,000 liters of perchloro- capable of observing the solar neutrino spectrum ethylene and it is located nearly a mile under- that can test these new ideas on solar structure ground in the Homestake Gold Mine in Lead, and neutrino properties. A conference was held at South Dakota. The few atoms of the radioactive Brookhaven in January 1978 in which the theo- 37Ar are removed from the liquid by a helium ries of solar structure and their relationship to var- purge, and placed in a small proportional counter ious new experiments was actively discussed. It to observe the 37Ar radioactivity. was generally agreed that new experiments were The initial observations in 1968 revealed that needed, and that the solar neutrino detectors of the flux of neutrinos from the sun was lower than greatest immediate interest were the ones capable of measuring the low energy neutrinos from the was expected from theoretical models of the sun. 17 Since then astrophysicists have re-examined many primary proton-proton reaction. aspects of the theory of solar structure, and nu- A program is underway at Brookhaven devoted clear physicists have remeasured many of the nu- to developing two new radiochemical solar neu- clear reaction cross-sections believed to be impor- trino detectors. These are based on the reaction18 80

e+™Ga-»71Ge+e- The Ga experiment would involve some 50 tons (threshold energy 0.235 MeV) of Ga in the form of a concentrated chloride solu- 71 and tion from which the few atoms of Ge (in the form of GeCU) will be swept out from the solution by a (threshold energy 0.861 MeV), helium purge in a manner exactly analogous to that used successfully for the removal of 37Ar from that produce radioactive 7IGe (11.8 d half life) the C2CI4 in the chlorine experiment. 7 and Be (53 d half life). The GeCU separated is reduced to GeH4 and The first reaction meets the requirement of be- introduced into special low level counters, again ing sensitive to the low energy neutrinos from the similar to those used successfully in 37Ar counting primary proton-proton reaction in the sun. The in the chlorine experiments. Tests on a laboratory calculated flux of neutrinos from this reaction is scale with some 30 kgGa showed that the separa- the least dependent on the detailed assumptions re- tion and counting of 71Ge is ei.tirely favorable garding the solar model and the composition of from both gallium metal and gallium chloride the sun. Measurement of the solar neutrino flux targets. with the Ga detector will thus indicate clearly The development of the gallium solar neutrino which of the various theories advanced to explain detector is a joint effort with the Max-Planck In- the chlorine results is valid. Thus, if a low flux is stitute for Nuclear Physics at Heidelberg, the also observed in Ga experiments the indication Weizmann Institute, the University of Pennsyl- would be that the neutrino might have unexpected vania, and the Institute for Advanced Study. properties. On the other hand a measured neutrino The second reaction involves Li which, al- flux in keeping with the expected, taken together though possessing a neutrino threshold even some- with the chlorine results, would show that the pri- what higher than chlorine, is nevertheless a useful mary p-p reaction is indeed proceeding according target. This reaction is equally sensitive to neutri- to theory but that the details of the standard model nos of high energy (8B) and to those of intermedi- must be incorrect. ate energy from the decay of 7Be. It also is sensi-

IN 1000 GAL. TANKS

He CIRCULATOR

TO COUNTER FILLING STATION REAGENTS . GeH,'l

GaCI3 CIRCULATING PUMP WITH He EDUCTOR (TYPICAL)

PURIFIERS

REDUCER

GeCU ABSORBER SWEEP GAS MANIFOLD He+GeCL+HCI

Figure 9. Proposed configuration of the solar neutrino tector this apparatus will be situated deep underground experiment using 50 tons of gallium. Like the present to eliminate interference from cosmic ray-produced solar neutrino experiment using a massive chlorine de- radioactive products. 81 live to the 1.44 MeV neutrinos from the minor proton-proton branch,

This minor reaction is believed to be related in a fixed way to the major p-p branch and therefore its observation is equivalent to the observation of the latter reaction. The three experiments (Cl, Ga, and Li) taken together provide a neutrino spectrum of the flux from the sun and should make it possible to determine details of solar models hitherto beyond the reach of experimental test. The Li detector would consist of a tank of aqueous lithium chloride solution and the 7Be would be removed by a solvent extraction process. A pilot ex- 10 20 30 10 periment that uses 0.16 tons of lithium has been TARGET-PHODUCT MASS DIFFERENCE operating for two years. A detector containing 15 tons of lithium would register between 1 and 3 Figure 10. Dependence of /Ji (a) and V (b) on target- neutrino captures per day. product mass difference for selected products of the interactions of 25-GeV 12C and 28-GeV 'H with Cu. Points In the future we hope to observe the sun's neu- arc filled for I2C and open for 1H. The curves in (a) are trino radiation with three detectors, each with a intended to guide the eye. The curve in (b) is calculated different spectral response, and thus obtain a from a semiempirical model for proton-induced spalla- clearer understanding of the solar energy production reactions. tion process. target fragmentation cross sections should become NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY energy independent and should depend on bombarding particle only via a total cross section Investigation of the reactions between energetic term. As more stringent tests of this hypothesis, ex- projectiles and complex nuclei is a continuing pro- periments have been initiated in which mean gram in the Chemistry Department. The basic range measurements on recoiling fragments are goal of this work is an understanding of the mech- used to infer momentum transfer from an energetic anisms which are responsible for the complex mix- projectile to a target. Such experiments are ana- ture of products which are observed. To this end a lyzed in terms of a two-step model - a first or abra- wide variety of techniques are employed to mea- sion step giving rise to an excited species moving sure cross sections and energy and angular distri- forward with a velocity vj (/?n in units of c) and a butions. Use is made of beams from the AGS (28- second or ablation step which adds an isotropic GEV protons, =0.5-12 GeV pions) and the Los component V to vj. Results for 25-GeV 12C from Alamos LAMPF (800-MeV protons, <500-MeV the LBL Bevalac incident on Cu (filled points) are pions), as well as from the Lawrence Berkeley compared in Fig. 10a with those for 28-GeV pro- Laboratory (LBL) (heavy ions with energies up to tons (open points) obtained at the AGS. Values of ^;2 GeV/nucleon). A second component of the V are seen to be nearly projectile independent in nuclear chemistry program is nuclear spectroscopy. Fig. 10b and are in good agreement with the solid In this area, emphasis is placed on searches for curve calculated from a semiempirical model for and characterization of new isotopes far from the the ablation step. However, slightly larger momen- line of beta stability. tum transfers (/?« values which average 23% greater) in the abrasion step of the 12C interac- Nuclear Reactions tions are indicative of small deviations from limit- It had been inferred from cross section measure- ing values at 2.1 GeV/nucleon.19 ments that the nuclear interactions of relativistic A challenging aspect of the intereactions of heavy ions were similar in many ways to those of high-energy projectiles is the process commonly protons, a conclusion consistent with the theory of called fragmentation, which leads to the copious limiting fragmentation, which predicts the onset of production of light species from heavy target nu- simple asymptotic behavior at high energies, i.e., clei. Counter telescopic studies had shown that iso- 82

1.6 I.I '"Gd _ 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6

1.2 1.0 0.8

1.2 1.0 Figure 12. Demonstration of the parent-daughter relationship between 242U and z42Np. Open circles are mea- 1.2 sured activities of 242Np in samples of neptunium sepa- 1.0 rated periodically from a purified uranium source. Open 0.8 squares which are activities extrapolated to the times of separation confirm the association of the short-lived ac- 1.2 tivity with a longer lived uranium precursor, 242U. 1.0 0.8 that the two-step model is not applicable to frag- 1.2 mentation - the course of the reaction is deter- C(all) 1.0 mined in part on a fast time scale, a conclusion 0.8 drawn previously from data at 3-6 GeV. However, 0.6 whereas too many fragments were observed at for- 90 120 ISO 180 b (deg) ward angles at the lower energies, these is a deficiency froward at 28 GeV. Figure 11. Angular distributions for selected products of the interactions of 28-GeV protons with gold. Results for Nuclear Spectroscopy carbon isotopes in the lower panel are from a previous experiment at BNL. Characterization of nuclei far removed from the region of beta decay stability supplies important input for refining theories in nuclear structure topes of elements from C to Mg were ejected from physics and for testing nuclidic mass models. As a U or Au by 28-GeV protons preferentially at side- result of the continuing program to exploit the ward angles. This effect appeared to be more pro- unique Medium Energy Intense Neutron (MEIN) nounced for heavier mass products. Radiochemi- facility at the AGS injector linac for the produc- cal experiments have now been performed at the tion of neutron-rich nuclides, two new heavy ele- AGS to obtain angular distributions for a wider ment isotopes, 242U and 242Np, were discovered.20 range of products. Some of the new results are When 244Pu targets were irradiated with MEIN 242 shown in Fig. 11 together with the distribution re- neutrons, a previously unknown activity, U ported earlier for C isotopes. Surprisingly, the de- with a half life of 17 min, was observed in the ura- creases in forward intensity from C to 24Na con- nium fractions which had been purified from the tinue to the point where, for 48V, the number of large mixture of fission and spallation products by recoils at 15° has become appreciably lower than complex radiochemical procedures. Periodic chemical separations of neptunium (as illustrated in Fig. that at 165°, and the peak intensity is at an angte 242 greater than 90°. For products heavier than 74As, 12) revealed a daughter activity, Np which has a half life of 2 min. Unique assignment of this the trend reverses and normal forward peaked dis- 242 tributions are obtained for heavy species such as short-lived species to Np is possible because its 149 prominent y rays at 736 and 780 keV represent Gd. The anomalous behavior of products in the 242 A;r50 region cannot be interpreted in terms of transitions between known levels in Pu. These emission from a backward moving system, as mea- new nuclides represent the heaviest isotopes of U sured energy spectra show the expected forward and Np which have been characterized to date. A variety of y- and /?-ray spectroscopic studies of Doppler shifts. Rather, it is additional evidence 83 their radioactive decay have revealed significant 7. S. EHRENSON, Chem. Pkys. Lett. 56, 523 (1978). new features of 'he level structures of 242Pu and 8. H. BASCH, M.D. NEWTON,* J. JAFRI, J.W. MOSKOW- 242Np which bear directly on theoretical under- ITZ, AND S. TOPIOL, J. Chem. Phys. 68,4005 (1978). 9. M.B. FAIST, J.T. MUCKERMAN,* AND F.E. SCHUBERT, standing of the actinide nuclei in general and will J. Chem. Phys. 69, 4087 (1978). aid in predicting more reliably the properties of 10. N. SUTIN* AND C. CREUTZ, Adv. Chem. Set. Mo. 168 other as yet uncharacterized heavy nuclei includ- (1978), pp 1-27. ing, for example, super-heavy elements. 11. D.M. BRENNER, Chem. Phys. Lett. 57, 357 (1978). 12. G.A. WEST, R.E. WESTON,* AND G.W. FLYNN, Chem. Phys. Lett 56 429(1978). REFERENCES 13. H.A. SCHWARZ,/. Chem. Phys. 67, 5525 (1977). 14. R.A. HOLROYD* AND N.E. CIPOI.LINI, /. Chem. Phys. 1. T. IDO, C-N. WAN, V. CASELLA, J.S. FOWLER, A.P. 69, 501 (1978). WOLF,* M. REIVICH, AND D.E. KUHL, j. Label. Comp. 15. R.A. HOLROYD AND B.H.J. BIELSKI,* J. Am. Chem. Soc. Radiopharm. 14, 175 (1978). 100,5796(1978). 2. R.G. TELLER, R.D. WILSON, R.K. MCMULLAN, T.F. 16. J. WEINSTEIN AND B.H.J. BIELSKI,* -J. Am. Chem. Soc. KOETZLE,* AND R. BAU, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 100, 3071 101,58(1979). (1978). 17. R. DAVIS, JR., PTOC. Informal Conference on Status and 3. J.D. AXE, L.M. CORLISS, J.M. HASTINGS,* W.L. ROTH, Future Solar Neutrino Research, G. Friedlander, ed., BNL AND O. MULLER, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 39, 155 (1978). 50879, Vol. I, pp 1-54. 4. P.M. HORN, J.M. HASTINGS,* AND L.M. CORLISS, 18.J.N. BAHCALL, B.T. CLEVELAND, R. DAVIS JR.,* I. Phys. Rev. 40, 126(1978). DOSTROVKY, J.C. EVANS JR.. W. FRATI, G. FRIED- 5. RJ. BEUHLER, L. FRIEDMAN,* AND R.F. PORTER, Phys. LANDER, K. LANDE, J.K. ROWLEY, R.W. STOENNER, Rev. /I, in press. J. WENESER, Phys. Rev. Lett. 40, 1351 (1978). 6.J.R. GROVER,* C.R. IDEN, H.V. LILENFELD, F.M. 19. J.B. CUMMING,* P.E. HAUSTEIN, AND H-C. HSEUH, KIELY, AND E. LEBOWITZ, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 47, 1098 Phys. Rev C18, 1372 (1978). (1976). 20. P.E. HAUSTEIN, H-C. HSEUH, R.L. KLOBUCHAR, E-M. FRANZ, S. KATCOFF, AND L.K. PEKER, Phys. Rev C, to •Person to whom inquiries should be directed. be published.

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Radiation Sciences and Radiopharmaceuticals B.H.J. Bielski C. Creutz R.A. Holroyd T.Netzel H.A. Schwarz R.E. Weston D.M. Brenner R.W. Dodson W.B.Jones C.S. Redvanly R.W. Stoenner A.P.Wolf D. Christman J.S. Fowler R.M. Lambrecht D. Schlyer N. Sutin

Chemical Energy, Analysis and Separations G. Harbottle M.Lin M.L. Perlman E.V. Sayre S. Seltzer T.K. Sham

Chemical Physics HJ. Bernstein S. Ehrenson J.R. Grover T.F. Koetzle J.T. Muckerman R. Thomas RJ. Beuhler L. Friedman J.M. Hastings W. Kunnmann M.D. Newton GJ.B. Williams L.M. Corliss J.B. Godel A.P. Irsa R.K. McMullan Nuclear Y.Y. Chu J.B. Cumming E-M. Franz P.E. Haustein S. Katcoff L.P. Remsberg B.T. Cleveland R. Davis G. Friedlander J. Hudis E. Norton J.K. Rowley Life Sciences Biology Department Medical Department Biology Department

INTRODUCTION tion and further plant research may make possible a reduction while maintaining adequate produc- The exploitation of various energy sources in- tivity. The association of plant scientists with volves potential dangers to the health of man that molecular biologists and structural biologists, should be adequately assessed before decisions can even though the latter are working on other biolog- be made about the means of expanding energy ical systems, is advantageous for plant science re- production. Human physiological responses are search since it makes possible collaborative studies often delayed and, in the case of toxic materials and the rapid application of up-to-date methods. arising from combustion, so complex and dependent on other influences, such as radiation and MOLECULAR GENETICS ultraviolet light, that current knowledge is not adequate for predicting health hazards. Through Gene Function basic research we are rapidly gaining an under- A bacterial virus and a human virus are being standing of how biological events take place at used as model systems in which to study normal the molecular level. Our concerns about cancer, gene expression. deleterious genetic effects, and disrupted defense Bacteriophage T7 is a virus that infects the mechanisms of the body lead us to seek answers common intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli. The by first understanding the normal function of T7 virus particle contains a single molecule of body constituents in order to detect and deal with double-stranded DNA that is 40,000 base pairs malfunction. long and codes for about 35 proteins. Upon infec- Biological function can be understood fully only tion, the T7 DNA molecule enters the bacterial when the molecular machinery has been defined cell, where T7 messenger RNAs and proteins be- in terms of atomic positions in three dimensions gin to be made. The first T7 proteins act to pro- and when the deduced structure can provide an tect the T7 DNA from being degraded by E. coli understanding of catalysis or of molecular recog- nucleases and to switch the bacterial cc] from nition (biological specificity). making E. coli messenger RNAs and proteins to Structural studies have therefore become an making entirely T7 RNAs and proteins. Later in increasingly important activity in the Biology De- infection new T7 DNA is made and assembled partment particularly with the development of into new virus particles, the whole process taking newer techniques in electron microscopy, nuclear only 13 minutes at body temperature. This is a magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and neutron very simple system to manipulate both geneti- diffraction that take advantage of the resources of cally and biochemically.1 Brookhaven National Laboratory. In these areas A variety of techniques are being applied to of biophysical study, facilities have been developed mapping the genetic organization of T7 DNA that are used by staff scientists and by visiting and identifying, isolating, and characterizing dif- academic scientists, who do not otherwise have ferent T7 RNAs and proteins. Mutations have such complex and sophisticated instrumentation been found in almost all T7 genes, and gel electro- at their disposal. phoresis has identified the protein specified by Basic research on plants has been an important each. The T7 DNA molecule has been cut into specific fragments by restriction endonucleases, feature of the Biology Department for many years 2 and involves a sizable group of scientists with re- and the positions of many cuts have been mapped. sources not readily duplicated in this country. Specific fragments of T7 DNA have been cloned Research in this area is of interest to the Depart- in plasmids of E. coli, and such fragments are able ment of Energy since photosynthesis is a major to recombine genetically with infecting T7 phages and even provide certain T7 functions after in- process for capturing solar energy and a fuller 3 understanding of it may permit us to increase fection. These properties of cloned fragments are photosynthetic efficiency or devise artificial meth- being used to map the physical location of each ods for using solar energy. In addition, agricultural gene and genetic signal in T7 DNA. The nucleo- use of fertilizer involves sizable energy consump- tide sequences of interesting regions of T7 DNA

87 88

tion about 100 fold was found to affect a sequence + C,C,C>A,A>G,A>C in the messenger RNA that normally interacts with the ribosome during initiation. This sequence lies ahead of the initiation codon and does not code for amino acids of the protein. The mutation seems to affect the ability of the ribosome to find the correct starting codon: the small amount of protein made starts at any one of three different codons. Analysis of these mutants is helping to understand the normal mechanism for starting protein chains in E. colt. This T7 messenger RNA can also be translated in cell-free systems from mammalian or plant sources, and the mutant messenger RNAs may help to understand how protein chains are started in these systems as well.5 Adenoviruses are respiratory viruses that cause colds in humans. Although they rarely cause seri- =!* ous disease in man, some human adenoviruses will produce tumors when injected into newborn -c rodents. Slightly smaller than bacteriophage T7, —0 ( adenoviruses have a double-stranded DNA ge- -G —C nome 35,000 base pairs long that encodes about -T 6 -C 25 proteins. Upon infection of cultured human — T fibroblasts, the virus particle is transported to the -C cell nucleus where the DNA is uncoated and the -T -A viral messenger RNAs are made. The messenger -T RNA is then transported to the cytoplasm, where -A viral proteins are made. Abo.- eight hours after -A infection, viral DNA synthesis begins, and mess-

-G senger RNAs for late viral proteins appear. Newly -C assembled virus particles first appear in the cell -A nucleus about 18 hours after infection and continue to accumulate for 12 to 24 hours. Human -C fibroblasts may produce 104 to more than 106 -C virus particles per cell. However, human adenoviruses grow poorly in the fibroblasts of most other —s species and in some differentiated human cells. —c Because adenoviruses are relatively simple Figure 1. Nucleotide sequence of a region in T7 DNA compared to the human cell, yet depend on host determined by the method of Maxam and Gilbert. The cell enzymes for many functions, they urc being order of the nucleotides (A, T, C, G) can be read directly used to study the basic mechanisms of RNA, from the pattern. DNA, and protein synthesis in human cells. They are also being used to study how different cell and RNAs and the amino acid sequences of in- types or different states of differentiation influence teresting T7 proteins are being determined (Fig. 1). viral growth. In at least one case, adenovirus ap- Recently, mutations that affect initiation of syn- pears to grow poorly because its messenger RNAs thesis of a specific T7 protein have been isolated.4 are not properly processed by the host cell.7 Adeno- One of these mutations was found to alert the co- virus mRNAs are also being used to study the don at which the protein would normally begin. In mechanism of initiation of protein synthesis in this case, the protein begins at a different codrn, cell-free systems from mammalian cells.8 and the efficiency of initiation is reduced about 100 Recently it was discovered that several small fold. A second mutation that also reduces initia- molecules which influence the state of cell differ- 89

entiation in cell culture also affect the ability of cells The photoreactivating enzyme repairs DNA to permit the growth of adeno virus. One of these by reversing ultraviolet-induced dimers in a reac- substances is a tumor promoter, a compound that tion dependent on long wavelength ultraviolet or greatly enhances the effect of chemical carcino- visible light. The enzyme has been isolated from gens. Understanding the mechanism by which human placenta. Its action on human skin may a tumor promoter affects the ability of a cell to be followed by the endonuclease-agarose electro- support adenovirus growth may lead to a better phoresis technique. A few minutes exposure to a understanding of how such substances promote sunlamp makes appreciable numbers of dimers in carcinogenesis, and might also provide a means of human skin cells. The dimers are removed from quickly identifying substances that are potential normal skin by photoreactivation and also by ex- carcinogens. cision repair - a repair mechanism that works in the dark. DNA Repair The mechanism of action of the photoreactivat- The responses of cells of all types - bacterial, ing enzyme has been studied using a highly pur- plant, animal - to deleterious environmental ified enzyme preparation from E. coli. Neither the agents depend not only on the interactions of these enzyme nor the substrate (dimer-containing agents with cellular macromolecules, such as DNA, DNA) has an absorption band at the most effec- R.NA, and proteins, but also on the way cells tive wavelength for photoreactivation, 365 nm. cope with damage. For example, cells deficient in The absorption responsible for photoreactivation DNA repair are killed and mutated at lower appears only when the enzyme interacts with its doses than are repair-proficient ones. People whose substrate.12 Presumably there is an interaction be- cells are repair-deficient are at least an order of tween specific parts of the enzyme and some por- magnitude more cancer-prone than the average tion of the pyrimidine dimer. The antibiotic net- person.9 A number of repair processes have been ropsin, which binds specifically to base pairs in identified. the minor groove of the DNA helix, has been The best understood deleterious environmental shown to interfere with the binding and function agent is the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight. It of the photoreactivating enzyme. Circular dichro- can account for the great majority of the approxi- ism has been used to monitor the binding of the mately 400,000 new skin cancer cases per year in the United States. A new system has been developed for studying production of human skin cancer by sunlight. Normal human cells are changed by ultraviolet light exposure to transformants which show several characteristics of tumor cells. They can grow without anchorage to a solid surface and have a prolonged life in culture. They no longer show density-dependent growth control characteristic of normal cells but instead the piled-up and criss-crossed cells form three-dimensional structures (Fig. 2). The development of this system allows study of solar carcinogenesis and of environmental factors affecting it. Pyrimidine dimers in DNA are the major deleterious photoproduct and it is relatively easy to study their production and repair.10 In a technique developed at Brookhaven, unlabeled cellu- " fl lar DNA is extracted from cells and treated with an ultraviolet-specific endonuclease that makes a break in a DNA strand next to a dimer. The number of such breaks is determined from the single Figure 2. Photomicrograph of clone of human cells growing in agar suspension. Normal skin cells have been in- strand molecular weight of DNA as measured by 11 duced by ultraviolet light exposure to grow without an- electrophoresis on alkaline agarose gels. chorage to a solid surface. 90

enzyme to ultraviolet-irradiated DNA. These sitive the DNA becomes to further inactivation. studies show that while netropsin molecules can- Repair capacity must be present in the recipient not bind directly to a dimer, they can bind to cell for this relation to hold, since when the recipi- adenine-thymine (A-T) pairs located neardimers. ent is a double mutant, lacking both excision and Circular dichroism and magnetic circular dichro- postreplication repair, the ultraviolet inactivation ism have shown that netropsin does not distort of transforming DNA becomes a simple exponen- the helical structure of duplex DNA.13 Thus the tial function of dose.15 Thus without repair of the ability of netropsin to prevent the binding of the transforming DNA in the recipient there is a crit- enzyme is presumably due to physical blockage ical region of DNA surrounding the marker that of the minor groove of irradiated DNA. Compari- must be free of damage for the transformation to son of the dimer specificities of photoreactivating be successful. However, where the recipient can enzymes and model building studies implicate the repair the damage, excision repair or postreplica- 2-carbonyl groups of the pyrimidine rings as the tion repair not only may eliminate damage, but most likely site of interaction of dimers with the may also eliminate the genetic marker assayed in enzyme. transformation, depending upon the distance be- Photoreactivation is a repair process specific for tween the marker and the nearest ultraviolet les- pyrimidine dimers, but repair processes that work ion. The transforming DNA becomes less sensi- in the dark operate on many different types of tive with increasing dose because the effective le- DNA alterations.10 The most studied of these is ex- sions for further inactivation are only those be- cision repair in which an altered region in one tween the genetic marker and the previous lesions. strand of a double-stranded DNA is cut out and re- A system of mismatch repair, in which cellular placed by an unaltered sequence using the oppo- mechanisms recognize and eliminate noncomple- site strand as a template. The reason that ultra- mentary bases in their DNA, has been identified in violet radiation is a good model for environmen- cells of pneumococcal bacteria.16 This system was tal carcinogenesis is that cells defective in excising initially observed to act on heteroduplex DNA pyrimidine dimers are also defective in excising formed when single-stranded segments of donor damage resulting from treatment of cells with a DNA were inserted into recipient DNA in the large number of chemical carcinogens.9 Similar genetic transformation of pneumococcus. The pathways exist for the repair of damage by ultra- presence of certain noncomplementary (mutant) violet and many chemicals. A chemical that bases in the donor strands frequently resulted in mimics ultraviolet in this sense is N-acetoxy-2- their elimination and, hence, a low integration ef- acetylaminofluorene. However, although the ficiency in transformation. Strains lacking the pathways for repair of damage by ultraviolet and mismatch repair system were isolated, and they this chemical are similar, they are not identical. were found to exhibit high spontaneous mutation Studies at BNL have shown that the excision re- rates. Certain mutations occurred hundreds of pair system is saturated at large doses of ultra- times more frequently than in the presence of the violet or of the chemical. But treatment of normal repair system. Thus, the cell uses the same system human cells with large doses of the two together to eliminate bases erroneously inserted during gives twice the repair of either agent separately,14 DNA replication as those introduced during and, to add to the confusion, in repair-deficient transformation. How the repair system recognizes cells a combined treatment results in much less and eliminates the undesirable (foreign or mu- repair than either of the agents separately. Ex- tant) member of the mismatch is currently under cision repair deficiences for many agents arise as investigation. Mismatch repair may be an impor- a result of single mutations, but the mutations act tant mechanism for the elimination of deleterious as if they control many noncompeting repair mutations in human cells, as well. pathways. Deoxyribonucleases, enzymes that cut DNA, When DNA from bacteria is subjected to ultra- are ubiquitous in living cells. A variety of func- violet irradiation, its ability to transform cells tions have been ascribed to such enzymes, includ- with a genetic marker such as a drug resistance is ing introduction of DNA into cells, genetic re- decreased. The quantitative relation between ra- combination, DNA repair, and protection against diation dose and inactivation is an unusual one in viral infection, but in many instances their func- which the more the inactivation the more insen- tions are unknown. A useful method for detecting 91

deoxyribonuclease; in both cases the enzymes are excreted into the gut, where they have a digestive function. In several other tissues of the rat an iden- 68,000- tical deoxyribonuclease was found in the cytoplasm, but there its functions are as yet unknown. An enzyme of similar properties but distinctive molecular weight was found in mitochondria.

31,000 PLANT SCIENCES Photosynthesis The first events in photosynthesis are the trapping of photons by light-harvesting pigments, which subsequently transfer their excitation to photochemical reaction centers for conversion to chemical free energy. Many light-harvesting pigments exist inside living cells as pigment-protein

17,000- complexes. In blue-green and red algae, bile pigments serve as the principal collectors of solar energy. These pigments are separated by reversed-phase high- performance liquid chromatography and characterized by mass spectroscopy. Two forms of the pigment of phycocyanobilin (the blue pigment) Figure 3. Deoxyribonucleases in various cells and tissues. were isolated and found to be geometrical iso- Electrophoresis in a polyacrylamide gel containing deter- mers.18 The discovery of multiple forms of phyco- gent and DNA separates proteins according to molecular cyanobilin furthers our understanding of chemistry weight (m. w.), as indicated on left. Action of nucleases of the natural light-collecting pigment systems. after renaturation results in dark bands when the background DNA is revealed with a fluorescent dye. Samples The principal light-harvesting pigment pro- contain purified enzymes or total cell extracts as follows teins of the dinoflagellates associated with the (amounts of protein in parenthesis): /, purified bovine toxic red tides of the northeast Atlantic coast, pancreatic deoxyribonuclease (0.1 ng), m.w. 31,000, and Gonyaulax tamarensis, and the southwest Pacific purified Staphylococcus aureus nudease (1.0 ng), m.w. 17,000 coast, Gonyaulax polyedra, were isolated and puri- 2, rat lymph node (100 fig). 3, rat parotid gland (100 ng). fied.19 They were water soluble complexes (m.w. 4, rat parotid gland (10 ng). 5, Bacillus subtilis (65 jug). 6, Streptococcus pneumoniae (26 fig). = 35,000 and 37,000, respectively) containing peridinin and chlorophyll a. The biochemistry and physiology of these algae are studied here as and characterizing nucleases in different kinds of part of a collaborative project. Workers elsewhere cells has been developed at BNL.17 Extracts of cells are determining the structures of the toxins that treated with the detergent sodium dodecylsulfate become a serious health hazard when grazing by are subjected to electrophoresis in gels containing marine fauna brings these algae into the food the detergent and nucleic acid. Under these con- chain. ditions proteins are denatured, and their migra- A bacteriochlorophyll a-protein is associated tion in the electrical field depends on their molec- with reaction center activity in intact green bac- ular weight. After electrophoresis the nucleases teria and in isolated unit-membrane vesicles are renatured and their action in situ on nucleic (mean m. w. ~70 million).20 Light energy (1.5 acid contained in the gel allows detection of their eV) absorbed by the chlorophyll in the protein is position. Thus, particular nucleases can be identi- transferred to the reaction center to drive the fied (Fig. 3). With this technique it has been shown transfer of an electron uphill from bacteriochloro- that the parotid gland of the rat produces a deoxy- phyll a to an acceptor molecule, thus converting ribonuclease very similar to the bovine pancreatic 0.8 eV to chemical free energy.21 A new lipid was found in the photosynthetic membranes of green Light, and Plant Respiration bacteria. Neither a phospholipid nor a conven- Photosynthesis is the best known plant process tional glycolipid, the new compound has the triv- affected by light, but there are others. One is res- ial name Chlorobium aminolipid and may be in- piration, the complex of reactions through which volved in the binding of chlorophyll proteins to sugars and other substrates are oxidized and supply membranes. energy for cellular activities. If the normal require- Photosynthetic reduction of CO2 to the level of ment for photosynthesis is bypassed ty feeding sugar phosphates by the enzymes of the Calvin sugars to intact plants, these can then be grown in cycle requires ATP and NADPH in the mole ratio nearly total darkness, making it possible to study 3:2. However this ratio may be considerably higher responses to light other than photosynthesis. This if further metabolism (e.g., to starch) or prior fixa- is being done with small aquatic plants (Lemna- tion (e.g., by the C4 pathway) occurs. Photophos- ceae) in sterile culture, a condition that eliminates phorylation coupled to reduction of NADP+ by interference by micro-organisms.25 Measurements non-cyclic electron transport cannot supply enough of both oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide output ATP to meet these requirements and the deficiency by such cultures indicate that as much as one-half must be met by photophosphorylation associated the total respiratory rate, depending on specific cir- with either pseudocyclic electron flow (reduction cumstances, can be controlled by red (wavelength of O2 by a coupled segment of the linear electron ca. 660 nm) and far-red (ca. 730 nm) light far too transport chain, also known as Mehler reaction), dim to produce photosynthesis. These wavelengths or by ferredoxin-mediated cyclic electron flow probably act through phytochrome, the colored around photosystem I.22 protein known to regulate many aspects of plsnt growth and development through mechanisms Isolated intact chloroplasts capable of high rates still not understood.26 of CO2 fixation sustain relatively high rates of con- current pseudocyclic electron flow. On the basis of Since the efficiency and magnitude of respira- the high apparent affinity of the unknown termi- tion may represent a major limit on plant produc- nal electron transport component for O2, it has tivity - the net production of useful materials us- been proposed that coupled pseudocyclic rather ing solar energy - it is important to understand than cyclic electron flow is initiated during periods the ways in which natural control systems such as of ATP deficiency. On the other hand, isolated in- phytochrome can modify it. Although at first tact chloroplasts are capable of maintaining high glance the experiments described may seem far rates of cyclic electron flow under air or deoxy- from relevant to plants under natural conditions, genated conditions when non-cyclic electron trans- two points should be kept in mind. First, even in port is inhibited.23 The question whether or not bright light, only those plant cells with abundant cyclic electron transport occurs at high rates dur- chloroplasts actually produce their own substrate - ing CO2 fixation is unresolved. all other cells, such as those of roots and internal tissues, depend on sugars supplied by the others. This problem has been studied using antimycin, Second, all plant cells, without exception, depend an inhibitor of ferredoxin-catalyzed cyclic photo- 24 on stored or external sugar supplies at night, which phosphorylation. Several groups of workers have is a substantial part of the time. Hence the Lem- studied the effect of antimycin on CO2 fixation in naceae system is being explored with respect to ef- isolated chloroplasts with conflicting results; both fects of temperature, nitrogen sources, metabolic an inhibition and a stimulation rate have been ob- inhibitors, and different genetic strains, among served. However, the stimulation by antimycin in- other factors, in order to determine the basic mech- variably occurred when the initial rate of CO2 fix- anisms involved. ation was suboptimal. It was found that under optimal assay conditions, antimycin inhibits the rate Genetics, Cellular, and Molecular Biology of CO2 fixation, and that turnover of cyclic electron transport is obligatory to maintain the high- Research activities on the genetics, cellular, and est rates of CO2 fixation. Furthermore, the activity molecular biology of plants range from attempts of non-cyclic electron transport regulates cyclic to alter the genes responsible for much of the seed turnover through "redox poising" of carriers com- protein of corn to the detection of pollutants in the mon to the two pathways. air above cities within the continental USA. 93

Though widely separated technically and geo- hybrids were of either one parental type or the graphically, research on gene modification and other; none were mixed. The reason for this rapid atmospheric monitoring share a common thread of segregation into a single chloroplast type is un- genetics. This thread extends to other work on tu- known, but it seems to involve selection against a mor formation and the survival of cytoplasmic or- mixture of chloroplasts together with random fixa- ganelles and continues to weave through research tion of a reduced number per cell. on chromosome replication and the concentration In another study the genetic basis of tumor for- of hazardous substances within plant cell vacuoles. mation was further clarified by the ability to pick Humans and all other animals are totally de- out hybrid fused protoplasts from a mixed popula- pendent on plants for protein. However, plant tion containing a preponderance of parental proto- proteins are often deficient in certain essential plasts, by a selection method that depended on less amino acids. For example, zein, the major protein stringent cultural requirements of certain Nicotiana of corn seed, lacks lysine and is low in tryptophane. interspecific hybrids, as JV. glauca X langsdorffii.29 Currently research is underway to change the zein Tissues of these hybrids, in contrast to those of the genes so that the protein is enriched in essential parental species, were able to grow on culture amino acids. Zein is insoluble in the seed and it is media lacking phytohormones (auxins and cyto- located in the endosperm cells within single mem- kinins). This hybrid cell capability is associated brane-bound organelles called protein bodies with a spontaneous tumor formation in the ma- (Fig. 4). The synthesis of zein occurs on ribosomes ture plant and is under genetic control. A genetic bound to the membrane at the surface of the pro- analysis of the phenomenon was undertaken to tein body. The membrane-bound ribosomes were the source of messenger RNA encoded for the zein polypeptide and, in turn, the messenger RNA (Fig. 5) served as the template from which the zein gene' was synthesized by the enzyme reverse tran- scriptase.27 After formation of a stable, double- stranded DNA zein gene by DNA polymerase, many thousand copies were made by insertion of the gene into a plasmid of Escherichia coli. These copies have base sequences homologous to zein messenger RNA and, when labeled with radioactive isotopes, they constitute a tracer that hy- bridizes to the corn chromosomal DNA. Prelimi- nary results indicated that the chromosomes contained many zein genes. At the cellular level, hybridization was also employed to study the interaction between cytoplasmic, organelle genes, and those of the cell nucleus. The hybrids in this case were parasexual and formed by the fusion of protoplasts (wall-less somatic cells) of two tobacco species, Nicotiana glauca and N. langsdorffii.26 The large subunit polypeptides of Fraction I protein (ribulose-l,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase), coded by chloroplast Figure 4. An electron micrograph of zein protein bodies. DNA, are different in the two species and can be Zein protein bodies are small vesicles in the storage tissue used as markers to determine the type(s) of chloro- of the corn seed which contain the storage protein zein. plasts in the hybrids. One of the purported differ- The protein is synthesized by the clusters of particles on ences between sexual hybrids, produced by cross the surface of the protein bodies and is transported through pollination, and parasexual hybrids is a maternal the surface membrane into the interior space. During this cytoplasm and organelles in the former, and com- process of moving through the membrane, a portion of the initially-formed developing protein chain is removed bined cytoplasmic elements in the latter. However, and at another step a sugar molecule is added to finally this is not the case. Instead, the chloroplasts of the give the native product. 94

in sunflower is a function of the replication fork rate at 20-35 °C but at temperatures above or below this range factors responsible for the time lapse, between the beginning of replication of one replicon group and that of the next, also contribute to its length.31 Figure 5, An electron micrograph of a zein messenger The use of heterozygous Tradescantia clones to RNA which contains the information for the amino acid monitor atmospheric pollutants is an example of sequence of a zein polypeptide chain. practical research at the genetic level. These plants have a dominant blue gene and a recessive pink answer the question: how many and which chro- one that produce a phenotype of a blue flower. mosomes of JV. glaum (G) must be added to diploid Lesions in the blue gene result in a phenotypic N. langsdorffii (LL) in order to cause spontaneous change to pink and this is easily observed on the tumors? The interspecific triploid, LLG, was back- single cells of the anther stamen hair. Under care- crossed to diploid JV. langsdorffii, tumorous plants fully controlled environmental conditions the het- with extra chromosomes ofN. glauca were selected, erozygous plants can detect pollutants in the air and this process was repeated so that at present and thereby measure its quality. Tests made the sixth backcross generation is being grown. throughout the contiguous USA demonstrated A line was developed that consistently gave ae- that the heterozygous clones can be used to dis- rial tumors and these plants contained a single ex- tinguish between air, containing potentially muta- tra glauca chromosome. It is this chromosome (or, genic compounds, that is often found in.the vicin- more likely, certain genes on it) that when com- ity of industry, and the pristine air of certain rural bined with the genome of langsdorffii, causes tumor areas.32 For example, near cities with a major information. Tentatively, the tumorous condition dustry of either petroleum or chemicals the concen- appears to be due to an abnormality in gene regu- tration of airborne, hazardous substances was suf- lation such that auxin synthetases, once initiated, ficient to increase the frequency of pink cells 15 to fail to be "turned off", as in normal plants. This 30% above the unexposed controls. In contrast, leads to an unregulated resumption of mitoses that the ambient ajr of Grand Canyon, Arizona pro- are not accompanied by differentiation and thus duced no detectable effect and hence was free of form tumors. mutagenic compounds. Other tests indicated that Chromosomes also were the objects of analysis genetically innocuous air was not an exclusive in other work on the cell cycle and DNA replica- characteristic of rural areas. In Utah and in Cal- tion. The questions, in this instance, concerned the ifornia, respectively, where copper mills and auto- unit of replication of the eukaryotic cells. The unit motive manufacturing visibly contribute the air is called a replicon and it consists of an origin, pollution in general, the air was also free of sub- where DNA replication begins, and two replica- stances capable of producing a phenotypic change tion forks that move along the parental polynucleo- in the Tradescantia cells. Tests such as these should tide strands in opposite directions from the origin. prove useful to epidemiological and environmen- The replication iWj-ks are protein complexes com- tal analyses throughout the USA. posed of several enzymes responsible for accurate Not only are plants capable of detecting pollut- DNA chain growth of the daughter polynucleo- ants, they may also serve as a source of hazardous tide strands. The number of replicons amongst substances in the food chain of man. Plants accu- species of higher plants may be as few as 2500 as mulate chemicals from the environment and store in Arabidopsis thaliana to more than 100000 in spe- 30 them in vacuoles within their cells. Here the sub- cies with a large amount of nuclear DNA. Somat- stances remain sequestered and possible toxic ef- ic cells of all higher plants examined have replicons fects to the plant are avoided. To understand fully in the size range of 18-28 fun and replication forks the vacuole and its functions, the fate of cadmium that move between 6 and 12 fim per hour at 23°C. accumulation is studied in a variety of plants.33 Not all replicons function simultaneously and their Though this work is in an early stage of develop- period of activity appears to follow an ordered se- ment, newly discovered methods for the isolation quence, thus giving a temporal structure to the S of intact vacuoles provide a sense of optimism for phase of the cell cycle. The duration of the S phase success in tracing the complex path followed by 95

chemicals from the soil and air into the digestive These are useful functions, but evidence is accu- system of man. mulating that occasional loss of regulation of these proteolytic enzymes leads to their overproduc- PROTEIN CHEMISTRY tion, resulting in pathological changes. For example, damage to the lung connective tissue char- Biochemistry of Muscle Contraction acteristic of emphysema and the ability of cancer cells to metastasize are thought to be due to over- Contraction of muscles is brought about by the production of certain proteolytic enzymes. interaction of a well defined set of proteins, the major ones being actin and myosin. Studies are Devising a reagent that can inactivate one type being carried out on the detailed structure of these of proteolytic enzyme without inactivating other proteins, and this work is providing information types would provide a very useful tool for clarify- essential for an understanding of the basic mecha- ing the causes of these diseases and possibly also nism of concentration. For example, analysis of provide a method of therapy. Structural studies in the amino acid sequence of the a-helical parts of many laboratories have now defined the sites of myosin makes it possible to build models of the action of a number of important proteolytic en- myosin molecule and in this way to recognize fea- zymes of similar specificity. Thus, thrombin, whose tures that are responsible for self-assembly of myo- action leads to blood coagulation, has a few well sin into the thick filaments of muscle. Description defined substrates and in several of these thrombin of the sequence of another segment of myosin34 has splits an arginyl bond at a -Pro-Arg- sequence. given new insights into the nature of the active On the other hand, plasminogen activator, a site, that part of the molecule responsible for hy- proteolytic enzyme implicated in tumor metastases drolyzing ATP, thereby releasing the energy used cleaves at the same amino acid residue but in a by the muscles to carry out work. different sequence, namely -Glu-GIy-Arg-. Power- ful and relatively selective reagents have been syn- Movement also occurs in other cells, and com- thesized at Brookhaven for inactivating each of parative primary structural studies have shown these enzymes by incorporating the appropriate that actin from diverse biological sources - rabbit substrate sequence in a chloromethyl ketone.37-40 muscle, human blood platelets, beef brain, and a This type of reagent is initially recognized by the soil amoeba - are essentially identical in amino target enzyme as a substrate and a typical complex acid sequence.35-36 This indicates that movement, results. However, the presence of the chloromethyl certainly a very basic biological activity, occurs by ketone group leads to a chemical reaction with the the same fundamental mechanism in these rather enzyme causing its inactivation. For example, different types of cells. Another system of current D-Phe-Pro-ArgCH Cl, which has the sequence interest is the alveolar macrophage where move- 2 recognized by thrombin, is extremely effective in ment is also mediated by actin and myosin. Stud- inactivating thrombin and represents one of the ies on the mechanism and control of the macro- most remarkable enzyme inhibitors discovered40 phage contractile system may facilitate an under- (Fig. 6). It is considerably less active on plasmin- standing of the molecular details of phagocytosis, ogen activator. On the other hand Glu-Gly- the uptake and removal of noxious materials in- ArgCH2Cl inactivates the latter protease readily.39 haled into the lung. These and related proteolytic enzyme inhibitors are being studied at Brookhaven to analyze physio- Structure and Function of Proteolytic Enzymes logical responses to noxious environmental chem- Proteolytic enzymes are responsible for many icals. They are also being supplied to other labora- physiological processes in the body. Some act at tories for use in similar research efforts. the cellular level as secretion products which mo- bilize and stimulate various types of cells as part of a defense system against invading organisms. Other NEUTRON SCATTERING proteases act within cells as signals responding to The presence at Brookhaven of the High Flux external influences and promoting growth of the Beam Reactor (HFBR) allowed the development cell. In the blood, still other proteolytic enzymes of neutron scattering techniques for the analysis of can be activated by injury and lead eventually to biological structures.41 Over the last ten years, it has the formation of a clot which stops the flow of blood. been shown that neutrons provide an ideal tool for 96

1 « ' * ' '

1 = 0

H-BOND

I=2.5«IO~9 M o

I=5.0xlO"9M~ —«— ASP C03

8 Figure 7. Depicts a detail from the myoglobin Fourier THROMBIN (I.OxlO" M) map showing an arginine that is hydrogen (deuterium) I=DPHE-PRO-ARGCH2C bonded to an aspartic acid. Notice that deuterium atoms - labeled D are on positive (continuous) contours while hydrogens (H) are on negative (dashed) contours.

