DEMONS, DRUIDS AND BRIGANDS ON IRISH HIGH CROSSES: RETHINKING THE IMAGES IDENTIFIED AS THE TEMPTATION OF SAINT ANTHONY Sally Tomlinson A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Art Chapel Hill 2007 Approved by Advisor: Dr. Dorothy Verkerk Reader: Dr. Jaroslav Folda Reader: Dr. Pika Ghosh Reader: Dr. Carol Magee Reader: Dr. Michael Newton © 2007 Sally Tomlinson ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT SALLY TOMLINSON: Demons, Druids and Brigands on the Irish High Crosses: Rethinking the images identified as The Temptation of Saint Anthony (Under the direction of Dorothy Verkerk) Five crosses erected at ninth- and tenth-centuries monasteries in Ireland are decorated with carvings of biblical and saints’ narratives, but these also include one in which two zoomorphic-headed figures in contemporary clothing confront a centrally placed man. Arthur Kingsley Porter identified the subject as temptation by demons, suggesting Saint Anthony as the probable protagonist, but the iconography bears no apparent relationship to the facts of Anthony’s story, as related by his biographer, Athanasius. The asceticism practiced by some early medieval Irish monks has long fascinated scholars, bleeding into assumptions about motivations behind the entire body of Irish monastic art work. During the era in question, the monasteries erecting these crosses were not retreats for solitary living, nor were they necessarily peopled by ascetic men in orders, leaving open the contextual basis supporting the “temptation” interpretation. This essay considers alternate explanations for scenes, beginning with the animals pictured, seeking precedents in pre-Christian art forms. In addition to a visual survey, I explore Irish vernacular literature to explain some of the beliefs surrounding the creatures pictured. iii I explore the history of, and other uses for, the heraldic compositional type used for the images, beginning with ancient Near Eastern art and applications in Irish art as drawn from the Merovingian culture. From there, I investigate the topics of demons and animal-related magic, seeking information about the culture of druids and their poet-successors in Ireland. I look for related visual images of demons and devils within contemporary Western European art and elsewhere on the Irish crosses, comparing these with the zoomorphic-headed figures. In the next chapter I illustrate and highlight details of the figures’ costume, connecting visual evidence to scholarship on medieval dress and references in early medieval Irish Christian and non-Christian literature, to identify the social station and professional standing of the various figures, as suggested by their clothes and accoutrements. Finally, I define the circumscribed geographic area in which the five crosses stand, providing an overview of its history and the contemporary political situation, to provide context for the creation of these unusual images on public monuments. iv To my partner, Steve Hall, whose unfailing support and piano sonatas lent harmony to this endeavor. And to my daughter, Siena Salazar, whose companionship means more than she will ever know. Also, in memory of my mother, who passed on halfway through this project, and who would have been proud of me, true to her nature. And finally, for my two wonderful and crazy brothers and fellow musketeers, Jim and Tom. Thank you for holding down the fort. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There would be no dissertation, or even a spark in my eye about this topic, without Dr. Dorothy Verkerk. Wandering through a desert empty of Celtic study options, I stumbled into the oasis of her Celtic website, and this dissertation is the product of our collaboration. And, had she not pushed me onto the airplane for Scotland and Ireland...well, who knows when this paper would have been completed. I cannot express my delight in visiting the crosses with her and reflecting on their images together—standing in the light rain, the excitement we felt stimulated new questions, which may find expression in future essays. Her gentle support and encouragement not only helped to spark this project and but also carried it to completion. All the members of my dissertation committee provided insight and suggestions, and I thank them wholeheartedly. Dr. Jaroslav Folda, especially, served as an example of throughness and organizational wonder throughout my doctoral program. His natural warmth and unfailing support at difficult crossroads will never be forgotten. Dr. Mary Sheriff’s guidance and example also enriched my studies, as she challenged me intellectually and helped me to mature as a scholar. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.................................................................................................viii Chapter INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1 I THE ANIMALS SPEAK. BIRDS AND BEASTS AS DEITIES, DEMONS AND DISCIPLES ................................................................................................... 19 II LORD OF THE BEASTS: ADAPTATION OF AN ANCIENT COMPOSITION 84 III THAT OL’ DEMON MAGIC................................................................................100 IV CLOTHES (AND POSE) MAKE THE MAN .......................................................133 V BEASTLY MEN.....................................................................................................181 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................239 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................262 ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................................................................................286 BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................347 vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Kells Market Cross, south face ........................................................................................298 2. Kells Market Cross, south face, east arm of cross. Temptation of Saint Anthony.........299 3. Moone Abbey Cross, north face ......................................................................................300 4. Moone Abbey Cross, north face, base, detail. Temptation of Saint Anthony ................301 5. Castledermot North Cross, west face...............................................................................302 6. Castledermot North Cross, west face, shaft, detail. Temptation of Saint Anthony........303 7. Castledermot South Cross, west face...............................................................................304 8. Castledermot South Cross, west face, shaft, detail. Temptation of Saint Anthony........305 9. Monasterboice Tall Cross, east face ................................................................................306 10. Monasterboice Tall Cross, east face, south arm of cross. Temptation of Saint Anthony ..................................................................................................................307 11. Ullard Cross, west face, head..........................................................................................308 12. Kettins cross slab, drawing. Isle of Man........................................................................309 13. Map of Ireland with medieval monastery sites and Hill of Tara ....................................310 14. Clonmacnoise, Cross of the Scriptures, west face ..........................................................311 15. Monasterboice, Muiredach’s Cross, west face and detail with inscription.....................312 16. Moone Cross, east face, head. Christ Crucified or Risen ..............................................313 17. Kells Market Cross, south face, cross head and arms.....................................................314 18. Kells Market Cross, south face, cross head and east arm, with color highlighting ........314 19. Moone Cross, north face, base........................................................................................315 20. Moone Cross, west face, shaft ........................................................................................316 21. Torslunda plaque. Sweden.............................................................................................317 viii 22. Gallehus horn, drawing. Denmark.................................................................................318 23. Papil stone. Scotland......................................................................................................319 24. Two bronze boars. England ...........................................................................................319 25. Castledermot South Cross, west face, shaft, detail. Temptation of Saint Anthony.......320 26. Bronze horse fitting from war chariot. England ............................................................320 27. Book of Kells, fol. 1v and detail.....................................................................................321 28. Tarasque of Noves. France ............................................................................................322 29. Iron helmet crowned with bronze bird with movable wings. Romania.........................322 30. Bronze figurine of a crow or raven. England.................................................................323