I = 1.0nlO"8M duced exposure times, increasing the utilization of =0—r_l 0 5 10 15 20 25 this facility many fold. TIME (min) Protein Crystallography Figure 6. Inactivation of the enzyme, ihrombin, by the Structural studies using neutron diffraction lead specially designed reagent, D-Phe-Pro-ArgCH2Cl, tar- to a dramatic increase in the knowledge of impor- geted for reaction with thrombin as a substrate analog. tant chemical features and conformational rela- The reaction is unusually rapid and specific. tionships involved in the action of proteins. Many of the crucial questions involved in understanding enzyme functions concern ionization states and the elucidation of biological structures, the build- the microenvironment of particular groups in the ing blocks of life. The advantage of using neutrons protein. A neutron diffraction analysis of two func- for the elucidation of biological structures such as tionally different states of myoglobin has shown a membranes, viruses, protein complexes, and en- small number of structural differences.43 Of par- zymes rests mainly in the large and significantly ticular interest are (1) a change in the location of different scattering of neutrons by hydrogen and the iron atom within the heme group, (2) the ab- deuterium. Selective replacement of hydrogen with sence of a hydrogen atom of a histidine group, that deuterium provides contrasts allowing detailed an- forms, with the heme group, part of the active site, alysis of structural parameters that were previously and (3) the protein surface near charged or polar obscured. Thus, neutron diffraction analysis of groups is often covered by ice-like clusters of water simple crystals of proteins determines the positions molecules. of hydrogen atoms - atoms that play a dominant role in enzymatic function but that cannot be lo- The investigation of particular protonation calized by x-ray diffraction techniques (Fig. 7). states has been expanded to a study of the proteo- The biological neutron scattering program is lytic enzyme, trypsin. Biochemical studies have carried out by scientists, engineers, and technicians shown that the chemical characteristics of this in the Biology Department and the Instrumenta- catalyst are mediated by protonation changes in tion Division, with visiting scientists from many the functionally active residues. The neutron study universities. In order to utilize the HFBR properly will provide a comprehensive understanding of the for biological research, a great effort has been location of hydrogen atoms as a function of cata- undertaken by the Biology staff to develop and lytic activity.* build new spectrometers, beam lines, and 2-dimen- 42 *An example of such an H bond is shown in Figure 7 sional position-sensitive counters. These instru- linking the guanadino group of an arginine to a carboxyi mentation development efforts have greatly re- of an aspartic acid. 97 the complex molecules which form biological Protein Structure and Function 47 Some inhalants, particularly some anesthetics membranes. and industrial solvents like methylene chloride, do One of the most important regions of biological bind to hemoglobin, altering this oxygen-carrying membranes is the surface - the interface between protein's functions. Structural studies by x-ray the hydrocarbon interior and the aqueous solution and neutron diffraction techniques have localized surrounding the membrane. The interface pro- the binding sites of these molecules, while hemo- vides the site of interaction of many hormones and globin-oxygen equilibrium studies have character- drugs with the cell, and also is the site of many im- ized the effect of such agents on the oxygen and munological and enzymatic functions of the cell. CO transport function.44 Evaluation of these data By studying the molecular motions in the interface has shown that one of the four hemoglobin-C>2 region of biological membranes, we hope to be equilibrium constants is controlled by the specific able to understand some of the details of these structural disposition of a few atoms in the hemo- processes. globin molecule. Biological membranes are complex associations of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Be- The Structure of Macromolecular Complexes cause of the complexity of most biological membranes, we have initially studied a simple model Low angle neutron scattering is a powerful system - the phospholipid bilayer membrane. technique for studying the structure of macromo- Phospholipid bilayer membranes share many of lecular assemblies in solution. This is largely due the physical properties of biological membranes to the neutron contrast between constituents like and may be used, in conjunction with purified proteins, lipids, and DNA. The naturally occurring proteins isolated from biological membranes, to scattering differences can easily be enhanced by reconstitute some of the biochemical functions of specific deuterations. Such specific deuteration has 45 natural membranes. We have studied the surface been used to study the structure of ribosomes, the region of bilayer membranes formed from purified protein building machinery, and chromatin, the phospholipids and compared the surface region of genetic storage device of the cell. Both particles these model membranes to the surface region of are supramolecular complexes of nucleic acids, biological membranes. For some simple biological proteins, and water. The distribution and location of over half of the ribosomal proteins have now been established.

He3 20 Neutron Scattering Facility Development POSITION SENSITIVE COUNTER During the last few years, the data acquisition systems for the low angle spectrometer and the pro- 46 tein crystallographic station have been improved. POSITION DECODING > Both systems now have a 2-dimensional position- ELECTRONICS | sensitive counter with associated control electronics and computer facilities with on-line data display SPECTROMETER •SAMPLE CHANGER MULTIPORT (Fig. 8).« MOTOR CONTROL MEMORY

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE Nuclear magnetic resonance (a branch of radio- DATA a SPECTROMETER frequency spectroscopy) is a powerful technique CONTROL COMPUTER for the study of molecular motion in membranes. Unlike diffraction techniques which give detailed information on static structure, nuclear magnetic MULTIUSER resonance gives information on the dynamics of FILE a PROGRAM molecules. In many circumstances nuclear mag- MANAGEMENT netic resonance can give information on the rate and the type of motion of specific segments of Figure 8. Computer system for biology low angle station. 98

membranes (e.g., erythrocyte ghosts and sarco- logical specimens.49 The Brookhaven STEM is plasmic reticulum) we can conclude that most of available to outside biological users. Fifteen groups the phospholipids in these biological membranes from eastern universities and five groups in the are organized in much the same manner as in the Biology Department presently have active user or pure phospholipid membranes. This is strong evi- collaborative projects. Research projects of the dence that the major structural component of STEM staff involve study of heavy atom motion these biological membranes is the phospholipid at low temperature, preparation of frozen hydrated bilayer. specimens, and molecular weight determination Biological membranes are formed from mix- from electron scattering intensity. These tech- tures of charged and neutral lipid molecules. It is niques are being applied to structural studies of not clear whether these two types of components biological membranes, filamentous viruses, and are completely mixed or segregated into 2- DNA-protein complexes (Fig. 9). dimensional patches in the plane of the membrane. Most electron microscopes require that the spec- Since divalent cations interact differently with imen be dried since it is placed in a vacuum. Un- neutral and charged lipids, one of the determining fortunately, drying of biological structures usually factors may be the divalent cation concentration deforms them. The Brookhaven STEM, however, in the physiological fluids surrounding the mem- has a cold stage that keeps samples at — 130°C. brane. One of the ways to study this phenomenon Thus hydrated specimens may be quick frozen is to study the binding of divalent cations to model and observed while they remain frozen. In this membranes formed from neutral and charged way, previously unseen details may be observed. lipids. One class of specimens being studied with the The phosphate group forms one of the major STEM is biological membranes. A membrane sites of interaction of divalent cations with phos- from bacteria (purple membrane) is being ob- pholipid bilayer membranes. Since the phosphorus served at close to atomic resolution. Just how this nuclear magnetic resonance (31P NMR) signal membrane converts sunlight into chemical energy from the phosphate group is sensitive to the bind- is a question this research may help answer. Com- ing of divalent cations, 31P NMR is a very useful puter analysis of the micrographs is necessary to technique to study the binding of divalent cations retrieve the information at this resolution. Another to phospholipid membranes. We have character- membrane under study is the gap junction found ized the binding of several divalent cations to bilayer membranes formed from neutral phospholipids and are currently studying the binding of divalent cations to bilayer membranes formed from charged lipids.48

ELECTRON MICROSCOPY Several groups within the Biology Department employ electron microscopes as their major research tools. Topics of study range from structure of whole plant cells and electron-induced fluorescence of chromosomes to structural studies of individual molecules of DNA and protein. Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) A significant addition to the Biology Depart- ment's capabilities occurred in the past year with the opening to users of the Brookhaven Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) Re- Figure 9. SV 40 Mini chromosome unstained, showing source. This new instrument is unique in being DNA and nucleosomes. Specimen provided by J. Wooley, able to observe single heavy atoms in frozen bio- Princeton University. 5033A full scale. 99

in liver and other body tissues. Cells communicate Electron Microscopy Studies on Growth through these junctions and structural studies of Plant Root Tips in High Magnetic Fields may reveal more of how this is done. Some concern has been expressed over the use The Brookhaven STEM has been designed to of very high current electric power lines because of perform accurate measurements of electron scat- the possible effects the resulting magnetic fields tering from biological samples. The scattered cur- may have on living things in the environment. It rent is directly proportional to the specimen molec- has been reported in the literature that magnetic ular weight (m. w.). This measuring technique fields of about 5 kilogauss or more affect the gross gives very precise results on individual molecules, and cellular morphology of growing root tips. Of and is being applied to studies of closely related particular interest are the reported distortions in viruses, and to a variety of specimens difficult to the secondary walls of tracheary elements which measure by other techniques.50 differentiate within high magnetic fields. This is Heavy atom staining of selected sites in biologi- also of theoretical interest in cell biology because cal molecules and observation in the STEM has the distortions in secondary wall formation may been a long term goal of the STEM program. reflect an influence of magnetic fields on the orien- This has been considerably advanced by develop- tation of cytoplasmic microtubules thought to be ment of a vibration-free cold stage which signifi- related to patterns of secondary wall thickenings cantly reduces heavy atom motion. Less than 10% and orientation of cellulose deposition within dif- of heavy atoms move as observed in a second image ferentiating cells. If magnetic fields have this effect in samples held at — 13O°C. Efforts arc underway 51 a new confer al of microtubule orientation and dis- to lower specimen temperature to — 250°C. tribution would be available for studies in cell dif- Low temperature microscopy and heavy atom ferentiation. staining are being applied to study of helical viruses. The high degree of repetition in such struc- Whole seedlings with root tips (A rabidopsis) or tures allows accurate measurement of heavy atom root tips in organ culture {Pisum) were grown for 10 positions. Results to date show structural details days to 2 weeks within the gap of a water-cooled down to ~ 10A on freeze dried samples. Analysis electromagnet having a field of 5 to 30 kG. Both is now in progress to determine the structural homogeneous and inhomogeneous magnetic fields parameters and the location of the heavy atoms in were used. The roots were photographed in toto to the structure. Filamentous structures are found in record any gross morphological effects, and then many of the most important biological systems, the tracheary elements were observed microscopi- and can be studied by the same techniques. cally and photographed to detect distortions in the secondary wall thickenings. A slight curvature was noticed in the roots grown in the central portion of Fluorescence Electron Microscopy the magnetic field. It was found, however, that the temperature of the water-cooled pole pieces Fluorescent tags are often used under the light was 1 to 1.5° C lower than the ambient air temper- microscope to identify particular types of mole- ature in the vicinity of the magnet. When the air cules. Fluorescent antibodies are especially useful temperature was lowered 1.5 "C below that of the as tags because antibodies have great selectivity in pole pieces of the magnet, the curvature effect was identifying parts of cells, molecules produced by reversed. A slight difference in growth rate at the cells, and so on. Fluorescent tags can be excited center of the magnet was unaffected by the reversal also by electrons under the scanning electron in the air magnet temperature. In none of the ex- microscope, but usually the fluorescence is so rap- periments were there changes in the pattern of idly destroyed that the tag cannot be very well lo- secondary wall thickenings of tracheary elements calized. DNA (when carefully freed of water) is an which could be ascribed to the influence of the exception and gives a readily recognizable fluores- magnetic fields. cence signal of sufficiently long life that details in DNA distributions can be established at a level We conclude that there are no gross or cyto- 53 well below 1000A52 and perhaps below lOOA.* A logical effects of magnetic fields detectable under fluorescent antibody of comparable effectiveness the conditions of these experiments. The effect on for electron microscopy has not been found but a growth rate was too small and too inconsistent to careful search is in progress. be ascribed clearly to a magnetic effect. Previous 100

reports of gross and cytological effects of magnetic 2-acetyleminofluorene-damaged DNA in normal hu- fields on growing seedling root tips are probably man fibroblasts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74, 1548- due to factors other than the magnetic field. There 1552 (1977). 15. J.K. SETLOW, The shape of the ultraviolet inactiva- is no evidence from these experiments of harmful tion curve for transforming DNA. Nature 268,169-170 effects on plant roots grown in high magnetic 54 (1977). fields. 16. S. LACKS, Mutants of'Diplococcuspneumonia? that lack deoxyribonucleases and other activities possibly pertinent to genetic transformation. J. Bacteriol. 101,373- REFERENCES 383 (1970). !~i. A.L. ROSENTHAL AND S.A. LACKS, Nuclease detection 1. F.W. STUDIER, Bacteriophage T7. Science 176, 367-376 in SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Analyt. (1972). Biochem. 80, 76-90 (1977). 2. M.W. MCDONELL, M.N. SIMON, AND F.W. STUDIER, Analysis of restriction fragments of T7 DNA and de- 18. E. Fu, L. 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Tradescanlia stamen hair system. Environmental Health 44. B.P. SCHOENBORN AND B.E. NORTH, "Dichlorometh- Prospedives (1979). ane as an antisickling agent in sickle cell hemoglobin." 33. GJ. WAGNER, "Subcellular site and nature of intra- Biochemical and Clinical Aspects of Hemoglobins, W. cellular cadmium in plants." Prac. !3tk Ann. Mtg. on Caughey, Ed., (Academic Press, 1978) 591-605. Trace Substances in Environmental Health (1979). 45. P.B. MOORE, J.A. LANGER, B.P. SCHOENBORN, AND 34. M. ELZINGA AND J.N. COLLINS, Amino acid sequence D.M. ENGELMAN, Triangulation of proteins in the 30S of a myosin fragment that contains SH-1, SH-2, and ribosomal subunit of £ coli. J. Mol. Biol. 112,199-234 N'-methylhistidine. Proc. Nail. Acad. Sci. USA 74,4281- (1977). 4284 (1977). 46. A.M. SAXENA AND B.P. SCHOENBORN, Multilayer neu- 35. M. ELZINGA AND R.C. Lu, "Comparative amino acid tron monochromators. Ada Cryst. A33, 805-813 (1977). sequence studies on actins." Contractile Systems in Non- 47. A.C. MCLAUGHLIN, P.R. CULLIS, M. HEMMINGA, F.F. muscle Tissues, S.V. Perry, A. Margreth, and R.S. BROWN, AND J. BROCKELHURST, "Magnetic resonance Adelstein, Ed., (Amsterdam, North Holland Publish- in model and biological membranes." NMR in Biology, ing Co., 1976) pp. 29-38. R.A. DWEK, I.D. CAMBELL, R.E. RICHARDS AND R.J-P- 36. R.C. Lu AND M. ELZINGA, Partial amino acid sequence WILLIAMS, Eds. (Academic Press, London, 1977) 231- of brain actin and its homology with muscle actin. 246 Biochemistry 16,5801-5806 (1977). 48. A.C. MCLAUGHLIN, C. GRATHWOHL, AND S.G.A. 37. C. KETTNER AND E. SHAW, "The selective inactivation MCLAUGHLIN, The adsorption of divalent cations to of thrombin by peptides of arginine chloromethyl ke- phosphatidyl choline bilayer membranes. Biochim. tone." Chemistry and Biology of Thrombin, R.L. Lunblad, Biophys. Ada 513, 338-357 (1978). K.G. Mann, and J.W. Fenton, Eds., (Ann Arbor Sci- 49. J. WALL AND J. HAINFELD, "A new STEM capable of ence Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich, 1977) pp. observing single heavy atoms in frozen specimens." 129-143. 9th Jntemall. Congr. on Electron Microscopy, Toronto, 1, 38. C. KETTNER AND E. SHAW, The susceptibility of uro- 16-17(1978). kinase to affinity labeling by peptides of arginine 50. J. WALL, Mass measurement with the electron micro- chloromethyl ketone. Biochim. Biophys. Ada (submitted). scope. Scanning Electron Microscopy, 1979, (in press) 39. P. COLEMAN, C. KETTNER, AND E. SHAW, Plasminogen 51. J.S. WALL, J.F. HAINFELD, AND J.W. BITTNER, Pre- activator from HeLa cells. Inactivation by peptides of liminary measurements of uranium atom motion on arginine chloromethyl ketone. Biochim. Biophys. Ada carbon films at low temperatures. Ultramicroscopy 3, (submitted). 81-86 (1978).

40. C. KETTNER AND E. SHAW, D-Phe-Pro-ArgCH2Cl - 52. P.V.C. HOUGH, W.R. MCKINNEY, M.C. LEDBETTER, A selective affinity label for thrombin. Thrombosis Res. R.E. POLLACK, AND H.W. MOOS, Identification of bio- (submitted). logical molecules in situ at high resolution via the 41. Neutron scattering for the analysis of biological structures. B.P. fluorescence excited by a scanning electron beam. Schoenborn, Ed., Brookhaven Symp. in Biology 27, Proc. Nail. Acad. Sci. USA 73, 317-321 (1976). (1976). 53. P.V.C. HOUGH, Cathodoluminescence-detailed un- 42. B.P. SCHOENBORN, J. ALBERTI, A.M. SAXENA, AND J. derstanding may yield in situ distributions of individ- FISCHER, A low angle neutron data acquisition system ual molecular species at 100A resolution or below. for molecular biology. J. Appl. Cryst. 11, 455-460 Scanning Electron Microscopy 1, 257-264 (1977). (1978). 54. P.W. FRAME, M.C. LEDBETTER, AND J.W. BAUM, The 43. B.P. SCHOENBORN, Neutron diffraction analysis of influence of high intensity magnetic fields on root myoglobin. Science 190, 567-570 (1975). growth in Arabidopsis and Pisum, (in preparation). 102

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY Elliott N. Shaw, Chairman Geotfrey Hind, Deputy Chairman

Molecular Genetics Carl W. Anderson JaneK.Setlcw Organization; and expression of the adenovirus Transformation, recombination and repair in H. genome. injhunzee and its phages. John J. Dunn Richard B. Setlow; Farid Ahmed Synthesis and processing of RNA in E. celi and its Damage to DNA by radiation arid chemical carcino- phages; role of RNase III in RNA processing. gens and its repair. SanfordA. Lacks F. William Studier; Martha Simon Mechanism of genetic transformation in D. pneumo- Genetics and physiology and bacteriophage T7; gene niat; function of DNases. • expression, DNA metabolism, phage assembly. Betsy M. Sutherland DNA repairj cellular level photobiology.

Biological Structure Determination R. Douglas Carlson Alan C. McLaughlin Neutron scattering studies of chromatin and historic High resolution NMR studies of complexes between • complexes. small molecules and macromolecules. Membrane Marshall Elzinga structure. Muscle arid microtubular protein chemistry. Benno P. Schoenborn; James Cain; Anand Saxena James F. Hainfeld Neutron diffraction of biological structures; ribo- High resolution microscopy of membrane compo- somes, membranes. nents. Reconstruction from ordered arrays. EUiott N. Shaw; George Green; Charles Kettner Paul V.C. Hough Structure and function of cellular and blood pro- Use of fluorescence electron microscopy to localize teases,- enzyme chemistry. individual molecules in cellular organelles. John C. Sutherland Anthony A. Kossiakoff Optical probes of macromolecular conformations Protein crystallography by neutron and x-ray dif- ' and interactions. •-• fraction. Joseph S. Wall; Demetrios Voreades High resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy and single atom staining of filamentous

Bioenergetics Geoffrey Hind; Rudolf SJovacek JohnM. Olson Photosynthetic electron transport and phosphoryla- Structure of the photosynthetic unit of green bacteria. tion; ion fluxes in chloroplasts and plant cell vacuoloi.

Plant Sciences .Benjamin Burr; Frances A. Burr ; H. William Siegelman Biochemical genetics and storage protein synthesis in Phytoplankton physiology and biochemistry. maize. ; HaroldH. Smith William S. Hillman , Use of cell and tissue culture in plant cell genetics. : Control of growth and metabolism by Sight; aquat- JackVan'tHof ' ic plants for pollutant removal and biomass Genetics and regulation of the plant cell division production. . 'cycle. Myron C. Ledbetter ; George J.Wagner Fine structure of plants and plant cells by electron Characterization of plant cell vacuoles; mechanisms microscopy. . I1 of accumulation in plant cells. Lloyd A. Schairer i , Plant mutagenesis. Medical Department

INTRODUCTION the Laboratory's Pulmonary Toxicology Program.x Patients with chronic pulmonary disease are eval- The Medical Department, dedicated to the bet- uated with xenon-127 and krypton-81m, both terment of man's health, has entered a new period products of the Brookhaven Linac Isotope Pro- of emphasis on the effects of environmental pollu- ducer (BLIP). A comparison of the relative roles ants related to energy production. Many scientific and capabilities of each gas is being carried out. programs have been redirected and new efforts In addition the cardiovascular status and red cell are being made to initiate both clinical and basic mass is being determined in each patient with the studies which have application to either specific ffitoTc-red blood cell labeling kit developed by BNL. energy production processes or are multitechno- 18 Brain metabolic studies with F-2-fluoro-2- logical in nature. deoxy-D-glucose, developed by the Chemistry De- Major efforts of the Department center about partment, BNL, are being performed in collabo- inhalation toxicology and pulmonary diseases, nu- ration with the University of Pennsylvania, where clear medicine and medical applications of nuclear the technique originated. These studies are per- technology, and carcinogenesis, mutagenesis and formed on the positron emission transaxial tomo- teratogenesis. These efforts complement each graph (PETT) unit. Changes in regional glucose other making collaborative work amongst various metabolic rate are detected after various forms of groups desirable. The salient features of these optic, auditory, and sensory stimulation. Studies studies are the pollutants derived as by-products are starting on various brain disorders such as from energy technologies. Collaboration with the schizophrenia, epilepsy, and senility. neighboring academic and health-care institu- The PETT system is being used for myocardial tions as well as other scientific depa ;ments at 2 Brookhaven is encouraged and leads to productive imaging as well. A new radionuclide generator research which would otherwise be slow to develop system, iron-52-manganese-52m, is being utilized or impossible to attain. for assessment of myocardial perfusion. Some of these studies are being performed in collaboration Areas of scientific pursuit range from studies of with investigators from the State University of the cellular function of unusual biochemicals to New York at Stony Brook. Iron-52 is another development of new radiopharmaceuticals which BLIP product and can be used itself for imaging aid in the diagnosis of human disease. Related to of marrow distribution. the projects under way on the effects of radiation on human cells and tissues are new programs ex- Tumor imaging is an area of continuing interest. Iodine-123-labeled iodoquinoline is being used amining the biological effects of other phases of 3 our environment. The organization of the Labora- to image melanomas. A new class of radiophar- tory and the Medical Department under Associ- maceuticals utilizing ruthenium-97 is being stud- ated Universities, Inc. and the Department of En- ied and some of the most promising appear to be ergy provides the latitude necessary for develop- tumor-localizing agents. Studies have been limited ment of a project in both breadth and depth, as to animal models and tissue cu'' ires at this time progress dictates. Furthermore, this organization but extension to human use is anticipated in the enables the Department to respond to both long near future. range scientific goals and immediate national needs. The following report, although brief, gives some Medical Radionuclide Research idea of the types of work being done. Additional This program develops and provides new im- information may be obtained from publications proved, but otherwise unavailable, radionuclides of the Department. for radiopharmaceutical and clinical research and evaluation, and techniques for using them in solv- NUCLEAR MEDICINE ing medical problems. Involved is a unique facility, the Brookhaven Linac Isotope Producer Development of Diagnostic Imaging Techniques (BLIP), which utilizes the excess capacity of the Diagnostic pulmonary medicine has been re- linear accelerator injector for the Alternating ceiving special emphasis in the interaction with Gradient Synchrotron. The capability of BLIP to

103 104 support in-house pulmonary research and the facility were proven to be satisfactory, and ship- medical community in general is demonstrated by ments of selected unique isotopes were made to the production and distribution of over 40,000 milli- several organizations for research and evalur *ion. curies of xenon-127 in 1978, whereas as recently as In Phase III the operation of the facility is expected four years ago, only a few millicuries of this supe- to be supported entirely by the BLIP-derived rior radioactive gas tracer had ever been produced. radionuclides that are made available to hospitals A key feature of this program is the involve- throughout the country. At present, production ment of many off-site collaborating institutions output continues to increase linearly with a slope which assist in evaluating each of the end products which shows no signs of levelling off. Operation of and procedures developed by this program. Ex- the facility is providing much useful information amples include high specific activity iron-52 for regarding the behavior of cooling water, structural studying the distribution of blood-forming organs materials, and various types of targets when ex- in patients with disorders such as polycythemia, posed to a high-current beam of 200-MeV pro- and several "generator" systems for new short- tons. Challenges posed by a variety of operating lived radiotracers of potential utility in cardiopul- problems have each been met, increasing confi- monary disease studies. These systems include dence in the concept that a linear accelerator can generators for krypton-81m, manganese-52m, be successfully utilized to produce uniquely useful iodine-122, and tantalum-178. radioisotopes economically. Table I and the chart Significant progress in several areas of radio- (Fig. 1) show the off-site shipments of radioisotopes from the BLIP and monthly production of pharmaceutical chemistry research include sev- 127 eral improvements in the kit developed for label- Xe, respectively. ing a patient's own red blood cells with techne- Medical Studies of Marshall Islanders tium-99m. Over 5,000 of these kits were used in Accidentally Exposed to Radioactive Fallout 1978 to assess heart function in patients who have suffered heart attacks. In 1954 a fallout accident in the Pacific resulted Development and evaluation of an important in irradiation of 243 Marshall Islanders, 86 on new class of radiopharmaceuticals labeled with Rongelap and 157 on Utirik atolls, and in addi- ruthenium-97 was started recently. Research is tion 28 American servicemen on Rongerik and directed toward three major areas: (1) labeled 23 Japanese fishermen on their vessel, the Lucky ruthenium phosphate complexes for assessing Dragon. Annual examinations are conducted on damaged heart muscle resulting from myocardial the exposed and a control Marshallese population infarcts and for studying metabolic bone diseases by a medical team sponsored by BNL and with such as osteoporosis and osteomalacia; (2) lipo- participation by medical personnel from the Trust philic compounds of ruthenium, especially those Territory of the Pacific Islands and various insti- with oxine and iminodiacetic acid derivatives, for tutions in the United States. the studying of hepatobiliary function and labeling cellular elements of blood; (3) radiolabeled ruthenium compounds to localize in tumor cells for potential early diagnosis of cancer. Biodistribu- 6000 -

tion studies in animal models have been very en- 'SHORTAGE OF XENON couraging, and several compounds show consider- 5000 - able promise. f 4000 - - Studies involving the chemistry of technetium- 99m-labeled radiopharmaceuticals have eluci- G 3000 - - dated problems involved in labeling human serum 2000 • albumin and the characterizing of various species. - Purified technetium-99m-labeled albumin and 1000 1 III 1 ill _ red cells have been applied to the in vivo determi- •UlilrlllllllllllU mil nation of the regional body hematocrit. JFMAMJJASONDJFMflMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJ 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 The BLIP is in an interim phase of operation midway between Phase I and Phase III. In the first Figure 1. Monthly distribution of 127Xe (mCi) phase, the concept and the detailed design of the from the BLIP. 105

Table I

Off-Site Shipments of Radioisotopcs from the BLIP

Fiscal Rubidium/ Year Iodine Iron-52 Xenon-127 Krypton-81m

1973 1 (5 mCi) - - - 1974 29 (483 mCi) 18(227mCi) - - 1975 27 (564 mCi) 27 (364 mCi) 31 (2,797 mCi) - 1976* 7 (230 mCi) 10(150mCi) 74 (7,560 mCi) _ 1977 26 (935 mCi) - 168 (24,495 mCi) 6 (275 mCi) 1978 13(670mCi) 3 (55mCi) 251 (44,920 mCi) 30 (789 mCi) (Also occasional shipments of irradiated aluminum containing sodium-22, irradiated indium containing cadmium- 109 and tin-113, irradiated titanium digallide containing germanium-68, and irradiated thallium containing Iead-202)

•7/1/75 through 9/30/76.

The group on Rongelap was more heavily ex- about 30 rads and in young children up to about posed than those on the other islands and showed 90 rads. Recently there appears to be an increas- temporary depression of blood elements and tran- ing number of thyroid tumors in the Utirik popu- sient skin burns and hair loss. Though significant lation which may be related to a longer latent internal absorption of radionuclides occurred no period with lower doses. associated acute effects were noted. This is notable Thyroid surgery has been performed in the in view of the effects of the absorption of radio- United States on a total of 49 Marshallese: 26 iodines, from ingestion of contaminated food and exposed Rongelap, 9 exposed Utirik, and 14 un- water on the island, that developed later. exposed Marshallese people. Seven cases of cancer Follow-up examination during the first decade of the gland were found in exposed people (4 after subsidence of acute effects showed few clear- Rongelap and 3 Utirik). Two cases were found in cut findings related to radiation exposure except unexposed people. The remainder of the diagnoses possibly a temporary increase in miscarriages in were benign adenomatous nodules. Most of these the exposed Rongelap women. However, after the patients had extensive examinations at the Medi- first decade significant late effects of radiation ex- cal Research Center at BNL prior to surgery else- posure have developed, the most serious resulting where. Thyroid hormone treatment of the exposed from injury to the thyroid gland. This was heralded Rongelap people, begun in 1965, has been very by growth retardation in some of the exposed important in the prevention of the development of Rongelap children due to thyroid hormone defi- hypothyroidism in surgical cases and the enhance- ciency, followed by the development of thyroid ment of growth in retarded children, but has been nodularities in the exposed Rongelap people. In of questionable value in preventing further nod- the past few years hypofunction of the thyroid ule developments. glands has been detected in a number of people In 1972 an exposed Marshallese boy died of who had no nodules of the gland. The following acute leukemia possibly related to radiation expo- table summarizes the prevalence of thyroid ab- sure. Because of thi- and also due to the need of normalities in the various groups at this time. surveillance of the thyroid treatment program a The considerably greater number of tumors in resident physician has been placed in the Mar- the Rongelap children exposed at less than 10 shalls aided by a Marshallese nurse. A new clini- years of age is believed related to greater thyroid cal pathology laboratory is being set up beside the radiation doses in that group due to the smaller Trust Territory Hospital on Ebeye Island for use sizes of their glands. Benign nodules have also de- by the Resident Physician and the hospital staff. veloped in one of the children exposed in utero. Dose estimates for the Rongelap adults (gamma + Evaluation of Long-Term Exposure to Tritium radioiodine radiation) were about 335 rads and The objective of these studies is to determine between 700 and 1400 rads in young Rongelap the toxic effects of tritium (the radioactive isotope children. On Utirik the adult thyroid dose was of hydrogen) in the mammalian system. Special 106

Since the exposure to toxic materials may come through either ingestion or breathing, the effects of these toxic materials are being investigated after being taken into the animal through breathing, ingestion, or injection. This more closely par- allels the situation for the exposure of man to harmful elements in his environment. MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY The objective of this program is to improve cur- Figure 2. Location of the Marshall Islands (circled), site of annual examinations by the BNL medical team. rent nuclear techniques and to develop new ones to analyze and solve medical problems, particu- Table II larly those associated with environmental pollution. Measurement techniques developed to date Thyroid Abnormalities - Marshallese include a uniq le whole body counter (WBC); a total body neutron activation facility (TBNAA); Children* Adults a partial body (prompt gamma) neutron activa- Group Total (<10) (>10) Cancer tion facility (PGNAA); nuclear resonance scatter- Rongelap* 37% 66% 30% 4.9% ing techniques for in vivo measurement of metals; Utirik 7.0% 3.4% 9.0% 1.8% and a new absorptiometric technique for measur- Unexposed 5.2% 3.0% 6.4% 0.5% ing bone density. The development and perfection of these techniques provide unique applications of *lncludes both Rongelap and Ailingnae groups; age at radiation and radioisotopes to the early diagnosis time of exposure. (Data accrued through 1978.) and evaluation of therapy in human disease. Since inhalation is a major route of exposure to attention is given to the effects on the blood-form- toxic materials, the fate of particles in the alveoli ing tissues and reproductive systems of experimen- is an important determinant of the resultant toxic tal animals that continuously imbibe water con- 7 8 dose. To evaluate the nature of the alveolar clear- taining tritium. ' ance function and how it changes with the patho- Groups of male and female mice have been genesis of lung disease, subjects inhale 85Sr-tagged maintained on tritiated water at a concentration insoluble particles. The clearance of particles in- 100 times the current maximum permissible con- haled and deposited in the respiratory tract has centration guidelines. After 26 weeks or more the been measured in 11 normal subjects to date, the bone marrow is tested for any changes in its abil- volunteers inhaling 85Sr-labeled inert polystyrene ity to grow following transplantation into other microspheres. The slow clearance has been dif- lethally irradiated mice. Results indicate that ficult to measure in man because conventional there is some reduction in the viability of the bone techniques lack the sensitivity necessary. The pres- marrow in these animals. ent study used the highly sensitive BNL whole Other mice have been bred and the oflspring body counting facility built around two arrays of kept on tritiated water until they are young adults. 27 detectors. These second-generation animals are then bred The feasibility of in vivo measurement of iron and the pregnant females are examined to deter- concentration in the liver by nuclear resonance mine whether the tritiated water regimen has had scattering (NRS) was investigated in liver phan- any effect on the number of live embryos they pro- tom studies. This is a new application of a nuclear duce. Results indicate that there is a reduction in technology to address potential medical and en- the number of live embryos produced by the fe- vironmental problems. The method relies on the male when both she and her breeding partner, as detection of 0.85 MeV gamma rays resonantly well as their parents, had been given the tritium. scattered from activated 56Fe. The resonating Other mice are being given nonradioactive source used is 56CoCl, heated to 900°C, in vacuo, toxic compounds to compare the effects of these to obtain maximum recoil. The small overlap with the radioactive tritium. (1%) between emission and transmission lines 107 make this technique highly specific for quantita- A new, non-abrasive technique for measuring tion of a number of pollutant metals such as Li, total body nitrogen (TBN) was developed speci- Cu, Pb, and Si. fically with a view to studying body content of The effect of combination therapy which simul- nitrogen and its changes in cancer. The method taneously stimulates bone formation and inhibits utilizes the above technique of measuring on-line bone resorption was evaluated in 5 patients with the capture of x-rays arising from the interaction primary osteporosis. The technique of in vivo neu- of fast neutrons and various elements in the body. tron activation analysis was used to measure total The fast neutrons are derived from two 45 Ci body calcium (TBCa). The patients were treated sources of 238Pu-Be. The detectors in this tech- with calcium supplements and salmon calcitonin nique are sodium iodide. TBN can be measured combined with either a low or a high dose of with very small doses of radiation to the subject. growth hormone (hGH). There was no significant The technique offers a new experimental approach increase in skeletal mass (TBCa) during the low for study of the interrelation of cancer, diet, and dose hGH regimen. An increase in skeletal mass nutrition. was observed in all patients following the high dose regimen. Although this study in collabora- Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: tion with Nassau County Medical Center must be Quantitation of Body Burden of Leukemia considered to be of a preliminary nature, the mag- by Non-invasive Techniques nitude of the response in calcium balance suggests Kinetic analysis of growth of leukemic cells is of that skeletal mass can be increased in osteoporosis importance both for understanding the patho- if combination therapy is employed. physiology of leukemia and for designing optimal The study on prevention of involutional bone therapy. Although measurements of certain solid loss by physical exercise was completed in 9 post- tumors can be performed by non-invasive tech- menopausal women. Total and regional bone mass niques, there is no adequate method to quantitate was measured before and after 2 years of exercise human leukemic cell mass in situ. A new non-in- by the techniques of TBNAA, TBCa, and photon vasive method developed at BNL to quantitate absorptiometry (bone mineral content, BMC) of the leukemic body burden of patients with chronic the distal radius. BMC did not increase at the end lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is based on the de- of approximately one year of exercise. However, termination of total body potassium (TBK). Since the TBCa increased significantly following the ex- potassium is primarily localized intracellularly, ercise. These data support the hypothesis that in- TBK is directly proportional to the total body cell- volutional bone loss may be modified in postmeno- ular mass. CLL is characterized by accumulation pausal women by increased physical activity. It is of functionally incompetent lymphocytes. This not known if the Ca retention produced by exer- increment of cells in CLL is reflected in the pro- cise in postmenopausal women can be sustained portional rise of TBK. The predicted total body for longer periods of time.9 potassium (Kp) is calculated by a formula previously established at BNL. The difference between Prolonged exposure to cadmium (Cd) from the 13 environment can constitute a health hazard and TBK and Kp is indicative of the tumor burden. can result in a long-term toxic effect in man. For TBK is measured by the on-site whole body the general population the chief hazard is kidney counter. The whole body counter has 54 sodium damage through continual low-level absorption of iodide crystals arranged in 9 rows of three crys- Cd and its accumulation in the kidney. This has tals in each row. Twenty-seven crystals are above been proposed as a causative factor in human and twenty-seven below the bed on which the sub- hypertension. A major problem, however, is the ject lies for 15-30 minutes to be counted. TBK is determined by counting the radiation emitted by assessment of concentrations of Cd in the kidney. 40 Measurements of the concentration in blood and the naturally occurring isotope K and calculating the amount of 39K (the non-radioactive po- urine are of little value as an index of kidney 40 burden. The PGNAA technique has been devel- tassium) which occurs in a fixed ratio to K. oped and calibrated for the in vivo measurement of Ratio of TBK/Kp is 1.0 in normal subjects. In 55 Cd.10 The most significant finding to date is that CLL patients studied there is a steady statistically smokers have twice the levels of Cd in their kid- significant increase in TBK/Kp from 0 to stage neys and liver compared to non-smokers. III/IV of CLL (Fig. 3). The staging criteria are 108 based on the positive correlation of increasing It is known that DNA content, and therefore body burden of CLL leukemic cells and corre- the nuclear volume, of lymphocytes increases be- sponding decreasing duration of survival of the fore these cells divide. The nuclear volume mea- patients. TBK/Kp has been useful in assessing the surements were performed using a particle counter response to therapy and in predicting the reacti- and pulse height analyzer to assess the transfor- vation of CLL earlier than the usual clinical and mation in phytohemagglutinin (PHA) stimulated laboratory methods. Assessment of viable leukemic lymphocyte cultures. Volume-frequency curves mass by this method is non-invasive and does not were obtained on the Hay of initiation and at 3,6, require administration of isotope to the patient. and 9 days of culture (Fig. 4). As the cells transformed and the nuclei increased in volume the A New Approach for Measurement volume-frequency curves on days 3, 6, &9 shifted of Lymphocyte Proliferation in vitro "to right" (curves C,D,E, respectively, Fig. 4). The The unique property of lymphocytes to trans- movement "to right" is reflective of the number of form upon stimulation by various antigens and transformed cells in each curve. By obtaining the mitogens has become a useful investigative tool in fraction of the area under the curves on 3, 6, and the assessment of lymphocyte functions. Com- 9 days and the cell counts on the respective days, monly employed methods to study transformation actual number of cells transforming can be calcu- utilize the incorporation of an isotopicaliy labeled lated. This method not only provides the fraction deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) precursor into the of cells actually transformed but also the incre- lymphocytes and the transformation is assessed ment of the number of cells in the culture. The either morphologically after autoradiography or commonly employed isotope-labeled precursor by determining the radioactivity associated with uptake method monitors solely the fraction of cells lymphocytes in a scintillation counter. Both of in DNA synthesis. these methods provide, at best, an approximation of proliferative response. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS Carcinogenesis in the Rat Mammary Gland The incidence of breast cancer in the human female is different in different countries. Could this variation, at least in part, be accounted for by differing exposures to environmental pollutants? Accordingly, a well-known environmental pollutant, benzo(a)pyrene, (a component of cigarette smoke, exhaust of internal combustion engines, and emissions from the burning of coal and gas) was selected for study in an experimental animal- model system. Thirty milligrams of benzo(a)pyrene in oil were administered by stomach tube to young female Sprague-Dawley rats. Approximately one year later, in an experiment still in progress, one- third of the rats given benzo(a)pyrene developed one or more breast tumors as compared to a spon- NORMAL STAGE 0 taneous incidence of 15% in non-treated control rats. Although this result suggests that this envi- Figure 3. Mean ratios of total body potassium (TBK) to ronmental pollutant induced an excess incidence the predicted normal total body potassium (Kp) with ±1 of breast tumors in these rats, any implications for SD in patients with various clinical stages of CLL and of the human breast cancer situation must be as- normal population of 40 years of age or older are shown. sessed with extreme caution. In regard to the rat Mean TBK/Kp (±1 SD) for controls and stages 0,1, II, results themselves, it must be recognized that the III, and IV are 0.999 (0.020), 0.962 (0.058), 1.035 (0.079), 1.114 (0.047), and 1.185 (0.075) respectively. Number of relative amount of benzo(a)pyrene given to each individuals in each group is shown in brackets. rat was extremely large, and it is not yet known 109

erase through these interactions with its substrates. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NUCLEAR VOLUMES Instead, they react directly with the polymerase. DAY 0-CURVE B Although the exact chemical nature of the inter- 3-CURVE C action has yet to be elucidated, it does not appear 6-CURVE D 9-CURVE E that it is binding to the "active site" of the enzyme. The inhibition of the DNA polymerase by these toxic metals can be reversed or prevented by the 600 n addition of reagents which bind the metals more strongly than does the polymerase. Some of these reagents resemble compounds that are normally present in cells. The conclusion, based on the results of these studies, is that it is improbable that copper, lead,

30 60 90 120 ISO or cadmium would interfere with the action of this VOLUME (urn3) DNA polymerase at a concentration that might reasonably be anticipated in a living human being. Figure 4. Volume-frequency distribution of nuclear volume of PHA stimulated normal lymphocytes on 0, 3,6, Interaction Between Environmental Pollutants and 9 days of culture. and Oncogenic Viruses in Carcinogenesis16 The concept of environmental causation of how to extrapolate the results obtained with large human cancer has been emphasized by many doses to low doses. Further, it is not yet known just scientists working in the field of chemical carcino- how to translate the incidence of rat breast tumors genesis as well as in cancer epidemiology. Further- to the incidence of human breast cancer. Even so, more, it has been estimated that over 90% of the present results with rats suggest that the possi- human cancers are caused by agents in the envi- ble relationship between environmental pollutants ronment. Consequently, cancer prevention, by and breast cancer be examined additionally.14 identification of carcinogens in the human sphere and their subsequent removal or substantial de- DNA Polymerase Interaction with Pollutants15 crease, becomes an ultimate goal of research. The burning of fossil fuels releases into the en- In order to evaluate the health hazard of car- vironment a number of trace metals at low con- cinogens it is important to know the degree to centrations which eventually find their way into which any carcinogen acts alone, be it chemical human beings. Certain energy-related processes or viral, and the extent of interaction of one agent may expose a group of industrial workers to much with another from the same or a different cate- higher metal concentrations than those experi- gory of carcinogens. The interactions of chemicals enced by the general population. Several metals and viruses are important since the combination have been shown to produce mutations or cancer of various agents may be responsible for an in- in experimental animals, but it is not known creased risk of cancer in laboratory animals and whether the low concentrations found in human in human populations. The involvement of mul- beings are dangerous from this point of view. Con- tiple agents lead to different, but specific, types of sequently, biochemical studies were carried out assays to survey the environment for carcinogenic on the ability of certain trace metal ions to inter- agents. On considering this situation, economical fere with the action of a human DNA polymerase and relevant test systems must be developed to ana- (DNA polymerases are enzymes that synthesize lyze the combined effects of several carcinogens. DNA, the genetic material of cells.) The objective of this research is to develop re- Copper, lead, and cadmium all inhibit the DNA liable methods for rapid identification of potential polymerase strongly at very low concentrations. environmental carcinogens and evaluation of the All three metals are known to interact with DNA role of chemical carcinogens in promoting viral and to destabilize its normal structure, and they oncogenesis. For these studies, an in vitro transfor- also interact with the low-molecular-weight pre- mation system was chosen which utilizes cultures cursors of the DNA chain. Kinetic analysis showed, of primary hamster embryo cells and an onco- however, that the metals do not inhibit the polym- genic simian adenovirus, SA7. The adenovirus 110 transformation assay offers a quantitative, reliable, erable effort has gone into the development of a reproducible system, in which the contributions of new inhalation facility which is presently in the chemical and virus can be adequately studied. final stages of completion. The purpose of these studies is to determine With approximately 600 m2 of laboratory space, whether or not environmental pollutants, such as it consists of two areas; one containing two con- polycyclic hydrocarbons, metal salts, nitrogen and ventional laboratories for biochemical and physio- sulfur oxides (a) enhance viral transformation of logical studies and non-hazardous nose exposure cells in vitro; (b) cause damage to cell DNA; (C) experimentation, and an electron microscopy suite enhance viral tumor formation in vivo; and if so, with unlimited access; the other being restricted (d) to obtain quantitative information directly ap- space containing two large chamber rooms, three plicable to estimation of health risks from these small laboratories and two animal rooms (Fig. 5). pollutants. Quantitative data obtained from joint As depicted in the schematic, each chamber room activity of chemical and virus should provide in- contains about 71.5 m2 and is equipped for both formation leading to an understanding of the chronic and acute studies. A total of 11 small in- process of tumor initiation by chemical and viral halation chambers (1.2m3) and 8 large chambers agents. (5.0m3) are provided for in these rooms. Smaller chambers for acute studies are located in large INHALATION TOXICOLOGY hoods contained within the chamber rooms. The air-handling equipment in the restricted space is Recent changes in the major sources of energy separate from that servicing the non-regulated and the introduction of many new chemicals for space and is totally redundant, allowing for unin- industrial and domestic use in the United States terrupted operation during mechanical failures. impose mounting health hazards from airborne The regulated space is always maintained at pollutants. We have recently begun a new program slightly lower pressure than the non-regulated aimed at assessing health effects of energy-related space ensuring containment of any toxic materials. atmospheric pollutants. This broad based, multi- The toxic materials will always be handled in disciplinary effort is aimed at integrating the re- chambers and glove boxes (delineated in black in sults of in vitro studies, in vivo animal studies, and the figure) having their own separate redundant clinical studies of human pulmonary disease into air supply and exhaust systems. These chambers a comprehensive picture of adverse health effects and glove boxes will also be under negative pres- caused by energy-related air pollutants. Inhala- sure thus assuring that if leaks are present, air will tion toxicology studies are concerned with 1) phys- leak into them. This provides protection for the ical and chemical properties of materials to which personnel operating the facility. During operation, man is exposed via the respiratory tract and how several experimental variables such as chamber to duplicate these materials for animal exposures; temperature, humidity, air flow, pressure, and 2) understanding the normal structure and func- pollutant concentration will be controlled by a tion of the cells of the lung and their subcellular series of microprocessors which, through a central components; 3) how airborne materials react with unit, allow for continuous visual observation and normal lung to produce lung disease; 4) the effect the manual changing of these variables for differ- of various combinations of airborne contaminants ent experiments at a central station. Chamber on biological systems; 5) the effects of atmospheric condition data are automatically logged and filed. pollutants on preexisting disease states; 6) devel- Any variable measured and found to be outside oping more sensitive indices of altered cardiopul- preset limits is automatically altered by feedback monary functions, quantitative morphometric control loops activating mechanisms necessary to techniques and close correlation of the two; and 7) return that variable to within acceptable limits. investigation of effects of inhaled materials on Preparation of carcinogens and chemical anal- other target organs such as liver and kidney. ysis of chamber contents and biological samples are carried out in laboratories within the regu- Inhalation Toxicology Facility lated area. The necropsy and surgery for animals Controlled exposure of laboratory animals to within this area are performed within a devoted laboratory equipped with glove boxes and bag-in- toxic airborne materials requires specifically de- bag-out pass-throughs to eliminate contamination signed facilities and equipment.17'18 Thus consid- Ill

Figure 5. Floor plan: Inhalation Toxicology Facility. of clean areas. All solid wp^tes will be incinerated For the time being, several small research proj- in accordance with recommendations of the Safety ects are being conducted in interim facilities (Figs. and Environmental Protection Division. Air 6 and 7) which have been converted for use with emerging from the building is filtered to provide inhalation chambers. protection for the external environment. All personnel enter the regulated area through Current Research shower-in, shower-out passages. Exit may not be Current research projects include investigation made without showering and changing to street of some of the physical properties of inhalation clothes. Those animals which are not maintained chambers, specifically delineating the various com- within the chambers may be housed in two animal ponents that go into maintaining proper chamber rooms contained within the regulated area. How- temperatures. A second project which is nearing ever, many of the studies will be chronic inhala- completion is an investigation of the effects of sul- tion experiments; these animals may remain in phur dioxide on the production of hypertension the large chambers during their entire life span. by high salt diets in animals which are resistant The microtomy and electron microscopy suite to, or animals which are susceptible to, salt-in- (79 m2) contains two dark rooms, a scanning duced hypertension. We are also investigating the electron microscope, embedment and cutting immunological effects of exposure to a variety of areas. Acquisition of a transmission electron agents, including ozone, sulphur dioxide, and microscope is planned for the facility at some benzene (as outlined in the next section). We are future time. developing methods for assaying the genetic effects 112 of exposure to airborne materials using the domi- This research combines the investigation of nant lethal model as developed here at Brook- acute and chronic effects of inhaled benzene on haven and assessing mutagenic effects of some of immune responses in mice. The protection nor- the gaseous air pollutants. mally conferred on individuals by immunization A second area of investigation includes the de- with antigens and vaccines may be greatly reduced velopment of animal models of pulmonary dis- after exposure to inhaled benzene. The most dra- ease. Toxicological investigations for the most part matic effect of chronic exposure to benzene in ani- have used healthy animals as the test subjects, mals and man is depression of the bone marrow however, it is clear that epidemiological studies with subsequent development of aplastic anemia have shown that people who are already sick are and leukemia. The appearance of leukemia in man at much greater risk during episodes of high air has long been associated with chronic exposure pollution. Thus it behooves us to develop animal to benzene. models of disease and then superimpose on these There are no reports in the literature concern- models exposure to some of the more common air ing the effects of inhaled benzene upon antibody pollutants that are in the atmosphere as the result responses and related immune mechanisms. Early of energy utilization. To this end we have used studies (1912-1915) demonstrated that injection bleomycin to develop a fibrotic lesion in the lungs of rabbits with benzene in olive oil mixtures de- of animals and are anticipating the use of papain pressed antibody production. Similar experiments to deveolp an emphysematous lesion in the lungs at that time indicated that rabbits became more of rats. We are also interested in the development susceptible to pneumonia after toxic exposure to of pneumoconiosis and when the new facility is benzene. Since man is most likely to be exposed completed we anticipate exposing animals to coal to benzene by direct skin contact and by inhala- dust in a manner that mimics the way coal miners tion, an air inhalation exposure chamber was de- are exposed. Our program will measure a number veloped to expose animals to benzene, as shown of endpoints including indices of cardiopulmonary in Fig. 6. In our initial experiments, mice were function, biochemical, and morphological changes exposed to benzene vapor (400 ppm) for 6 hours/ resulting from exposure to airborne pollutants. day for periods of 5,12, and 22 days. After expo- Development of more sensitive indices of cardio- sure to benzene, the animals were immunized with pulmonary compromise and development of quan- either adsorbed tetanus toxoid (APTT) or fluid titative morphometric techniques and the close tetanus toxoid (FIT) as normally used for primary correlation of the two are essential to a compre- immunization in man. Exposure to benzene for 5, hensive inhalation toxicology program. The as- 12, and 22 days increasingly repressed prin.ary sessment of pulmonary function incorporates the antibody responses to APTT by 8, 36, and 85% physiology of the circulatory system as well. Stud- respectively, as compared with air chamber con- ies of cardiopulmonary response to environmental trol animals. Antibody responses to FTT were reagents are clearly more realistic than attempting pressed by 80 to 90% in mice similarly exposed to to separate pulmonary and cardiac effects of in- benzene (400 ppm) for 5 to 22 days. haled airborne pollutants. Additional experiments will test the effects of Benzene Inhalation Effects reduced levels of benzene upon primary and sec- on Antibody Responses ondary antibody responses. Other studies are con- The industrial use of benzene continues to in- cerned with the effects of inhaled benzene upon crease each year. More than 5.3 billion liters of the time of onset and the incidence of lympho- benzene are used each year by chemical industries cytic leukemia in selected strains of mice. as a starting agent for the synthesis of more complex chemicals and plastic materials. Benzene is Gut Penetration by Particles now being added to our gasolines to replace lead Particulate materials, including known carcino- as an anti-knock agent. It is apparent that indus- gens and sulfates, constitute a major proportion of trial workers in our coal conversion processes and pollutants in the biosphere. It is generally agreed the general population will be increasingly ex- that the greatest risk of human and animal expo- posed to benzene and related products in the sure to airborne particles is via the pulmonary future. system. Studies on pulmonary clearance have shown, however, that a large fraction of intra- tracheally injected or inhaled particles reappear in the digestive tract. In addition, exposure to particulate contamination of food and water supplies is almost exclusively via the gastrointestinal tract. Consequently, the mucosal surface of the in- testine is a major site of contact with the external environment whether the initial exposure to the particulate pollutant is via the pulmonary or gastrointestinal tract. Little is known about the penetration of particulates thrc h the gut wall, and the biological effects which may result. Experimental animals have been employed in an attempt to describe qualitatively and quantita- tively the uptake, total body burden, organ distribution, and fate of various particles administered into the gut either by gastric lavage or through ingestinn of contaminated food and water. Results Figure 6. A glove box assembly with an enclosed inhalation chamber for housing and exposing rodents to highly to date indicate that a variety of particles of dif- toxic chemicals. ferent sizes and shapes penetrate the intestinal barrier and can readily be found in Peyer's patches and mesenteric lymph nodes.22 Experiments with ingested carbon particles suggest that the tissue Figure 7. Typical small inhalation ch mbers for daily distribution of particulates which 1 ave penetrated exposure of animals to air pollutants. the intestinal mucosa is primarily a function of migrating cells called macrophages.23 Intestinal macrophages undoubtedly play a vital role in host defense against intestinal microorganisms as well as other ingested particulates. For example, studies in mice employing biologically active particles, such as asbestos, suggest that DNA-precursor incorporation and immune responses may be altered. These experiments leave little doubt that ingested particles can pass the intestinal barrier and that this must be taken into account when considering total exposure of man and animals to particulate pollutants and their potential biological effects.

REGULATORY MECHANISMS OF ERYTHROPOIESIS It is generally agreed that the production of erythropoietin (Ep), the putative erythropoietic hormone, is regulated by the amount of oxygen delivered, relative to the amount of oxygen required, by those cells involved in the production of this hormone. There are several acute respiratory adjustments made by both man and animals when they are subjected to acute "hypoxic" stress. Three classic stimuli have been described which are associated with the increased production of Ep. When an animal is subjected to acute hemorrhage, 114 acute hypoxia, or subcutaneous administration of animal studies are being extended to humans with cobalt, an acute respiratory alkalosis develops chronic lung disease in order that we may define with an increase in pH and a decrease in pCO2 the mechanism(s) underlying the clinical dispari- which leads to an increase in the affinity of the ties observed in erythropoiesis in patients with hy- hemoglobin molecule for oxygen.25"27 Following poxemia secondary to chronic lung disease.29 this respiratory adjustment there is an increase in the plasma levels of Ep. The most obvious expla- STUDIES ON HYPERTENSION nation for these findings is that the alteration in the affinity of the hemoglobin molecule for oxygen The experimental studies centered on two lines plays a role in the delivery of oxygen to the tissues, of rats with opposite genetically determined pre- hence, the tissues sense oxygen deprivation which disposition to hypertension. One line, the Dahl stimulates the production of Ep and subsequently hypertension-sensitive or S line, rapidly develops there are more red blood cells available to trans- severe hypertension (HT) in response to hyper- port oxygen. It is also possible that changes in pH tensinogenic stimuli to which the other line, the and/or pCC>2 either directly or indirectly in- Dahl hypertension-resistant or R line, responds fluence Ep production. For this reason the effects only mildly or not at all. of hypercarbia on Ep levels in rats exposed to either acute hypoxia and/or acute blood loss were Cadmium and Hypertension investigated. In this study of the effect of CO2 on The role of cadmium in human and experi- Ep production it was demonstrated that increas- mental HT has been a controversial subject. ing the amount of CO2 in the inspired air resulted Studies with our animal model have indicated in a markeO reduction in the amount of measur- 28 that genetic composition is a critical determinant able plasma Ep in both hypoxic and anemic rats. of whether experimental HT develops following This reduction in plasma levels of Ep with hyper- exposure to cadmium.30 carbia could not be fully explained by the higher Our results have shown that only the S strain arterial pCVs or the lower affinity state of the rat exhibited increase in blood pressure. We have hemoglobin molecule for oxygen observed in hy- also investigated the influence of cadmium on percarbic rats. Supportive evidence that pH and/ other forms of HT. Two weeks after clipping of or CO2 may have a direct effect on erythropoietin one renal artery of adult R and S rats, followed by levels was demonstrated in hypoxic-hypercarbic- intraperitoneal cadmium injection, S rats showed anemic rats. Arterial pCVs, O2 saturations, and marked elevation of blood pressure, significantly the affinity of the hemoglobin molecule for oxygen higher than that of their S controls. Cadmium had were the same in both hypoxic-anemic and hy- no influence on mild renal HT in R rats. poxic-anemic-hypercarbic rats after 18 to 36 hours of hypoxic exposure. Plasma levels of Ep were Nervous System Factors in Hypertension31 significantly lower in the hypercarbic rats during this time interval. It was further demonstrated Using a technique which prevents the neonatal that neither the onset nor the degree of reticulo- development of the sympathetic branch of the cytosis (a measure of erythropoietic activity) could autonomic nervous system, it has been demon- be predicted by the plasma Ep levels. A reticulo- strated that salt-induced hypertension is depen- cytosis was observed to begin 12 hours after acute dent upon nervous system factors while renal hy- bloi-d loss irrespective of the plasma level of Ep or pertension is not. This suggests that in differing forms of experimental hypertension different the presence of hypoxia and/or hypercarbia. That pathophysiologic mechanisms may be responsible. hypoxia was not suppressing the emergence of Related to nervous system factors is the observa- reticulocytes from the bone marrow is ascertained tion that S rats exhibit behavioral characteristics by the fact that acutely bled, hypoxic rats had die which distinguish them from R rats. These behav- same degree of reticulocytosis as did acutely bled ioral observations may serve as markers for the rats maintained in room air. The experimental genetic susceptibility to hypertension. data described lead us to conclude that the regulation of ery thropoiesis is mediated by more than Clinical Studies one mechanism and that tissue hypoxia may not be the sole regulator of Ep production. These In our clinical studies, emphasis is placed on the association of hypertension with coronary artery 115 disease. Hypertension is one of the major risk fac- tion was measured before and after a 2 g oral load tors in determining the morbidity and mortality of of L-tryptophan, and the patients were again cardiovascular disease. Patients with hypertension studied with tracer doses of L-tryptophan- 7a-14C, alone and patients with hypertension and coro- L-kynurenine-keto-14C, and hydroxy-L-kynuren- nary artery disease have been studied to see ine-keto-"C. The breath 14COz and 14 urinary whether we can predict who will develop heart at- metabolites were measured (Fig. 8). When they tack among hypertensive patients and the influence were compared with a previous study of Ameri- of treatment of hypertension on the prognosis of can women with scleroderma, similar 14CO2 and coronary artery disease. tryptophan metabolite excretion patterns were ob- We have also been studying the role of cad- served in the data from the miners. The labelled mium in human essential hypertension by mea- quinolinic acid excretion was more significantly suring cadmium in the kidney in vivo. elevated in the South African miners' urine than in the urine of the American women. The data LUNG SILICOSIS-SCLERODERMA- from both studies suggest that some patients with TRYPTOPHAN METABOLISM scleroderma have an altered step in the trypto- INTERRELATIONSHIPS phan metabolic pathway after hydroxy-anthra- nilic acid. What relationship exists between the Scleroderma is a disease which appears as a induction of pulmonary silicosis and the subse- hardening of large areas of the skin and a freezing quent development of scleroderma requires addi- of the joints in hands and feet. tional human studies. A study of female patients with scleroderma showed that some patients have an altered metab- CH,-t«-CMH olism of the amino acid, tryptophan, and that this alteration was present in the metabolic pathway somewhere after the compound 3-hydroxy-an- thranilic acid. Other studies on L-tryptophan loading in patients with scleroderma showed that all the patients had high values for urinary kynurenine and less elevated values for hydroxykyn- urenine, which suggested that such patients might have an inhibition of their kynurenine hydroxylase system. In South Africa some male white miners exhibit scleroderma which occurs concurrently with lung silicosis. In general, miners exhibit the scle- rodermal manifestations much earlier in life than other people. A study of 727 people, not miners, in the USA, showed that the highest incidence of scleroderma occurred among the female population (3 to 1). Studies of isotope-labelled L-tryptophan or L-kynurenine metabolism in American female scleroderma patients showed that the tracer methods pinpointed the sites of abnormal metabolism more specifically than studies done without isotope-labelled compounds in the same patient. A study was conducted to determine whether the tryptophan metabolic abnormalities found in the American female scleroderma patients are also present in South African men with scleroderma, whose disease may have been induced by silicosis Figure 8. The labeled carbon of the administered compound is contracted in the gold mines on the Witwatersrand. given a letter which indicates the fate of a particular carbon along the pathway. The letter A refers to the 7a carbon of the Two studies were done in six South African tryptophan-7a-14C. The letter B refers to the keto carbon white miners: The tryptophan metabolite excre- in kynurenine-keto-"C and hydroxy-kymirenine-keto-14C. 116

REFERENCES 14. For details, consult Dr. Shellabarger. 15. This research has been incorporated into a manu- 1. H.L. ATKINS, H. SUSSKIND, J.F. KLOPPER, ET AL, A script entitled "Interaction of Human DNA Polymer- clinical comparison of127 Xe and 133Xe for ventilation ase B with Ions of Copper, Lead and Cadmium" studies. J. Mucl. Med. 18,653-659 (1977). which has been submitted for publication (Archives 2. B.M. GALLAGHER, A. ANSARI, H. ATKINS, ET AL, Ra- of Biochemistry and Biophysics). diopharmaceuticals XXVII. 18F-labeled 2-deoxy- 16. For details consult Dr. M.T. Pavlova. 2-fluoro-D-glucose as a radiopharmaceutical formea - 17. R.T. DREW, A Manual on the Safety of Handling suring regional myocardial glucose metabolism in vivo. Carcinogens in the Laboratory. Appendix 6. Facilities Tissue distribution and imaging studies in animals. for Carrying Out Inhalation Experiments with Chem- J. Nucl. Med. 18,990-996 (1977). ical Carcinogens. Int. Agency for Res. on Cancer. 3. S. PACKER, C. REDVANLY, R.M. LAMBRECHT, FT AL, W.H.O. IARC (Scientific, Lyon, France, 1978). Quinoline analog labeled with iodine 123 in mela- 18. R.T. DREW, D.M. BERNSTEIN, AND S. LASKIN, The noma detection. AMA Arch. Ophth. 93,504-508 (1975). Laskin Aerosol Generator, J. Toxicol. and Environ. 4. R.A. POPP, E.G. BAILIFF, G.P. HIRSGH, AND R.A. Health 4, 661-70 (1978). CONARD, Errors in human hemoglobin as a function 19. For details consult Dr. R.D. Stoner. of age. Interdiscipl. Topics Geront. 9, 209-18 (1976). 20. M.E. LEFEVRE, D.D. JOEL, J.A. LAISSUE, M.S. EL- 5. R.A. CONARD, Summary of Thyroid Findings in Mar- AASSER, AND J.W. VANDERHOFF, Stability of 125I after shallese 22 Years After Exposure to Radiation Fall- intragastric or intravenous administration of radio- out. Radiat"' n-Associated Thyroid Carcinoma, LJ. iodinated latexes to mice, J. Reticuloendothel. Soc. 22, DeGroal, Editor, Grune and Stratton, Inc. New York, No. 3,189-98(1977). 1977, pp. 241-57. 21. M.E. LEFEVRE AND D.D. JoEL,Minireview: Intesti- 6. P.A. LARSEN, R.A. CONARD, K. KNUDSEN, J. ROBBINS, nal absorption of particulate matter, LifeSci. 21,140.3- J. WOLFF, J.E. RALL, AND DOBYNS, B., Thyroid hypo- 08(1977). function appearing as a delayed manifestation of ac- 22. M.E. LEFEVRE, J.W. VANDERHOFF, J.A. LAISSUE, AND cidental exposure to radioactive fallout in a Marshal- D.D. JOEL, Accumulation of 2-pm latex particles in lese population. Presented at IAEA Meeting, The mouse Peyer's patches during chronic latex feeding. Late Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation, Vienna, Experientia 34,120-21 (1978). Austria, March 1978. 23. D.D. JOEL, J.A. LAISSUE, AND M.E. LEFEVRE, Dis- 7. S.L. COMMERFORD, A.L. CARSTEN, AND E.P. CRON- tribution and fate of ingested carbon particles in mice, KITE, The distribution of tritium in the glycogen, J. Reticuloendothel. Soc. 24, No. 5,477-87 (1978). hemoglobin, and chromatin of mice receiving tritium in their drinking water. Radiat. Res. 72, 333- 24. M.E. LEFEVRE, R. OLIVO, J.W. VANDERHOFF, AND 342 (1977). D.D. JOEL, Accumulation of latex in Peyer's patches and its subsequent appearance in villi and mesenteric 8. A.L. CARSTEN, S.L. COMMERFORD, AND E.P. CRONKITE, lymph nodes, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 159, 298-302 The genetic and late somatic effects of chronic tritium (1978). ingestion in mice, CHIT. Top. Radiat. Res. Quart. 12, 212- 224 (1977). 25. M.E. MILLER, M. RORTH, H.H. PARVING, D. HOWARD, I. REDDINGTON, C.R. VALERI, AND F. STOHLMAN, JR., 9. J.F. ALOIA, S.H. COHN, J.A. OSTUNI, R. CANE, AND pH effect on erythropoictin (Ep) response to hypoxia. K.J. ELLIS, The prevention of involutional bone loss JV. Engl. J. Med. 288, 706 (1973). by physical exercise, Ann. Int. Med. 89, 356-58 (1978). 26. M.E. MILLER, "The Interaction Between the Regula- 10. S.H. COHN, In vivo neutron activation analysis. Text- tion of Acid-Base Balance and Erythropoietin Pro- book of Nuclear Medicine: Basic Sciences, A.F.G. Rocha duction." In M. Bessis (Ed.): Blood Cells (Springer- and J.C. Harbert, Editors, Lea & Febiger, Philadel- phia, 1978, pp. 396-406. Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York, (1975) 11. P. CHANDRA, G. BORNER, A.D. CHANANA, G. CHIK- Vol. 1, #3, pp. 449-461. 27. M.E. MILLER, M. ROTH, F. STOHLMAN, JR., C.R. KAPPA, K. CONKLING, E.P. CRONKITE, AND C.R. SlPE, Quantitation of human T-lymphocytes in blood: Use VALERIE, G. LOVVRIE, AND D. HOWARD: The effects of acute bleeding on acid-base balance, erythropoietin of automatic smearing instrument for preparing fixed slides of E-rosettes, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 152, 330- production and in vivo p50 in the rat, Brit.J. Hemat. 33 333 (1976). 379 (1976). 28. M.E. MILLER,* AND D. HOWARD, Modulation of 12. P. CHANDRA, A.D. CHANANA, G. CHIKKAPPA, AND E.P. CRONKITE, Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: Concepts erythropoiesis and erythropoietin levels by manipula- and observations, Blood Cells 3,637-649 (1977). tion by hypocarbia, Blood Cells (in press). 29. M.E. MILLER, J. GARCIA, R. COHEN, E.P. CRONKITE, 13. P. CHANDRA,* A. SAWITSKY, A.D. CHANANA, G. CHIK- G. MOCCIA, AND J. ACEVEDO, Erythropoietin levels in KAPPA, S.H. COHN, K.R. RAI, AND E.P. CRONKITE, Correlation of total body potassium to leukemic cell patients with chronic lung disease. (Abstract) Amer- mass in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. ican Society for Clinical Research, Washington, D.C. Blood (In press - April 1979). May 5-7 (1979). 30. E.V. OHANIAN, J. IWAI, G. LEITL, AND R. TUTHILL, Genetic influence on cadmium-induced hypertension. *Person to whom inquires should be addressed. Am. J. Physiol. 235, No. 4, H385-H391 (1978). 117

31. R. FRIEDMAN AND J. IWAI, Genetic predisposition 34. L.V. HANKES, Influence of iron and ascorbic acid on and stress-induced hypertension, Science 193, 161-162 tryptophan metabolism in man, Ada Vitamin. Enzymol. (1976). (Milano) 29, 174-176 (1975). 32. L.V. HANKES, R.R. BROWN, J. LEKLEM, M. SCHMAE- 35. L.V. HANKES, E. DEBRUIN, C.R. JANSEN, L. VORSTER, LER, AND J. JESSEPH, Metabolism of C14 labeled en- AND M. SCHMAELER, Metabolism of 14G-labelled L- antiomers of tryptophan, kynurenine and hydroxy- tryptophan, L-kynurenine and hydro.sy-L-kynuren- kynurenine in humans with scleroderma, J. Invest. ine in miners with scleroderma, SA Med. -J. 51, 383- Dermatol. 58, No. 2, 85-95 (1972). 390(1977). 33. L.V. HANKES, Interrelationships of ascorbic acid and 36. L.V. HANKES AND C.R. JANSEN, Effect of vitamin or tryptophan metabolism, Amer. J. Clin. Nulr. 27, 770- amino acid supplementation on plasma free amino 771 (1974). acid levels in South African blacks, SA Med. J. 52, 110-114(1977). 118

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT SCIENTIFIC STAFF

A. Environmental Health Sciences Program Coordinator, Robert T. Drew Medical Studies of the People of the Marshall Islands Interrelationships Among Genetic Factors and Environ- Accidentally Exposed to Fallout - H.S. Pratt, R.S. mental Pollutants in Clinical and Experimental Hyper- Rittmaster. tension - J. Iwai, S.B. Haber, R. Friedman. Inhalation Toxicology and the Physiology, Biochemistry, The Effects of Toxic Agents on Cells in Culture - J.C. and Morphology of Human Pulmonary Disease - Acevedo. R.T. Drew, M. Kuschner, J.C. Acevedo, D.M. Bern- Inhalation Toxicity of Glass Fibers (TIMA) - R.T. Drew. stein, D.L. Costa, G. Schidlovsky, D.N. Slatkin, J.D. Respiratory Pathology Training Grant (NIEHS) - R.T. Glass, C.S. Pande. Drew. Inbreeding of Dahl S and R Rats (NHLBDI) - J. Iwai, S.B. Haber. B. Nuclear Medicine and Medical Physics Coordinator, Stanton H. Cohn Extension and Improvement of Radiographic and Iso- Radionuclide Development - L. Stang, P. Richards, S. topic Diagnostic Techniques - H.L. Atkins, R.G. Fair- Srivastava, T. Ku, S. Pande, D. Bandyopadhay, Y. child, A.G. Goldman, H.R. Pate, E.R. Schachner, P. Hung. Som, PJ. Shah, D.A. Lloyd, Z.H. Oster, S. Packer, H. Myocardial Infarction (NHLBI) - H.L. Atkins. Susskind. Melanoma Detection (NCI) - H.L. Atkins. Medical Applications of Nuclear Technology - S.H. Program in Support of Nuclear Medicine (NINCDS) - Cohn, K.J. Ellis, D. Vartsky, I. Zanzi, S. Yasumura, H.L. Atkins. H.R. Pate, W.D. Morgan. Boron Epithermal-Neutron Capture Therapy (NCI) - Positron Emission Tomography in Nuclear Medicine R.G. Fairchild. Diagnosis - H.L. Atkins. Gerontological Changes in Skeletal Mass (NIA) - S.H. Development of Techniques and Methods of Measure- Cohn. ment of Alveolar Clearance of Airborne Particles in Diet, Nutrition, and Cancer (NCI) - S.H. Cohn. Man - S.H. Cohn, D.E. Bohning, K.J. Ellis, H. Suss- Chemistry of Tc-Sn Radiopharmaceuticals (FDA) - P.C. kind, H.L. Atkins. Richards. C. Genetics and Biochemical Sciences (carcinogenesis, cytogenetics, teratogenesis, etc.) Coordinator, M.A. Bender Experimental Chemical-Induced and Radiation-Induced Evaluation of Hazards of Byproducts from Nuclear and Carcinogenesis - C.J. Shellabarger, S. Holtzman, J.P. Nonnuclear Energy Generation — AX. Carsten, S.L. Stone. Commerford, D.N. Slatkin. Oxidative and Free Radical Mechanisms Involved in the Human Chromosomal Aberration Production by Energy- Cytotoxicity and Carcinogenicity/Mutagenicity of Pol- Related Agents - M.A. Bender, R.R. Tice, R. Kale. lutants - D.C. Borg, JJ. Elmore, A. Forman, K.M. Teratogenesis - D.W. Slater. Schaich. Hormones, Neutron Irradiation and Mammary Gland Interaction Between Energy-Related Pollutants and On- Carcinogenesis (NCI) - C.J. Shellabarger. cogenic Viruses in Carcinogenesis - M.T. Pavlova. NCI Training Grant - C.J. Shellabarger (Medical De- partment Coordinator). D. Host Defense Sciences Program (hematology, immunology, epithelial surfaces) Coordinator, D.D. Joel Lymphocytopoiesis in Health and Disease: Kinetics ;>nd Penetration Through the Gut and Bioeffects of Particu- Function - A.D. Chanana, P. Chandra, D.D. Jo^l, lates from Nonnuclear Energy Production - D.D. Joel, D.N. Slatkin. M.E. LeFevre. Effect of Chemicals and Radiation on Control of Hemo- Early and Late Effects of Energy-Related Pollutants on poiesis - E.P. Cronkite, H. Burlington, A.L. Carsten, Immunologic Systems - R.D. Stoner. A.D. Chanana, S.L. Commerford, S. Haragaya, T. Hemopoietic Regulators (NHLBDI) - E.P. Cronkite. Inoue, M. Jamuar, D.D. Joel, J. Kelley, W. Kennedy, Neutrophilic Granulocytopoiesis (NCI) - E.P. Cronkite. M. Miller, G. Moccia, R. Cohen. Regulatory Mechanisms of Erythropoietin Production (NHLBDI) - M.E. Miller. Applied Energy Science Department of Energy and Environment Department of Nuclear Energy

Department of Energy and Environment

INTRODUCTION problems and to provide approaches to comprehensive planning and analysis. Several "lead" pro- On October 1,1977, the Department of Applied grams have been defined, they are: Science was divided into two departments, the (1) In the Energy Sciences Area, (a) Supercon- Department of Nuclear Energy (DNE) and De- ducting Materials, (b) Surface Chemistry - Elec- partment of Energy and Environment (DEE). trocatalysis and Applications to Corrosion Phe- The restructuring was to provide more effective nomena, (c) Hydrogen in Metals including Hy- technical and scientific management of the diverse drides, and (d) Electrochemical Processes. programs which had developed in the original de- (2) In the Environmental Area emphasis is partment. placed on Atmospheric Sciences and Coastal The goal of the DEE is to generate a base of sci- Oceanography. entific and technical information on problems re- (3) In the Technology Areas the present work is lated to Energy and Environment through research on: (a) Hydrogen Production, (b) Hydrogen and development in fundamental and applied Storage and Utilization, and (c) Oil-fired Com- programs. The effort of the department is directed bustion Devices. to four main areas (see organization chart in the (4) Finally, in the Planning and Policy Analysis General and Administrative section); they are: Area the work is concerned with: (a) Methods and (1) Energy Sciences, (2) Environmental Sciences, Data for Mid- and Long-terms Energy Economic- (3) Energy Technology, and (4) The National Environmental Analysis, (b) International Co- Center for Analysis of Energy Systems. operation in Energy Analysis, (c) Bioniedical and Fundamental research in Energy Sciences is Environmental Effects of Energy, and (d) Special carried out in the Chemistry, Materials, and Proc- Regional and Energy Analysis. ess Sciences programs. In other, more applied All these programs require broad and day-to- areas DEE seeks to apply research and develop- day support from the Metallurgy and Materials ment results to urgent energy and environmental Science and Engineering Divisions.

121 Energy Sciences Area

CHEMISTRY, MATERIALS, AND Primary Charge Separations PROCESS PROGRAMS in Plant Photosynthesis In the area of energy sciences work is carried Photosynthesis in algae and green plants func- out in the chemical, materials, and process sci- tions via two chlorophyll-sensitized systems which ences. The chemistry studies are concerned with utilize 1'ght to cooperatively oxidize water and basic and applied research on synthetic photo- reduce carbon dioxide. Recent results obtained in synthetic compounds, combustion of fuels, mecha- this Laboratory on the optical, paramagnetic, and nisms involved in coal liquefaction, analytical electrochemical properties of reduced chlorophylls and pheophytins (the magnesium-free analogs of methods, studies of membranes, metal hydrides, 1 and other related studies. chlorophylls) have led to the proposal that the Research on materials is focused on the study of light-induced process consists of a charge separa- materials of importance in the production, trans- tion into oxidized chlorophylls and reduced mission, and storage of energy. Included are stud- chlorophylls or pheophytins. The photochemical ies of superconducting materials, hydrogen in reaction for the system which reduces carbon di- metals, materials for solar applications, plastic oxide can be written as (Chlorophylls) + Chloro- materials for dielectrics in power transmission phyll liiht (Chl)++Chl-. In the system which cables, electrode materials, and behavior of mate- oxidizes water, pheophytin is the likely acceptor rials under stress and in corrosive media. according to The work in processing applies chemical and (Chlorophylls) + Pheophytin i^ht (Chl)+ + Pheo~. physical methods and techniques to the development of efficient and environmentally acceptable Such a mechanism represents a significantly more processes for the conversion of natural resources to efficient conversion of incident light into chemical the production of fuel, power, and materials of energy than previously assumed and yields strong construction to meet energy requirements in the reductants to drive the biochemistry of both U.S. photosystems. Supporting evidence for this mechanism, which was originally based on model studies, has recently been obtained in several PORPHYRIN CHEMISTRY PROGRAM other laboratories on isolated in vivo systems.2 Porphyrins are organometallic compounds which play indispensable roles in biomedical en- Structural Determination ergy conversion processes. The porphyrins func- of an Isobacteriochlorin tion catalytically in these reactions, i.e., they are The six electron reduction of nitrite and sulfite not consumed by the energy-producing process in to ammonia and hydrogen sulfide is mediated in which they participate. This work represents a vivo by reductase enzymes via an iron porphyrin multidisciplinary program which involves syn- derivative called a siroheme.3 This compound be- thetic, structural, theoretical, and physical chem- longs to a general class of cis-tetrahydroporphyrins istry, and it encompasses 1) the electronic struc- which are also implicated in the biosynthesis of ture and chemical properties of porphyrins and vitamin B12, a cobalt porphyrin variant.4 their radicals, 2) the biological role of porphyrin The structure of 2,3,7,8 tetrahydro-a,/J,y,S- ions in photosynthetic and metabolic reactions, tetraphenylporphyrinatopyridine zinc(II),5 a and 3) applications of these catalytic reactions to model isobacteriochlorin, has been determined by energy conversion systems such as production of three dimensional x-ray diffraction (Fig. 1). The electricity from solar energy by photo-excitation of x-ray results confirm the postulated structure of porphyrins deposited on solid interfaces, the pro- iso-bacteriochlorins which, to date, had only been duction of hydrogen and/or oxygen in solution inferred from analytic and spectroscopic measure- using porphyrins to mimic the photosynthetic cell ments. Extrapolation of these data to in vivo sys- and photodecompose water, and also to fix nitro- tems thus helps define the structure and molecu- gen photochemically via porphyrin derivatives. lar dimensions of the siroheme prosthetic group in

122 123

visible light. Quantum yields (electrons ejected/ incident photons) determined for illumination through the aluminum at wavelengths of maximum absorption by the porphyrins ranged as high as 0.14 (at 445 nm) and 0.18 (at 420 nm) for magnesium tetraphenylporphin and magnesium por- phin, respectively. The energy efficiency (generated power/incident power) for monochromatic light thus obtained with the magnesium porphyrins approaches 2%, a high value for organic sensitizers.6 Results with semiconductor electrodes such as titanium dioxide are also promising and suggest that the right combinations of porphyrin and electrode material could yield photocells with high quantum yields and attractive efficiencies.

PHOTO-INITIATED PORPHYRIN- MEDIATED HYDROGEN ION TRANSPORT ACROSS LIPID BILAYER MEMBRANES Figure 1. Crystal structure of 2,3,7,8-tetrahydro-a,/J,y,5- tetrapheny]porphyrinatozinc(II). The compound crys- The conversion of light to other forms of energy tallizes with one molecule of pyridine as axial ligand in is accomplished in many natural systems, e.g., the triclinic space group Pi~ with 0=11.452(5) A, 6 = 13.331(4) A, c= 14.703(6) A, «=99.05(2)°, 0=94.37(4)°, photosynthesis, sight, etc., and is considered to and y= 104.88(4)°. involve photoactive compounds, or aggregates thereof, many of which are known or suspected to be membrane-bound. the reductase enzymes. The results also provide The basic structure of a biological membrane the structural guidelines for theoretical and ex- comprises lipid molecules arranged in a bilayer. perimental studies of isobacteriochlorins as pos- About 15 years ago, Mueller and Rudin devel- sible catalysts for nitrogen reduction. oped a method for synthesizing ultrathin (~~50 angstroms) bilayer membranes from a variety of Photovoltaic Cells Based on Porphyrins lipids. These synthetic membranes have served The cell as a basis for studying various membrane phenomena, with an emphasis on ion transport across Fe(CN)6- membranes. -0.2/1 porphyrin Our recent efforts have concentrated on the -Al film Pt+ study of photo-induced phenomena in these mem- Fe(CN)6- branes. We have found that a membrane that mimics the trapping, transfer, and transduction of contains magnesium octaethylporphyrin (sche- light into chemical energy found in photosyn- matically designated P) becomes a selective trans- porter of hydrogen ion (or hydroxide) when illu- thetic systems by utilizing synthetic porphyrins 7 8 and related organometallics as sensitizers. These minated. ' The mechanism forthis transport starts avoid the inherent in vitro chemical fragility of with the absorption of light by the porphyrin to natural chlorophylls and provide a range of give the excited state, readily alterable properties by varying the metal P-^P*. or organic framework of the porphyrin. The cell (1) offers a convenient experimental method for sys- The excited state is very reactive and, in the tematically screening compounds for desirable presence of (and only in the presence of) an elec- photoelectrochemical properties and exhibits tron acceptor such as oxygen or methyl viologen, open circuit voltages of—1 volt and short circuit forms a cation radical, 2 currents of 10 /iA/cm upon illumination with P*+Acceptor->P++(Acceptor)-. (2) 124

Here we surmise that the magnesium porphyrin anism. It is also possible to conceive of an arrange- cation is hydrated and undergoes an acid-base ment where the system can act as a hydrogen ion reaction, pump. If the acceptor is on only one side of the + + membrane, the excited state on the other side of H2O+H2O-P ?±HO-P+H3O . (3) the membrane will simply decay to the ground These reactions are occurring on both surfaces of state. If there is an electron donor on the other the membrane and appear to be buffer catalyzed. side, then the HO-P form wiil diffuse across from When a voltage is applied across the membrane' the acceptor side to the donor side. The net result (see Fig. 2) one can see the electrical current cor- is a photo-assisted pump transporting hydroxide responding to the translocation (from one side of in one direction and electrons in the other. the membrane to the other) of the nascent + H2O —P . The electrically neutral complex HO — P formed by the release of a hydrogen ion (reaction 3) can diffuse back across the membrane (against a voltage gradient). The entire process can cycle indefinitely. Thus the porphyrin cation acts as a carrier for hydrogen ions. There are some interesting implications of these observations. The mechanism serves as a photo- amplifier in the sense that, for a single quantum of light absorbed, many ions are moved across the membrane. There are some tantalizing but far-fetched analogies to the visual receptor mech-

AQUEOUS I MEMBRANE < AQUEOUS

H20- P+ HaO-P*

H20 H.,0 j TRANSPORT SCHEME HB

HO-P

NET RESULT

+ H30 -

VOLTAGE GRADIENT

Figure 2. Schematic showing how a photo-generated Figure 3. The Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine porphyrin cation in a lipid bilayer membrane can carry is shown (left). Extensive modifications have been made to protons across the membrane. A voltage gradient moves the engine, including optical ports to provide spectroscopic the positively charged prophyrin cation, H2O-P"1" from access to the combustion chamber; a dc dynamometer left to right. When HO-P+ gives up a proton (H+) it be- (right) to continuously monitor the output power of the comes a neutral HO-P which can drift back across the engine; and a comprehensive system for obtaining gaseous membrane (in spite of the voltage gradient) where it can exhaust samples for analytical measurements. Exhaust pick up a proton reforming, H2O-P+ and completing the analysis equipment includes instruments for measuring cycle. nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. 125

COMBUSTION STUDIES ON perform an in situ spectroscopic study of combus- ALTERNATIVE FUELS tion intermediates. This information also provides an insight into the overall chemical mechanism The combustion research program investigates that may involve a large number of elementary aspects of the complex chemistry involved in the reaction steps. combustion of unconventional non-petroleum Engine work so far has been concentrated on base fuels. These so-called alternative fuels com- the detection and measurement of nitrogen oxides prise a wide variety of chemical types including emitted by the engine operating on methyl alcohol. hydrocarbon liquids derived from oil-shale and An interesting result of this work is the observa- coal, methyl fuel from coal, ethyl alcohol from tion of a significant amount of NO2 that has ap- .. biomass fermentation, and gaseous fuels such as parently gone undetected in other investigations.9 hydrogen. Emphasis is also placed on gaining a In the laboratory, certain reactions that are better understanding of the sensitivity of combus- identified on the operating engine as being poten- tion efficiency and pollutant emissions to varia- tially important are investigated in controlled and tions in operating conditions for various alterna- isolated experiments to obtain temperature de- tive fuels. pendent specific rate coefficients. These experi- A research internal combustion engine (ASTM- ments are conducted on two independent and CFR engine, see Fig. 3) has been instrumented for complementary apparatuses, viz., flash photolysis use as a test bed to obtain information on engine and discharge flow (Fig. 4). Both methods utilize performance and exhaust emissions as well as to the sensitive resonance fluorescence technique to

Figure 4. The Discharge Flow-Resonance Fluorescence this investigation includes a heated flow tube and atom apparatus is employed in measuring specific rate param- detection section (center), flow controls (right), electronics eters for atom-molecule reactions over a temperature for single photon counting (left), and vacuum pumps and range of 25°C to about 500°C. Equipment necessary for gauges (bottom). 126 monitor very low concentrations of a' omic species. has revealed new mechanistic details. Previous A number of kinetic studies involving reactions of speculation on the participation of the dihydro- atomic oxygen and atomic hydrogen with molec- naphthalenes has proved correct but the gas phase ular species such as methane, methanol, and reaction proceeds only through the 1,2 dihydro- formaldehyde have been completed.10'11 naphthalene species. The presence of tetralin or a dihydronaphthalene has been shown to be required HYDROGEN TRANSFER MECHANISMS before hydrogen can be added to the naphthalene. This mechanistic study has further revealed that IN COAL LIQUEFACTION the chemistry takes place at a solid surface.12 Coal liquefaction, the direct conversion of solid In the liquefaction process, the mineral matter coal to liquid petroleum-like products is the goal present in the reacting coal may be providing the of several major coal conversion efforts. Conver- catalytic surfaces required for the hydrogenation- sion is achieved when reaction conditions are im- dehydrogenation chemistry. A number of the posed that lead to the addition of hydrogen to minerals commonly found in coal have been stud- organic compounds that comprise the solid coal. ied for their catalytic activity towards the tetralin By using particular liquid solvents that are rich in «=idihydronaphthalene^naphthalene conver- hydrogen, e.g., hydroaromatics (ArHn), hydrogen sion, and, in general, it has been found that iron- gas is transferred through the solvent system to containing minerals display the highest catalytic the coal, as shown schematically below: activity. Such ranking of mineral catalytic activity and the identification of specific metal catalysis H2 + ArHn_xs±ArHn (1) is expected to provide some insight into the variation in liquefaction yields of different coals.13 ArH +Coal(solid)-> ArHn_x n Work is now focusing on the mechanistic details + Liquid Products , (2) of the more active mineral-catalysts to better define the nature of the active sites. Such informa- the net result of reactions (1) plus (2) being tion has the potential of leading to the synthesis of superior catalysts for the coal liquefaction process. H2+Coal(solid)->Liquid Products. (3) Future research will involve mechanistic studies of other hydrogen transfer systems and the influ- Of particular importance in understanding the ence of mineral matter on their chemistry. Work basic chemistry involved in the overall process of will also be expanded to include the study of liquefaction is an understanding of the details of hydrogen transfer in systems containing more reactions (1) and (2). complex model coal compounds. In this study, the tetralin hydroaromatic system, which is believed to be representative of the hydrogen transfer chemistry occurring during REFERENCES coal liquefaction, has been investigated. The study 1.1. FUJITA, M.S. DAVIS, AND J. FAJER, J. Amer. Chem. of this system, which undergoes hydrogenation- Soc. 100, 6280 (1978). dehydrogenation schematically depicted by 2. V.A. SHUVALOV, E. DOLAN, AND B. KE, Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci., U.S.A. (in press). 1,2 dihydronaphthalene 3. MJ. MURPHY, L.M. SIEGEL, AND H. KAMIN, J. Biol. Chem. 248,2801 (1973). 4. A.I. SCOTT, Accounts, Ckem. Res. 11, 29 (1978). +H2 5. L.D. SPAULDING, J. FAJER, AND G.J.B. WILLIAMS, J. Amer. Ckem. Soc. Submitted for publication. 6. F.J. KAMPAS, K. YAMASHITA, C.K. CHAMG, AND J. FAJER, J. Eleclrochem. Soc. (in press). and/or - 7. R.G. YOUNG AND S.W. FELDBERG, Biophysical Journal (in press). tetralin naphthalene 8. R.C. YOUNG, J.F. FELDBERG, AND S.W. FELDBERG, Biophysical J. (in press). 9.J.H. BRATEMAN AND R.B. KLEMM, Single cylinder +H2 spark ignition engine study of NO and NO2 emissions for methanol, iso-octane and nitrogen doped methanol 1,4 dihydronaphthalene with emphasis on measurement technique. Presented 127

at the Fall 1977 Meeting - Eastern States Section - pounds with the A15 crystal structure, e.g. The Combustion Institute, Nov. 10-11, 1977, Hart- VsGa, etc., which are of interest because they ford, Conn. BNL-23549. 10. R.B. KLEMM, Absolute rate parameters for the reac- have high critical temperatures, magnetic fields, tions of formaldehyde with O-atoms and H-atoms and current densities, were studied. Much of the over the temperature range 250 to 500 K. J. Chem. effort has focused on the role of disorder in the Phys. Submitted for publication. crystal structure in altering, usually adversely, 11. R.B. KLEMM AND E.G. SKOLNIK, Absolute rate param- these critical properties. eters for the reactions of atomic oxygen with methane and methanol. J. Chem. Phys. Submitted for publica- Such effects of disorder are of interest not only tion. because superconducting magnets used in mag- 12. D. MACKENZIE, S. CASANO, AND T. GANGWER, A netic fusion reactors will be subjected to irradia- Mechanistic Study of the Hydrogenation/Dehydrog- enation of Some Hydromatics. BNL-24575. J. Phys. tion by neutrons, but also because the detailed Chem. (Submitted). response of the critical properties to disorder helps 13. T. GANGWER AND H. PRASAD, Hydrogen Transfer provide insight into the question of why some A15 Catalytic Activity of Minerals Common to Coal. compounds are such good superconductors. Stud- BNL-25235. Fuel. Submitted. ies were made of the effects of disorder produced by neutron irradiation, by deviations of the chem- TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS USING ical composition from its ideal value (nonstoichi- SYNCHROTRON RADIATION ometry), and by rapidly quenching from high temperature..1 It was found that these different A program to investigate the application of methods of producing disorder result in essen- x rays from synchrotron radiation for the analyses tially the same rate of change of the critical prop- of trace elements is being initiated. In recent years erties with degree of disorder. The effects of dis- x-ray fluorescence analysis, in which the excita- order were studied by measuring the supercon- tion is produced by x-ray tubes or charged- ducting properties, the specific heat capacity, and particle beams, has provided a fast technique the normal state resistivity.2 The nature of the dis- capable of analysis of trace elements simultane- order was studied by x-ray and neutron scattering ously at the parts per million level. The properties and by transmission electron microscopy.1'3 An- of synchrotron radiation to be produced at the nealing studies were made to study the kinetics of Brookhaven National Synchrotron Light Source reordering, and theoretical models were con- will allow simultaneous elemental analysis at the structed to describe and correlate the results of tens of parts per billion level in samples with an these experimental studies.4 area of a millionth of a square millimeter. This microprobe capability far exceeds those of other The critical properties of superconductors are x-ray fluorescence techniques now used. In ad- altered by strain, as well as by disorder, in the dition the very large intensity of a synchrotron crystal lattice. This is of interest for scientific as x-ray beam will allow the obtention of informa- well as technological reasons. Because of this tion concerning the chemical state of trace ele- strain dependence, the stresses created by the ments at the part per million level. This cannot process of winding the magnet or by the Lorentz now be done with any other technique. It is forces during the operation of a superconducting planned to apply the technique to a variety of magnet can alter the critical properties of the fields including the geological, medical, environ- superconducting material of the magnet. Further- mental, and materials sciences. more, when A15 compounds are used in magnets, they are presently embedded in a matrix of non- superconducting metal, i.e., as components of a SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS composite, and differential thermal expansion Intense magnetic fields, required for the gener- during the fabrication of these composites results ation of energy by nuclear fusion in magnetically in residual elastic strains in the superconductor. confined plasmas and by magnetohydrodynamic This latter effect, in turn, provides a tool for the devices, can be produced by superconducting study of the strain dependence of the supercon- magnets; superconducting cables may be used for ducting properties. By varying the parameters of the transmission of electrical energy. Consequently, the composite and by applying external stresses it a number of superconducting intermetallic com- is possible to vary the elastic strain in the super- 128 conducting compound over a wide range. Further- collaboration with the Physics Department, posi- more by varying the geometry of the composite, tron annihilation. cylindrical versus planar geometries for example, Pioneering work at BNL has shown that the the multiaxial nature of the strain state, as well as intermetallic compound FeTi is attractive as a the intensity of strain, can be varied, and other storage medium for hydrogen. Although much features of the composite permit an experimental information is now available on the thermody- determination of the actual values of the residual namics and kinetics of this system, not much was strain present. These techniques have been ex- previously known about either the location of ploited to make a systematic study of the strain hydrogen in the crystal structure or the structure dependence of the superconducting properties of of lattice defects. Thus, the crystal structure of several A15 compounds and to study the temp- /J-FeTi monohydride was determined in collabo- erature dependence of the elastic modulus of ration with the Chemistry Department, using NbaSn;5'6 such information contributes to the un- neutron diffraction.8 The defect structure resulting derstanding of the mechanism whereby the A15 from cyclic hydrogen dissolution in FeTi was structure is favorable to high temperature super- studied with transmission electron microscopy, conductivity. Although strain usually reduces the and a typical result is shown in Fig. 5. temperature of the onset of superconductivity, in Many features of the phase diagrams of tran- one compound, VaGe, it was found that the pres- sition metal-hydrogen systems can be understood ence of strain actually increased the critical tem- 7 from the theoretical properties of an ideal lattice perature. Finally, the information derived from gas, although the details of phase equilibrium in these studies has resulted in methods for improving the "real" systems are more complex. For example, the characteristics of composite superconductors. while the Nb-H and V-H phase diagrams are topologically different, many of the differences METAL-HYDROGEN SYSTEMS can be understood in terms of a competition between the "liquid"-"vapor" equilibrium of the Metal hydrides are of interest as potential lattice gas and the precipitation of an ordered "containers" for the storage of hydrogen to be hydride phase. Such concepts are being explored used as a fuel. In other circumstances, the pres- by a study of the phase relations and thermody- ence of hydrogen as a dissolved impurity results namic properties of the ternary alloy system hy- in the severe embrittlement of some metals and drogen-(Nb + V solid solution). This system is alloys; however, hydrogen dissolved in metals attractive because the metal-hydrogen phase dia- also serves as the physical real'zation of an ideal- grams are well characterized for both Nb and V, ized system which has been studied theoretically and because the two metals are completely mis- in statistical mechanics, the "lattice gas." Re- cible. Measurements of hydrogen partial pres- search related to each of these topics in the sci- sure isotherms have been made for a series of di- entifically rich and technologically important lute alloys of vanadium in niobium, and theoreti- field of hydrogen in metals has been carried out cal lattice gas models have been constructed to in the Metallurgy and Materials Science Division. aid in interpreting the experimental data. The Two topics related to the deleterious effects of local environment of vanadium solute atoms in hydrogen in metals which have been studied are niobium both in the presence and absence of hydrogen embrittlement and hydrogen attack. hydrogen was studied, as well as related alloys of The classical problem of hydrogen embrittlement iron containing dissolved nitrogen, with the ex- has been studied by investigating the effect of dis- tended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) solved hydrogen on the breaking strength of iron technique. whiskers, in an effort to distinguish between rival mechanisms of embrittlement. When iron containing carbon in solution,i.e., steel, is exposed to hydrogen at high temperatures, methane bubbles MATERIALS FOR SOLAR ENERGY are formed, and their presence leads to a dra- Thin filmi' of amorphous semiconductors are matic loss of strength (so-called "hydrogen at- currently studied because of their interesting tack"). The kinetics of this process were investi- optoelectronic and microstructural properties, gated using low angle neutron scattering and, in and because of their potential for commercial 129

(a)

Figure 5. Transmission electron micrographs showing that allows more uniform film growth; and 3) a crystal lattice defects created by one cycle of hydrogen dual rf generator system with matching network dissolution in and subsequent removal from polycrystal- to enhance film reproducibility. Diagnostic meth- line FeTi. (a) shows planar defects produced by hydrogen dissolution, (b) shows dislocation debris remaining after ods, together with techniques probing basic proc- hydrogen removal. Note that the planar defects present esses, are being used to study all phases of film in (a) have disappeared. growth. For example, the physical and chemical processes of plasma deposition are studied by means of optical emission spectroscopy and trans- solar energy conversion. In this laboratory, the mission electron microscopy, while the nature of method of glow-discharge (plasma) decomposition chemical bonding in as-deposited films is probed of hydrides is used to produce thin films of hy- by infrared transmission and Raman spectros- drogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and of copy. Electrically-active defects in films that can other materials. The rate of production by this limit photovoltaic conversion efficiencies are of technique can easily be scaled up, which is an es- particular interest. sential requirement for the fabrication of low- ccst solar cells. The quality of films as determined, DIELECTRIC INSULATION FOR for example, by spectral and temperature-depend- SUPERCONDUCTING POWER ent photoconductivity measurements is found to TRANSMISSION LINES be a striking function of processing parameters such as pressure (0.1-1 Torr), rf power, flow- In collaboration with the Accelerator Depart- rates, etc. Therefore it is essential to control proc- ment, specialized plastic tapes for use as dielectric essing parameters in order to attain reasonable insulation in ac superconducting power transmis- conversion efficiencies (—10%) in solar cells that sion cables are being developed. It is necessary are fabricated from electronically doped amor- that such tapes possess very high tensile moduli phous materials. at 293 K, be flexible at 6 K, experience a mini- To this end, a capacitively-coupled plasma re- mum amount of thermal expansion between 6 actor was designed to incorporate such advanced and 293 K, and exhibit high thermal conductiv- features as: 1) control over bias fields during ity and low dielectric loss at 6 K. Most of these film growth; 2) a radial-inward gas flow pattern requirements are satisfied by laminated tapes 1.30 made from a biaxially-oriented, very-high- 6. M. SUENAGA, T. ONISHI, T., D.O. WELCH, AND T.S. modulus, polypropylene film that is under devel- LUHMAN, Influence of stress on the superconducting 9 opment. The interlayer bond remains intact in properties of "bronze processed" Nb3Sn wires. Bull. liquid He, the loss tangent of the laminate at 6 K Am. Phys. Soc. 23, 229 (1978). 6 7. J.F. BUSSIERE, T. ONISHI, D.O. WELCH, AND M. SUE- is 20 X10- , and, of particular importance, low NAGA, Stress-induced enhancement of Tc in bronze- temperature brittleness was eliminated with this processed V3Ge. Appl. Phys. Lett. 32, 686-688 (1978). design. 8. P. THOMPSON, M.A. PICK, F. REIDINOER, L.M. COR- LISS, J.M. HASTINGS, AND J.J. REILLV, Neutron dif- Imperfections in the winding pattern of the fraction study of /8-iron titanium deuteride. J. Phys. insulating tape in a lapped, high voltage, under- FS, L75-80(1978). ground power transmission cable can lower the 9. A.C. MULLER, Properties of plastic tapes for cryogenic electrical strength of that cable and reduce its power cable insulation, in: Nonmetallic Materials and life. Therefore, a nondestructive x-ray method Composites at Low Temperatures, A.F. Clark, R.P. Reed, has been developed to examine the taping pat- and G. Hartwig, eds. (Plenum Press, New York, 10 1979) pp. 339-363. terns in cables. This system was originally devel- 10. A.C. MULLER, An x-ray method for studying butt gap oped to monitor the precision with which dielec- distribution and spliced joints in lapped paper and tric tapes were applied as insulation on experi- plastic cables. Paper A77 108-3, Pres. at the 1977 mental superconducting cables. However, the Winter Meeting of the IEEE Power Engineering So- method has found extensive application as a ciety, New York City, N.Y., January 1977. means to study degradation and damage in conventional underground cables that use lapped CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS OF kraft paper as the dielectric. POLYKETONES AND POLYSULFONES The Brookhaven cable radiography system employs a point source of soft x-rays and either con- Processes for combining carbon monoxide gas ventional x-ray film or a closed-circuit TV as the and sulfur dioxide with ethylene gas are studied with the objective of producing high molecular detector. X-rays that "stream" through the butt- 1 2 gaps between adjacent tape turns elucidate the weight polymers for the plastics industry. - The local taping pattern. Tapes that have slipped, or polyketone polymer incorporates up to 50% by have otherwise been displaced from their proper weight of CO in an ethylene plastic and the poly- locations are clearly evident in the TV picture or sulfone contains up to 70% by weight SO2 in an radiograph. A mobile version of the x-ray system ethylene plastic. The process involves free radical has been used extensively in the field to examine radiation induced initiation of the polymer syn- cables that have experienced critical thermal or thesis at ambient temperature. The experimental mechanical stresses. work is conducted to determine whether the radiation process is unique in producing marketable polymers compared to thermocatalytic systems. REFERENCES Both polymers have the potential of conserving very large quantities of ethylene feedstocks of the 1. A.R. SWEEDLER, D.E. COX, AND S. MOEHLECKE, NeU- tron irradiation of superconducting compounds. J. order of billions of pounds per year and utilizing Nucl. Materials 72, 50-69 (1978). low cost waste materials such as carbon monoxide 2. R. VISWANATHAN AND R. CATON, Effect of neutron ir- and especially sulfur dioxide, which is a large radiation on single crystal VsSi: Heat capacity and waste product from the desulfurization of coal resistivity. Phys. Rev. B18, 15-21 (1978). and fossil fuel plant and from the smelting of 3. CS. PANDE, A mechanism for the degradation of superconducting transition temperatures on high en- sulfur-containing metal ores. ergy neutron irradiation in A15 compounds. J. Nu- clear Materials, 83-87 (1978); Electron microscopy of neutron irradiated NbaSn, Phys. Slat. Sol. (a) in press. MATERIALS FOR GEOTHERMAL 4. D. DEW-HUGHES, S. MOEHLECKE, AND D.O. WELCH, ENERGY PROCESSES Recovery by annealing of irradiated A15 compounds. J. Nuclear Materials 72, 225-232 (1978). Brookhaven National Laboratory assists the 5. T. LUHMAN, M. SUENAGA, AND C.J. KLAMUT, Influ- U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and private ence of tensile stresses on the superconducting temperature of multifilamentary NbaSn composite conduc- industry in the development of geothermal re- tors. Adv. in CryogenicEngineering,Vol. 24, pp.325-330, sources for the production of electricity and/or Plenum Press (1978). direct heat applications. Figure 6. The materials currently being developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory may be utilized at a geothermal brines are very corrosive. Special number of locations in a geothermal energy conversion materials are needed for piping, heat exchangers, system. In the process shown, brine at a temperature of protective liners, seals, well casings, and drill bits. approximately 250°C is withdrawn from the geothermal reservoir and passed through a heat exchanger. In this Brookhaven's demonstrated expertise in metal- component the brine heats a low-boiling point organic lic and nonmetallic materials (plastics, polymer fluid (isobutane) to a temperature sufficient to cause the concrete, etc.) research has led to the laboratory material to vaporize. The isobutane vapor is then used to being designated by the DOE as the lead labora- drive a turbine to produce electricity. The cooled brine tory for the development of materials for geo- is reinjected deep into earth in order to replenish the geo- 4 5 thermal reservoir and to have an environmentally accept- thermal applications. Programs ' to develop ad- able method for brine disposal. vanced materials for components which can be used in high temperature and high pressure geothermal sources for the following projects are cur- At the present time more than 500 megawatts rently being performed in cooperation with uni- of electricity (which is more than half of the re- versities and research institutes. These include: q uirements of San Francisco) are produced from a 1) materials with higher bearing strength, frac- geothermal resource in California; also geother- ture toughness, and chemical and erosion resis- mal sources are used for space heating at numer- tance at elevated temperatures; 2) new alloys ous locations in the United States. It is estimated with improved fatigue, pitting, and localized cor- that production of geothermally-derived energy rosion resistance; 3) wear-resistant materials for will be equivalent to about 0.3 to 0.5 Quad per drill bits, scale-free valves; and 4) hot isostatically year by 1985 (1 Quad per year = approximately pressed tubing and casings. 0.5 million barrels of oil per day), 4 to 9 Quads This research and development6 is done in co- per year by the year 2000, and 16 to 28 Quads operation with private industry where an indus- per year by 2020. trial capability can develop. Figure 6 indicates a The cost and reliability of geothermal3 proc- number of locations in a geothermal well energy esses depend heavily on the availability of suit- conversion system where there is a need for able construction materials, since many of the hot corrosion-resistant material as well as cements. 132

Figure 7. Placement by commercial firm of polymer concrete overlay on impregnated concrete bridge deck at Greenport, New York.

HIGHWAY MATERIALS 2. M. STEINBERG, R. JOHNSON, W. CORDES, AND D. GOODMAN, Polyketones in the ethylene polymer in- A number of worldwide applications for the dustry. Pres. at the 2nd Intern. Meeting on Radiation polymer concretes developed at BNL have Processing, Miami, Florida, October 22-26, 1978; emerged in energy generation and transportation Proceedings (in press). 3. L.E. KUKACKA, Economic assessment of polymer con- fields. These include polymer concrete piling, crete usage in geothermai power plants. BNL 50777 underground manhole boxes, piping, and as a (November 1977). repair material in dams, highway pavements, and 4. L.E. KUKACKA, J. FONTANA, A. ZELDIN, J. AMARO, bridge decks. The current BNL programs7'8 in this T. SUGAMA, N. CARCIELLO, AND W. REAMS, Alternate area are sponsored by the Federal Highway Ad- materials of construction for geothermal applications, Progress report no. 16, April-September 1978. BNL ministration and are directed to the development 50925 (September 1978). of polymer concrete overlays for bridge deck ap- 5. L.E. KUKACKA, J. FONTANA, T. SUCAMA, T.J. ROCK- plications and on methods for improving the ETT, R.S. KALYONCU, D.K. CURTICE, E.R. FULLER, A. wear-resistance characteristics of naturally occur- ZELDIN, N. CARCIELLO, W. REAMS, B.E. SIMPSON, AND ing aggregate. D.I "^.OY, Cementing of geothermal wells, Progress report No. 10, July-September 1978. BNL 50243, De- Figure 7 shows a highly deteriorated bridge cember 1978. , deck which is being resurfaced while traffic is al- 6. T. SUGAMA AND L.E. KUKACKA, The effect of dical- lowed to flowove r other lanes of the bridge. cium silicate and tricalcium silicate on the thermal stability of vinyl-type polymer concrete. J. Cement and Concrete Research 9, 69- 76 (1976). REFERENCES 7. R.P. WEBSTER, J.J. FONTANA, L. KUKACKA, Rapid patching of concrete using polymer concrete, BNL 1. M. STEINBERG, R. JOHNSON, P. COLOMBO, VV. CORDES, 25236 (November 1978). M. KORAL, AND D. GOODMAN, Polyketones and poly- 8. R.P. WEBSTER, J.J. FONTANA, AND L.E. KUKACKA, sulfones in the ethylene polymer industry, Progress re- Thin polymer concrete overlays - Interim Users port No. 1, October 1977-March 1978. Manual. BNL 24110 (March 1978). 133

ENERGY SCIENCES AREA D.H. Gurinsky

Metallurgy & Materials Science M. Suenaga Superconductivity, Solar Materials, Radiation Effects & Hydrides A. Arbel R. Griffith O. Kammerer K. Lee C. Pande R. Sabatini M. Suenaga D. Dew-Hughes S.Hwang F. Kampas T. Luhman M. Pick C. Snead P. Vanier D. Welch Superconducting Transmission Project M. Garber C. Klamut A. Muller

Chemical Sciences DJ. Metz Photochemistry and Radiation Sciences G. Adler C. Chang J. Fajer E. Fujita L. Hanson M. Hisatome P. Richardson K. Barkigia M. Davis L. Fogel I. Fujita M. Hillman P. Piciulo J. Sutherland Chemical Physics J. Bell S. Feldberg J. Smalley J. Brateman R. Klerom E. Skolnik R. Young Chemical Energy J. Bookless T. Gangwer K. Hong H. Pfeifer J. Reilly R. Davis R. Heus J. Lynch F. Reidinger R. Sapienza J. Egan R. Wiswall Separations, Analysis, and Engineering Y. Chan B. Gordon R. Tanner R. Fajer F. Hill Y. Wong

Process Sciences M. Steinberg Fossil Energy V. Dang F. Kainz M. Sansone P. Fallon J. Pruzansky M. Shen Geothermal and Conservation Materials A. Albanese J. Fontana R. Johnson W. Reams R. Webster N. Carciello W. Horn L. Kukacka T. Sugama A. Zeldin Environmental Programs

Programs relating to the environment and the water column coupling has thus been expanded impact of energy-related activities upon it are to address the role of the bottom as a storage pool organized in three areas: Oceanographic Sci- of both pollutants and food for the demersal ences, Atmospheric Sciences, and Land and fishery of the mid-Atlantic shelf. It is known that Freshwater Environmental Sciences. adult fish range seasonally between Nova Scotia and Cape Hatteras, that the system is flushed OCEANOGRAPHIC SCIENCES each year by water from the north, and that exploratory oil drilling has begun in the Baltimore An analysis of energy-related impacts on the Canyon and is expected to begin on Georges Northeast coastal zone requires an understanding Bank. Therefore a cooperative effort7 has been of perturbation responses within the context of initiated between Brookhaven National Labora- natural variability of this ecosystem. Successful tory and the National Marine Fisheries Service, COBOLT (Coastal Boundary Layer Transect)' the USSR Atlant-Niro Laboratory, the Marine studies of the nearshore water circulation, tem- Sciences Research Center at SUNY-Stony Brook, perature, and salinity at 16 simultaneous loca- and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution tions during March, May, and August have been to study the spatial-temporal coupling of the New completed during the period covered by this re- York Bight ecosystem with the upstream bound- port.2 This achievement represents the first high resolution analysis of water movement in the ncarshore coastal zone.2a Some of these results have been used to accurately model the deposition of sludge, other floatables, and oil spills on the south shore of Long Island during July 19762b and Feb- ruary 1977.2c Additional offshore information is required for a forecast mode, however, and the line- of-sight telemetry of the COBOLT current-meter system is accordingly being supplemented by satellite transmission in order to study the currents farther out on the shelf. At the same time a moored fluorometer array3 and an air-sea interaction buoy have been developed to study the time response and local spatial distribution of plankton and wind-forcing, in relation to these measurements of the physical habitat of the New York shelf.4 Close sampling in time during 35 cruises has now enhanced our understanding of the coupling of the coastal food web.5 Within the New York Bight, the species composition has not changed over the last 40-50 years and a S60 million shellfish kill in anoxic waters off New Jersey during the summer of 1976 is attributed by our analysis to a normal seasonal succession of phytoplankton rather than increased waste effluent from the New York metropolitan area.6 For the first time, we have been able to construct a nitrogen budget Figure 8. Instrumented stable buoy used in air-sea inter- of this ecosystem that indicates energy is transaction measurements. Measurements are made of meteor- ferred to plankton and larval fish during the ological and oceanographic variables. The data are telemetered to a shore station for storage and subsequent summer-fall period and to the benthos during processing. Power is provided by batteries and a wind winter-spring. A research program on benthos- charger.

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aries of Nantucket Shoals and Georges Bank. 4. J.J. WALSH, T.E. WHITLEDGE, F.W. BARVENIK, CD., Finally, studies have been initiated comparing WIRIK, S.O. HOWE, W.E. ESAIAS, AND J.T. SCOTT, the open ocean and the continental shelf with re- Wind events and food chain dynamics within the New York Bight. Limnology and Oceanography, 23, No. 4, spect to loci of oil formation, of the fate of previ- 659-687 (1978). ously disposed of low-level radioactive waste, and 5. T.S. HOPKINS AND J J. WALSH, Some physical processes the biological storage in the ocean of CO2 result- affecting the distribution of primary production in the ing from increased fossil fuel consumption. N.Y. Bight. BNL 24176, Amer. Soc. of Limnology and Oceanography, Victoria, B.C., June 19-22, 1978. 6. F.E. BARVENIK, M.J. DAGG, D.C. JUDKINS, J.T. SCOTT, REFERENCES A.G. TINGLE, J.J. WALSH, T.E. WHITLEDGE, AND CD. WIRIK, An analysis of time dependent factors leading 1. D.G. DIMMLER, D.W. HUSZAGH, S. RANKOWITZ, AND to anoxic conditions within the Middle Atlantic Bight J.T. SCOTT, A controllable real-time data collection during 1976. Pres. at Symp. Intern. Decade of Ocean system for coastal oceanography. Proc. OCEANS '76 Exploration (IDOE), Washington, D.C., October 15, Conference, P14E, September 1976. 1976. Proc.Anoxia on the Middle Atlantic Shelf during 2. J.T. SOOTT, T.S. HOPKINS, R. PILLSBURY, AND E.G. the summer of 1976, PR57-62, Jonathan H. Sharp, ed- DIVIS, Data Report - Oceanographic data from moored itor, U. of Delaware (1976). instrumentation, Vol. I, BNL 50895, May, 1978. 7. B. MANOWITZ, coordinator AND F.E. BARVENIK, Editor. 2a. J.T. SCOTT AND G.T. CASANADY, Nearshore currents ERDA's Oceanographic program for the Mid-Atlantic off Long Island, J. Geophysical Research 81, No. 30, Oc- Coastal Region. Workshop at Brookhaven National tober 20, 1976. Laboratory, January 5-7, 1977. 2b. A.G. TINGLE, A computer analysis of the spread of pollution on Long Island beaches, (July 1976). BNL 50651 (May 1977). ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES 2c. A.G. TINGLE AND D.A. DIETERLE, A numerical oil trajectory forecast model used to assess the hazard to Research in atmospheric sciences is aimed pri- Long Island beaches from oil entering the N.Y. Bight marily at the development of the knowledge Apex, February 11-24,1977. BNL50649 (March 1977). needed to evaluate realistically the effect of energy 3. T.E. WHITLEDGE, The biological current meter - a production upon air quality. Field, laboratory, moored fluorometer. BNL 24550, Pres. at Amer. Soc. of Limnology and Oceanography, Victoria, B.C. June 19-22, 1978.

Figure 10. Monthly average sulfate concentrations calculated assuming a typical projected emission of sulfur dioxide from coal burning power plants in the year 1985. This calculation employs a computer model using trajectories calculated from climatological data, parameterized removal processes, and linearized chemical transforma- Figure 9. Large-volume pumping system developed at tion rates. The high levels in the east result from the fact Brookhaven National Laboratory for the shipboard col- that most sulfur emissions originate east of the Mississippi lection of samples of zooplankton from discrete depths, and that the general atmospheric transport is from west down to 300 meters below the surface. 136

and theoretical studies are carried out in the areas Analysis Division and Biomedical and Environ- of meteorology, atmospheric chemistry, measure- mental Assessment Division of the National Cen- ment techniques, and support activities such as ter for Analysis of Energy Systems (NCAES). weather fore listing, data management, and data Research on the growth of aerosols has been processing. carried out in a continuous flow apparatus in A major focus has been the interlaboratory order to study the effect of relative humidity. Multi-State Power Production Pollution Study Mixed inorganic sulfate salts and sulfuric acid ex- (MAP3S). This program has as its primary goal hibit a stagewise growth when exposed to a vary- the development of the capability to predict the ing relative humidity.7 A real-time aerosol sulfate effects of coal utilization patterns upon ambient measurement system based on a flame-photo- concentrations of sulfur oxides in the Northeast- metric sulfur analyzer has been constructed, cali- ern United States, with particular emphasis upon brated, and evaluated in ground and airborne sulfates that are formed from sulfur dioxide dur- sampling programs. Its sensitivity to sulfate is of ing transport through the atmosphere.1 the order of 1 jig/m3.8 Measurements made in an aircraft flying over The prospect for validating long-range trans- a multistate area showed the regional nature of port models at distances of 1000 km or more, and air pollution concentrations. Vertical profiles of the potential for detecting tagged blasting caps in pollutants have shown the existence of mecha- clandestine bombs at airport environments, are nisms that contribute to long-range transport: two of the immediate applications for the recent layers of material can be left aloft as nighttime developments of ultrasensitive detection tech- inversions are established, and material can be niques for certain fluorinated organic compounds moved to higher altitudes by synoptic-scale verti- at concentrations of 10~14 (i.e., one part per 1014 cal motions. In both cases, deposition to the parts of air). A capability for detection at 10~16 ground is decreased and the time available for has been demonstrated, with a potential for as transformation to sulfate is increased.2 little as 10-18. Data from MAP3S ground-level paniculate The Coastal Meteorology program is providing sampling in the Greater New York subregion an understanding of those complex meteorologi- during July-August 1977 confirmed the theoretical processes which are unique to coastal zones cally anticipated regional coherence in sulfate and which affect the siting, operation, and safety levels, closely related to meteorological variables, of coastal and offshore installations. Atmospheric whereas the ammonium/sulfate and acid/sulfate diffusion experiments have shown that parameters ratios showed substantial regional and diurnal needed for more accurate predictions of the spread variability within the sampled area.3 of airborne effluents are substantially different Modeling research is aimed at merging pre- from those that are used in models for overland 9 dictions of atmospheric transport and diffusion dispersion. with realistic descriptions of chemical reactions.4-5 On the microscale a theoretical framework for the description of the effect of turbulence on the course of chemical transformation in the atmosphere has been established.6 On the regional scale more accurate objective schemes for wind field diagnosis have been developed as have efficient numerical techniques for diffusion computation so that non-linear chemistry may be included. While these sophisticated models are being developed, a simpler trajectory model, with simple 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 !l 12 13 14 15 chemistry and removal times, has been merged DISTANCE FROM OCEAN (km) with source emission inventories, observed meteorological fields, and population distributions and Figure 11. Turbulence intensity as a function of altitude and position during onshore (left to right) airflow, Atlantic applied to the prediction of air quality resulting Ocean to over Long Island. This is based upon observa- from various energy usage projections; these stud- tions made from an aircraft. Patterns of this type occur ies have been done in cooperation with the Policy when the land surface is warmer than the ocean. 137

REFERENCES spheric photochemical systems. BNL 2461 OR. Pres. at IX Intern. Conf. on Photochemistry, Cambridge, Eng- land, August 7-9, 1978. J. Photochemistry 9, 104-106 1. R.E. MEYERS AND E.N. ZIEGLER, A statistical correla- (1978). tion between ambient sulfate concentration and sulfur dioxide concentrations, total suspended particulates 6. C. DOPAZO, A few problems and techniques in turbu- and relative humidity for 13 eastern states. BNL lent relative systems. BNL 23184. Pres. at 6th Intern. 22547R. Environment Science and Technology 12, Colloquium on Gasdynamics of Explosions and Reac- 302-308(1978). tive Systems, Royal Inst. of Tech., Stockholm, Sweden, August 22-26,1977. 2. S. SETHU RAMAN, R.M. BROWN, G.S. RAVNOR, AND W.A. TUTHILL, Measurement of vertical velocity fluctuations 7.1.N. TANG, H.R. MUNKELWITZ, AND J.G. DAVIS, Aero- in the atmospheric boundary layer with a small air- sol growth studies IV. Phase transformation of mixed craft. BNL 23633. Pres. at 4th Symp. on Meteorologi- salt aerosols in a moist atmosphere, BNL 24631. J. cal Observations and Instrumentation, Denver, Colo- Aerosol Science (in press). rado, April 10-14, 1978. 8. R.L. TANNER, J. FORREST, AND L. NEWMAN, Determi- nation of atmospheric gaseous and paniculate sulfur 3. R.L. TANNER, W.H. MARLOW, AND L. NEWMAN, compounds. BNL 23103, Chapter in Sulfur in the En- Chemical composition correlations of sulfate as a func- vironment, Jerome Nriagu, editor (John Wiley and Sons, tion of particle size in New York City aerosol, BNL New York, 1978). 23280. Pres. at Symp. on Atmospherics Sulfur Com- pounds: Formation and Removal Processes, AICHE 9. S. SETHURAMAN, Atmospheric turbulence and diffusion 70th Annual Meeting, New York, November 13-17, in a coastal area. BNL 24122. Pres. at Fluid Dynamics 1977. Seminar, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, April 12, 1978. 4. R.E. MEYERS, R.T. CEDERWALL, AND J.A. STORCH, Modeling sulfur oxide concentrations in the eastern United States: Model sensitivity, verification, and applications. BNL 24542. Pres. at 4th Symp. on Turbu- LAND AND FRESHWATER lence, Diffusion, and Air Pollution. American Meteo- ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES rological Society, Reno, Nevada, January 15-18,1979. 5. S.Z. LEVINE AND S.E. SCHWARTZ, Construction of sur- Effects of Acid Rain on Terrestrial Ecosystems rogate chemical mechanisms (SCHEME'S) for atmo- The increased use of fossil fuels since 1950 as sources of energy and current pollution control Figure 12. Smoke plume over water deflected by the techniques (including taller smoke stacks and breaking of internal gravity waves over water. These internal waves form over water in strong surface-based greater use of particulate precipitators) have in- inversions caused by the movement of warm air over cold creased the concentration of SO2 in the atmo- water. Formation and breaking of these internal waves sphere in widespread areas of New England and affect over-water turbulence and diffusion. Long Island. It has been shown that increased SO2 in the atmosphere can cause plant injury by direct absorption of the gas, as SOg on particulate matter, or dissolved in rain water (acid rain). The aims of the Acid Rain program are to 1) sample rainfall in a systematic manner for measurement of pH, specific conductivity, and the concentration of several cations and anions, in order to characterize incident rainfall on Long Island; 2) determine the effects of acidity on selected soil microbial activities; and 3) determine the direct effects of acidity on foliage of plants. Data from a sequential precipitation collector1 indicate that the highest acidity in precipitation is found in squall-line and cold-front weather pattern's during the summer months.2 In experiments on the effects of excess acidity on soil microbiological processes, the rate of de- nitrification may be slowed so drastically that increased levels of N2O in the atmosphere may result, with a subsequent reduction in soil nitrogen levels.3 138

be achieved by applying wastewaters to upland ecosystems - agricultural lands, grasslands, for- ests - with beneficial effects accruing through increased productivity in the treated systems and through production of more highly purified water at a lower cost than could have been attained through currently available technology. Two man-made wetland ecosystems designed to achieve these ends are being investigated. In the meadow/marsh/pond system, raw sewage flows over a sloping grass-covered meadow before entering a combined marsh-pond unit from which treated water is discharged to a groundwater recharge area. In the marsh/pond system, sewage flows directly into a cattail marsh which feeds into a pond from which the effluent is discharged to the recharge area. All areas in both systems are underlain with a plastic liner so that only the Figure 13. Scanning electron micrograph of the upper final effluents reach the groundwater. leaf surface of a pinlo bean plant. Healthy turgid epi- These systems have been operating on a year- dermal cells surround several flawed epidermal cells. A round basis since July, 1975. During this time, single stoma and remnants of a hydathode (glandular leaf hair) are present in the injured area. The photograph was some 40 chemical, bacteriological, and viral obtained 24 h after a single exposure to rain of pH 2.7. parameters have been monitored in the influent sewage and in the effluents from the system components. Biomass production by the meadow Many plant species have been exposed to simu- grasses has been measured annually. These data lated acid rain.4 Foliage of poplar (populus sp.), are currently being evaluated.5-6 pinto beans, soybeans, and sporophyte plants of Brookhaven Town, which has participated in braci en fern are quite sensitive to acidic precipi- the recharge program since its inception, is cur- tation. At pH 2.7 as much as 10% of the leaf area rently constructing a marsh-pond complex to may be affected after 6-8 exposures. Leaves of the treat effluents from its cesspool-waste treatment monocot, Tradescantia, and sunflower are less sen- facility. The sewage recharge technology devel- sitive, while foliage of oak and pine is least sensi- oped at Brookhaven is also being transferred to tive. Acidity levels of pH 2.3 are required to pro- other municipalities. duce leaf lesions on the latter two species. Scan- Recently, techniques have been developed for ning electron micrographs showed that injury to the analysis of large-volume water samples for the upper leaf surfaces occurred mostly at the base of presence of human enteric virus.7 An environmen- trichomes (leaf hairs) and near stomata. Experi- tal virology laboratory was established to provide ments were focused on the response (density of this capability at BNL for the Recharge Program. lesions) with stage of leaf expansion in poplar It is the only laboratory of this type in New York and pinto bean. Lesions were most frequent on State and one of the few in the Northeast. leaves that were undergoing leaf expansion or had In a field study of Nassau and Suffolk County just become fully expanded. Unexpanded leaves water resources, the laboratory isolated human were less sensitive compared with these other two enteric viruses from groundwater observation stages. wells, treated sewage effluents, and shellfish- growing waters receiving treated sewage. Among Recharge Project the viruses isolated and identified on both monkey Conventional practices in sewage treatment kidney and human cell lines were poliovirus (both have given little attention to the necessity of re- virulent and avirulent strains), coxsackie, and claiming water and recycling nutrients contained echovirus.8 in the sewage. It has been amply demonstrated Methods of recharge basin management are that, under certain circumstances, these ends may being studied at a unique recharge installation 139

operated by the U.S. Geological Survey in Med- from analysis of sequential precipitation samples at ford, New York in the interest of reducing the BNL. BNL 50826 (May 1978). number of enteric virus particles reaching the 3. A.J. FRANCIS AND R. BERNATSKY, Biogenic emission of nitrous oxide by acid and acidified soils. BNL 24880 aquifer. Experiments have shown that the key (1978). factors in the removal of virus from sewage dur- 4. L.S. EVANS, N.F. GMUP, AND F. DACOSTA, Foliar re- ing recharge operations are the soil characteristics sponse of six clones of hybrid poplar to simulated acid and the conductivity of the recharged waters. In rain. BNL 22975R. Phytopathology 68, No. 6, 847-56 addition, laboratory experiments have shown (1978). 5. M.M. SMALL, Natural sewage recycling systems. BNL that the adsorption of viruses is highly strain de- 50630 (May 1977). pendent. Currently, studies are underway to de- 6. M.M. SMALL AND CHRISTOPHER WURM, Data report - termine the horizontal movement and survival of marsh/meadow/pond system. BNL 50675 (April 1977). viruses entrained in the aquifer. 7. E.F. LANDRY, J.M. VAUGHN, M.Z. THOMAS, AND T.J. VICALE, BNL 24355. Efficiency of beef extract for the recovery of poliovirus from wastewater effluents. Applied REFERENCES and Environmental Microbiology 36, No. 4, 544-48 (1978). 8. J.M. VAUGHN, E.F. LANDRY, LJ. BARANOSKY, C.A. l.G.S. RAYNOR AND J.P. MCNEIL, The Brookhaven BECKWITH, M.C. DAHL, AND N.C. DELIHAS, A survey of automatic sequential precipitation sampler. BNL 50818 human virus occurrence in wastewater - recharged (May 1978). ground water on Long Island. BNL 23874, Applied and 2. G.S. RAYNOR AND J.V. HAYES, Experimental data Environmental Microbiology 36, No. 1, 47-51 (197~).

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AREA B. Manowitz W.Tucker Atmospheric Sciences J.Ash R. Brown V. Evans L. Kleinman R. Meyers C. Nagle G. Raynor C. Benkovitz R. Cederwall J. Hayes M. Leach P. Michael R. Petty S. SethuRaman W. Bornstein H.Lee J.Tichler Oceanographic Sciences F. Barvenik D. Grill T. Hopkins J. Lofstrand E. Premuzic A. Stoddard J. Walsh M. Dagg R. Hautsch S. Howe S. Malloy S. Smith A. Tingle T. Whitledge D. Dieterle A. Herriott D. Judkin T. Owens I. Snapper K. Von Bock C. Wirick P. Falkowski E. Wold Environmental Chemistry R. Adamowicz R. Doering J. Forrest M. Greene S. Levine S. Schwartz R. Tanner R. Deitz T. D'Ottavio J. Gaffney M. Kinsley W. Marlow G. Senum R. Wilson C. Dodge R. Fajer R. Garber P. Klotz H. Munkelwitz D. Spandau L. Newman E. Ferreri R. Goodrich D. Leahy M. Philips I. Tang Land & Freshwater Environmental Sciences K. Blumer N. Gmur E. Landry D.Olson M.Thomas T. Vicale J. Clinton G. Hendrey K, Lewin E. Soffey J.Vaughn Energy Technology Programs

The objective of the Energy Technology Pro- fuel cells and in the electrolytic production of grams in the Department of Energy and Environ- hydrogen. Work is also underway on the electrol- ment is to further the development of advanced ysis of a halogen acid and its recombination in the energy systems and components. Emphasis is production of electricity. Electrocatalysts and the placed on technologies that offer significant im- nature of the surfaces2 of candidate materials are provements in energy conversion systems, the studied; methods have been developed for pre- utilization of abundant and renewable sources, paring and examining high surface area elec- and significant improvements in environmental trodes. Ellipsometry3 and electrochemical tech- characteristics Concepts that advance the state- niques are used to reveal surface phenomena and of-the-art well beyond that required by current or growth in oxide films during the oxidation and contemplated standards are of primary importance. reduction of metal surfaces. Another area of interest is the use of solid polymer electrolytes for HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY water electrolysis. Research on polymer mem- The emphasis of the Hydrogen Technology branes and catalyst system are in progress in sup- Development Program at BNL is in the area of port of a DOE sponsored commercial electrolysis electrolytic hydrogen production, development of development program. chemical storage of hydrogen via the use of metal The research on solid oxide electrolytes4 for hydrides, underground storage of hydrogen, and high temperature electrolysis is concerned with the application of hydrogen in the mid- to long- electrodes and cell interconnecting materials. term in selected end use applications. Alternating current is used for the analysis of Advanced industrial electrolysis development the overpotentials resulting from interfacial programs are monitored by BNL which also resistances. furnishes management support to DOE for these efforts. In-house research efforts are carried out in support of these programs which emphasize OIL FIRED SPACE HEATING electrocatalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction EQUIPMENT in acid and alkaline environments. The latter activ- In 1976 BNL assumed responsibility for assist- ities are all part of an International Energy Agency ing DOE (then ERDA) in planning and manag- cooperative research and development program. ing the RD&D effort in space conditioning equip- Research and development is in progress on ment and control systems for buildings. BNL de- materials for chemical storage of hydrogen. Work 1 signed, built, and now operates a test laboratory on metal hydrides at BNL provided the stimulus for evaluating the thermal performance5 of oil- for the current worldwide interest in these sys- fired space heating equipment. An improved, tems. Small-scale engineering hardware develop- direct measurement procedure developed by ment programs are in progress to test hydride BNL project staff has provided accurate evalua- storage reservoir concepts which offer improved tion of the efficiency of residential heating units performance, cost, and safety advantages over during full-load and part-load operation. Testing conventional, compressed gas or liquefied hydro- is conducted to characterize the thermal efficiency gen storage systems. Another concept pioneered of equipment now on the market and to assess the by BNL is the use of glass microspheres for the performance of promising new experimental and storage of hydrogen and separation of hydrogen developmental equipment. The second compo- from impure gas streams. The storage work is di- nent of the program is a series of RD&D projects rected at transportation applications where the directed toward development and commercializa- need is for low cost, safe, and compact (high tion of improved heating equipment. Projects de- hydrogen density) storage systems. fined and contracted by BNL are carried c ut by industrial organizations and universities. Exam- ELECTROCHEMICAL RESEARCH ples include a direct-readout combustion effi- The emphasis of the electrochemical programs ciency meter, small efficient oil burners based on is on the oxidation and reduction of oxygen in new principles for atomization of the fuel, and

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high efficiency gas furnaces with innovative design features such as pulsed combustion and use of heat pipes.

FOSSIL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY The Brookhaven effort in the Fossil Energy Technology area has changed in emphasis and scope during the last few years. Projects underway at the outset dealt with the direct conversion of coal to liquids using a high temperature, high pressure, short residence time, hydrogen pyrolysis and with the investigation of regenerable processes for desulfurization of hot combustion gases. A Fossil Energy Program Development6 project was initiated in FY-1977 under sponsorship of the ERDA Division of Fossil Energy for the purpose of examining research needs in this technology area as well as the capability and interest of BNL to meet these needs. The latter activity led to the development of a fossil technology program with emphasis in three areas, combustion, hot-gas Figure 14. Evaluating the thermal performance cleanup (including desulfurization and particu- of space heating equipment. late monitoring and control), and the catalytic conversion of synthesis gas to methanol and other coal liquids. The implementation of these coordinated fossil technology activities began in FY 1978. Two management support projects in combustion were initiated in this period, one dealing with Residue and Waste Fuels (primarily wood) which involved program development and contract monitoring for DOE, and the other improved oil and gas burners, a similar project in oil and gas combustion. The projects are described in more detail below. Flash Hydropyrolysis of Coal7 The chemistry of a process for the rapid hydrogenation of lignite coal is being studied. The major products of this treatment are gaseous methane (for pipeline gas), ethane and liquid benzene (for motor gasoline and chemical feedstocks), and light oils (for fuels and distillates). A highly versatile tubular reactor pilot plant facility was constructed to process up to 0.9 kg of coal per hour; processing conditions range up to temperatures of 900 °C, pressures to 280 atm, and coal reaction residence times as short as 2 seconds. This experimental facility (see Fig. 15) can be utilized to develop process data for conver- Figure 15. Tubular reactor pilot plant facility sion of any solid carbonaceous materials (e.g., for flash hydropyrolysis of lignite coals. 142

biomass) to liquid and gaseous fuels. As much as high sulfur coal burning power plants. Ground 80% of the carbon in lignite coal has been con- lime or dolomite is mixed with ground coal and verted to liquid and gaseous fuel products (equiv- fluidized in an air stream and made to combust in alent to more than 3 bbl of fuel oil equivalent per a tubular furnace. Excess air is used such that the ton of coal fuel). Methods for controlling the en- combustion temperature is held below 1000°C in vironmental impact are also investigated for the order to allow the sulfur dioxide formed to com- process. bine with the lime to produce calcium sulfate. Several methods for regeneration and recy- Catalytic Conversion of Synthesis Gas cling of lime are being investigated. One method to Higher Hydrocarbon involves the reduction of CaSO4 with carbon The economic and efficient conversion of syn- from the fly ash in the flue gas. Another method is thesis gas, produced by coal gasification, to meth- directly catalyzing the decomposition of CaSO4 anol and higher hydrocarbons is very dependent using iron oxide. A third method is to use regen- on the interaction of reaction catalysts with the erable sorbents existing in flyash, particularly CO, H2, CO2, and H2O gases involved. A proj- calcium silicates. The basic chemistry and kinetics ect to investigate these catalysts8 and mechanisms are first studied in the laboratory by means of dif- and develop improved processes was initiated in ferential thermal and gravimetric analyses. Then FY 1978. An initial result has been the develop- bench scale equipment consisting of rotary kilns ment and investigation of a theory describing the and a fluidized bed combustor is used to study the carbon oxide reduction process using various process chemistry. Finally, process design and catalytic materials. economic analyses are conducted. This information can be used for the large scale FBC program Rotating Fluidized Bed for Removal being conducted by DOE at other federal and of Sulfur From Hot Gases industrial sites. The rotating fluidized bed concept9 was originated at Brookhaven National Laboratory and SYSTEMS STUDIES SUPPORT established that a stable fluidized bed can be PROGRAM achieved in a rotating system. Particles, in this case a sorbent such as limestone, are rotated in a This project provides analytical and computer cylindrical basket through which an inward ra- support to the DOE Office of Energy Technology dial flow of combustion gases containing SO2 in the fossil area. This involves the continuing passes, causing the particles to fluidize against the assembly, qualification, updating, and applica- centrifugal force imposed on the particles by the tion of data bases and analytical tools that de- rotation. Higher gas velocities are realizable with scribe the technical, environmental, and economic this device in comparison with stationary systems. characteristics of fossil technologies, and fossil en- Alternatively, smaller particles can be used with ergy resources. Systems models are evaluated, the same gas velocity. The purpose of this work is verified, and validated for use in the program. to examine the feasibility of utilizing a rotating fluidized bed containing limestone for desulfuri- COMBUSTION zation of hot combustion gases. Coal and Coal/Oil Combustion Characteristics12 Regeneration of Limestone or Interest has been refocused recently on the Lime Based Sorbents burning of paniculate coal and coal/oil slurries. The overall program objective is to obtain The problems of the combustor designer are com- basic chemistry data required for the develop- pounded in the combustion of the above fuels since ment of processes for the regeneration10 of lime- little systematic and reliable information exists on stone or lime-based sorbents used in the desulfuri- the physical mechanisms involved. The physico- zation of coal and fuel gases in power producing chemical processes include particle-turbulence cycles. interaction, heat transfer, chemical kinetics, two- Fluidized bed combustion (FBC)11 is a relatively phase flow, and spray dynamics. It is the purpose new method of controlling sulfur emission from of this study to investigate experimentally and 143

analytically the above mechanisms and their inter- in sizes up to 5 tons. It is currently being used action to establish combustor design correlations. with a laboratory model heat pump designed and

13 assembled to obtain performance data as a func- Improved Oil and Gas Burners tion of evaporator and condensing temperature, This project's objective is the improvement in compressor capacity modulation, heat exchanger the utilization of fossil energy and resources by type and size, expansion valve configuration, and modification or retrofit of combustion processes refrigerant. The system is fully instrumented aiid and equipment, and to provide a technology base includes a data retrieval subsystem. Both steady for switching to more available fuels. The BNL state and transient testing can be performed. role, which includes experimental, analytical, and The current laboratory heat pump under test technical assessment ;u mities, also includes sup- contains a nominal 3 ton open-type reciprocating port of the Department of Energy's management compressor (permitting variable speed operation), of the project contract activities. shell and tube heat exchangers, and several thermal expansion and manual control expansion Residue and Waste Fuels valves. Steady state testing, using refrigerant R-12, This is an engineering activity providing man- is under way to evaluate coefficient of perform- agement support to the Department of Energy in ance (COP) as a function of evaporator temper- the development of combustion systems for residue ature. Results to date with these off-the-shelf and waste fuels (primarily wood). The task includes components have verified the trend of increasing planning and analysis, preparation of work state- COP with evaporator temperature at suction ments, proposal review, and contract monitoring. temperatures ranging to 35 °C, with no apparent detrimental effects to the compressor.

SOLAR ENERGY Ground Coupled Storage16 Brookhaven has been assisting the Department Another part of the solar assisted heat pump of Energy in the development of solar assisted research program at BNL is a study of ground heat pumps and solar cooling technologies by energy coupling techniques and their effect on the furnishing technical guidance to various project solar assisted heat pump system. There is evidence management tasks and by performing research in to indicate that the introduction of thermal cou- these areas. pling between the storage device and the ground can improve the performance and reduce the ini- Solar Assisted Heat Pumps Systems tial cost of the series solar heat pump system. A In a solar assisted heat pump system, 14>i5 the series system is one in which the solar heat input solar collection/storage subsystem feeds energy at is applied directly to the heat pump evaporator. warmer-than-ambient temperatures to the evapo- The ground acts in two roles in order to achieve rator of a heat pump. The heat pump, with the these improvements: input of mechanical work, boosts the temperature 1. The ground can be used as a long term or of this energy to a value sufficient to heat the "quasi-annual" storage device which will allow building space. This low-temperature approach solar energy collected during times of low heat- offers the possibility of low-cost collection of solar ing demand to be used during the peak winter energy coupled with greatly improved heat pump heating load period. performance. 2. The earth acts as a "buffer" or transient heat BNL serves as technical monitor for research source/sink. When the storage temperature is be- and development contracts issued by the U.S. low the ground temperature, the ground provides Department of Energy in this field. In addition, heat and thus behaves as a buffer to help raise the in-house research is carried out in three areas storage temperature. which support and complement the contract work. Solar Assisted Heat Pump Simulator Heat Pump Impact on Solar Collector Design and Cost17-w In the Solar Energy Laboratory, a simulator has been designed and constructed to test solar Solar assisted heat pump systems which use assisted heat pumps of the liquid-to-liquid type solar energy collected at moderate temperatures 144

(4-38° C) may make possible the use of low-cost REFERENCES structures as collectors. Computer simulations carried out at Brookhaven have identified the 1. Hydrides fir Energy Storage, Editors, A.F. AnJi-rson and tradeoffs between collector characteristics and A.J. Maeland. (Proc. of an Intern. Symp. held in needed collector area which exist in these systems. Geilo, Norway, August 14-19, 1977.) Published on be- A parallel activity is a search for low-cost struc- half of Intern. Assoc. for Hydrogen Energy by Perga- mon Press, 1978. tures which satisfy these requirements. Simple 2. W.E. O'GRADY, H. OLENDER, H.S. ISAACS, AND S. site-assembled passive air-heating collectors, and SRINIVASAN, In situ regeneration of surfaces of fuel cell- trickle collectors have been identified as promising type electrodes. Extended abstracts, National Fuel candidates for the collection of solar energy in Cell Seminar, San Francisco, California, July 1978. these systems. 3. P.W.T. Lu, AND S. SRINIVASAN, Electrochemical- ellipsometric studies of oxide films formed on nickel during oxygen evolution. J. Electrochemical Society 125, Solar Cooling Technology 1416(1978). Brookhaven has made significant contributions 4. H.S. ISAACS, P.G. RUSSELL, AND L.J. OLMER, Electro- to solar cooling technology in two areas. A com- chemical characteristics of ZrC>2-Y2O3 solid electro- prehensive survey of current absorption cooling lytes for fuel cells. Proc. on Symp. on Electrode Mate- rials and Processes for Energy Conversion and Stor- technology has been prepared. This survey dis- age, J.D.E. Mclntyre, S. Srinivasan, and F. G. Will cusses the basic and applied absorption cooling/ eds. 77-6,584(1977). heating technology, analyzes the current state-of- 5. J. BATEY, T. ALLEN, R. MCDONALD, R. HOPPE, F.J. the-art and the limitations and possible solutions, SALZANO, AND A.L. BERLAD, Direct measurement of identifies areas where promising developments the overall efficiency and annual fuel consumption of residential oil-fired boilers. BNL 50853, January are, lists the current products and activities of the 1978. absorption industry, and presents the current 6. R.J. ISLER, Editor. Annual highlights of the energy R&D effort of the U.S. government. technology programs. December 1977, BNL 50799, A solar activated cooling simulator for evalu- p. 26. ating residential sized hardware systems was con- 7. M. STEINBERG AND P. FALLON, Flash hydropyrolysis of structed. The simulator is sufficiently flexible to . coal. Quarterly Progress Report No. 5, January - March 31,1978. August 1978, BNL 50894. be usable for both Rankine and absorption cool- 8. R. SAPIENZA AND L.C. SPAULDING, Use of multi- ing components. The capability of the machine metallic bifunctional catalysts for the conversion of includes: coal derived synthesis gas to methanol. Progress Re- 1. Measurement of cyclic characteristics of port No. 3, June-August 1978. August 1978, BNL 50897. commercial equipment at off-design conditions. 9. F.B. HILL, J.S. MILAU, AND C.H. WAIDE, Feasibility 2. Steady state and unsteady state hardware of utilizing a rotating fluid bed containing limestone simulation of solar cooling units for validation of for the removal of sulfur from hot gases. Annual Re- cooling unit computer models and cooling system port, October 1977-September 30, 1978 (in prepara- models. tion. 10. M. SHEN, J.M. CHEN, A.S. ALBANESE, G. FARBER, F.B. KAINZ AND J. PRUZANSKY, Regenerative Process Figure 16. Hardware simulator for thermally activated for Desulfurization of High Temperature Combustion cooling subsystems of residential size. and Fuel Gases. Quarterly Progress Report No. 10, July 1-September 30, 1978. December 1978. BNL 50944. 11. R.T. YANG, M. SHEN, AND M. STEINBERG, Fluidized- bed combustion of coal with lime additives. Catalytic sulfalion of lime with iron compounds and coal ash. Env. Sci. Tech. 12, 915 (1978). 12. R.J. Isler, Editor. Annual Highlights of the Energy Technology Programs. December 1978, BNL 50959, p. 39 (in press). 13. R.J. Isler, Editor. Annual Highlights of the Energy Technology Programs. December 1977, BNL 50799, p. 27. 14. J.W. ANDREWS, E.A. KUSH, AND P.D. METZ, A Solar- Assisted Heat Pump System for Cost-Effective Space Heating and Cooling. BNL 50819. 145

15.J.G. COTTINGHAM, The Cost-Effective Potential of Presented at the 1978 Annual Meeting American Sec- Optimumly Designed Heat Pumps for the Collection, tion of the International Solar Energy Society, Den- Storage, and Distribution of Solar Energy. Submitted ver, Colorado, August 28-31,1978. BNL 24579. to ASHRAE Semiannual Meeting, January 28-Feb- 17. J.W. ANDREWS AND A. LEWANDOWSKI, Survey of Low- ruary 1, 1979, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and pub- Cost Solar Energy Collectors for Use in Solar Assisted lished in ASHRAE Transactions, 1979, Vol. 85, Part Heat Pump Systems. May 1978, BNL 24381. 1. BNL 25195. 18. P.C. AUH, A Survey of Absorption Cooling Technol- 16. P. METZ, The Potential for Ground Coupled Storage ogy in Solar Applications. July 1977, BNL 50704. Within the Series Solar Assisted Heat Pump System.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY AREA F.J. Salzano, R.J. Isler, G. Dennehy

Fuel Cells, Hydrogen Storage, Electrochemistry H. Isaacs J. McBreen H. Olender S. Srinivasan E. Taylor R.Yeo G. Kissel W. O'Grady L. Olmer G. Strickland C. Yang Boiler/Burner Space Conditioning T.Allen A. Hendrick R. Jones R. McDonald J. Batey R. Hoppe R. Krajewski L. Woodworth Hydrogen Technology A. Mezzina M. Bonner Solar Technology J. Andrews A. Lewandowski E.Kush P. Auh P. Metz Fuel and Geothermal Technology A. Beaufrere D. Huszagh C. Krishna E. Manuel H. Serry T. Butcher J.Karhkeck P. LeDoux J.Milau C.Waide National Center for Analysis of Energy Systems (NCAES)

The National Center for Analysis of Energy as- logical and economic model which represent the sists the Department of Energy (DOE) in the complex interactions between the nation's energy evaluation and analysis of alternative strategies and economic systems. The models employed in and policy options that are responsive to the na- this framework for energy policy analysis include tion's needs. The programs carried out at the (Fig. 17): Center are comprehensive and interdisciplinary, 1. The Dale W. Jorgenson Associates Long- allowing the detailed study of the complex inter- term Interindustry Transactions Model (LITM), relationships between technological, economic, a combined macroeconomic growth and aggre- social, regulatory, and environmental factors that gate interindustry model. In response to changes influence the energy system. In order to relate the in the relative price structure confronting the technological aspects of energy to other policy economy, this model reflects the changes in pro- areas including economics and the environment, duction and final demand spending patterns in work is performed, when appropriate, for other the context of long-run economic growth;1'2 federal agencies and for state and regional agen- 2. The Brookhaven National Laboratory and cies, regulatory bodies, and planning groups. The University of Illinois Input-Output (I-O) model, emphasis of the programs at the Center is on a detailed interindustry model. This model is used planning studies at the regional, national, and to estimate detailed labor, capital, materials, and international levels. Analytical work was per- functional end-use energy requirements given formed in support of the ERDA Research, Devel- the aggregate demand and production informa- opment, and Demonstration Plans prepared by tion from LITM and to represent interfuel substi- the ERDA Assistant Administrator for Planning tutions obtained from the model below;3 and and Analysis. Comprehensive studies have been 3. Alternative energy system allocation models done on strategies involving energy conservation (optimization and simulations) which are detailed and interfuel substitution in the energy system. process models of the nation's energy system. These models optimally allocate produced en- ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ergy resources and select the optimal mix of energy supply, conversion, and demand technol- Integrated Energy and Economic ogies according to least cost or other criteria to meet Modeling and Analysis projected functional end-use energy requirements. A broad analytical activity has been carried To illustrate an application of these models, out to develop and apply an integrated techno- higher energy prices, irrespective of the sources of

REFLECTS CHANGES IN FINAL DEMAND. MACROECONOMIC GNP, AND EMPLOYMENT IN RESPONSE AND TO ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL POLICIES. INTERINDUSTRY RESOURCE AVAILABILITY, AND MODELS TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE.

• RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES USED • PRICE OF SERVICE OR DEMAND FOR ENERGY PRODUCT PRODUCTS OR SERVICES > ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS > CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS GIVEN SET OF ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES, DETERMINES OPTIMAL USE OF RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES WITH RESPECT TO TECHNOLOGICAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES. CONSTRAINTS MODEL AND REQUIREMENTS, INDICATES ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS AND CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS OF ENERGY SECTOR.

Figure 17. Combined econometric and process analysis model.

146 147

and Programming Study, a major effort to determine the emphasis to be placed upon various energy supply strategies and upon supply versus end use programs. Introduction of a new building technology will IMPACTS OF be facilitated if interaction with conventional INCREASING ENERGY PRICES technology is advantageous to both energy pro- ducers and consumers. With solar heating systems such interaction is especially important be- a 55 cause of the need for a peaking and/or backup heat source. If electricity is used for backup, and heat storage devices are included in the system, electricity can be delivered at times other than when it is actually required. Management of the backup heating load is being studied so that demand for electricity can be shifted away from the utility's peak load periods, reducing required gen- 1940 1950 I960 1970 1980 eration, transmission, and distribution capacity YEAR and, thus, the cost of backup electricity.5 The focus of the study is to evaluate various load manage- Figure 18. The Energy-GNP ratio, defined as the ratio of Btu's of primary energy (fossil equivalent) consumed to ment schemes and associated rate schedules and Gross National Product (GNP) measured in constant to determine whether or not the desired benefits 1972 dollars, 1947-2000; an indicator of energy-economy can be achieved and simultaneously be equi- interaction. table, conserve nonrenewable resources, and improve the environment. this escalation, have an appreciable effect on the To support these programs a comprehensive structure of economic activity, the levels of pro- data base on existing structures and alternative duction and income, and the structure and level conservation technologies has been assembled. of prices. One indicator of the overall economic This enables evaluation of current and proposed efficiency of energy use is given by the ratio of programs for buildings and identification of other total primary energy consumed annually to the conservation areas which may warrant further annual flow of real Gross National Product considerations. (GNP). Changes in the projected temporal behavior of this measure summarize the economiz- Urban Energy Policy ing adjustments in spending and production pat- The appropriateness of specific energy technol- terns resulting from relatively more expensive en- ogies in various types of communities and of in- ergy, as shown in Fig. 18. stitutional considerations affecting their introduction is the subject of an urban energy policy pro- Energy Consumption in Buildings gram. Supply and end use technologies are being Special capabilities have been established for identified which would decrease energy consump- the analysis of energy consumption in buildings. tion and improve environmental and economic Historical energy use practices were often very conditions. Institutional constraints will be iden- inefficient, and, because of the quantity of energy tified such as building codes, financing, and labor consumed in structures, the potential for reduc- practices, which could either facilitate or block tion is very great. implementation of alternative technology. A regionalized model, the Buildings Energy Conservation Optimization Model (BECOM), Industrial Energy Consumption explicitly models the U.S. building stock, and A number of detailed process models of the both structural and equipment alternatives for energy intensive industries are being developed. reducing future energy consumption.4 It was used Each model of a specific industry attempts to cap- to evaluate impacts of the National Energy Plan ture both the technological and institutional struc- and to support ERDA's Market Oriented Policy ture of the modeled industry. These models are 148

used for calculating fuel mixes and quantities 5. H. DAVITIAN, R.N. BRIGHT, AND W. MARCUSE, Utility given projected demands for industry output, Load Management and Solar Energy: Study Back- assessing the impacts of industrial conservation ground and Preliminary Market Potential Analysis, BNL 25038, June 1978. Paper presented at Systems regulations and standards, evaluating the impacts Simulation and Economic Analysis for Solar Heating of industrial conservation tax policies, and pre- and Cooling Conference, San Diego. dicting the market penetration of new energy 6. D.A. PILATI AND R. ROSEN, Energy Use Modeling of conserving process technologies. When developed, the Iron and Steel Industry. Presented at the 1978 these models will interact with other macro- Summer Computer Simulation Conference Newport economic models in a hierarchical fashion. Oper- Beach, Ca. (July 1978). BNL 24268-R. ational dynamic models of the iron and steel,6 7. DAVID A. PILATI AND RICHARD ROSEN, The Use of the 7 Pulp and Paper Industry Model for R&D Decision pulp and paper, and aluminum industries are Making. BNL 50839, March 1978. currently available. 8. JOSEPH R. WAGNER AND JOANNE NAUGHTON, Fleet Operator Study: Geographic Aspects BNL 24708, Transportation Energy Consumption July 1978. 9. J.R. WAGNER, Brookhaven Energy Transportation The most important activity in the area of Submodel (BETS) Documentation and Results. BNL transportation conservation has been the Fleet 50902 (October 20, 1977). Operator Study.8 This study is designed to develop ways of estimating technological penetration BIOMEDICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL rates within that portion of the highway vehicle ASSESSMENT DIVISION HIGHLIGHTS population that is controlled by corporate and government fleet administrators. This work has The Biomedical and Environmental Assess- special relevance for analysis of electric vehicle ment Division was formed in 1973 to assess the scenarios, since corporate and government fleets health and environmental costs of national energy options. Its major objectives are to develop represent one of the more promising markets for methods for estimating health and environmental electric vehicles. A data base has been assembled damage from energy production and use, to esti- which describes the physical capabilities required mate the impacts associated with alternative en- of a large group of fleetvehicles . A simulator has ergy strategies so that they can be taken into ac- also been constructed which uses the data base to count in energy policy decisions, and to recom- generate estimates of the applicability of given mend areas of biomedical and environmental re- vehicle technologies. search necessary to improve the information avail- Another activity within the area oi transporta- able for future energy-environment decisions. tion energy conservation has been the development of the Brookhaven Energy Transportation High priority was given to efforts to assess the 9 damage from increasing coal use. Reports were Submodel (BETS). From Brookhaven Energy prepared on impacts of traditional coal-steam Systems Optimization Model (BESOM) solution electric as well as new gasification and liquefac- values this model estimates the annual amount tion technologies.1*4 The Division has the lead role of energy used to transport energy materials within health effects assessment in the DOE inter- in the United States. laboratory National Coal Assessment project. REFERENCES Means of explicitly considering the high uncertainties in estimates of health and environmental 1. DJ. BEHLING, A Dynamic Systems Analysis of the Re- damage are being explored. Two reports were lation Between Energy and the Economy, BNL 21667. published on a probabilistic approach to policy Paper presented at IEEE Computer Society Meeting, analysis issues concerning the impacts of air pol- Washington, D.C. (September 1976). lution for coal-fired power plants and its control.5-6 2. K.C. HOFFMAN AND D.W. JORGENSON, Economic and Technological Models for Evaluation of Energy Pol- Environmental assessment requires attention to icy, Bell Journal of Economics 8(2), Autumn 1977. geographical detail. The county was determined 3. JOHN T. FRASER, Documentation of the Brookhaven to be a reasonable unit for analysis of national Energy I-O and I-O/BESOM Linkage. BNL 50856, strategies. Considerable effort has gone into de- August 1978. velopment of information bases at the county 4. S.C. CARHART, S.S. MULHERKAR, AND Y. SANBORN, The Brookhaven Buildings Energy Conservation level for energy production and conversion, demo- Model, BNL 50828, (January 1978). graphic characteristics, health status indicators, 149 water quality, and the presence of endangered 11. D.F. SHREEVE, C.E. CALEF, AND J. NAGY, The en- species and critical habitats.7"11 These data provide dangered species act and energy facility planning: the basis for spatial and temporal analysis of re- Compliance and conflict. BNL 50841, 1978. 12. S. SILBEKSTEIN, Hazards of organic working fluids. lationships among health, environmental, and Aug. 1977, BNL 50761. energy factors and, in addition, are drawn upon 13. S. SILBERSTEIN, Exposure to indoor pollution. Oct. for broad facility siting strategies. An atlas of the 1977. BNL 23891. energetics of the United States was produced.7 14. S. SILBERSTEIN, Energy conservation a:id indoor air Possible health effects of increasing emphasis pollution. BNL 24301, Energy and Buildings (in press). 15. S. SILBERSTEIN, Outdoor sources of indoor air pollu- on energy conservation were explored. Assess- tion. BNL 50762, Energy and Buildings (in press). ments were made of potential health consequences 16. S. SILBERSTEIN, Heating ssytem-generated indoor air of increased indoor air pollution associated with pollution. BNL 24302, Energy and Buildings (in press). decreasing air infiltration rates in buildings and of potential hazards of building insulation.12"16 Understanding the potential hazards should en- TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT able conservation policies to avoid unnecessary Activities in this area have focused on provid- side-effects. ing current estimates of technological factors (costs, efficiences, development status, potentials) REFERENCES associated with new technology areas. This information is used at Brookhaven in various study 1. M.E. BASER AND M.J. PEARSON, Contributions from areas, and at DOE to enhance its programs. Ad- the Navajo Power Plant to surrounding trace element ditionally, studies are undertaken in specific areas levels (Pres. at Air Pollution Control Assoc. Ann. Meeting, Houston, Texas, June 15-19, 1978). to assess overall impacts of policies and/or technologies. Recent efforts focused on an analysis of 2. S.C. MORRIS, P.D. MOSKOWITZ, W.A. SEVIAN, S. SIL- 1 BERSTEIN, AND L.D. HAMILTON, Comparative analysis coal potential in the 1985-2000 time frame, con- of health and environmental effects of coal conversion sidering possible environmental restrictions. An- technology (Draft Report). Biomedical and Environ- other study, nearing completion, focuses on the mental Assessment Division and Office of Environ- mental Policy, November 1978. future role of decentralized, or appropriate, technologies in the energy system of the U.S. 3. S.C. MORRIS, K.M. NOVAK, AND L.D. HAMILTON, Draft Summary Report of Health Effects of Coal in the National Energy Plan, Office of Environmental Policy, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, REFERENCE New York, 11973, October 1978. 4. J.C. PERKOWSKI, Assessment of water impacts, envi- I. D. GUNWALDSON, N. BHAGAT, AND M. BELLER, A study ronmental management and policy alternatives re- of potential coal utilization 1985-2000. BNL 50771 garding contour surface mining of coal in Appalachia. (December 1977). Ph.D. dissertation, M.I.T., 1977. 5. M.G. MORGAN, W.R. RISH, S.C. MORRIS, AND A.K. ENERGY DATA AND MODELS MEIER, Sulfur control in coal fired power plants: A probabilistic approach to policy analysis. J. APCA 28, Activities in this area have focused on the eval- 993-997, 1978. 6. M.G. MORGAN, S.C. MORRIS, A.K. MEIER, AND D.C. uation, development, and refinement of methods SHENK, A probabilistic methodology for estimating of modeling which enhance the information qual- air pollution health effects from coal-fired power ity of data derivable from energy models in sup- plants. Energy Systems and Policy 2, 287-309,1978. port of energy policy, analysis, and evaluation. 7. F.R. DKYSDALE AND C.E. CALEF, The energetics of the The evaluation of non-BNL Energy Models was United States of America, October 1977, BNL identified early in the formation of the NCAES 50501-R. 8. W.A. SEVIAN AND S.R. BOZZO, A data bank for the as a necessary activity preceding possible incor- geographical allocation of future U.S. energy supply poration of these models within our systems frame- facilities by county. May 1977, BNL 50734. work. The evaluation and refinement of non-BNL 9. S.R. Bozzo, F. GLADOS, K.M. NOVAK, C.E. CALEF, models has included an evaluation of the Bechtel AND L.D. HAMILTON, Medical data base: A tool for coal model, RESPONS,1 as a tool for assisting in studying the relationship of energy related pollutants to ill health, BNL 50840, 1978. the analysis of the potential role of coal in the 10. J. NAGY AND C.E. CALEF, ESUSA: U.S. endangered evolution of the national energy system. Another species distribution file, BNL 24488, 1978. effort currently underway (in support of DOE's 150 long range energy analysis program) entails an alysis Project for the International Energy Agency evaluation and refinement of the Decision Focus, (IE A) and a set of programs examining the en- Inc. (DFI) methods of modeling. ergy problems of developing countries. To further enhance the integrated energy- The IEA Energy Systems Analysis Project is a economy analytical framework, both regional and multi-national cooperative effort conducted time dynamic energy systems models have been jointly at the Kernforschungsanlage (KFA), developed, implemented, and continue to be re- Jiilich, Germany. Its purpose is to provide analyt- fined, and integrated as tools within the energy ical support for policy decisions of the Interna- systems framework.2'3 tional Energy Agency, particularly in regard to The evaluation of the quality of an energy sys- opportunities for cooperative research on future tem must be judged not only by its cost but also energy systems. BNL provides staff support to the by its effects on the environment, security, and project including the project director, the United intergenerational equity. As such, analytical States representative, computer programmers, frameworks for multi-objective analysis have been and secretarial services. Each participating coun- and continue to be incorporated with the energy try has one or two representatives in residence at systems framework.4'5 either BNL or KFA to conduct the work. Partici- Finally, the Energy Model Data Base pating countries and agencies include Belgium, (EMDB),6'7 developed and updated at Brookhaven Canada, The Commission of European Commu- through subcontract to Bechtel and Teknetron, nities, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Inc., continues to serve as an energy information Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzer- system. It is easily accessed and is used by many land, the United Kingdom, and the United States. energy analysis groups in the U.S. and abroad. The participants work together as a team to analyze their home country energy systems by stan- REFERENCES dardized procedures and to analyze the collective energy systems.1 The primary goal is to evaluate 1. M. GOLDBERG AND E.A. CHERNIAVSKY, Validation and the potential role of new or improved technolo- Assessment of the RESPONS Model, BNL 50642, De- gies. The first phase of the project (completed in cember 1976. April 1977) consisted of developing standard 2. A.S. KYDES, E.A. CHERNIAVSKY, Coal in Transition: methods of analysis and system projections to the 1980-2000; Demand Considerations, BNL 50844, De- cember 1977. year 2000. The second phase which will continue 3. A.S. KYDES, E.A. CHERNIAVSKY, AND W. MARCUSE, until June 1979 is devoted to developing a more The Brookhaven Time-Stepped Energy System Opti- detailed quantitative characterization of some mization Model (TESOM), BNL 24223, presented at 100 new energy technologies and developing a the TIMS/ORSA Conference in Los Angeles, Novem- multi-period Linear Programming model ber 1978. (MARKAL) for evaluating the potential of each 4. A.S. KYDES, The Brookhaven Energy System Optimi- zation Model, Its Variants and Uses, BNL 24081, technology. Canadian Energy Policy Modeling Conference, May 18-20,1978. The Developing Country Energy Program has 5. E.A. CHERNIAVSKY AND J. SCHANK, An Approach to entailed a variety of projects over the past two Hierarchical Multiobjective Analysis, May 1978, BNL years. Among these was a major study performed 24354A, presented at tr e ORSA/TIMS Conference, for the U.S. Agency for International Develop- Los Angeles, California, November 13-15, 1978. ment (AID) on the "Energy Needs, Uses and Re- 6. MURREY D. GOLDBERG, WALTER A. SEVIAN, ANN W. sources in Developing Countries."2 In that study REISMAN, AND PAULA H. NEWHOUSE, The Energy Model Data Base Program, BNL 21545, June 1976. the energy situations in developing countries, and 7. PAULA H. NEWHOUSE, Energy Data Base Application: solutions to their energy problems, were analyzed Implementing The Energy Model Data Base (EMDB) as a basis for formulating U.S. energy assistance Using System 2000, BNL 21854, September 1976. programs. Also with AID support, a series of studies was initiated to get a better understanding POLICY ANALYSIS of the energy and food systems of developing countries. The first country being studied in that International Programs program is Senegal. Under DOE sponsorship The International Activities of the Division are BNL designed and supervised the analytical contained in two program areas: A Systems An- component of two major cooperative energy as- 151 sessments, one with Egypt, the other with Peru. a White House briefing. Together with other na- These studies constituted a pilot program of co- tional laboratories, a detailed environmental an- operative energy analysis initiated by President alysis of the Plan was prepared for the Executive Carter in September 1977. In both countries the Office of the President in August, with Brook- application of BNL energy analysis techniques haven contributing an assessment of the solid was found to be of great value in initiating com- waste management impacts of the plan, focused prehensive national energy planning. particularly on such problems as coal ash and scrubber sludge disposal in the utility and indus- Regional Studies Program trial sectors.5 The National Coal Utilization Assessment, A number of programs addressed to energy sponsored by ERDA's Assistant Administrator for facility siting problems were initiated in 1977 and Environment, commenced as a major multi- 1978. The Brookhaven Regional Energy Facility laboratory study in 1977, with Brookhaven's ef- Siting Model, developed originally as a tool for fort focused on the Northeastern United States. scenario disaggregation for the National Coal The study was designed to analyze the major en- Utilization Assessment, was developed further as vironmental, socioeconomic, and institutional a policy analysis tool for State Regulatory Agen- constraints associated with increased coal utiliza- cies, in a collaborative effort with the Massachu- tion in the U.S. The interregional transport of setts Energy Facility Siting Council.6 And in mid- coal-related air pollutants and the regional eco- 1978 work commenced on a study for the Nuclear nomic development implications received major Regulatory Commission to investigate the em- emphasis in the Northeast. Special studies on the pirical and theoretical adequacy of quantitative possibility of offshore siting of coal-fired electric siting methodologies now coming into use by utili- generating stations, on the impact of Prevention ties and their environmental consultants. of Significant Deterioration Regulations on land use planning, and on the problems associated with increased coal use in industry were also com- REFERENCES pleted.3 A special study of the Natural Gas situation in 1. An Initial Multi-National Study of Future Energy Sys- New Jersey was completed in January 1977, just tems and Impacts of Some Evolving Technologies, BNL 50641, Joint Report with the Kernforschung- as the Natural Gas Curtailments of the severe sanlage-Jiilich, Germany, March 1977. Winter of 76-77 reached their peak. The study 2. P. PALMEDO, R. NATHANS, E. BEARDSWORTH, AND S. explored a number of policy alternatives designed HALE, BNL 50784, Maich 1978. to ease the immediate crisis, emphasizing both 3. P. MEIER, "Regional Science and Energy Policy: A conservation strategies as well as short-term ad- Methodology for the Assessment of Increased Coal ministrative actions.4 Utilization in the Northeast," BNL 22792, May 197.7. 4. J.L. CECIL AND D. MORELL, "New Jersey Natural Gas A period of intense analysis and assessment fol- Shortage: A Policy Analysis," BNL 22318, December lowed the April 1977 announcement of the Na- 1976. tional Energy Plan. A detailed policy assessment 5. P. MEIER, E. RUBIN, T. LEE, AND R. STERN, "An As- of the ramifications of the Plan for the North- sessment of the Solid Waste Impact of the National En- ergy Plan," BNL 50708, February 1978. eastern United States, including economic devel- 6. P. MEIER, "A Long Range Power Plant Siting Model," opment, institutional and environmental aspects, Journal of the Energy Division, American Society of Civil was conducted in June and July culminating in Engineers, 105, No. EY1,117-135, January 1979. 152

NATIONAL CENTER FOR ANALYSIS OF ENERGY SYSTEMS K.C. Hoffman

Energy Data and Models H. Abilock A. Kydes P. Newhouse J.E. Smith K. Kubono L. Juang J. Rabinowitz Regional Studies J. Allentuck G. Goldstein T.Le R. Malone W.Metz J. Munson V. Sailor J. Brainard D.Hill J.Lee G. McGranahan G. Mitchell B. Pierce R. Stern L. Fishbone J. Keyser M.Lee P. Meier V. Mubayi A. Reisman T. Teichmann BEAD S. Bozzo F. Galdos £. Kaplan P. Moskowitz N. Novak W. Sevian C. Calef L. Hamilton S. Morris J.Nagy M. Rowe Economic Analysis R.Goettle S. Guterman S.Kyle W.Marcuse S.Mulherkar Y. Sanborn J.Schwam P.Groncki J.Jailer J. Lukachinski E. McBreen D. Pilati D.Schneider R.Tessmer Technology Assessment M. Beller R. Bright J. D'Aciemo A. Hermelee R. Leigh M. Reckard N. Bhagat H. Davitian A. Doernberg J. Lamontagne R. Pouder J. Wagner Department of Nuclear Energy

INTRODUCTION possible source of weapons material. Good economic potential of the design makes it attractive At the end of FY 1977, the Department of Nu- to utilities. clear Energy (DNE) was formed, to manage all The design work which has been performed to programs of the Department of Appl;ed Science the present includes reactor physics, fuel cycle, (DAS) concerned with energy sources derived heat transfer, and materials science studies. Both from the atomic nucleus. The program areas with helium-cooled and sodium-cooled versions of the which DNE is involved are: advanced reactor reactor concept appear to be feasible. systems, both fission and fusion; safety of fission reactors; evaluation of nuclear reaction cross sec- Linear Accelerator Systems tions; and nuclear materials safeguards, both do- for Nuclear Power Production mestic and international. These areas are assigned The application of high current, high energy to divisions within the department, as shown in linear particle accelerators to the pre-enrichment the organization chart in the General and Admin- and regeneration of fuel elements in nuclear power istrative section. DNE is unusual among the re- reactors is being investigated. Design studies2 have search departments in that the bulk of its funding indicated that light water reactor (LWR) fuel comes from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission elements of the type presently being fabricated (NRC) rather than from DOE. The present bud- can be enriched or regenerated in a blanket that get allocations are about 75% from NRC, 20% surrounds the primary beam target, which is from DOE, and the remainder from other sources. composed of falling jets of liquid lead or lead- Since the programs in the present DNE have bismuth. The enriched or regenerated fuel ele- maintained complete continuity with those in the ments can then be sent to a LWR nuclear reactor former DAS, their accomplishments are described to produce power. Typical design conditions in- as though the new department existed during the volve a 1 to 2 Gev proton beam with a current of whole period covered by this report. 200 to 300 mA, which produces 30 to 40 spallation and evaporation neutrons per incident pro- ADVANCED SYSTEMS ton on the liquid metal target. The LAFER (Lin- ear Accelerator Fuel Enricher and Regenerator) Fast-Mixed Spectrum Reactor Program would have a number of important advantages. It A new and important concept in fission reactors would greatly increase the uranium fuel utiliza- is being developed in a program initiated at BNL tion in existing types of LWR's. Depending on during the past year. The object of the program design parameters, uranium utilization could be is to devise a power reactor which would have increased by a factor four or more if the fuel were major anti-proliferation advantages, while at the not reprocessed, and by a much larger amount, same time being commercially attractive.1 As far approximately one hundred-fold, if it were re- as possible, it would also employ conventional reprocessed. The avoidance of reprocessing might actor technology in order to assure its feasibility be very desirable for increasing resistance to pro- with minimum need for new research and testing. liferation of nuclear weapons. The stretching of The proposed reactor would use as feed only uranium resources would permit continued opera- natural or depleted uranium. This would re- tion of an LWR power economy for many decades. move the need for any nation which operates The LAFER technology is relatively near term. such a reactor to build a uranium enrichment Presently existing types of reactors and fuel ele- plant, one source of proliferation. Then, because ments could be used for power production. The the feed fuel itself would have no enrichment accelerator requirements are judged to be within the current state of the art, and projected costs there would be no incentive to steal it as a source 2 of weapons material. Finally, because a once- appear reasonable. The target and blanket de- through-and-store fuel cycle is used, the fuel would signs do not involve advanced technology. The not be reprocessed. Removal of need for a re- principal potential limitation appears to be the processing plant simultaneously removes a major total burn-up that can be achieved in the LWR

153 154 fuel elements. Design studies have assumed a limit Hydrogen could be used directly as a fuel, or of 60000 MWd/ton, twice that now used in indirectly as a feedstock for the preparation of LWR's. Results with high burn-up experiments other synthetic fuels. A very promising applica- indicate that this level, and perhaps higher, should tion of the latter would be to use fusion-derived be achievable. hydrogen for coal gasification.Coal feed requirements could be reduced by a factor three, with Production of Synthetic Fuels approximately 80% of the input energy to the Using Fusion Energy fusion-coal symbiosis coming from the fusion reactor. The unique nature of fusion energy should allow the production of hydrogen, and synthetic Advanced Fusion Fuels fuels derived from hydrogen, at very high effici- Design studies of reactor systems for burning ency. Experiments and design studies related to advanced fusion fuels4 have been carried out in a hydrogen production from fusion energy have collaborative effort with the University of Illi- been carried out. They show that the deep pene- nois and Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, under tration of 14 MeV neutrons and secondary-high the sponsorship of the Electric Power Research energy gammas into fusion blankets would result Institute (EPRI). in most of the energy being deposited in very These studies investigated the catalyzed deu- high temperature (>1000°C) interiors, which terium-deuterium (Cat-D-D) and deuterium- can directly transfer heat to fluids like steam or heIium-3 (D-3He) fuel cycles. The neutron damage CO2. The structure in such blankets, being ther- and activation rates for the first fuel cycle were mally insulated from the hot ceramic interior, calculated to be half those for the deuterium- would remain at a relatively low temperature, tritium (D-T) fuel cycle, the cycle now under 300 °C. consideration for the first generation of fusion reac- Design studies have been carried out of blan- tors. The D-3He fuel cycle would reduce activa- kets and process equipment for high temperature tion and damage rates by almost two orders of electrolysis (HTE) of steam.3 For temperatures in magnitude below the D-T rates. In addition, the range of ~ 1200-2000 °C, approximately 30- tritium breeding blankets and recovery/fueling 50% of the energy required to dissociate water by systems would not be required with these ad- HTE would be supplied thermally. As a result, vanced fusion fuels. the overall efficiency, fusion thermal energy to The design studies examined the technology hydrogen chemical energy (higher heating value), (blankets, magnets, injectors, etc.) of several mag- is projected to be in the range of 50 to 70%. The netic confinement approaches (tokamaks, mir- lower bound corresponds to a standard steam rors, EBT, Tormak) for the burning of advanced power cycle, and the upper bound corresponds fusion fuels. The technology requirements are to a high efficiency steam power cycle which deemed achievable, at approximately the same superheats steam in the hot blanket interior. cost level as reactors using the D-T fuel cycle. Ad- Experiments on the long term chemical stabil- vanced fusion fuels would have substantial en- ity of candidate ceramic materials with flowing vironmental benefits over D-T fuels, but these high temperature steam and CO2 have been car- were not quantified. ried out. Four candidate materials have been investigated: ZrO2, AI2O3, SiC, and MgO. Results indicate that ZrC>2 and AI2O3 would be suitable REACTOR SAFETY with steam in fusion blankets up to approximately 1300°G, and all materials would be suitable with Reactor safety programs at BNL sponsored by CO2 up to at least 1400°C, the maximum experi- the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) con- mental temperature available. The reason for consist of research to improve understanding of vari- cern about CO2 compatibility is that CO2, as well ous types of reactors under hypothetical accident as H2O, can be used to produce hydrogen. CO2 conditions, development of computer codes for can be electrolyzed to CO and O2, and CO then accident analysis, risk assessment studies, and shifted to H2 by the standard industrial "shift" re- technical assistance to support the day-to-day action, CO + H2O(gH>CO2 + H2. NRC reactor licensing requirements. Studies on 155

three generic reactor types, light water, high tem- During operation of a power reactor the com- perature gas cooled, and fast reactors, include position of the core changes due to Mission and both analytical and experimental work. The ex- transmutation of the nuclides by neutrons. Work perimental work at BNL, it should be empha- was initiated on assembling an j making opera- sized, is not carried out with operating reactors, tional the codes and data ba'.^s needed for finding but may involve use of individual reactor com- the effects of these composition changes on reactor ponents such as fuel elements. In addition to pro- behavior in both nor.nal and off-normal operation. grams directly related to reactor safety, a program In order to m-ke more efficient use of data that on nuclear waste management is being carried out are being ar_umulated at operating reactors, a for the NRC, DOE, and EPA. data base management system was designed and implemented. To date, the data base consists of Core Safety and Plant Transient Analysis design data, data from startup reports, monthly The core safety and plant transient analysis opr;rating history reports, and effluent monitoring programs provide the Nuclear Regulatory Com- data. Material has been collected for several pres- mission with the capability of following the be- surized water reactors and entered into the data havior of a nuclear power plant during normal base. It is intended to make the system useful as a and abnormal operation. Calculations were pro- source of information, to use it for making com- vided for NRC staff to use in assessing the methods parisons between predicted and observed behav- and results of reactor vendors and operators, as- ior, and for seeing how close to safety limits plants suring that the necessary degrees of accuracy and are operating. Other uses are anticipated. conservatism are present. Many reactor transients which need to be in- In some cases the area of main interest is in the vestigated for Nuclear Regulatory Commission core of the reactor; in others, more of the reactor licensing purposes require study of pressures, tem- components must be included. The tools used for peratures, flow rates, etc., not just in the core but these analyses include neutron transport, fluid also in the rest of the system. A computer code, mechanics, and heat transfer. called IRT, is being developed for pressurized For boiling water reactors, studies were carried water reactor analysis. Special features required out for a turbine trip transient. This is an abrupt for regulatory purposes have been incorporated in stoppage of the steam flow from the reactor to the the code and comparisons have been carried out turbine, producing a pressure pulse which is to substantiate the correct operation of the transmitted back through the steam line to the code. Some of the added features include provi- reactor core. Various feedback mechanisms in the sions to calculate quantities needed for assessing core then convert this pressure pulse into a tran- radiological consequences of certain hypothetical sient rise in reactor power. BNL analytical meth- accidents. ods were used to calculate the results of a set of such transients which were carried out in a power Containment System Integrity reactor under experimental conditions. Good Since 1975 BNL has had the responsibility for agreement was found between calculation and providing technical support to NRC in the area observation. After this validation of BNL methods, of containment system integrity. This support the same methods were used to predict the course consists basically of review and evaluation of ven- of similar events, but under other conditions, for dor methods for predicting hydrodynamic loads use by Nuclear Regulatory Commission staff in on containment structures. In case the vendors' assessing the validity of the methods used by the methods are judged to be inappropriate, BNL reactor vendor. may be called upon to specify alternative methods Many of the separate mechanisms which con- that are acceptable to NRC for reactor licensing tribute to determining the behavior of a nuclear purposes. The designs that have been reviewed to power plant have been investigated. Doppler, date are the Mark-series BWR's which incorpo- moderator, and void feedbacks have been investi- rate the pool-type pressure suppression systems. gated in pressurized and boiling water reactors, Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the Mark and the effects of representing the reactor core by II containment system. In the extremely unlikely one-, two-, or three-dimensional models were event of steam leakage from the reactor vessel to elucidated. the drywell (see diagram), the pressure within the 156

DRYWELL HEAD in various test programs to obtain the hydrodynamic loading parameters. At later times during the loss of coolant accident (LOCA), the fluid entering the pool will be DRYWELL almost pure steam. This steam condenses in the

REACTOR pool, but the condensation process itself may be quite violent, giving rise to loads on the pool walls and any submerged structures. At low steam flow rates, in particular, the condensation becomes oscillatory due to alternating growth and sudden collapse of steam bubbles in the pool. BNL has reviewed a number of domestic and foreign test programs aimed at understanding the physics WETWELL AIR- COMPRESSION and identifying the magnitude of the condensa- DRAG tion loads. The applicability of these test results WETWELL AIR- COMPRESSiON for licensing purposes has been assessed. AIR BUBBLE PLUS HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AIR BUBBLE Another related problem is the safety/relief PRESSURE PLUS HYDROSTATIC valve actuation. This is a normal but infrequent event in which high-pressure steam is ducted into

LOCA POOL SWELL LOADS the pressure suppression pool, where the steam condenses. Here again, the first fluid entering the Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Mark II containment pool will be the air initially in the pipe. In this during the initial phase of Loss of Coolant Accident case, the amount of air is small, but at a high (LOCA). pressure. The air bubble, once formed, continues to oscillate in size, resulting in a periodic pres- containment structure is kept at a safe level by sure loading on the pool walls and submerged ducting the steam, via the long vertical down- structures. BNL has reviewed the methods used comers, into a large pool of water. (The Mark I to predict the full-scale loading conditions from and Mark II containments are similar in concept scale-model as well as in-plant and test data. but the pool geometries are different.) In the early phases of this transient, the fluid entering LMFBR System Transient Code the pool is a mixture of steam and air. The non- The simulation of a liquid metal cooled fast condensable nature of air results in displacement breeder reactor (LMFBR) system for a variety of of water in the pool, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Asso- off-normal and accident conditions is an essential ciated with this displacement are several loads on part of the overall safety evaluation. Some of the the pool walls and structural components within examples of transient conditions of interest in- and above the pool. Some typical loads are iden- clude: the withdrawal of control rods; pump sei- tified in Fig. 1. zure in one of the heat transport loops; after-heat The fluid mechanics associated with these phe- (decay heat) removal via natural circulation; and nomena is quite complex and not amenable to a major pipe rupture in the sodium-carrying heat accurate analytical solutions, although simplified transport system. For any of these disturbances, mathematical models have been used to obtain the system response (i.e., temperatures and pres- approximate answers. Fortunately, the problem sures at key locations) for the entire plant needs lends itself readily to experimental simulation to be calculated to help the Nuclear Regulatory with small-scale models. By matching the neces- Commission in their licensing studies. sary scaling parameters, the phenomena that The Super System Code (SSC) Project, under- would occur in a full-scale containment can be taken at BNL for the Division of Reactor Safety duplicated on a small scale. By appropriate scal- Research, NRC, fills such a need. This project ing laws the full-scale pool velocities, pressures, has two elements: SSC Development and SSC and forces are readily obtainable from the test Validation. In the SSC Development program, data. BNL has conducted in-depth reviews of the the SSC-L code simulates the thermohydraulic scaling laws and the experimental methods used response of any loop-type LMFBR. An example 157

CRBRP HOT CHANNEL

WITHOUT FLOW "~ • REDISTRIBUTION -"" z 100 •s

2 50-

0.4 0.6 0.8 FLOW (mVs)

160 240 320 TIME, s Figure 3. A comparison of FFTF pump performance.

Figure 2. SSC-L computed hot channel sodium temperature for a flow coastdown to natural circulation tran- power is lost at time t = 0, liquid sodium flow sient in CRBRP. through the reactor core will drop and the coolant will begin to overheat. The Plant Protection System initiates reactor scram 0.75 seconds later of this type is the Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF) by detecting the loss of off-site power. The com- that is nearing completion near Richland, Wash- puted hot channel maximum sodium tempera- ington. A major accomplishment was successful ture in the CRBRP reactor core is shown in Fig. 2. completion of the entire code on September 26, The dashed line indicates the response as com- 1977 - a few days ahead of the schedule drawn puted by approximate methods in which the inter- more than two years ahead of time. This com- assembly flow redistribution is ignored. Predic- puter program contains approximately sixty thou- tions by the SSC-L code, which models inter- sand statements. Recognizing the fact that there assembly flow redistribution, are shown by the will be a number of users outside the development solid line. It is seen that the maximum coolant group at BNL, this code has been released with temperature is reduced by 110 K (198 ° F), thereby reports on detailed modeling,5 and a users'manual.6 providing an added margin of safety. A two-day workshop was also held at BNL to ex- Work is well underway to develop an advanced plain the code's operation to about thirty-five per- code, SSC-P, to simulate thermohydraulic tran- sons from other national laboratories (ANL, sients in pool-type LMFBRs. Examples of this HEDL, LASL, ORNL), major industrial vendors type of reactor include EBR-II (the only operat- (Atomics International, Combustion Engineering, ing fast breeder reactor in the United States), General Electric and Westinghouse Electric Corp- PHENIX and SUPERPHEN1X in France, PFR oration), funding institutions (Department of En- in the United Kingdom, and others. This code will ergy, NRC, and Electric Power Research Insti- provide an advanced analytical tool for accident tute), and academic institutions. The code is pres- analysis in any pool-type LMFBRs. ently available to all U.S. users directly through The SSC Validation program is designed to BNL. Foreign governments and parties can also calibrate and qualify the SSC series of codes by obtain this code via agreements between them and applying them to actual test conditions and com- the United States, and the Federal Republic of paring predictions with results obtained from the Germany has already obtained the code through test data. Emphasis is being placed on detailed such an agreement. analysis of pre-operation and acceptance tests in A typical application of the SSC-L code is FFTF. As an example of the SSC code validation demonstrated by a study of the after-heat removal effort, a comparison of the FFTF pump perform- by natural circulation in the Clinch River Breeder ance as computed by SSC with measured perform- Reactor Plant (CRBRP). If a transient is initiated ance data is shown in Fig. 3; also included in this in CRBRP from a full-power and full-flow oper- figure is the result obtained by the vendor's code, ating condition by assuming that all pumping IANUS. 158

Advanced Reactor Safety Evaluation The natural circulation capability of the CRBR This activity provides analytical support to the and FFTF has been under evaluation. Areas of Division of Project Management, Office of Nu- uncertainty in the current understanding of heat clear Regulatory Commission. The technical areas removal at low flows in the CRBR core have been covered include: safety analyses for the licensing identified. In addition, unverified aspects of the reviews of the Clinch River Breeder Reactor computer code modeling have been highlighted. (CRBR) and the Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF); Sensitivity studies related to plant performance assessments and reviews of certain generic licens- and modeling uncertainties have been performed ing issues; and analyses of reactor licensability is- with the codes. Analyses were performed for FFTF sues related to the Nonproliferation Alternative core inlet flow redistribution at low flows, dump Systems Assessment Program (NASAP). Two ex- heat exchanger thermal-hydraulic performance, amples of the more significant accomplishments and sodium boiling under low flows and low heat in the biennial period are described immediately fluxes. following. The reliability assessment of the shutdown heat removal system for the CRBR has been updated 9 Post-Accident Containment Analysis in accord with new design information. For example, the effect of having a battery power sup- In the area of analysis of accidents with a con- ply for pony motor power has been assessed. A re- tainment design basis, calculations and assessments view of system interaction techniques has been have been made for both CRBR and FFTF of the performed and specific applications have been temperature and pressure response of the reactor made to heat removal systems for light water re- building to sodium leaks and spills from the pri- actor shutdown. mary and intermediate heat transport piping, the cold trap, and the primary sodium storage tank Reactor Physics cell. These involved analyses of sodium spray fires, pool fires, and gas release associated with An assessment of the reactivity impact from sodium-concrete interactions. The analyses uti- partial core homogenization during the loss-of- lized the SPRAY, SOFIRE, and CACECO Row transient in the CRBR has been made. The 2 codes. Improvements to the CACECO venting SDX and the (corrected) MC -II cross section and energy and mass transfer processes were preparation codes have been implemented on the implemented. BNL computer system. A capability to do analyses The containment responses to Class 9 core of ANL critical experiments has been developed. meltdown accident scenarios have been evaluated An analysis of engineering mock-up critical ex- for CRBR and FFTF.7 Under the assumption that periments related to the FFTF has been performed the core debris does not form a fragmented, level, with particular emphasis on the sodium void re- coolable debris bed, the penetration of the molten activity. core debris into the concrete reactor cavity floor As part of a review of reactor physics concerns has been computed. Gas release from the con- which impact key safety issues in selected alter- crete has been assessed and the pressurization of nate (NASAP) reactor designs, a basic capability the containment has been computed. to perform safety-related reactor physics calculations for CANDU reactors has been achieved. Plant Dynamics and Reliability Analysis Necessary codes have been implemented on the BNL CDC 7600 (e.g., RAHAB). Benchmark an- In the area of pipe rupture studies, further analyses of CANDU-type cluster experiments have alyses of the primary pipe rupture accident with been performed, including calculations of reactiv- scram for the CRBR and FFTF were carried out ity/feedback coefficients. with BNL-modified versions of the DEMO code, an LMFBR system code.8 The consequences of sodium boiling in the hot channel of the core have Light Water Reactor Risk Assessment Program been investigated with SAS3A. The results indi- Brookhaven National Laboratory has been cate that clad dryout, melting, and relocation conducting a Reactor Risk Assessment analysis occur. An improved leak model has been included for the Probabilistic Analysis Staff, Office of in DEMO. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The program 159 is concerned with risk assessment for commercial sequence accident classes and concluded that this nuclear reactors, and addresses problems similar class of accident would produce low societal risks. to those encountered in the Reactor Safety Study The analysis, being conducted by BNL, generally (WASH-1400). concentrates on those events of relatively less con- The ultimate objective of this project is to pro- sequence, but with a higher probability of occur- vide a probabilistic analysis of a comprehensive rence, and compares these results to those of set of accident sequences in a manner consistent WASH-1400. with the Reactor Safety Study such that when the results are viewed alongside the sets of conclu- Thermal Hydraulic Development sions of that study, they provide a relatively com- Development of the THOR (Thermal Hydrau- plete description of the light water reactor (LWR) lics of Reactors) code has continued during the risk impact over a comprehensive spectrum of past two years. Because of the need to achieve accident consequences. The project also provides high computing speeds, numerous integral tech- a basis for reexamining the class 3-8 accident nique and numerical developments have been re- sequences as utilized in the present licensing pro- quired. The early direction pursued, utilizing cedure. This program has deviated from WASH- completely explicit techniques, was found unsat- 1400 in areas where new methods have been de- isfactory so the system was redone using first veloped since the completion of the Reactor order implicit methods. The major accomplish- Safety Study. Where needed, new methods have ments achieved with the new system include been developed by BNL to handle specific pro- achievement of the first complete code assembly gram concerns. and application of the computational system to The Reactor Safety Study principally investi- experimental comparisons. As an example, com- gated those sets of hypothetical scenarios that re- putation of the behavior of an emergency core sulted in a large fractional release of the total core cooling experiment recently performed at the radioactive inventory. The class 9 accident, as in- Idaho National Engineering Laboratory has re- vestigated in the Reactor Safety Study, was con- sulted in the comparison shown in Fig. 4. It is im- cerned primarily with low probability high con- portant to understand that this comparison is ob-

TIME.sec

Figure 4a. Comparison of mass flow rate at core inlet Figure 4b. Comparison of mass flow rate at broken cold leg with STP-8 data. (Homogeneous flow in lower plenum). with STP-8 data. (Homogeneous flow in lower plenum). 160

tained through the simple specification of only geometric parameters and flow resistance to components in the computational subassembly which included pipes, downcomer, and a lower plenum. In support of the advanced computer codes being developed both at BNL (THOR) and at other laboratories for accident analysis in nuclear reactor systems, new thermal-hydraulic experimental programs have been initiated. These programs include work related to light water reactors (LWRs), funded by the Nuclear Regula- tory Commission's System Engineering Branch, and to liquid metal fast breeder reactors (LMFBRs) supported by the Experimental Fast Reactor Safety Research Branch, both within the Division of Re- actor Safety Research. Two new groups have been formed to undertake this work within the Thermal Hydraulic De- velopment Division: the Experimental Modeling Group and the Data Systems and Operations Group. Within the last two years several major accomplishments have been achieved as a result of their efforts. Of particular note is the design, construction and commissioning of a new heat transfer facility. The facility (HTF 1) is a general purpose automatically controlled water circulation loop having an 800 liter per minute flow capability at temperatures and pressures up to 175°C and 1 Figure 5. Operational modules of the new heat transfer facility. MPa with heating and cooling rates up to 0.5 MYV, (Figs. 5 and 6). The first experiments being performed in the facility are providing information required to improve the prediction of nonequilib- rium decompressive vaporization induced in the piping of a reactor system in the event of a loss of coolant accident - an important factor in accurate calculation of coolant inventory following such an accident. Sophisticated new instrumentation techniques have been developed along with a highly automated data acquisition and analysis system to support these experiments. In the LMFBR area, major computer code systems being developed include the BNL SSC code (described above) for plant transient analysis, and the SIMMER code (being developed at LASL) for analysis of core disruptive accident sequences. The BNL experimental program is directed towards describing phenomena involving fuel disper- sal and core material relocation. Major achieve- ments have included the completion of a series of simulant experiments demonstrating the nondis- Figure 6. View of the control room of heat transfer facility #1. persive nature of boiling of reactor materials 161

(steel and uranium dioxide) at decay heat power Figure 7 shows three graphite-coated ThC>2 levels, and the freezing of flowing, multicompo- (BISO) spheres, ~500 jum diameter, after heat- nent gas-liquid mixtures. In the latter series of ex- ing to 2650° C. The results show that for rapid periments it has been clearly demonstrated that heating rates (~2000°C/h) the failure occurs the presence of a noncondensable gas significantly when the thorium carbide (formed by reaction accelerates the freezing processes, leading to plug- of the ThC>2 and graphite) melts and allows the ging of the flow passages and significant reduction dense thoria kernel to rapidly attack the graphite of fuel relocation from reactive zones. An apparent coatings of the BISO particles producing the holes conclusion is that recriticality following a mild core shown in Fig. 7. disruptive accident can not be discounted. A third The HTGR program also includes an exten- significant achievement has been the extension of sive loop facility. In the past year the Helium single-phase natural convection technology to two- Impurities Loop has been modified so that, at phase boiling pool situations, p nd the confirmation present, quantitative data are being obtained on of the ideas with existing experimental evidence, the kinetics and equilibrium reactions involving as well as with preliminary results from a new ex- the primary circuit metals and the gas phase im- perimental apparatus being tested. purities expected during normal operation of HTGRs. The results will be important in predict- High Temperature Gas-Cooled ing long term (40 year) interactions which may Reactor Safety Evaluation alter the properties of HTGR primary circuit components. The High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR) is a thermal reactor with an oxide or carbide fuel incorporated in a graphite core cooled by helium. Heat is removed from the primary helium coolant in steam generators. The core and the entire primary coolant system, including helium circulators and steam generators, are located within a prestressed concrete reactor vessel (PCRV). In the larger HTGRs, the PCRV is a multicavity vessel with a steel liner. The normal helium operating temperature and pressure at the core outlet are —760°C and —50 kg/cm2. Since the HTGR differs radically from light water reactors in many ways, e.g., fuel cladding, moderator, coolant, reactor vessel, etc., safety assessment problems differ considerably from those for light water reactors. Emphasis is placed on the public safety aspects of normal and accident conditions. A special aim of the program is to provide assistance to the Nu- clear Regulatory Commission in its evaluation of safety problems associated with this reactor type. In the past year the program has expanded to include experiments designed to obtain data on hypothetical core heatup accidents. A facility has been built that can attain high temperatures Figure 7. Graphite-coated thorium oxide (BISO) parti- (~4000°C) in times of the order of about 2 hours. cles after being heated to the melting point of thorium The facility has been used to study migration of carbide. Failure occurs rapidly when the protective coat- fuel and fission products near the sublimation ing of carbide (formed by reaction of ThC>2 with graphite temperature of graphite. It has also been used to inside the 500 Jim diameter particle) melts, allowing the unreacted oxide to rapidly attack the graphite. The study failure mechanisms of the fuel and core process is generally accompanied by a rapid evolution components. of CO. 162

Corrosion Science Division of Geothermal Energy, BNL is develop- The department has at present seven programs ing alloys with improved resistance to pitting in the Corrosion Science area, two with DOE, attack by geothermal brines. For the NRC Offices four with NRC, and one with EPRI. For the DOE of Standards Development and Nuclear Reactor Division of Basic Energy Sciences, the group has Regulation, the group performs technical assis- an experimental, basic research program on the tance on related programs in the general areas of mechanisms of intergranular stress corrosion corrosion and coolant chemistry in water-cooled cracking of iron and nickel-base alloys, which in- nuclear power reactors, and of evaluating inser- cludes studies of the segregations within the mate- vice inspection programs for monitoring piping rial and the electrochemistry of the attack, using and tubing in these reactors for the amount of unique approaches developed at BNL. Figure corrosion that has occurred. BNL Corrosion 8(a) shows the potential fields set up in solution Science Group personnel have served as technical by grain boundary corrosion of sensitized stain- witnesses for the NRC staff. For the NRC Divi- less steel, and indicates, by comparison with the sion of Reactor Safety Research, BNL is perform- grain structure of the same area shown in Fig. ing an experimental program on a quantitative 8(b), the relative corrosion rates of the several study of the factors causing stress corrosion crack- grain boundaries being scanned. For the DOE ing of Inconel 600 in high purity water. This program has already provided the first experimental demonstration of the role of inservice (a) strain on stress corrosion cracking of Inconel 600 by pure water. The group is funded by EPRI to develop an electrochemical corrosion monitor for pressurized water reactor steam generators based on an alternating current polarization technique. This development is a spin-off from our research funded by Basic Energy Sciences.

Nuclear Waste Management Research The BNL effort in nuclear waste management is broadly based. Areas of involvement include tritium storage development, study of leaching and other properties of solid radioactive wastes and their containers, evaluation of commercial (b) low-level waste disposal sites, and evaluation of radioactive waste packages retrieved from ocean disposal sites. A simplified process has been developed for the immobilization of high-level tritiated aqueous waste in polymer impregnated concrete (PIC).10 This process does not require mixing and thereby minimizes the possibility of spillage and contaminated equipment. An evaluation of the product includes the fabrication of tritiated PIC specimens containing 10 curies of tritium each for lysimeter testing at Savannah River Laboratory. These waste forms have been buried in the ground for Figure 8. Plot of the boundaries attacked on large grain more than one year and have exhibited a tritium e size 304SS material held at —200 mV in 2.5 JV H2SO4 fraction release rate with time of 1.16 X 10~ per (a) actual area plot of the potential fields measured by day. Projection of this rate predicts a maximum the Scanning Reference Electrode, (b) line drawing of fraction of the initially contained tritium of the boundaries etched on metallographic observation of 3 the sample (dark lines). Also drawn are the lines across 2.76 X 10~ present in the environment after 17.7 the peaks in Fig. 8(a) (dotted lines). years. Technology for tritium fixation using the 163

process developed at BNL has been transferred to the Monsanto-Mound Laboratory. The waste solidification work conducted at BNL has been extended to enable a study of the leaching characteristics of transuranic (TRU) contaminated incinerator ash. Techniques and formulations have been .leveloped11 to solidify TRU-contaminated incinerator ash using hydraulic cement, urea-formaldehyde, asphalt, and thermosetting plastics. The ability of the resultant solid waste forms to retain radioactivity in leaching environments is being determined since it has important implications for interim storage, transportation, and disposal. Waste forms containing plutonium-239, americium-241, cesium-137, and strontium-90 have been subjected to leaching in five ground water compositions to determine the rate of activity release. The data obtained are being modeled to allow long-term projections for the release of radioactivity from full scale waste forms Figure 9. Polymer impregnated concrete waste forms with time as a function of temperature and flow produced at BNL and containing ten curies of tritium each were buried (without container) in an individual rate. lysimeter at the Savanah River Plant. Rainwater collect- Data are being collected on the nature, distri- ing in the bottom of the lysimeter was analyzed to deter- bution, and movement of radionuclides at the six mine its tritium content and hence the rate of tritium re- U.S. commercial low-level radioactive waste dis- lease from the waste form. posal sites. The data will be used primarily to establish criteria for the selection of future dispos- Recently, BNL actively participated in the real sites and to determine the present and long- trieval of radioactive waste packages from the 900 range stability of existing sites. In cooperation m Pacific-Farallon dump site and from the 2800 with the U.S. Geological Survey, BNL has devel- m and 3800 m sites in the Atlantic Ocean. Evalu- oped appropriate procedures for the collection, ation of these packages at BNL involves finding preparation, and analyses of soil and water sam- the rates and mechanisms of chemical and biologi- ples obtained from the sites. Trench and well cal corrosion on the container, determining the water samples from the West Valley, New York; type of solidification matrix material and the effect Morehead, Kentucky; Sheffield, Illinois; and of disposal environment on its durability, identify- Barnwell, South Carolina sites have been ana- ing types and quantities of contained radionu- lyzed for inorganic, organic, and radiochemical clides, and determining the rate of radionuclide constituents.12 A bacteriological study has been leach from the matrix material in seawater. carried out to assess the role of microorganisms in the degradation of organic wastes and their NATIONAL NUCLEAR DATA CENTER potential for enhancing the migration of radio- 13 nuclides. Distribution coefficients (Kj) of selected The National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC), radionuclides under conditions simulating the formerly the National Neutron Cross Section trench environment have been measured to help Center has, as the name implies, expanded its predict the movement of dissolved radionuclides role to provide data center services to the entire at the disposal sites. low energy nuclear science community. In addi- The Waste Management Group provides ex- tion to the existing neutron physics information perimental research support to the U.S. Environ- service, information on charged particle reactions, mental Protection Agency (EPA) to evaluate the nuclear structure, and decay data is available on effects of the sea water environment on radioac- request. tive waste forms and containers which were dis- The IAEA Nuclear Data Section coordinates posed of in the ocean between 1946 and 1970. an international effort in nuclear structure and 164

decay data (NSDD). A network of NSDD evalu- NUCLEAR MATERIALS SAFEGUARDS ation centers has been set up within the U.S., and is called the U.S. Nuclear Data Network The function of the Technical Support Organi- (USNDN). The USNDN is coordinated by the zation (TSO) is to provide technical assistance to NNDC which also serves as the U.S. representa- DOE and NRC in their development of policies tive to the international network. and procedures in response to perceived threats of nuclear facility sabotage and nuclear material The NNDC acts as the secretariat for the Panel theft or diversion. Internationally, concern cen- of Reference Nuclear Data (formed October, ters about the clandc ;ne production, or nation- 1976) and hosts the annual meeting of the Panel. al diversion, of material for use in nuclear weapons The Panel acts as an interface between the scien- production (proliferation); domestically, safe- tific community and nuclear data centers and guards are aimed at preventing unauthorized funding agencies. It advises the centers and agen- possession or use of nuclear materials, and the cies of the nuclear data needs of the community sabotage of nuclear facilities. and informs the community through the member societies of the data available from the centers. Major and still growing emphasis has been One outgrowth of this has been the annual pub- placed by the U.S. these past two years on the lication of "A Source List of Nuclear Data Bibli- need to prevent or delay further nuclear prolifer- ographies, Compilations and Evaluations"14 com- ation. The TSO role, under DOE sponsorship, piled, prepared, and disseminated by the NNDC. has involved significant participation in the Nu- clear Alternative Systems Assessment Program 238 The success of the 1975 U Resonance Cap- (NASAP) and in the International Nuclear Fuel ture Seminar, jointly sponsored by the Electric Cycle Evaluation (INFCE). Typical of TSO con- Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the Energy tributions have been extensive studies of the safe- Research and Development Administration guards aspects of the thorium fuel cycle, the vari- (ERDA), organized by the NNDC, and held at ous techniques for the clandestine production of BNL, led to two further symposia organized and weapons material, and heavy water and tritium convened by the NNDC at BNL. These were accountability problems. TSO personnel have "Symposia on Neutron Cross Sections from 10-40 been charged by DOE with the responsibility of 15 MeV" jointly sponsored by the ERDA Divisions preparing or reviewing the safeguards portions of Magnetic Fusion Energy and Physical Research, of U.S. contributions to the various INFCE work- and "Nuclear Data Problems for Thermal Reactor ing groups and with reviewing and commenting 16 Applications" sponsored by EPRI. upon papers produced by other nationals. The Center has begun annual printing of a bib- Additional support of DOE international inter- liography of publications of integral charged par- ests has been supplied by TSO, e.g., considera- ticle reaction data17 and a biennial publication tion of U.S. safeguards interests in foreign reproc- containing an evaluation of isotopic composition essing plants in Japan, India, and Taiwan, and of the chemical elements and their variation in aid in preparing for the IAEA inspection of U.S. 18 nature. A comprehensive report on radioactive facilities under the "President's Offer." 19 decay data for fission product nuclides was pub- DOE-funded domestic safeguards matters in- lished and the Center is continuing its participa- volving TSO over the past two years have includ- tion in the production of CINDA, a neutron phys- ed: the development of computer-based physical ics bibliography. A review of the CINDA file en- security assessment techniques and their applica- tries and the addition of the index to the available tion to all DOE nuclear facilities; the prepara- experimental data in the file has been completed tion of a guard equipment handbook; instrumen- in preparation for a publication covering the years tation development, procurement, and placement 1935 to 1977. in DOE field offices; general program and pro- Forty-two isotopes including some structural posal assessment and review. materials and rare earths were evaluated, sub- All five major NRC offices have requested TSO mitted, and accepted for a national reference sys- to undertake safeguards studies. A series of reports tem for nuclear data entitled Evaluated Nuclear and guides concerning reactor physical protection Data File (EXDF/B-V) to be published early in was completed for the Office of Standards Devel- 1979. opment (SD). The previously developed physical 165 protection assessment model was revised for li- dures, and information systems; 3) developing censee application under Office of Nuclear Reac- and supplying instrumentation; and 4) arrang- tor Regulation (NRR) sponsorship. Two major ing for and funding training programs for IAEA efforts have recently been started for the Office inspectors. of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards In addition to the IAEA-related program, ISPO (NMSS): the preparation of a series of hand- has also been assigned management of the Tokai books to aid licensees in the preparation of sub- Advanced Safeguards Technology Exercise, a missions required under the "President's Offer,'" program to improve safeguards techniques for and to aid NRC in reviewing these submissions; spent fuel reprocessing plants. This assignment and a detailed consideration of safeguards-related resulted from a four-party (U.S., Japan, France, regulatory problems which might arise if any of IAEA) agreement to study advanced safeguards the fuel cycles projected by the NASAP/INFCE techniques and demonstrate these at the PNC studies were to be implemented. A recently com- Reprocessing Plant at Tokai, Japan. pleted NMSS-sponsored study considered regulatory problems connected with the licensing of REFERENCES enrichment plants. Current TSO activities for the Offices of Research (RES) and Inspection and 1. G.J. FISCHER, H.J.C. KOUTS, AND C. DURSTON, Trans. Enforcement (IE) include, respectively, a defini- Amer. Nuc. Soc. 27, 724 (1977). tive assessment of the potential consequences to 2. P. GRAND AND HJ.C. KOUTS, Editors, BNL 50838, December 1978. public health and safety of adversary acts against 3. J.A. FILLO, Editor, Informal Report, BNL-23845, No- nuclear facilities, and the development and appli- vember 1977. cation of diversion path survey techniques. 4. O.K. CHOI, G.A. GERDIN, G.H. MILEY, F.H. SOUTH- WORTH, J.A. FILLO, J.R. POWELL,* J.L. USHER, A.S. BLUM, AXD R.W. MOIR, EPRI ER 581, November INTERNATIONAL SAFEGUARDS 1977. PROJECT OFFICE 5. A.K. AGRAWAL, Principal Investigator, BNL- NUREG-50773, February 1978. The International Safeguards Project Office 6. A.K. AGRAWAL, Principal Investigator, NUREG/ (ISPO), established in 1977, has continued to CR-0452 (BNL-NUREG-50914), October 1978. function to assist the IAEA by responding to re- 7. R.D. GASSER AND W.T. PRATT, Informal Report, quests for assistance beyond the capacity or bud- BNL-NUREG-24141-R, August 1978. 8. D.C. ALBRIGHT AND R.A. BARI, (Nucl. Technol.) 39, get of the Agency. To date, the IAEA has re- 225 1978. quested assistance in 143 projects. ISPO, after 9. A.J. BUSLIK, I.A. PAPAZOGLOU, AND R.A. BARI,* Pro- review of program requests with DOE/OSS and ceedings of the Topical Meeting on Probabilistic Analysis of an inter-agency steering committee, assigns tasts Nuclear Reactor Safely, ISBN:0-89448-101-0, May 1978. to various DOE laboratories, including BNL, 10. R.M. NEILSON, JR. AND P. COLOMBO, Informal Re- or arranges for commercial suppliers to furnish port, BNL-23584, November 1977. 11. R.M. NEILSON, JR. AND P. COLOMBO, BNL-50854, the service or equipment required. Funding for November 1977. the ISPO portion of the program was about 12. A.J. WEISS, A.J. FRANCIS, AND P. COLOMBO, Informal $2,500,000 in 1978 and it is expected that FY Report, BNL-NUREG-23953, February 1978. 1979 funding will be at about the same level. 13. A.J. FRANCIS AND P. COLOMBO, Informal Report, Future funding is uncertain but it is expected to BNL-NUREG-24668, June 1978. 14. T.W. BURROWS AND N.E. HOLDEN, BNL-NCS-50702, continue near the same level at least through August 1977. 1980. To date, 40 of the 143 tasks have been 15. M.R. BHAT AND S. PEARLSTEIN, BNL-NCS-5068i, completed but about 40 new tasks will be re- July 1977. quested by the IAEA at an ISPO-IAEA meeting 16. P.F. ROSE AND S. PEARLSTEIN, Informal Report, BNL- to be held in October - November, 1978. NCS-25047, May 1978. 17. T.W. BURROWS AND J.S. BURT, BNL-NCS-50640, Major accomplishments have included such March 1977. things as 1) funding the early acquisition of a 18. N.E. HOLDEN, BNL-NCS-50605, March 1977. computer with increased capacity to handle safe- 19. P.F. ROSE AND T.W. BURROWS, BNL-NCS-50545, guards data; 2) supplying cost-free experts in such Volumes I, II, August 1976. fields as non-destructive assay equipment, containment and surveillance, verification proce- *Person to whom correspondence should be addressed. 166

DEPARTMENT OF NUCLEAR ENERGY H.J.C. Kouts, Physicist, Chainnan W.Y. Kato, Physicist, Associate Chainnan D.R. MacKenzie, Physical Chemist, Technical Assistant

National Nuclear Data Center Head, S. Pearlstein, Nuclear Physicist Data Evaluation Group M.R. Bhat, Nuclear Physicist N.E. Holden, Nuclear Physicist A. Prince, Nuclear Physicist T.W. Burrows, Nuclear Physicist S.F. Mughabghab, Nuclear Physicist J.K. Tuli, Nuclear Physicist M. Divadeenam, Nuclear Physicist L.K. Peker, Nuclear Physicist Data Management Group C.L. Dunford, Nuclear Physicist R.R. Kinsey, Nuclear Physicist Data Testing Group A. Alapour, Nuclear Engineer B.A. Magurno, Nuclear Physicist P.F. Rose, Nuclear Physicst

Nuclear Material Safeguards Division Head, J.H. Cusack, Chemical Engineer Technical Support Organization A.M. Bieber, Jr., Applied D.M. Gordon, Nuclear Physicist J.N. O'Brien, Chemist, Social Scientist Mathematician, Archeologist W.A. Higinbotham, Nuclear Physicist J.B. Sanborn, Applied Mathematician J.J. Cadwell, Nuclear Engineer, Lawyer J.P. Indusi, Applied Mathematician, S.C. Suda, Applied Statistician A. Fainberg, High Energy Physicist Electrical Engineer E.V. Weinstock, Reactor Physicist S. Fiarman, Nuclear Physicist B. Keisch, Nuclear Chemist M.S. Zucker, Nuclear Physicist R.C. Fuller, Theoretical Nuclear Physicist J.R. Lemley, Physical Chemist

^ HTGR Safety Division Head, D.G. Schweitzer, Physical Chemist Experimental Group J.G. Chow, Metallurgist F.B. Growcock, Physical Chemist P. Soo, Metallurgist Analysis and Code Development Group J.L. Boccio, Fluid Dynamicist J. Skalyo, Solid State Physicist C.A. Sastre, Nuclear Engineer H. Takhashi, Physicist

Thermal Reactor Safety Division Head, M.M. Levine, Nuclear Engineer Reactor Core Safety Analysis Group A.L. Aronson, Physicist H-S. Cheng, Nuclear Engineer J.W. Herczeg, Nuclear Engineer J.F. Carew, Physicist D. Cokinos, Nuclear Engineer M. Tododsow, Nuclear Engineer DJ. Diamond, Nuclear Engineer Containment Systems Group C. Economos, Aerodynamic Engineer J.D. Ranlet, Mechanical Engineer G. Maise, Mechanical Engineer C. Tung, Mechanical Engineer Licensing Code Applications Group C. Durston, Nuclear Engineer CJ. Hsu, Chemical Engineer M-S. Lu, Statistical Physicist 167

Engineering and Advanced Reactor Safety Division Head, R.J. Cerbone, Nuclear Engineer G.J. Fischer, Physicist, Special Assignments Safety Evaluation Group R.A. Bari, Physicist W.T. Pratt, Mechanical Engineer Y.H. Sun, Nuclear Engineer K.R. Perkins, Mechanical Engineer S.S. Tsai, Mechanical Engineer Code Development and Evaluation Group A.K. Agrawal, Nuclear Engineer I.K. Madni, Mechanical Engineer G.J. Van Tuyle, Nuclear Engineer J.G. Guppy, Nuclear Engineer R. Pyare, Mechanical Engineer WX. Weaver, Nuclear Engineer M. Khatib-Rahbar, Nuclear Engineer J.W. Yang, Mechanical Engineer Reactor Physics Group T.J. Krieger, Nuclear Physicist D. Majumdar, Theoretical Physicist, A.N. Mallen, Nuclear Engineer H. Ludwig, Engineering Scientist Nuclear Engineer S.K. Shenoy, Nuclear Engineer Reactor Engineering Analysis Group J.M. Dickey, Physicist S.P. Mitra, Nuclear Engineer Thermal Hydraulic Development Division Head, O.C. Jones, Jr. Mechanical Engineer Experimental Modeling Group N. Abauf, Aerospace and Mechanical Scientist T. Ginsberg, Nuclear Engineer B.J.C. Wu, Mechanical Engineer THOR Project L.D. Eisehnart, Nuclear Engineer P.J. Koreger, Mechanical Engineer P. Saha, Mechanical Engineer D.I. Garber, Chemical Engineer, U.S. Rohatgi, Mechanical Engineer G-S. Srikantiah, Nuclear Engineer Nuclear Physicist C J. Ruger, Aerospace Engineer W. Wulff, Mechanical and J.H. Jo, Chemical Engineer Aerospace Engineer Groups Reporting Directly to Associate Chairman for Reactor Safety Corrosion Science Group M.W. Kendig, Physical Chemist D. van Rooyen, Metallurgist B. Vyas, Metallurgist Y.S. Park, Metallurgist J.R. Weeks, Metallurgist Structural Analysis Group P. Bezler, Mechanical Engineer M. Reich, Mechanical Engineer S. Prachuktam, Mechanical Engineer M. Subudhi, Mechanical Engineer Nuclear Waste Management Research Group P. Colombo, Organic Chemist A.J. Francis, Microbiologist Nuclear Energy Systems Division Head, J.R. Powell, Nuclear Engineer Fusion Technology Group T.E. Botts, Nuclear Engineer S.Y. Hsieh, Physicist J.S.K. Tsang, Nuclear Engineer J.A. Fillo, Mechanical Engineer O.W. Lazareth, Physicist J.L. Usher, Nuclear Engineer »* F.L. Horn, Chemical Engineer • , ^ W.S. Yu, Chemical Engineer Accelerator Breeder Project P. Grand, Mechanical Engineer J.J. Kukkonen, Nuclear Physicist International Safeguards Project Office Head, L. Green Chemical Engineer G.L. Booman, Electrochemist C. Auerbach, Electrochemist A.J. Waligura, Chemical Engineer TJ. Haycock, Chemical Engineer Support Activities Applied Mathmatics Department Instrumentation Division Reactor Division Safety and Environmental Protection Division Applied Mathematics Department

INTRODUCTION and initial-boundary value problems for para- bolic and hyperbolic equations. The types of solu- The Applied Mathematics Department differs tion techniques currently being emphasized in- somewhat from the other scientific departments clude finite element methods, finite difference at the Laboratory in that it performs the dual techniques, and spectral methods. role of conducting research and supplying com- Finite element methods have proved extremely putational services to the other research activities successful in obtaining approximate solutions to of the Laboratory. In its service role the Depart- many types of differential equations occurring in ment operates the large scale BNL Central Sci- diverse areas of research, including reactor safety, entific Computing Facility which is used by al- structural mechanics, and fluid dynamics. The most every research program on-site and by many efficient application of finite element methods re- federally funded research activities at other insti- quires a detailed analysis of various aspects of tutions. The Department's research is done in the these methods. An important problem in this an- mathematical and computer sciences. Due to the alysis is the determination of the rate of conver- close relationship between the mathematical and gence of the approximate solution to the exact computer sciences and other scientific disciplines, solution. Rates of convergence for various finite the research of the Department impacts many element methods were studied theoretically. Op- other research activities, on- and off-site. timal error estimates in the mean square sense had already been proved. As a consequence of MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE RESEARCH research at BNL, these optimal error estimates were extended to uniform pointwise convergence. The mathematical science research program is In addition, optimal mean square estimates were concerned with the development, analysis, and established for a new finite element method, known implementation of advanced mathematical meth- as the penalty correction method. This method ods in an effort to improve the overall effective- approximates elliptic boundary value problems ness of research areas within the Department of with inhomogeneous Dirichlet boundary condi- Energy (DOE). Much of the research conducted tions without requiring that the approximating in DOE programs requires the solution of ex- subspaces satisfy any boundary conditions. tremely complicated mathematical problems, often requiring the use of high speed computers. Banach space interpolation methods were ap- An essential ingredient of this activity involves plied to various problems concerning the use of wide range interaction with academic institutions, finite element methods. One area of application other DOE laboratories, and other departments involves problems with singular data. For exam- at BNL. Major areas of current emphasis include ple, optimal rates of convergence were established applied analysis, computational mathematics, for fi-function data and piecewise smooth data. probability and statistics, and operations research. As a second application of interpolation methods, it was proved that functions may be approximated Applied Analysis simultaneously in different Sobolev spaces. In a Problems requiring the numerical solution of third area of application, optimal error estimates complicated differential equations arise in numer- in the presence of boundary conditions and com- ous research areas important to DOE. In order to patibility conditions were proved. obtain meaningful results, it is often necessary to Spectral methods have recently become popu- achieve a thorough understanding of the proper- lar and widely used in approximating solutions of ties of both the underlying differential equation, partial differential equations in various fields, and the numerical technique employed in its solu- such as atmospheric pollution studies. An impor- tion. The goal of the work is the achievement of tant advantage of spectral methods over competi- such an understanding. The kinds of problems tive methods is that computer programs based on under consideration include boundary value spectral methods employing the fast Fourier trans- problems for elliptic partial differential equations, form algorithm are simple to code and run eco-

171 172

nomically. The analysis and application of spec- ysis was finding the effect of approximating a par- tral and pseudo-spectral methods are being stud- tial differential equation on an infinite domain by ied at BNL. In particular, error bounds for spec- a problem on a finite domain. To investigate this tral and pseudo-spectral methods have been depart of the error new techniques were employed rived for approximating variable coefficient ad- with a careful analysis of the decay of the solution vection equations. at infinity. The nonlinear Schroedinger initial value problem associated with electromagnetic propagation Computational Mathematics was studied. The equation has applications in the The research in computational mathematics modeling of thermal blooming of high powered emphasizes the numerical study of important lasers and the propagation aspects of laser fusion. classes of differential equations as well as effec- Given the energy distribution at the laser, the tive computational schemes for solving them. Schroedinger equation describes the energy dis- Computer code development, implementation, tribution of the beam as it propagates towards and evaluation form an integral part of this effort. the target. Numerical approximation procedures Specific problem areas that are being investigated were studied and a class of highly efficient march- include linear and non-linear wave propagation ing algorithms was discovered. The new algo- and models of pollutant reactions in the atmo- rithms are unconditionally stable and have a high sphere. Computer codes are being developed order of accuracy. Convergence of these algo- based on marching algorithms, spectral methods, rithms was verified and error bounds were given and fast Fourier transform techniques for solving analytically. An important part of the error anal- various important partial differential equations. The Helmholtz (or reduced wave) equation constitutes the underlying model for the linear LONGITUDE 73.5 73.0 propagation of waves in a variety of fields including optics, accoustics, and electromagnetic theory. Research at BNL is concerned with developing, analyzing, and testing a number of numerical methods for solving the Helmholtz and related equations, subject to appropriate boundary conditions and radiation conditions at infinity. A new method for numerically solving the Helmholtz equation was coded and tested on various sample problems. The method is based on the use of piecewise exponential trial functions. It was discovered that for some of the test problems, the method is effective for high frequencies whereas for other problems the method is limited to low frequencies. The reasons for this were then determined. Other methods of solving these problems were tested and were found to be limited to low 39G LOkER LR1CR TRRN5PDRTIM2/5ECI nRY IB-rW 23. 197E frequencies in all cases. A number of model equations for non-linear Figure 1. A sample computer-generated plot of trans- dispersion waves have recently been proposed port in the deeper waters of the Atlantic in the New York Bight, used by the Oceanographic Sciences, DEE, in the and analyzed. These equations have been ap- study of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen distributions. The plied, for example, to the study of water waves in transports were derived from observational data by the a shallow channel. The main goal of research at Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories, BNL in this connection is the development and Miami, Florida. The plot was drawn on Comp 80 35mm evaluation of numerical schemes for model equa- film from a tape generated on the CDC 7600 using the mssPLA Graphics Package and a routine supplied by the tions of this type. This includes development of National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, computer codes to implement these schemes, and Colorado. the subsequent testing of these codes on physical 173

problems. For example, computer codes of second thrust of the OR research at BNL lies within the and fourth order were written for three types of domain of mathematical optimization. data: pure initial values, initial boundary values, An important part of this research deals with and periodic problems. In all cases, the codes large scale linear programming models. Most were tested against exact solutions. The pure ini- optimization problems of the resource allocation tial value code was used to study the interaction and production planning type are highly struc- of two solitons, indicating that for the model equa- tured. The two most common structures are stair- tion employed a small dispersive wave results, so case and block-angular, arising from multi-period that the collision is inelastic. and multi-regional models, respectively. A major In addition to the study of wave phenomena, difficulty in developing special techniques for computational methods are being developed and structured problems has been the absence of applied to various other important areas of sci- meaningful comparisons among different methods entific research. In a joint effort with the Atmo- proposed. This is due to diverse levels of imple- spheric Sciences Division of the BNL Department mentation, and variations in computers, test prob- of Energy and Environment, various numerical lems, and testing criteria used. A joint project techniques were studied in an effort to produce with CORE has resulted in a comparative study reliable and efficient models of the proliferation of of the staircase algorithm developed at BNL and pollutants in the atmosphere. The mathematical the block basis factorization algorithm developed problems involve both the numerical solution of at CORE for multi-period problems. The knowl- non-linear partial differential equations, and the edge of their performance relative to each other determination of statistical properties of solutions as well as to standard techniques signifies ly of stochastic partial differential equations. An- clarified directions for further development. other important problem under investigation includes the numerical solution of the nonlinear A joint project with CORE was conc< ned Schroedinger equation. Second and fourth order with the state-of-the-art implementation of large- marching algorithms were written and coded for scale linear programming algorithms. The philos- this problem. Finally, computer codes based on ophy is to construct special algorithms using com- pseudo-spectral methods and efficient fast Fourier ponents of the most advanced implementation of transform algorithms are being developed and standard techniques, usually in the form of com- tested on the CDC 7600 computer. mercial software. This has resulted in the first •• state-of-the-art implementation of the Dantzig- Wolfe decomposition algorithm for block-angular OPERATIONS RESEARCH linear programs. Experience with the algorithm at BNL rebutted prevalent folklore in the field As the mathematical science of decisions, oper- and rekindled interest in the decomposition ap- ations research (OR) provides the methodology proach. Another joint project with CORE inves- for any planning or scheduling activity requiring tigates the optimization of multi-regional produc- the anaylsis or design of systems or policies. There tion-distribution systems. A decentralization are already many significant applications of OR scheme was derived that isolates the distribution to DOE projects, in econometric modeling, engi- aspects of the systems as a network flow subprob- neering design, and other areas. Conversely, such lem, and allows each region to converge inter- applications often give rise to original and chal- actively to its own optimal solution. This scheme lenging OR research problems. In view of this, it has several advantages over previous methods is essential for such a research effort to interact when applied to both European multi-national with practitioners. The researchers in OR at and U.S. multi-regional energy production- BNL maintain close contact with the National distribution systems. Center for the Analysis of Energy Systems Significant contributions to the improvement of (NCAES) at BNL, the Systems Optimization existing optimization techniques were made. For Laboratory (SOL) at Stanford University, and example, a pricing rule for the simplex method in the Center for Operations Research and Econo- linear programming was proposed and tested. metrics (CORE) in Belgium, all involved with This rule tends to seek a sparse simplex path and intensive energy modeling research. The main can reduce the total amount of computation re- 174

quired. A successive optimization approach to the PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS dynamic traffic assignment problem was developed and shown to be practicable. This model, which Research at BNL in this area is concentrated in optimizes dynamic flow over a network where the field of mathematical statistics, where it is congestion is treated explicitly, gives rise to non- concerned with the discovery of new statistical linear, nonconvex mathematical programs. It was methods as well as with the improvement of exist- shown that the problem can be solved as a se- ing ones. The primary areas under investigation quence of linear programs. include sequential analysis, robust statistical pro- BNL research in nonlinear constrained opti- cedures, reliability analysis, time series analysis, mization has been concerned with global methods and random number generation. which can produce convergence from a poor ini- The efforts in investigating boundary crossing tial estimate of the optimal solution for larger probabilities have brought about new solutions problems. A differential geometric method was for selection problems regarding populations with developed specifically to obtain global algorithms normal distributions. The traditional formulation without resorting to the penalty function approach. of the general selection problems entails the selec- In particular, a generic class of "feasibility- tion of the best population among many un- improving gradient acute projection (FIGAP) knowns, using the 5-configuration. A new natural methods" and their Levenberg-Marquardt-type and practical formulation called the 8-indiffer- modifications was developed for solving the gen- ence has resulted from a joint effort between BNL eral nonlinear constrained minimization prob- and Columbia University. This new sequential lems. Each method in this class is an amalgama- procedure was obtained using recent results on tion of a generalized gradient projection method boundary crossings. Essentially it is a combination and a generalized Newton-Raphson method of an allocation rule, a stopping rule, and a decision which respectively take care of reducing the value rule. Empirical evidence shows that this proce- of the objective function and satisfying constraint dure performs well in comparison with the older equations at the same time. The class of FIGAP procedures in the case of the 8-configuration, methods contains several new methods as well as while it regularly outperforms these procedures many of the existing methods such as Wilson's, when the 8-configuration does not hold. In addi- Bard-Greenstadt's, Murtagh-Sargent's, Han's, tion, this procedure has the significant feature and Murray's methods. A unified theory was de- that, during the sampling process, it eliminates the veloped for the methods by using extensively the inferior populations much faster than the older concept of various generalized inverses and related procedures. Finally this procedure may be ex- projectors, which facilitates geometric interpreta- tended to treat selection problems for other im- tion of the methods. Analyses were given to the portant distributions in addition to the normal continuous analogues of the methods to obtain distribution. global algorithms, which provide us with an in- In the work on robust statistical procedures, sight into the global behavior of the related algo- new assumptions were obtained to assure the ex- rithms. Various new algorithms were derived istence of consistency and asymptotic normality from the general theory. Quasi-Newton algo- for the LM-estimator developed at BNL. Consis- rithms which require approximations of nonnega- tency and asymptotic normality are two funda- tive difinite matrices of size n — m were developed mental properties required for an estimate to be to enhance local convergence, where n and m are useful. The new assumptions are in much simpler the number of variables and constraint equations, form than the original assumptions and are also respectively. These algorithms have a great ad- less stringent. vantage over the existing methods, which need An interesting result concerned with transform- the storage space for matrices of size n. Using this ing Poisson variables to normal variables has been approach, a global analysis was given to the con- obtained. Such a transformation is needed to deal tinuous analogues of generalized Newton-Raphson with regression problems in Poisson phenomena, methods for solving a possible under-determined e.g., crystallography. It was found that any power system of nonlinear equations, whic>~ has a larger transformation with power two-thirds is asymp- region of convergence than the usual Newton- totically more efficient (as the Poisson parameter Raphson method. becomes large) than the commonly used square- 175 root type power transformations. The result was versities, and private contractors undertaking en- based on a careful investigation of the series ex- ergy related research, development, and demon- pansion of several dominant distributional char- stratioa projects. Since this research community acteristics and was evidenced by empirical experi- is geographically distributed it has been difficult ments of Monte Carlo simulation. to provide a complete spectrum of computational Several problems in the analysis of autoregres- and data management facilities equally to all re- sive-moving average (ARMA) time series models searchers. General purpose computer networks were investigated. A Bayesian approach was at- offer the prospect of a more balanced distribution tempted. Efforts were made to achieve 1) an im- of computer resources throughout the DOE re- proved numerical integration scheme; 2) faster search community. To explore this potential computation for pure AR models; and 3) meth- BNL joined with six other DOE research sites, in ods for expressing concisely and accurately the connecting to ARPANET, which is a large net- posterior distributions of the forecasts. work connecting about 100 different computing Simulation and Monte-Carlo integration re- systems and spanning all of the conterminous quire the production of random numbers with a United States with overseas links to both Hawaii specific distribution. More efficient algorithms for and to Europe. this purpose were obtained for the t and gamma This study has demonstrated the significant ad- families. Von Neumann's comparison method, an vantage of having large scale computer networks effective tool in creating efficient algorithms, was available in a scientific research computing cen- extended to the discrete case. Furthermore, For- ter. The nature of the network usage is largely de- sythe's extension of Von Neumann's method has termined by the technical barriers that exist to been generalized to handle combinations of arbi- its usage and the benefits to be gained from over- trary discrete and continuous distributions. coming those barriers. For example, because computer systems are usually very different, a Graph Theory large learning time is required for transporting In recent years, graph theory has found numer- one's normal computing to a different computer ous practical applications in such diverse fields as system. This is a relatively high barrier to remote communications theory, linear programming, batch job execution. However, if the motivation transportation, and computer networks. Work is sufficiently high, for example if one's local com- currently being done in graph theory at BNL is puter center is significantly overloaded, as was concerned with the study of a class of graphs the situation at Argonne National Laboratory called planar triangulations and certain of their during a part of this study, then, in fact, one uses subgraphs called near-triangulations. Studies of the network to transport some of the computing the properties of triangulations have been of im- work to other sites. On the other hand where bar- portance to the four-color problem, which in turn riers are low, usage of facilities occurs almost has been a central problem in graph theory for spontaneously. For example, computer telecon- over a century. ferencing and electronic mail facilities are generally easy to use, and they proved immediately quite popular with all the participants in these ADVANCED SYSTEMS experiments. As an outgrowth of this study in geographically Recent research into advanced systems in the distributed networks, studies are now being ini- Applied Mathematics Department at BNL has tiated into the properties of local computer sys- concentrated on the areas of distributed systems, tems in small networks and large networks of queueing network models, and data management. small computers. The economics of computing are in a period of rapid change now, as can be ob- Distributed Systems served by the great reductions in the cost of pocket A major part of the work on distributed sys- calculators over the last five years. An alternative tems was a study of the impact of large scale com- offering great promise for the future is to collect a puter networks on scientific computing. The re- large number of small scale computer systems search community within the Department of En- into a larger coherent computing system by means ergy encompasses the National Laboratories, uni- of some kind of local computer network. 176

Queuing Network Models The computing facilities at BNL consist of a network of several large main processors and communications processors, an interface processor to the ARPA Network, and many computers as terminal devices. Such complex computer configurations are common at DOE Laboratories, as well as in defense and industrial organizations. In recent years, the growth in complexity of such networks has outpaced the development of the theory showing the relationships between the workload of the computing facilities and their communication and processing capacities. As a result, the networks are susceptible to both traffic bottlenecks and poor utilization of expensive computing devices. Research on the theory of computer networks has been undertaken at BNL in order to develop the conceptual tools necessary for the analysis of workload distribution in these complex systems. The central approach to this problem is the study of queuing networks. In this theory, a computer or communications device is represented as a queue - a theoretical component whose statistical Figure 2. Il is often quite difficult to get an impression of output characteristics can be described in terms the behavior of a mathematical function from studying of its input characteristics, a probabilistic quanti- tables of numbers, a perspective drawing of a 3-dimen- fication of the time required to complete the proc- sional model is a great help. In this picture the bumps essing of each task, and the scheduling policy. and valleys are exaggerated greatly because the view is a very wide angle one taken from a position slightly above Queues of many descriptions have been analysed the highest bump. The purpose was to test a computer in the theory, and much is known about them. program with known functions to see which (if any) parts However, in almost all cases, the single-queue of the function were hidden behind bumps when viewed studies cannot be extended to networks, because from various angles. It look the CDC 6600 about 5 seconds of an overwhelming increase in complexity when to compute the test function and write the tape for the Calcomp plotter, which takes about 15 minutes to plot a several queues interact with each other. picture like this. The exception to this rule is a class of queues that have a form of mathematical independence of each other when they are connected into net- topic which is especially relevant to the energy works of arbitrary complexity. One objective of technology and environmental research areas. the research is to obtain a full mathematical Ideally, the tools of data base management should characterization of this fortuitous property; that satisfy the conflicting requirements of formalism is, to find the extent to which descriptions of (for completeness and lack of ambiguity), ease of queues can be varied, reflecting different-com- use, and flexibility. Data base architectures and puter characteristics, while retaining the network techniques must be optimized to exploit the fea- independence property. One result already ob- tures, and cope with the constraints, of existing tained characterizes the job scheduling policies and emerging computing environments. that are representable by network independent The work at BNL in this area has served to ex- queues. tend the benefits of data base management systems to the large body of previously archived data DATA MANAGEMENT which was produced and stored without regard to data management formats or other considerations. Data management has emerged over the past Also under investigation are the relationships be- several years as an important computer science tween a data management system and other com- 177

puting functions such as graphics, report genera- CSCF resources, especially the extremely powerful tion, models, mathematical library routines, and Cyber 70/76, are made available to any author- communications systems. The system developed - ized user having access to a terminal and a tele- called the Brookhaven National Laboratory phone. As a result the CSCF facilities are being Archive and Dissemination System (BNLADS) - used not only by BNL researchers, but also by also deals with such issues as portability of data, groups at other DOE laboratories and in other descriptions of data formats, distributed systems, Federal agencies who normally do not have such and the effects of a networking environment. a powerful computer complex at their disposal. BROOKNET, a 12-million-bit/sec digital CENTRAL SCIENTIFIC communication system, interconnects several remote on-site computers to the CDC 6600's. The COMPUTING FACILITY computer-to-computer digital communications Almost all of today's scientific research has be- network enables the remctely located satellite come reliant upon the capabilities of a digital computers, which handle data acquisition, graph- computer. Requirements vary from simple calcu- ical display, preprocessing, and other functions, to lations that would be too tedious or time consum- utilize on-line the greater computational capa- ing to do by hand, to the quick feedback of con- bility of the CSCF computers. This system also trol information during the running of an experi- allows remote computers access to the central ment, where this feedback is the result of a very data storage system and to the central input- complex analysis of masses of data that are being output job queues. collected electronically while the experiment is in progress. New Projects It is the mission of the Central Scientific Com- The need for extreme reliability, especially by puting Facility (CSCF) to attempt to meet the di- the on-line remote terminal computer user, has verse computing requirements of all of the re- always been recognized as one of the most impor- search activity groups at BNL and their off-site tant requirements of any facility such as the collaborators. CSCF. Two projects are currently underway that The CSCF is operated by the Applied Mathe- should make vast improvements in this area. matics Department. The facility is in operation These are the installation of an Uninterruptible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Every effort is Power Supply (UPS) system and a new Modcomp always made to minimize down time and to in- Dual Processor Communications System. In re- sure that computing service is always available. gard to the former, one of the most serious causes of reliability problems has been the occurrence of Current Hardware Configuration short duration failures in the power supplied to The CSCF is equipped with a Control Data the laboratory. The new UPS system will provide Corporation (CDC) Cyber 70/76 computer and continuous, uninterrupted power to the CSCF for two CDC 6600 computers sharing one and one- up to 10 minutes during such failures. The dual half million words of extended core storage. The processor Modcomp system will permit the re- CDC 6600 computers, besides acting as front ends moval of the control of INTERCOM communica- to the Cyber 70/76, provide the user with both tions handling from the older, less reliable, local batch processing and interactive facilities. The communication controllers, and place this critical INTERCOM system allows remote job entry, function under the control of a current state-of- interactive file manipulation, and interactive the-art, highly-reliable, dual processor, mini- computing both from flirectly connected termi- computer system that is dedicated to performing nals and over common-carrier lines. Thus, the only this function. 178

APPLIED MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

Staff Members and Active Interests

Charles Goldstein Applied analysis/computational Ridgway Scott Applied analysis/computational mathe- mathematics. matics. James Ho Mathematical programming/decision analy- Yoshio Shimamoto Combinatorics/graph theory/com- sls/computational modeling. puter architecture. Sam Kao Sequential robust procedures/reliability Kunio Tanabe Applied analysis. analysis. Graham Campbell Computer networks/distributed John Monahan Time series analysis. computer systems. Joseph Pasciak Spectral finite element and difference Andrew Noetzcl Queuing networks/computer system methods. modeling. Instrumentation Division

The Instrumentation Division engages in re- The ionization loss of momentum selected rela- search and development on recognized problems tivistic charged particles, p,7r,e, has been measured in scientific instrumentation that are important in thin samples of Ar, Xe, and propane in a pres- to the long-term goals of the Laboratory and the surized gas proportional counter. Comparison of Department of Energy. The Division provides measured values and the calculated energy loss consultation services in the areas of instrument in the region of relativistic rise using the approxi- specification and selection to other departments mation of Sternheimer for the polarization effect of the Laboratory. The Division also designs and shows that to a first approximation a single pa- constructs some of the instruments required by the rameter K(at/I2) can describe the general be- departments in the course of their research. These havior, (at is proportional to the electron density, instruments are typically of such an advanced de- and I is the mean atomic ionization potential.) sign that they are not commercially available. In The measured values show a systematic deviation addition, the Division provides services in electron from this formula towards a smaller relativistic microscopy, vacuum technology, scientific instru- rise. This effect is stongest for high-Z gases, a re- ment repair, and computer maintenance. sult which indicates that shell effects are present. Members of the Division also collaborate in ex- Although the relativistic rise becomes smaller periments at BNL and other laboratories when with increasing pressure, the reduced fluctuation they can contribute significantly to the advance of the ionization loss permits a better particle of scientific research with new devices, methods, separation (see Fig. 1). For large sample sizes, and techniques developed at BNL. (i.e., small number of subdivisions in a given total The principal areas of research activity are the detector length) propane gives the best particle detection of nuclear particles and of radiation separation, while Xe yields comparable results with semiconductors and gaseous and liquid de- only at high pressure and relatively fine subdivi- tectors; processing of signals from detectors; low- sion (large number of cells and electronics chan- noise and other special electronic circuits; systems nels). The requirements of high pressure and large for acquiring data and control of scientific experiments; and application of nuclear and atomic techniques in elemental analysis aad other fields. Some of the more important recent results are described below.

RADIATION DETECTION AND SIGNAL PROCESSING Ionization Loss in the Region of Relativistic Rise for Particle Identification1 The experiments foreseen at intersecting storage rings require identification of closely spaced multiple particles at high energies. The method of measuring the relativistic rise of the energy loss by ionization in gas whi.-h increases with log Pfcfm) /Sy could be useful in these experiments if the sensitivity could be increased beyond the current Figure 1. The quality of particle separation is expressed practice (jS is particle velocity normalized to the as the energy loss difference for pions and kaons divided speed of light, y is the Lorentz factor). Since the cur- by the precision of the measurement of energy loss. This rent theory and practice are insufficient for optimi- number is shown as a function of gas pressure for various zation of the method, a study has been undertaken subdivisions of the total detector length (1.3 m) into n smaller cells. At low pressure and for a small number of by comparing noble gases and hydrocarbons un- subdivisions, propane gives the best result. Xe is better der variation of pressure and geometrical layout. only at high pressure using very fine subdivisions.

179 180 RAOIATION INLET u

Figure 2. Apparatus (a) and typical results (b) for the measurement of the avalanche spread around the anode in proportional counters, (a) The ions produced in the avalanche follow the field lines radially outward to the cathode electrodes where they are recorded. The ion current distribution on these electrodes is a replica of the avalanche distribution around the anode wire, (b) shows this distribution for a number of superimposed events for different gases and gas amplification.

(a) Ar/CH. Q=6.O«1O| = 4.7x10^

(e)Ar/Iso-CH,o/FREON, 0 = 3.8x10*

(c)Ar/CH4 181

number of cells would make large scale applications The fact that the avalanche is localized and difficult. Argon shows an intermediate behavior. therefore does remember the angle at which the From these measurements, it has been estimat- electrons arrive at the anode, opens a new dimen- ed that for a detector of 1.3 m total length, sub- sion of measurements with proportional counters divided into about 200 cells, and filled with pro- and wire chambers. A precision of ±5° FWHM pane at 2-3 atm pressure, a separation of pions could be obtained for the determination of this and kaons of about 6 standard deviations can be angle and further improvement is possible (Fig. 3). expected between 2 and 10 GeV/c, Such a sepa- Various applications of this angle measurement ration will be useful for many experiments. If a have been found and anticipated as the solution higher momentum range is needed, only Xc at high of the right/left problem in drift chambers, the pressure (about 10 atm) and very fine subdivision three-dimensional reconstruction of the'point of (400 or more) will give similar particle separation. absorption of an x-ray in the gas volume, the reduction of parallax error in position-sensitive Avalanche Spatial Distribution and Its counters for x-rays and neutrons, and the inter- Application in Proportional Counters2'5 polation between anode wires for the position of In the course of testing a drift chamber with a conversion point of neutral radiation. alternating anode and potential wires, it has been found that the avalanche in a proportional mode The Time Expansion Chamber of operation is well localized on the side of the and Ionization Structure Measurement6 anode wire pointing in the direction of primary ionization. This observation was in contradiction In the evolution of gas-filled detectors, three to the general belief that the avalanche surrounds major steps mark the progress. At the beginning, the wire almost evenly. the presence of ionizing radiation was detected A more detailed study in a cylindrical chamber in a confined volume of a Geiger-counter leading with the cathode subdivided in individual collec- to a yes/no answer. The next step was to measure tion electrodes (Fig. 2) showed that the spread of some properties of the detected radiation, e.g., its the avalanche in the proportional mode is deter- energy deposit in a proportional counter or its mined by diffusion (ranging from A0=3O° to 120°). position in a spark chamber. The final break- In the semiproportional region, space charge ef- through was the application of powerful and fast fects and emission and reabsorption of uv-quanta data handling systems leading to spectrometers are responsible for further spread which may, un- with detector systems providing particle identifi- der certain conditions, lead to a complete sur- cation and full analysis of events. The trend is ob- rounding of the anode by the avalanche. vious: parallel to the development of the capability of data handling systems, the selection of the desired event and its classification is done less and less by imposing conditions on the design of the counters, their selectivity to certain radiation, and their arrangement, which always lead to a tre- mendous loss of acceptance, but more and more by recording details of the ionization process with the event and analyzing it later. In other words, the development of gas counters is heading toward powerful "pictorial" detectors giving the quality of analysis obtained from cloud chambers, but with purely electronic means and at much higher speed. On the detector side, this trend is supported by 60° 120* 180° 240° 300* 360* the introduction of the time expansion chamber 8, SOURCE POSITION (TEC), a device recording the "picture" of the Figure 3. Fast measurement of angle 0. The relative dif- ionization process on a microscopic scale, which is ference of induced charge on the two cathode plates fac- another step forward in the direction of obtaining ing each other (QU-QD) shows the angular dependence the ultimate information pbout the ionizing radi- (Q,U-QD)/QA—sin 0. Reading the other pair as well permits the angular measurement without ambiguity. ation contained in the ionization itself. 182

U-3mm

Figure 4. Principle of the time expansion chamber. A grid separates the detection area (proportional wiiv (b) chamber) from the drift region. The ionization released in the drift region drifts slowly enough through the grid so that the spatial structure appears resolved in time. Track A shows the geometry when the chamber is used for particle identification. Track B is used for position measurement.

The principle of the TEC is illustrated in Fig. 4. Assuming a minimum ionizing particle crosses the chamber perpendicular to the wire plane, the ionization electrons released along the track drift under the influence of the electric field in the drift region across the grid into the detection region where they are detected as in an ordinary proportional chamber. Since the diffusion of the drift Figure 5. Response to a fi-tay from a 90Sr source cross- process can be kept small, the sequence of arrival ing the chamber parallel to the drift field, (a) The se- of ionization clusters at the grid represents a pro- quence of individual signals during 1 jusec is due to the jection of their spatial distribution. Normally, the consecutive arrival of ionization clusters from the drift region, (b) shows the same as (a), only the time scale of necessary mechanism of proportional gas gain the scope display has been expanded x 10. Single ion- and signal formation is not able to resolve the ization clusters are well separated. The signal from a structure and this information is lost. In the TEC, single electron at this scale is about 5 mV. however, the drift region is well separated from the amplification region, such that a low field can ization clusters from a minimum ionizing track be maintained in the drift region while a normally (see Fig. 5) permits the measurement of the rela- high field is applied in the amplification region. tivistic rise at about twice the precision as by With the choice of a suitable gas, the drift veloc- measuring the total charge released. This in turn ity in the drift region can be considerably lower means that identification of relativistic particles than in the amplification region. In this way, the can be done efficiently in a counter system of a clusters of a track crossing the chamber approxi- length of about 1 m, instead of 4 to 5 m as required mately parallel to the drift field arrive at the grid in if only total ionization is measured. time intervals larger than in an ordinary chamber. It is also possible at very high time expansion Since the anode signal has not been slowed down, factors to count single electrons released from low a relative time expansion has been obtained. energy radiation (E<1 keV). In this way the Time expansion factors of 100 can easily be fluctuation of the gas amplification factor can be achieved and ionization structures of about 100 eliminated and it should be possible to obtain an fim can be resolved. Some applications of the energy resolution determined only by the statis- TEC are obvious. Counting the number of ion- tical fluctuation of the primary ionization, cer- PRESSURE ENCUISURE

tainly of great importance for x-ray fluorescence measurement of low-Z elements or detection of low energy x-rays for studies in astronomy. Con- sequently, following the idea of the TEC visualiz- ing the structure of the ionization process, it will be possible in principle to obtain a high selectivity for a special kind and energy of radiation which is of importance for a number of analytical techniques. In conclusion, the TEC represents a new tool suitable for extended study of the ionization proc- Figure (5. Cut-away view of the two-dimensional detector ess (fi-rays, low energy electron range, Fano-factor, for thermal neutrons. The pressure vessel (here, cut open) W-values, etc.), for the drift process of electrons has a reduced wall thickness for the entrance window. in gases, and a number of practical applications Anode wires and cathode strips are mounted on a glass substrate. The induced charge flows, according to the where useful information about the ionizing radi- position, in given fractions through a resistor chain to ation is maintained in the structure of the ioniza- both ends of the latter where it is fed into amplifiers and tion itself. The tests performed up to now show the processed further. usefulness of the concept and further studies will be needed to exploit the full range of possible absorption; c) the range of the ionizing reaction applications. products has to be kept short since it determines the ultimate spatial resolution; d) two coordinates Position-Sensilive Detectors 7 8 have to be measured from the avalanche in a for Thermal Neutrons ' single gap; e) no selective trigger is applied. The One of the most powerful probes for the inves- tvent processing rate is equal to the total count rate. tigation of atomic and molecular structure is radi- The Instrumentation Division accepted the ation of about the same wavelength as the dimen- challenge and started a development program sion of the structure in question. The recording for neutron detectors because a high flux beam of the diffraction pattern provides the desired in- reactor is available, but a number of basic prob- formation. The recent advances in interpretation lems are the same for x-ray detectors, which are of complicated diffraction patterns of large mole- of high importance as well in vie w of the construc- cules, as of interest in biology, or of crystals with tion of the National Synchrotron Light Source. small defects, as studied in solid state physics, in Two detectors with an active area of 18 X 18 parallel with the development of fast data han- cm2 have been built (Figs. 6,7). Thev have been dling facilities, demand improvements of the so- used extensively at the HFBR for determination called "front end," the detector. Here gas-filled of molecular structures in biological research. area detectors, similar to those used in particle physics, with good spatial resolution in two di- Figure 7. Front view of the detector displaying mensions, would fulfill the requirements. the carved out square of the entrance window. Although every kind of radiation can be obtained in the desired wavelength, only x-rays or neutrons are useful because of their small probability of incoherent scattering or absorption in a relatively thick sample. This, however, is an important difference compared to the use of position- sensitive area detectors in particle physics where charged particles are observed. It makes development of a completely new concept for detection of neutral radiation necessary as can be seen from a number of points to be noted: a) only few gases can be used as detection media having a high cross section for the reaction used for detection; b) high gas density, which often means high gas pressure, has to be used in order to obtain enough 184

Neutrons are detected via interaction with a 3He amplifier optimized for both the time and charge nucleus producing a triton and a proton, each measurements using a monolithic transistor array with a certain kinetic energy, to cause ionization was developed. in the gas. The electrons from this ionization are amplified and registered using the principle of DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL proportional gas amplification and an electronic The STEM Control System system measures the position of the event. The position resolution achieved so far is 3 mm FWHM. The Division is engaged in the development In order to obtain a high detection efficiency, and implementation of state-of-the-art data ac- the 3He gas has to be compressed to 4 atm, and quisition and control systems for various facilities several atmospheres of a "stopping gas" have to be at the Laboratory. An example is the control sys- added to reduce the range of the reaction products. tem for STEM, the Scanning Transmission Elec- The construction and operation of a large area tron Microscope, which has been developed in counter with a gas pressure of about 10 atm has the Biology Department. Central to the control its problems. The windows have to be as thin as pos- system is a tree-structured data base, where the sible, and no unnecessary dead volume is allowed, digitized pattern of one picture and its associated since 3He is not available in large quantities. directory can be stored. The pattern is created by A detector with an active area of 50x50 cm2 digitizing the data output of the microscope into is highly desirable and studies have been made typically 512x512 elements, and recording the to solve the aforementioned problems even for resulting digital representation of the beam in- this size. It has been found that heavy hydrocar- tensity of each element on a disk which is man- bon gases can be used as stopping gases if certain aged by a special purpose data-base manager. precautions regarding purity and operational The pattern is displayed continuously on a stor- conditions are observed. Detailed analysis of the age 'scops. The user of the microscope has a wide electronic position readout leads to improvements variety of options to manipulate the pattern. For allowing the readout of the reaction position at instance, the user may select within the pattern higher relative accuracy reaching two parts per an area of interest and may request a magnified thousand. Some details turned out to be very im- scan of this area. One might loosely describe that portant, such as high linearity of the position feature as a digital "zooming" feature with auto- measurement and high uniformity of efficiency matic recording and linking of the resulting cor- over the whole sensitive surface. Both effects have related patterns. Patterns of interest may be re- been studied in detail and improvements are corded on magnetic tape for archiving and for possible. subsequent analysis at a computer center. The description of the data poccssing system A PDP11/10 computer controls the various is given elsewhere in this section. data streams and executes the control sequences. The user of the microscope communicates with Dual Coordinate Readout in Drift Chambers '-'•'' the control computer via a function panel with but- tons, lights, and switches. Thus, he is not burdened It has been demonstrated that both drift time with understanding the details of the various soft- and charge division measurement can be per- ware procedures to be executed by the computer.

formed simultaneously on the same electrode 1215 (resistive anode) of a drift chamber without affect- Reactor Experiment Control Facility (RECF) ing the accuracy of either measurement. It has This facility, a computer network developed to been found that for the shortest measurement control and acquire data from up to 12 experi- time there is an optimum value for the anode wire ments at the HFBR, has operated in a routine resistance related to the characterise ;c impedance manner throughout the last two years. All phases of the wire. The signal requirement for a position of the research and development work directed uncertainty a<0.5% of the anode wire length is toward this facility have been completed. The only 2.7 X 106 electron charges. The drift cham- common (shared service) node of this network has ber can be operated in the linear mode and with been improved in the following major respects: negligible space charge effects, so that it can also a)The common node processor, previously a be used for AE/AX measurements. A simple pre- PDP11/40, has been replaced with a PDP11/45; 185 b) the common node operating system has been cially developed low power semiconductor mem- converted from a system which operates in two ories until it is commanded via radio frequency modes of logical address space to one which has link to transmit the data to a central data collec- access to three modes; c) a subsystem which stores/ tion and processing station. The central station retrieves core images of the application node includes a telemetry receiving station, a command operating systems to/from the common node transmitter, and a computer system. The com- disk has been installed; d) a file management for puter is programmed for automatic control of ex- files of experiment control parameters has been perimental runs.The use of large numbers of ex- installed; e) a new main program and overlay ceptionally reliable low power voltage-to-fre- manager subsystem which utilizes a high-speed quency converters made possible the acquisition fixed-head disk for buffering transfers of programs of continuous data in a field traditionally accus- from the large capacity disk pack has been tomed to relatively sparse sampled data. installed. All the hardware and software required This telemetry system is limited to line-of-sight to support these improvements has been trans- radio frequency communication. The need to ferred to the RECF network and is now operat- perform measurements over a much wider geo- ing under actual experiment control and data graphic area led to evaluation of communication acquisition conditions. techniques available for long distance (i.e., beyond line-of-sight) telemetry. Conventional com- Experiment Control System for Two- munication technique, until recently the only Dimensional Position-Sensitive Detectors "' available long distance radio frequency tech- A data acquisition and experiment control sys- nique, was discarded in favor of rapidly emerging tem for small angle scattering experiments from satellite communication. HF band communica- biological samples has been in operation at the tion is subject to time of day and seasonal propa- HFBR for the last six months. The main compo- gation variations and is rapidly being discarded nents connected to the system are a neutron spec- because of its inherent unreliability. trometer and a large area, two dimensional de- BNL has received permission to use a commu- tector for thermal neutrons. The system architec- nication link via the Geostationary Operational ture is designed so that the analog-to-digital con- Environmental Satellite (GOES) operated by the verter for the position-sensitive detector and the National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS). experiment control processor (a PDP11/34) have The satellite covering the eastern United States common access to a large array of random-access orbits the earth synchronously at 75 ° west longi- data memory. The control processor also executes tude, 36,200 km above the equator. Control and programs for the on-line storage tube display. communication with the satellite is exercised by This arrangement allows displays of the diffrac- NESS from a command and data acquisition tion pattern to be generated and freely manipu- center in Wallops Island, Virginia. Remote plat- lated via FORTRAN programs, while data col- forms receive commands sent from Wallops Island lection from the detector is in progress. Such a as requested by BNL. The platform data collection feature is essential for setup of an experimental system responds by transmitting accumulated data run and calibration of the detector electronics. to Wallops Island where it is stored for transmission to BNL via 1200 Baud direct telephone service. Line of Sight and Satellite Oceanographic 17 A basic prototype processor incorporating the Telemetry Systems continuous measurement and local storage con- The Controllable Automated Environmental cept developed for the coastal measurement sys- Data Acquisition System described in the 1976 tem has been developed and is under test with BNL Highlights was operationally deployed for the satellite system. As part of this development, the Coastal Boundary Layer Transect (CO- large semiconductor, low power CMOS memory BOLT) experiment of the Coastal Shelf Trans- has been included to permit long intervals between port and Diffusion project. This system digitally interrogations. integrates and stores time-varying ocean current 18 26 direction and velocity, temperature, and conduc- Nuclear-based Analytic Techniques " tivity in four buoys simultaneously. The processor In collaboration with K. W. Jones and R.E. in each buoy controls the storage of data in spe- Shroy of the Physics Department, a program of 186

applied nuclear physics has evolved over the past suitable collimators. The beam is brought into few years with funding from Molecular Sciences, the laboratory via a windowless, differentially- Division of Physical Research, and the Division pumped exit port. To have a beam of micron of Biology and Environmental Research of the dimensions available as a microprobe in the labo- Department of Energy. The goal of the program ratory is a unique capability for many applica- is to apply known, highly developed, sensitive tions where sample size or preparation may be a nuclear measurements to important analytic problem. As the sample is scanned by the proton problems and to develop new capabilities for ex- beam, sensitive elemental analysis is performed isting nuclear physics-oriented facilities. Within with a high resolution x-ray detector. This de- this scope, developments related to a 3.5 M V Van tector measures characteristic x-rays of a wide de Graaff accelerator have been reported. In ad- variety of elements that are copiously produced dition, various applications have been developed by the beam. Figure 8 shows the microprobe in collaboration with groups and individuals in beam line and the x-ray detector cryostat in several other disciplines as well as other efforts position. within this Division. Using the 4He beam from the accelerator, sur- A highly collimated proton beam produced face analyses have been carried out with Ruther- by the 3.5 MV accelerator has been developed ford backscattering. Alpha particles are scattered for use as a proton microprobe. Beams as small from a surface in the backward direction and as 12 jum diameter have been produced using their energies are resolved by a silicon detector.

Figure 8. The beam line at the 3.5 MeV Van de Graaff accelerator on which a highly collimated external proton beam is used as a microprobe. The cryostat for the Si(Li) x-ray spectrometer used to detect characteristic fluorescent x-rays from samples is also shown on the right. 187

Careful measurement of the energy spectra allows thin layers of various elements to be resolved. In collaboration with materials scientists from Lehigh University, Division personnel have studied the position of very small amounts of Cl within a thermally grown oxide on silicon, a problem of distinct practical importance to the semiconductor industry. The nuclear reaction, 19F(p,p'y) 19F, has been used in the measurement of trace amounts of fluorine in various organic samples including vegetation and foods. Plant physiologists from the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research have collaborated in these low-level fluorine measurements. The reaction produces 110 and 197 keV y-rays with high yield which are uniquely Figure 9. Scanning electron micrograph of 0.5 )im di- and easily detected to provide a useful sensitivity ameter ammonium sulfate crystals on Fluoropore filter of <1 part per million. This method has pro- taken at 5 kV. vided a valuable, independent check on chemical methods of low-level fluorine determination. Other techniques with demonstrated utility include the measurement of characteristic elemental x-rays from trace quantities in samples which are excited by either protons, electrons, or higher energy x-rays. The combination of nuclear- based analytic techniques in conjunction with other newly developing methods, such as scanning electron microscopy and x-ray fluorescence analysis, provides a powerful comprehensive laboratory for material analysis.

Electron Microscopy Capabilities of the Microscopy Laboratory have been greatly enhanced by the recent acquisition of an AMR 1000 scanning electron microscope (SEM).When used in combination with a Tracor Northern 2000 energy dispersive x-ray analyzer, Figure 10. Thin tissue section (100 nm) imaged by scanning transmission at 50 kV. the new SEM is a completely equipped analytical system that can image topographical details as small as 5 nm in diameter and detect the microscope (STEM) detector is used to form an presence of elements with atomic numbers of 11 image from electrons that pass completely through or grf ater. the sample, benefits from the 50 kV accelerating Of particular interest is the LaB6 electron gun voltage of the new SEM. that provides a high brightness electron source Examples of these two techniques are shown in that can be operated with acceleration voltages Figs. 9 and iO. In Fig. 9, 0.5 fim diameter ammo- fr"m 1 to 50 kV. l_,ow accelerating voltages must nium sulfate crystals on a Fluoropore were imaged be used with delicate samples to avoid damage with secondary electrons at 5 kV. In Fig. 10, a from the electron beam but only the Lal$6 fila- 100 nm section of biological tissue was imaged at ment can provide an electron emission density 50 kV. An example of the analytical x-ray capa- great enough to produce low-noise images of ac- bility is shown in Fig. 11, where an image formed ceptable quality. On the other hand, image qual- in the standard manner with secondary electrons ity of thin sections, where a scanning electron reveals a contaminant on the surface of a stainless 188

Counters, IEEE Tram. Me. Sci. NS-25, 794-799 (1978). 5. H. OKUNO, j. FISCHER, V. RAOEKA, AND A.H. WAL- ENTA, Azimuthal Spread of the Avalanche in Propor- tional Chambers, BNL 25258 (to be published in IEEE Trans. Me. Sa., Feb. 1979). 6. A.H. WALENTA, The Time Expansion Chamber and Single Ionization Cluster Measurement, BNL 25153 (to be published in IEEE Trans. Me. Sci., Feb. 1979). 7. J.L. ALBERI, Position Readout by Charge Division in Large Two-Dimensional Detectors, IEEE Trans. .\'m: Sci. NS-24, (1), 188-194 (1977). 8. B.P. SCHOENBORN, J. ALBERI, A.M. SAXENA, AND J. FISCHER, A Low Angle Neutron Data Acquisition System for Molecular Biology, BNL 23370-R (1978). 9. H. OKUNO, R.L. CHASE, J. FISCHER, AND A.H. WAL- ENTA, Flat Helical Delay Lines for Position Readout Along the Anode Wire in MWPC and Drift Cham- Figure 11. SEM image on the left of the surface of a bers, IEEE Trans. Me. Sci. NS-24, (1). 213-217(1977). stainless steel tube. On the right, the image is formed by 10. V. RADEKA AND P. REHAK, Second Coordinate Read- the intensity of Cu Ka x-rays detected with an energy out in Drift Chambers by Charge Division, IEEE dispersive spectrometer. The distribution of copper con- Trans. Me. Sci. NS-25, 46-52 (1978). tamination on the tube is determined by comparing the 11. V. RADEKA AND P. REHAK, Charge Dividing Mecha- t'"o images. nism on Resistive Electrode in Position-Sensitive De- tectors, BNL 25070 (10 be published in IEEE Trans. Me. Sci., Feb. 1979). steel tube. Copper was detected in the x-ray spec- 12. F.W. STUBBLEFIELD, A File Management for Experi- trum and the Cu Ka x-ray peak was used to form ment Control Parameters Within a Distributed Func- a concentration map that shows clearly the location Computer Network, IEEE Tran. .Vac. Sci. NS-24, tion of the copper on the sample surface. (1), 460-468(1977). 13. F.W. STUBBLEFIELD, A Main Program and Overlay This instrument will aid in the solution of a Manager Subsystem Within a Distributed Function broad range of problems of interest to both mate- Laboratory Computer System, IEEE Tran. A'uc. Sci. rials scientists and biologists. The Microscopy NS-25, 217-225 (1978). Laboratory, which also has a 100 kV Philips 200 14. F.W. STUBBLEFIELD, Conversion of an Operating Sys- transmission electron microscope as well as x-ray tem Oriented 'J awards Transaction Processing from fluorescence equipment, is a Laboratory facility Two to Three Modes of Logical Address Space. IEEE Trims. Me. Sei. NS-25. 231 -242 (1978). and has been utilized also by scientists outside of 1."). F.W. STUBBI.EFIEI.D AND R.D. BECK. An Application the Laboratory. Its facilities have been used by Node System Image Manager Subsystem Within a researchers with interests as diverse as the bind- Distributed Function Laboratory Computer System, ing mechanisms in polymer cements, high-tem- BNL 25005 (to be published in IEEE Trans. Me. Sci., perature corrosion of graphite, and the environ- Feb. 1979). mental degradation of leaf surfaces that have 16.J.L. ALBERI, A Data Acquisition and Experiment Control System for a Large Area Neutron Detector, been exposed to acid rain. BNL 25132 (to be published in IEEE Trans. Me. Sci., Feb. 1979). REFERENCES 17. S. RANKOWITZ, Critical Choices for Oceanographic Data Acquisition and Telemetry Systems, BNL 22871 1. A.H. WALENTA, J. FISCHER, H. OKUNO, AND C.L. (1977). WANG, Measurement of the Ionization Loss in the 18. A. ROHATGI, S.R. BUTLER, F.J. FEIGL, H.W. KRANER, Region of Relativistic Rise for Noble and Molecular AND K.W. JONES, Sodium Passivation in HC1 Oxide Gases, BNL 25179. Films on Si, Appl. Phys. Letts. 30, (2), 104-106 (1977). 2. A.H. WALENTA, Left-Right Assignment in Drift 19. S.R. BUTLER, F.J. FEIGL, A. ROHATGI, H.W. KRANER, Chambers and MWPC's Using Induced Signals, AND K.W. JONES, Cl Incorporation in SiOj Prepare'1, Nucl. Instrum. Melh. 151, 461-472 (1978). by Oxidation of Si in O2-HCI Ambients, J. Electro- 3. J. FISCHER, H. OKUNO, AND A.H. WALENTA, Spatial chem. Soc, March (1977). Distribution of the Avalanche in Proportional Cham- 20. R.E. SHROY, H.W. KRANER, K.W. JONES, J.S. bers, Mel. Instrum. Melh. 151, 451-460 (1978). JACOBSON, AND L.L HELLER, Determination of Fluo- 19 19 4. J. FISCHER, H. OKUNO, AND A.H. WALENTA, Ava- rine in Food Samples by the F(p,p'Y) F Reaction, lanche Localization and its Effects in Proportional Mel. Instrum. Meth. 149, 313 (1978). 189

21. H.W. KRANER, J.F. PATTERSON, AND J.C. SMITH, Impurity Migration in Graphite at High Tempera- Combined Cortical Thickness and Bone Density De- tures Using a Proton Microprobe, BNL 25191 (1978). termination by Photon Absorptionmetry, BNL 23080, 25.1. W. DUEDALL, R. DAYAL, J.H. PARKER, H.W. Phys. MedBiol. 23, 1101-1114 (1978). KRANER, K.W. JONES, AND R.E. SHROY, Distribution, 22.S.N. ROY, A.M. GHOSE, AND H.W. KRANER, Coher- Composition, and Morphology of Suspended Solids ent Scattering of Gamma Rays from Calcium Oxide, in the New York Bight Apex, published in Proc. 4th BNL 23290 (1977). Biennial Int. Estuarine Res. Conf., October (1977). 23. R.E. SHROY, H.W. KRANER, AND K.W. JONES, Pro- 26.1.W. DUEDALL, R. DAYAL, A. OKUBO, K.W. JONES, ton Microprobe with Windowless Exit Port, Bull. Am. H.W. KRANER, AND R.E. SHROY, Short-Term Varia- Phys.Soc. 23, (1), 73(1978). bility in the Composition and Distribution of Sewage 24. R.E. SHROY, P. Soo, C.A. SASTRE, D.G. SCHWEITZER, Sludge in the Ocean after Dumping, (to be published H.W. KRANER, AND K.W. JONES, Measurements of in Proc. of Am. Geophys. Union 1978).

INSTRUMENTATION DIVISION STAFF Instrumentation Division staff members and their principal areas of interest are listed below:

J.L. Alberi Detectors, Systems H.W. Kraner Nuclear Analytic Techniques R.A. Boie Electronics G.P. Larson Systems R.P. DiNardo Vacuum Technology W.R. McKinney Optics D.G. Dimmler Systems, Oceanographic Instrum. H. Okuno*** (visiting) Detectors J. Fischer Detectors D.W. Potter Electronics E. Gatti* (visiting) Detectors, Electronics V. Radeka Electronics, Detectors N.E. Greenlaw Systems S. Rankowitz Systems, Electronics M.E. Hofmann Systems, Electronics L.C. Rogers Electronics A.T. Hrisoho** (visiting) Electronics F.W. Stubblefield Systems, Medical Electronics M.A. Kelley Systems A.H. Walenta Detectors J.B. Warren Electron Microscopy

*Politecnico de Milano, Milano, Italy """""Institute for Nuclear Study, University of Tokyo, **Laboratoire de l'Accelerateur Lineaire, Orsay, France Tokyo, Japan Reactor Division

INTRODUCTION Department of Energy and other federal and local regulatory agencies. The utilization of thermal neutrons as a research Both the HFBR and the MRR operated during tool encompasses the major scientific disciplines at the past two years with an excellent reactor avail- the Laboratory. The two reactor facilities managed ability and safety record. Over 21,000 megawatt by the Reactor Division, the High Flux Beam Re- days of integrated thermal energy was produced actor (HFBR) and the Medical Research Reactor at the HFBR, with unscheduled reactor downtime (MRR) produce neutrons which are used in neu- limited to less than 1.4%. The maximum unsched- tron beam experiments and for the irradiation of uled downtime was four consecutive days due to a specimens. The mission of the Reactor Division is mechanical problem associated with a control rod to operate these facilities as a service to the scien- drive mechanism. The MRR was run only upon tific community in a safe and economical manner, demand, and produced a total of 944 megawatt consistent with the guidelines established by the hours of energy during the last two years.

Table I

Distribution of Support of HFBR Operations From the Scientific Programs

Energy and Energy and Environmental Environmental 1%

Use charges

Fiscal 1977 Fiscal 1978

Amount % of support Amount % of support

Physics Department Neutron Physics $ 525,040 27 8 609,176 28 Solid State Physics 719,501 37 804,983 37 Biology Department Biological Research 194,457 10 217,562 10 Chemistry Department Molecular and Materials Chemistry 486,148 25 522,152 24 Energy and Environmental Department Radiation Damage 19,463 01 21,756 01 Total 81,944,627 100 $2,175,626 100

190 191

Table I shows the distribution of the support of HFBR operations from the scientific pro- Table II grams, and Table II lists the service irradiations Reactor Service Irradiations performed. HFBR MRR

RESEARCH AT THE HIGH FLUX FY77 FY78 FY77 FY78 BEAM REACTOR BKOOKHAVEN The HFBR is a heavy water moderated reactor Accelerator Department 0 0 0 5 currently operating at 40 MW and providing a Chemistry Department 198 132 4 3 15 Department of Energy flux of thermal neutrons of 0.7 X 10 neutrons, 58 45 0 0 2 and Environment cm -sec. The nine beam ports shown in Fig. 1 are Department of Nuclear used by four different scientific disciplines: Nu- Energy 1 20 25 30 clear Physics, Solid State Physics, Chemical Phys- Medical Department 1 0 17 23 ics, and Biology. Their programs are discussed Physics Department 5 3 8 10 Reactor Division 23 16 11 11 briefly below and some specific results are illus- Safety and Environmental trated within the appropriate scientific depart- Protection Division 0 1 9 14 ment sections of the HIGHLIGHTS. In addition, ser- ()i TSIDE ORGANIZATIONS 39 68 58 39 vice irradiations in the HFBR are performed in

H9-C

Figure 1. Schematic of experimental neutron beam facilities it the HFBR. 192

support of many other research programs, includ- structure, to determine the causes of molecular dis- ing production of radioisotopes, chiefly for medical eases, and to provide structural solutions to effect and nuclear chemistry research; activation analy- cures. sis for environmental and geological research, as well as the study of archeological artifacts; and radiation damage studies in superconductors and IMPROVEMENTS TO THE HFBR AND other materials under investigation for the Con- RELATED EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES trolled Thermonuclear Reaction program, important to the search for alternative energy sources. 60 MW Conversion The Reactor Division is presently engaged in a Nuclear Physics project which will increase the normal reactor op- This program uses beams of neutrons from the erating power to 60 megawatts. This 50% increase HFBR to provide a unique capability, unavail- in power will result in a corresponding increase in able elsewhere within the United States, to study thermal neutron flux to a peak value of approxi- neutron induced nuclear reactions. Most of the re- mately l.Ox 1015 neutrons/cm2-sec. search focuses on the (n,y) reaction in which Higher neutron fluxes will have a two-fold ad- gamma radiation following neutron capture is de- vantage in that the time required to perform ex- tected. The specific properties of this reaction al- periments will be reduced, and new experimental low the study of a broad variety of single particle techniques which are only marginally effective at and collective nuclear states and lead to the com- present neutron levels will become practical. prehensive testing of nuclear models. Replacement of the two primary system heat exchangers is the major task in upgrading the re- Solid State Physics actor to operate at 60 MW. The new heat ex- Fundamental research is being carried out on changers are presently in the fabrication stage. In the nature of cooperative phenomena in the atomic addition to the new heat exchangers, required lattice, including such areas of interest as the dy- changes to increase the capabilities of the second- namics of lattice vibrations, long-range ordering of ary cooling water and afterheat removal systems the atoms in a lattice, and studies of magnetism. are nearly complete. It is anticipated that the Again, beams of neutrons from the reactor are project will be completed in approximately one used as unique probes which can be scattered year, with the fabrication and installation of the from the materials under investigation in order to new heat exchangers being the major critical path analyze their microscopic behavior. items.

Chemical Physics Fuel Element Development Neutron diffraction studies are being undertaken A new type of fuel element, designated KM- to investigate chemical bonding and molecular series, was developed by the Reactor Division dur- structure of crystals. The fact that neutrons inter- ing this report period. The KM-series elements are act strongly with vibrational, rotational, and diffu- similar to the proven design of previously used ele- sive modes of crystals makes inelastic neutron ments. Significant changes include the increased scattering a uniquely valuable tool in the study of 235TJ loading from 315 grams to 351 grams per ele- the motion of atoms in solids. The distribution of ment. Increased fuel loading will extend the 40 MW magnetism and spontaneous magnetic fluctuations operating cycle length approximately four days and can also be determined in magnetic materials. will provide a practical operating cycle length at 60 MW operation when the fuel consumption rate Biology will increase proportionately. Major cost reduc- Neutron scattering studies are being used to tions in fuel fabrication were achieved by develop- elucidate the details of the three-dimensional ment of a fuel element with uniformly loaded fuel architecture of proteins, membranes, and larger plates as opposed to previous designs which con- molecular complexes. These details are impossible tained two types of fuel plates, each requiring dif- to obtain by conventional X-ray diffraction stud- ferent manufacturing and quality control proc- ies. The ultimate goals of this research are to under- esses. In addition, the Reactor Division developed stand biological functions in terms of molecular an improved roll swaging device which is used to 193 assemble fuel plates into fuel elements. As a result, erator. Neutrons from the heavy water reflector re-work and/or rejected elements at the fabrica- region of the reactor are moderated by scattering tor's plant have been reduced to the minimum processes within the cold hydrogen, thus shifting and unit time to fabricate acceptable fuel elements the spectral distribution of the emerging beam to- has also been reduced with a corresponding in- wards lower energies. crease in fuel cost economy. Three external beams of cold neutrons will be made available from this facility. They will be used Cold Neutron Facility for the followingexperiments : A cold neutron facility which will use a liquid a) Elastic neutron scattering experiments for hydrogen moderator is being installed in the H-9 solid state physics studies of single crystal, poly- beam tube. After all testing has been completed crystalline, or amorphous samples. and DOE final approval has been received, the fa- b) Small angle scattering experiments to eluci- cility will become fully operational and produce date the structure of large biological molecules. intense beams of very low energy neutrons (ener- c) Small angle scattering and subthermal neu- gies less than 0.005 eV or wavelengths greater tron physics experiments. than 4 angstroms). The moderator chamber is located at the tip of TRISTAN II Facility a plug assembly, as shown in Fig. 2, which is in- An on-line isotope separator is presently being serted in the H-9 beam hole. The chamber is de- installed at the H-2 beam. This facility was trans- signed to contain about 1.4 liters of liquid hydro- ferred to BNL when the Ames Reactor at the Uni- gen at 20 K, which is continuously cooled by cir- versity of Iowa was shut down last year. The Facil- cultating cold helium gas from an external refrig- ity is being upgraded with an improved source

C" beam tube y Hydrogen lines /

Hydrogen (in) Vacuum and W^- Helium T.C. leads Hydrogen (out)

Vacuum

.... ,. . —Cold helium Helium blanket Hydrogen lines (2) . Vacuum chamber Pile face .chTber /-Thermal^ Cold helium /"coolant (H2O) - Areas, Cold helium | transfer lines Rciainer flange Vacuum chamber each beam /headers (2) s Plug coolant (H O),/R coolant lines tube sees ,^ Moderator 2

Vacuum chamber i.d. Plug coolant (H2O) View looking from moderator feed line towards cold helium headers

Figure 2. Cold neutron moderator and plug assembly being installed in H9. 194 which will permit more efficient collection of the moving paper tape and passed in front of a detec- fission products generated from a 235U target tor where the radioactive decay of the isotope can placed in the H-2 neutron beam. The fission prod- be observed and analyzed. This facility will be ucts are accelerated through a bending magnet used to obtain data on the decay modes of short- which separates the different isotopes by their lived isotopes which are unattainable by other mass. The desired isotope can be collected on a methods.

REACTOR DIVISION Scientific Staff R, W.Powell G.D. Pitcher J.Phillips D.Rorer P.Tichler

Professional Staff R. Bergoffen W. Brynda P. Colsmann J. Detweiler S. Moss J. Penny M. Brooks K.Y. Cheung K. Dahms R. Karol D. Oldham W. Wilson Safety and Environmental Protection Division

INTRODUCTION spheric nuclear weapons tests during the 1940's and 1950's. The original Marshallese inhabitants The Safety and Environmental Protection Divi- of these tiny coral islands located some 3300 km sion continues to serve in an advisory and review southwest of Hawaii were moved to other loca- capacity to the BNL staff to ensure that all Labo- tions within the Marshalls before the tests began. ratory operations involving work with hazardous As a result of negotiations with the United States agents are conducted with minimum risk to per- government they had been granted permission to sons and the environment. The Division also return to their homelands. Although environ- carries on basic and applied research pertinent to mental studies at Bikini and Enewetak demon- its expertise, ranging from studies of biological strated the presence of residual radioactivity in effects of magnetic fieldst o environmental analyses these islands, early assessments of the radiation in the tropical Pacific. doses to the Bikini population predicted them to Reflecting the broad interests of the Laboratory, be within internationally accepted radiation pro- the Division provides a wide range of services and tection standards. a highly trained and diverse group of specialists, In 1977 Safety & Environmental Protection including qualified personnel in health physics, in- Division staff members began a special program dustrial hygiene, occupational safety, fire protec- to actually measure the radioactivity content in tion, and environmental control. It provides per- people li"ing in the northern Marshalls. A field sonnel monitoring services for the determination trip in the Spring of 1978 demonstrated that the of radiation exposures; and supplies, calibrates, doses to people living at Bikini, while unlikely to and maintains a variety of industrial hygiene and cause any observable health effects; had, in fact, radiation monitoring instruments. A comprehen- exceeded the radiation protection standards for sive sampling and analysis program for both radio- members of the general public. As a consequence active and conventional pollutants is conducted of this finding, the U.S. Department of the In- to evaluate the impact of the Laboratory b opera- terior moved the Bikinians away from their home tion on the environment. Recent emphasis has atoll a second time. This unexpected finding has been placed on the areas of training and waste stimulated great interest in the study of the im- management. Training programs have greatly ex- pact of man-made environmental radioactivity on panded to include cardio-pulmonary resuscitation, human populations. respirator use, health physics for power company The Brookhaven Marshall Islands Radiological personnel, health physics certification review, fork Safety Program consists of several studies to evalu- truck and crane safety, and emergency response. ate levels of environmental radioactivity, modes Waste management operations have been im- and pathways of exposure to man, and the resul- proved with the acquisition of an incinerator, a tant doses to people living in these environments. compactor, and new type radioactive waste trans- Field trips to the Marshall Islands are conducted portation packages. In addition, the Safety and at least once per year. Environmental Protection Division is responsible for maintaining BNL's emergency response capa- The field work entails collection of terrestrial bilities. The Division's fire-fighting and police and marine environmental samples which are re- groups play key roles in ensuring that the Labo- lated to the human food chain, and direct measure- ratory can cope with virtually any emergency ment of ambient radiation levels in the islands. situation on site and render assistance when The samples are brought to BNL where they are needed to neighboring communities through analyzed for radioactivity content. These data are mutual aid agreements. then used to predict radiation doses to the local inhabitants, or to verify the accuracy of earlier dose predictions. Special emphasis is being placed on assessment of the radiation dose contributions MARSHALL ISLANDS STUDIES from the human food chain by direct counting of Bikini and Enewetak Atolls in the northern people for internally deposited radioactivity. This Marshall Islands were the sites of high yield atmo- is done with an exceedingly sensitive portable

195 196 whole body counter which accompanies the field of health effects to radiation quantity and spatial trip personnel on an as needed basis. This study is energy deposition patterns must be inferred from supplemented by a bioassay program for the models of radiation action on biological systems. analysis of tiny amounts of internal radioactive Radiobiological experiments are designed to in- materials excreted in human waste. These efforts vestigate mutations, chromosome aberrations, cell are expected to provide a large measure of assur- killing, cancer induction, and teratogenesis. A wide ance for the continued health and safety of the variety of experimental organisms are employed Marshallese people whose homelands were af- including insects, mammals, and single cells grow- fected by the Pacific Nuclear Testing Program. ing in tissue culture. In a unique series of experiments1, Chinese ham- RADIOLOGICAL RESEARCH ster cells growing in tissue culture are irradiated ACCELERATOR FACILITY with closely spaced pairs of particles originating from diatomic molecules (see Fig. 1). The mole- The Radiological Research Accelerator Facility cules pass through thin Mylar foils to which the (RARAF) is operated by BNL as a national re- cells are attached. In passing through the foil the source providing facilities for experiments done by molecules dissociate and the two independent par- BNL scientists, Columbia University scientists, ticles diverge due to multiple scattering. The re- and other outside user scientists. sulting characteristic separation in the cells is 90 The facility utilizes a 4 MV Van de GraafFac- to 250 nm depending on foil thickness. With cells celerator, which had earlier served as the injector synchronized in late S phase, when DNA is being for the BNL Cosmotron, to produce monoener- synthesized, the paired ions are more effective than getic neutrons from about 0.1 to 15 MeV by single ions as a result of interaction of the two nuclear reactions. Also, the charged particle beam tracks at distances up to approximately 250 nm. can be used directly to irradiate thin samples (a This distance is considerably larger than the sepa- few jum thick) with different portions of the ration of the DNA double helix, but considerably charged particle track and thus study the relation- smaller than the cell nucleus. The paired ion ship of biological effectiveness to energy loss or facility is complemented by a track segment linear energy transfer (LET). The irradiations are facility where the LET can be varied from 10 used to investigate radiation effects on living keV/jUm to ~ 160 keV/fim. systems. Radiological physics measurements are made in Since most biological experiments cannot be support of radiobiology studies to determine ac- performed at the low radiation levels of interest curately the quantity and type of radiation ad- for radiation protection purposes, the relationship ministered. Other studies are designed to measure on a nanometer to micrometer scale the spatial

SINGLE. IONS PAIRED IONS deposition of energy resulting from irradiation by various types of radiation.

ARE MAGNETIC FIELDS MUTAGENIC? Controlled thermonuclear reactors being developed for future electric power generation will employ strong magnetic fields to confine the 6pm /V79 charged plasma. Workers in these plants may be MYLAR MYLAR ' CELL exposed to magnetic fields having field strengths from 10~* to perhaps tens of tesla (one to about Figure I. Chinese hamster V79 cells growing on Mylar 5 foils are irradiated with equal doses of either deuteron 10 times the strength of the earth's field). Safe molecules or uncorrelated deuteron ions. After striking working limits must be established for these plants the foil the individual independent ions follow a random so that orderly design may proceed and costly walk described by Coulomb multiple scattering. En- overdesign or later redesign can be avoided. hanced killing with the paired ions results from interaction between the pair of correlated tracks from each Studies at Brookhaven National Laboratory molecule. haven centered on the question of possible muta- 197 gcnic effects since these can be important in not only germ cells, but also in somatic effects such as carcinogenesis. In these studies the sensitive plant, Tradescantia, has been employed to study somatic mutations, since years of study, by the late A.H. Sparrow and his collaborators at BNL, using this system have shown it to be one of the most sensitive and convenient eucaryotic systems available for studying mutagenic effects of both physical (e.g., radiation) and chemical substances. Possible heritable effects are studied using fruit flies (Drn- sophila) as the test organism. This system permits simultaneous testing for recessive lethal mutations on any one of about 1,000 genes. Results to date indicate no detectable mutagenic effects from fields as large as four tesla administered for several days.

IODINE MONITOR A small probability exists for a severe power reactor accident which might be accompanied by the release of large amounts of radioactivity from the containment. Meteorological measurements can be used to predict direction and diffusion of a plume leaking from containment imperfection or Figure 2. Air sample collection utilizing 12 V power being discharged from a stack. However, due to from an automobile cigarette lighter socket. the difficulty of measuring source magnitudes, environmental measurements of radioactivity will be needed. to collect more than 93% of the methyl radioiodine, hypoiodous acid and elemental radioiodine For these reasons an air sampling system was 2 in the test releases. They were made in air streams developed (see Fig. 2) to collect and analyze samples for radioiodines since these would be the from ambient conditions up to 42 °C and 97% most biologically significant plume components relative humidity. in most cases. The air mover was designed to be powered by an ordinary 12 volt automotive sys- REFERENCES tem and to draw 2.4 liters/sec of ambient air 1. N. ROHRIC, R.P. BIRD, R.D. COLVETT, H.H.ROSSI, through a high efficiency paniculate filter and a AND S.A. MARINO, Unique Biophysical Studies with BNL developed silver-impregnated silica gel ad- Diatomic Deuterium Beams. IEEE Transactions on Nucl. sorber.3 The sample can be evaluated using a Science, February, 1979. widely available civil defense GM counter. Noble 2. C.H. DISTENFELD AND J.R. KLEMISH, JR., High Effi- ciency Mixed Species Radioiodine Air Sampling, Read- fission gas interference will be largely avoided by out, and Dose Assessment System. International Sym- use of the silver-impregnated silica gel adsorber. posium of Radiation Accidents, IAEA-SM-125/20, Under similar experimental sampling conditions, BNL-22307, March, 1977. the gel adsorber collected less than Moo of the 3. C. DISTENFELD AND J. KLEMISH, An Inorganic Radio- noble gases which were adsorbed by activated iodine Absorber with Low Noble Gas Retention. 15th DOE Nuclear Air Cleaning Conference, Boston, MA, charcoal. Additionally, the gel adsorber was able in press, August, 1978. 198

SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION DIVISION

Staff list

J.W. Baum Radiological Physics, Health Risi Esti- S.A. Marino Radiological Physics; Accelerator Physics mates, Microdosimetry C.B. Meinhold Division Head; Health Physics, Radia- P.R. Becker Safety Engineering; Marine Safety tion Standards B.F. Brennan Plant Protection R.P. Miltenberger Marshall Islands; Internal Dosim- W.R. Casey Health Physics; Accelerators, Emergency etry Planning A.R. Moorthy Radiochemistry J.B. Deitz Fire Protection Engineering J.R. Naidu Environmental Studies; Ecology C.H. Distenfeld Health Physics; Instrumentation M.P. O'Brien Industrial Hygiene; Health Physics L.C. Emma Environmental Engineering; Waste Man- S.G. Pearsall Safety Engineering; First Aid; Training agement L.F. Phillips Health Physics; Personnel Dosimetry, N.J. Fallon Computer Science Calibrations C.W. Flood Health Physics; Emergency Planning A.C Pittman Health Physics; Accelerators N.A. Greenhouse Marshall Islands, Health Physics N.D. Rohrig Radiological Physics, Accelerator Physics A.P. Hull Health Physics, Environmental Monitoring H. Schulman Safety Engineering; Pressure Systems A.F. Humm Health Physics, Training J.J. Shonka Health Physics, Radiological Physics P. Kale Mutagenesis M.N. Varma Dosimetry Research; Surface Physics; D. Kirson Fire Protection Engineering Radiological Physics A.V. Kuehncr Computer Science; Radiological Phys- G.N. Wall Safety Engineering, Electrical Safety ics O. White Industrial Hygiene, Industrial Safety; Health E.T. Lessard Training; Health Physics Physics G.S. Levine Electronics; Health Physics R.W. Young Safety Engineering General and Administrative

General and Administrative

PERSONNEL STATISTICS tory's relationship with the academic community by way of the Summer Student and Visiting Sci- Personnel administration at the Laboratory has entist Programs. As in the past, budgetary limits increased in significance, not only with the growth curtail growth in the Summer Student program, in employee numbers, but with the diverse needs and the positions available become very competi- of both the Laboratory and employees. tive for the over-500 applicants. Total employment has been on a steady rise, Table IV sets out the increasing numbers of sci- as shown in Table I. This trend reflects sustained entists from other institutions who are drawn to DOE support of energy-related research, and the Brookhaven throughout the year for its experi- initial staffing of two new major research facilities, mental facilities. ISABELLE and the National Synchrotron Light Table V shows that consultants to the Labora- Source. Table II shows the growth of the scientific tory continue to play an important part, and illus- staff, and includes statistics on regular student trates necessity to borrow expertise from industry participation in Laboratory programs. and elsewhere, particularly in furtherance of the Table III indicates the health of the Labora- Laboratory's energy-related mission.

Table I Employment Statistics

Sept. 30, 1978 June 30, 1977 June 30, 1976

Scientific staff8 763 717 620 Scientific professional staff 526 413 359 Nonscientific staffb 2170 2094 1842 Total 3459 3224 2821

1978 1977 1976

Annual Annual Annual Turnover data Number rate (%) Number irate (%) Number rate (%) Accessions Scientific staffa 173 23 148 21 126 20 Scientific professional staff 135 26 80 20 69 19 Nonscientific staffb 310 14 215 11 204 11 Total 618 18 443 14 399 14 Separations Scientific staffa 135 18 94 13 76 12 Scientific professional staff 78 15 33 8 13 4 b Nonscientific staff 199 9 146 7 111 6 Total 412 12 273 9 200 7 Net Accessions Scientific staffa 38 5 54 8 50 8 Scientific professional staff 57 11 47 12 56 15 Nonscientific staffb Ml 5 69 4 93 5 Total 206 6 170 5 199 7 aIncludes Research Associates and Visitors. Tigures do not include temporary summer nonstudent employees. Temporary student employees are included in Table III.

201 Table II

Scientific Staff and Students on Mav 31

Regular Staff Salaried Visitors

1978 1977 1976 1978 1977 1976

By appointment category Staff Senior Scientist 123 114 114 2 1 1 Scientist 255 220 197 11 8 9 Associate Scientist 162 150 127 8 7 8 Assistant Scientist 84 95 86 3 3 3 Senior Research Associate 12 8 7 Research Associate 72 70 71 Students Junior Research Associate 10 12 10 Research Assistant Total 624 579 524 118 109 109

By academic degree Ph.D. or M.D. 513 472 411 114 92 94 Master 46 45 45 3 10 4 Bachelor 61 62 62 1 7 11 No degree 4 4 6

Table III

Summer Program

1977

Staff Students'" Salaried Unsalaried Institutions

By department Accelerator 5 13 12 6 12 Applied Math 13 6 10 9 15 Applied Science 33 68 66 35 51 Biology 4 17 16 5 12 Chemistry 11 7 7 II 17 Directors Office _ 3 3 2 I nstrumentation 1 1 2 •} Medical 5 23 23 5 16 Physics 95 23 35 83 76 Reactor - 1 _ 1 1 Safety & Environmental Protection Division - 18 14 4 9 Total 167 179 188 158

1978

Staff Students" Salaried Unsalaried Institutions

By department Accelerator 11 21 18 14 15 Applied Math 5 7 8 4 10 Biology 9 12 11 10 14 Chemistry 9 9 9 9 15 Directors Office _ 2 2 2 Energy & Environment 26 42 44 24 40 Instrumentation 1 3 4 - 4 Medical 5 14 11 8 12 Nuclear Energy 10 25 31 4 25 Physics 97 16 38 75 64 Safety & Environmental Protection Division - 23 15 8 16 Total 173 174 191 156

•••Includes 47 participants in Summer Student Program for 1977; 51 for 1978. 203

tunities for individuals having academic degrees in Table IV engineering, environmental sciences, or computer Scientific Guest and Collaborator Appointments science, but lacking specific experience. (Unsalaricd) in Eflect on Sept. 30, 1978 3) A Technician Training Program was established in order to increase the available pool of By department trained electrical and mechanical technicians. Accelerator 16 Participants, selected competitively; are enrolled Applied Mathematics 2 in an alternating work/study program at Suffolk Biology 72 Chemistry 123 County Community College. Upon obtaining their Energy & Environment 11(3 Associate Degrees in technology, they will be Instrumentation :i placed in a technical area. Including the Craft Ap- Medical 200 prentice Program, there are 25 employees cur- Nuclear Energy 6 rently enrolled in the Laboratory Apprentice Physics 761 Reactor 24 Training Program. Safety & Environmental 4) New York Institute of Technology has been Protection Division 64 conducting extension courses in business adminis- Total 1387" tration at the Laboratory for the past year. These courses are available to employees and families of "Represents 296 institutions, including 88 outside employees, who, upon completion, will be able to North America. obtain the required accreditation for a BBA.

Table V ADMINISTRATION Consultant Services On March 15, 1977, to better reflect the diver- Fiscal Year sified function and expanding responsibility of the "Purchasing Division,1" the title of the division 1978 1977 1976 was changed to the "Division of Contracts and Procurement." Total contracts in effect 270 221 232 No. of consultants used 184 163 194 March 17, 1977, Dr. Jerome Hudis became the No. of man-days of service 4,209.51 3,316.52 2,205.68 Chairman of the Chemistry Department succeed- ing Dr. Gerhart Friedlander. September 20, 1977, Dr. Arie Van Steenbergen AFFIRMATIVE ACTION was appointed Head of the National Synchrotron Light Source Construction Project. A Project Ad- The Laboratory's commitment to Affirmative visory Committee, chaired by Dr. Martin Blume, Action continues to be demonstrated by the in- assists in reviewing and guiding the Project. On crease of minority representation from 11.8% to October 6, 1978, the ground breaking ceremonies 13.4% and of women from 19.5% to 21.0% of the were held signaling the start of construction. total work force. The NSLS will be the largest facility in the Currently, 57.0% of all minorities and 49.0% of country to be dedicated solely to the production of all women hold positions in the top three Federal synchrotron radiation. The powerful light source Equal Employment Opportunity Job Categories. will provide intense beams of X-ray and ultraviolet The following four new programs were intro- light to be used for research in physics, chemistry, duced in order to provide in-house training oppor- biology and various technologies. tunities to enhance the hiring, training, and pro- On September 30,1977, the Department of En- motion of minorities and women: ergy (DOE), became the successor to the Energy 1) The 4-year College Co-op Program was ini- Research and Development Administration tiated to provide OJT opportunities in the me- (ERDA). chanical, chemical, electrical, and nuclear engi- On October 1, 1977, a Department of Nuclear neering professions. Energy (DNE) and a Department ol Energy and 2) A Professional Intern Program was imple- Environment (DEE) were established to replace mented which provides one year training oppor- the Department of Applied Science. Dr. HJ.C. 204

MOOKHJWEN NATIONAL MIOUffMY MMHTIWn Of CWRGY AND •NVIIKHIMINr

K.C. HOFFMAN - CHMJRMAN

ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE 1. MANOWIR - ASSOCIATE CHAMMAN DJ. KOUHU FOR [NVMONMENTAL PROGRAMS D.H. GUUNSKY - DfMJTY CHAKMAN

ENERGY SCIENCES ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES ENERGY TECHNOLOGY NATIONAL CENTER FOR ANALYSIS AREA AREA PROGRAMS OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

ENERGY STORAGE AND ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES DIVISION CHEMICAL SCIENCES DIVISION CONVERSION DIVISION ENERGY POLICY ANALYSIS DIVISION

OJ. KT2 P.A. MICHAEL F.I. SALZAHO

MATERIAL SCIENCES DIVISION OCEANOGUPHIC SCIENCES DIVISION ENGINEERING DIVISION ECONOMIC ANALYSIS DIVISION

M. SUENAGA JJ. WALSH RJ. ISLER

— SOUR nmmwa emue ft), eta - ACTING IIOMEOICU AND ENVIRONMENTAL fSOCESS SCIENCES DIVISION ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY DIVISION ASSESSMENT DIVISION

M. STEINIERG L. NEWMAN C WAIDE LEI- HAMILTON

LAND AHO FRESH WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAM TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT GROUP ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES GROUP MANAGEMENT GROUP 1— GEOIHERMAL MATERIALS GROUP L XUXACKA G. HEHDREK G. DfNHEHY

ENERGY DATA AND MODELS GROUP

MOOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY DEPARTMENT OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

CHAIRMAN SPECIAL ASSISTANTl O.R. MACKEHZIEJ NJ.C. KOUTS

1 1 INTERNATIONAL NATIONAL NUCLEAR NUCLEAR MATERIAL ASSOCIATE CHAIRMAN NUCLEAR ENERGY DATA CENTER SAFEGUARDS FOR REACTOR SAFETY SAFECUDS PROJECT SYSTEMS 1IFFICE S. PEARLSTEIN J.H. CUSACK W.Y. KATO L GREEN JR. POWELL

1 1 1 1 HIGH TEMPERATURE ENGINEERING AND DATA MANAGEMENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT THERMAL REACTOR GAS-COOLEO REACTOR ADVANCED REACTOR THERMAL HYDRAULICS FUSION TECHNOLOGY > ORGANIZATION GROUP SAFETY DIVISION SAFETY DIVISION SAFETY DIVISION DEVELOPMENT DIVISION DIVISION C.L. OUNFORD J.H. CUSACK D.G. SCHWEITZER MM. IEVINE RJ. CERBONE O.C. JONES, JR. J.R. POWELL

EXPERIMENTAL DATA EVALUATION EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR CODE SAFETY SAFETY EVALUATION CORROSION SCIENCE SENIOR STAFF MODELING ACCELERATOR 1 GROUP GROUP ANALYSIS GROUP GROUP GROUP GROUP IREEOER PROJECT 1 ASSISTANT M.R. BtMT DC. SCHWEITZER, ACTING DJ. DIAMOND R A. IARI N. AB. JR. WEEKS P. GRAND LE. FULLER

CODE DEVELOPMENT DATA TESTING ANALYSIS AND CODE CONTAINMENT SYSTEMS STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS SENIOR STAFF AND VERIFICATION OATA SYSTEMS AND GROUP DEVELOPMENT GROUP GROUP GSOUP OPERATING GROUP GROUP ASSISTANT P.F. ROSE C.». SASTRE G. MAISE A.K. AGRAWAL G A ZIMMER M. REICH it. srmem

NUCLEAR LICENSING CDDE REACTOR PHYSICS ANALYTICAL MODELING SUPPORT SERVICES WASTE MANAGEMENT SENIOR ADMINISTRATIVE APPLICATIONS GROUP GROUP GROUP RESEARCH OlOUr ASSISTANT W.H. KROPf WC. SHIER. JR. H. LUDEWIG P. SAHA P. COLOMBO 11. REDZINAK

THOR DEVELOPMENT REACTOR ENGINEfllNG AND VERIFICATION AHALYSIS GROUP GROUP PE. HALL O.C. JONES, ACTING j 205

Kouts became the Chairman of the Department of and administrators have completed the series. The Nuclear Energy, and Dr. K.C. Hoffman became program is a major effort toward enhancing public the Chairman of the Department of Energy & support for the Laboratory through increased un- Environment. This new organizational structure derstanding. has provided more effective technical and scien- Janet Whitehead, Personnel Manager, has been tific management of these diverse programs. requested by the Director to assume special duties DNE includes the National Nuclear Data Cen- designed to strengthen the Laboratory's commit- ter; the Technical Support Organization and the ment to affirmative action for women. As women's International Safeguards Project Office; the former Program Coordinator, she reviews policies and DAS programs in Reactor Development and Mag- practices in light of the employment concerns of netic Fusion Energy, as well as the Reactor Safety women and serves as coordinator and advisor for programs supported by the Nuclear Regulatory women's activities at the Laboratory. Ms. White- Commission, will also be managed by DNE. head, who had previously served as Employment DEE includes the programs of Environmental Supervisor and Assistant Personnel Manager, was Research, Molecular Science, Material Science, appointed to her present position on October 1, the National Center for the Analysis of Energy 1978. Her activities in the women's program are Systems, and the various Solar, Geothermal, Fos- part of a broad range of responsibilities she holds sil and Conservation activities. within the Personnel Division. Organization charts for the new departments appear in this section. Technical Information Division On January 13, 1978, the ISABELLE Division The Technical Information Division imple- of the Accelerator Department became an inde- mented a three year plan to provide the Labora- pendent organizational unit, the ISABELLE Proj- tory's scientific staff with fast and extensive access ect, under the direction of Dr. James Sanford. to five scientific bibliographic data bases; these in- Also during January, 1978 the funds appropri- clude Lockheed Dialog, SDC Orbit, the Biblio- ated by the Congress of the U.S. were received to graphic Retrieval Services, SLAC's high energy initiate the detailed design of this machine includ- physics reprint file, and the DOE RECON en- ing components and enclosures. On October 27, ergy data base in Oak Ridge. 1978 ground breaking ceremonies were held on The first in a series of changes from manual to the ISABELLE site marking the actual start of automated systems within the Library is now in construction. operation. All journal subscriptions, except those On January 13, 1978, Dr. Ronald Rau was as- charged to the Research Library, are entered into signed additional line responsibility for the Accel- the computer system. erator Department and the Physics Department, A revised edition of the Division's Scientific Pub- including Low Energy and Solid State Physics. He lications Manual was published. Department Heads contir.ues to provide liaison with the outside users have been urged to encourage their staff to send of the high energy facilities and to have responsi- reports to the editors of the Technical Information bility for the Central Shops. Division to assure a standard of writing which reflects the high quality of scientific research con- SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS ducted at Brookhaven. Personnel Division Plant Engineering A major function was added to the Personnel Plant Engineering's staff architects and engi- Division when Robert D'Angio became the Lab- neers have made significant contributions to the oratory's first Training and Development Admin- building designs and structural schemes of the istrator. Among a broad range of programs ini- ISABELLE, NSLS, and Inhalation Toxicology tiated is a workshop series entitled "Effective Pre- programs. They will continue to work closely with sentations." The series is designed for scientific the program departments and the A/E's to insure and professional personnel who have a major re- that these systems will be well designed and easy sponsibility for presenting talks to the public or to maintain. the scientific community on aspects of the Labora- Prefabricated modular buildings were designed tory's work. To date, over 100 engineers, scientists. by P.E. to meet a critical need for additional space. 206

Modular units comprising a total of 2322.5 m2 of the Northeast from Maine to Virginia and West space were put into use in late August 1978, eight to Ohio. This plan should generate approximately months after the award of the construction con- 1.5 X 106 liters of jet fuel to be used in the Labora- tract. The aggregate provided 116 offices, 10 con- tory's special fuel mixture program (ALF). Negoti- ference rooms, drafting rooms, and electronics ations are under way to acquire the excess fuel gen- laboratories. These modular units, which are en- erated by Air Force bases as far South as Florida. ergy conservative and aesthetically appealing, In order to meet the Laboratory's growing need have substantially lessened the need for trailers on for bulk compressed gas supplies, the BNL fleet site. was expanded to nine, 38-tube helium trailers. Under the Maintenance Management Program, The Laboratory also has acquired 500 1A com- supervisors are scheduling assignments on a weekly pressed gas cylinders to convert for use in special basis when feasible. A Material CL. 'roller has mixtures. been appointed. Plant Engineering is working with Supply and Materiel to develop a "Bill of Division of Photography and Graphic Arts Materials" system to improve the flow of material The installation of a Daconics Word Processing/ to the craftsman on the job. A computer terminal Text Editing System has brought BNL's Division has been installed to provide pertinent and essen- of Photography and Graphic Arts to a high level tial maintenance data, and in the near future a of sophistication. The basic system has been ex- complete Machinery-Equipment History and Pre- panded from two terminals and one printer to ventive Maintenance Program will be available five terminals and four printers. Two terminals on the computer. and two printers have been installed as satellites of a Word Processing network. Use of the system has Division of Contracts and Procurement increased by 56% over 1977, from a word process- To meet the challenge of the ISABELLE and ing total in 1977 of 25,280 pages to a 1978 total NSLS projects, additional staff have been added for the same period of 39,442 pages. to the Division of Contracts and Procurement. Many of the Laboratory's records are now being Four procurement professionals are assigned to produced on microfilm by the Comp-80. In 1977 a ISABELLE, and two are assigned to handle the total of 3,060,427 COM (Computer Output Micro- procurement requirements of NSLS. film) frames were produced compared to 6,468,873 In response to the Contract Procurement Sys- in 1978, representing an increase of 111%. tem Review conducted by DOE in August 1977, Staff Service Division significant improvements have been made in the areas of sole source justification, cost estimates, After an extensive review of the telecommunica- and cost/price analysis. Training seminars for tions requirements at BNL. the Staff Service Divi- DCP personnel have been held on site, and several sion initiated action to upgrade service and re- courses off site have been attended by members of duce costs where possible. As a result the Depart- the division. A consultant has also been hired to ment of Energy, in conjunction with the Labora- review cost and p/ice analysis with DCP personnel. tory, issued a "Request for Proposal" requiring A document entitled Technical Aspects of the the installation, updating and maintenance of the Procurement Process was prepared by the Division new system for a ten-year period. It is anticipated to assist Laboratory personnel in their procure- that the successful bidder will provide an elec- ments. Most procurements are fairly straightfor- tronic processor controlled system featuring many ward. But this text was designed to assist with the advanced capabilities at a fixed equipment price more complex details of procurement planning, during the contract period. Cut-over to the new solicitation, and contract management. During system is scheduled for March 1980. 1978 the Division handled 30,000 transactions totalling more than $38,000,000. Management Information System The Management Information System func- Division of Supply and Materiel tion consists of the Administrative Systems and The Division of Supply and Materiel has ex- Data Processing Division and a newly established panded the acquisition of excess fuel from two Office of Management Systems. The Office of Northeast Air Force Bases to include all bases in Management Systems is responsible for «.he devel- 207

opment and implementation of policies, practices, proving heat exchange efficiency, and reducing procedures, and standards related to overall man- particulate emissions. agement information systems at the Laboratory. 3) It provides a safe and environmentally ac- Vhe Administrative Systems and Data Processing ceptable method for the disposal of spent indus- Division (ASDP) provides the systems and com- trial (flammable) liquids. puting services for all of the Lab-wide administra- 4) Certified laboratory analyses indicate that tive needs. The ASDP organization is in the proc- ALF feed stocks are free of all known carcinogens. ess of expanding its resources, to meet the expected 5) ALF facilitates the conservation of United higher demands for services as more and more States petroleum reserves and contributes to the management information system opportunities are reduction of foreign oil imports. identified. The Laboratory is also involved in the following projects, all aimed at allowing for the maximum ENERGY CONSERVATION research effort with a minimum of energy use. On September 28, 1978 a contract between The fall and winter of 1973/74, the Arab oil BNL and the Town of Brookhaven was signed to embargo, gasoline shortages and the difficulty of jointly fund an in depth engineering study and obtaining adequate supplies of fuel oil, prompted evaluation to determine the feasbiility of estab- BNL to begin an intensive, long range search for lishing a "municipal solid waste to energy gener- solutions to the problems the Lab faced during the ating facility." This facility would burn the com- energy crisis. As a result, many innovative and ef- bustible fraction of the Town's 1000 tons per day ficient changes have taken place at BNL in the of refuse in steam boilers to produce electric power past five years. and cogeneration of steam for the BNL heating re- In 1973 the population of the Laboratory was quirements in winter and air conditioning load in less than 2500 employees. Total Btu consumption summer. at BNL during that year exceeded 3500 X 109. In Several outside firms were engaged to perform 1978 BNL supported a population of 3459 em- studies of the Lab site and to make recommenda- ployees, an increase in space of 9300 m2, with a tions as to how we might implement energy con- total Btu consumption of 3455 X 10°. We are well servation measures in the most efficient and cost on our way to meeting the goal set by the Depart- effective manner. ment of Energy to reduce energy use, at all of its The Chemistry building was identified as one of facilities, by 20% by the year 1985. The year 1975 the major energy consuming buildings on site. has been set as the base year by DOE. Dubin-Mindell-Bloome Associates were retained The development of an Alternate Liquid Fuel by BNL to conduct an in depth study and to pre- (ALF) by the staffof Plant Engineering, under the pare an energy management program for the direction of MJ. Rose, has proven to be the most building. Many of the recommendations of this significant single accomplishment in the energy survey have been implemented or are planned for 6 management area. This blend of industrial waste the near future. We estimate that 47,103 X 10 Btu, 3 products such as recycled mineral spirits, used sol- 1836 X 10 k Wh, and $ 179,563 will be saved an- vents, pipeline interfaces, semi-miscible alcohols, nually, with an average payback period of 3.0 oil from tank and barge bottoms, and low grade years, in this building. fuel can be processed to create a mixture that Dubin-Mindell-Bloome Associates also con- is interchangeable with virgin fuel oil. This unique ducted a similar study focusing on the feasibility process has saved BNL approximately $935,000 of using the reactor waste heat at the HFBR, and since 1977. estimating potential energy and dollar savings as Some of the notable advantages of ALF, which well as the costs for implementing a heat recovery is classified by the U.S. Department of Energy as system. The results of this survey indicated that, non-critical, or preferred fuel, are: while technically possible, none of the suggested 1) It is a cost effective high Btu yield that can be uses would be economically feasible at this time. produced with readily available feed stocks utiliz- An energy systems analysis at the Central Steam ing standard hardware and processing equipment. Plant was conducted by the Michael Baker Jr. 2) It has a low sulphur (.5%) and ash (.02%) Company of New York. This study contributed to content thereby minimizing fireside deposits, im- an investigation of the type of fuel, boiler, boiler 208

size, operating pressures, and accessories that been approved. The average payback period for should be used to improve efficiency at the Pant. these projects is 2.5 years. Daedalus Enterprises performed two indepen- Items submitted for funding during 1979 in- dent energy loss surveys utilizing infrared thermog- clude the installation of an automatic boiler blow- raphy. The results of the airborne study were then down system on all four boilers at the Central compared to the ground level study to determine Steam Facility, modifications to the Biology Build- which buildings required additional insulation, ing's HVAC and lighting systems; economizer in- weatherstripping, and caulking. Energy losses stallation for boiler No. 5 and modifications to within the underground steam lines were also found HVAC Systems in the Applied Math, Physics, and and corrected. Accelerator Department buildings. The firm of Pope, Evans and Robbins con- Three line items have been submitted to DOE ducted an energy survey and appraisal of the site for funding. The first is a Central Energy Conser- which included an in depth study of 15 buildings vation Facility consisting of a central chilled water and a limited survey of 133 others. The results of and compressed air plant to provide 5100 tons of this survey will be used by the consulting engineer refrigeration and 42.5 m;i/min of compressed air to develop a comprehensive energy management to six major research complexes at BNL. The ex- and conservation program for BNL. pected savings from this complex, once operational, The Laboratory has installed night and week- are 136,000x 106 Btu annually. end temperature set-back controls in 26 buildings. The second project consists of extending the un- Cooling tower improvements, mechanical modifi- derground high pressure steam grid to 22 build- cations, and use of chemical treatment systems ings and eliminating the independent and ineffi- have reduced the energy consumption of 20 major cient heating plants serving these buildings. In ad- heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) dition, night and weekend automatic temperature systems. Lighting levels in all buildings have been set-back controls would be added in 15 buildings. lowered to conform with GSA 50-30-10 criteria, Included as part of this proposed project, an econo- resulting in a load reduction of 550 kW. Numer- mizer would be installed in the 81650 kg/h boiler ous buildings have been reinsulated and new con- at the Central Steam Facility. The expected sav- struction is carefully examined for energy conser- ings for this proposed project, once operational, vation opportunities (ECO's). are approximately 45,000 X 106 Btu annually. The Save-a-Watt Program continues to contrib- The third request involves the conversion of the ute substantially to our energy conservation efforts. Central Steam Facility's primary source of raw en- When the ACS must be temporarily shut down, ergy input from virgin No. 6 fuel oil to an alter- its operation is switched by computer to the Save- nate liquid fuel (ALF). At present the CSF is ca- a-Watt mode, going from a power load of about pable of burning a maximum blend of 55% ALF 23 MW to a standby level of 5 MW. feed stocks and 45% virgin No. 6 fuel oil. The con- Projects currently funded, and either underway version wi!l allow the burning of 100% ALF. or in design, include modifications to various The Laboratory has initiated and progressed steam absorption A/C installations on site. These with its energy conservation programs to the point machines were designed when energy was both in- where visible returns are being shown. Our con- expensive and plentiful. The modifications will sumption of energy has been reduced without im- significantly reduce the amount of steam required pairing the comfort and working conditions of our per ton of cooling output. A major modification employees and without jeopardizing the quality of and/or replacement of these machines in the Ap- the research conducted here. We are doing well plied Math Building and at the HFBR will sub- with less, and we will continue to make progress stantially reduce energy usage in these two areas. as more and more of us take responsibility for our Additionally, modifications to equipment and energy future here, at home, and in any area where building envelopes in 24 various buildings have we find an opportunity to contribute.