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APPENDIX: THE REFORMATION 1369–1415 Jan Hus (Huss), early reformer, theologian, author of De Ecclesia. Religious thinker in Bohemia (now Czech Republic); started a movement using Wycliffe’s teachings; ordained priest; a professor in Prague; excommunicated four times; his followers were known as Hussites. In 1405, pope Innocent VII effectively placed the entire city of Prague under Key Figures of the Reformation an interdict due to Hus’s teachings and followers. Hus defended his beliefs Key Timeline of the Reformation in 1415 at the Council of Constance, then was tried and burned at stake Translation Timeline as a heretic for his views on the sale of indulgences, and immoralities in the Church—after the pope and emperor had promised him safe conduct. Church Branches and Denominations Timeline The myth is that he said, “In one hundred years, God will raise up a man Arminianism versus Calvinism whose call for reforms cannot be suppressed” (102 years before Luther’s 95 Five Solas of the Reformation Theses); due to his prophecy and his name meaning “goose,” a swan (along Luther’s 95 Theses with Luther’s rose) is a traditional symbol of many Lutheran congregations; Hus was a precursor to the Swiss Reformation led by and Ulrich Suggested Resources: The Reformation Zwingli.

1395–1468 Johann Gutenberg (“Beautiful Mountain” born Genfleisch), inventor of the printing press. Key Figures of the Reformation, in Chronological Order Invented printing press with movable type in Mainz, Germany, considered 1320–1384 John Wycliffe, (also Wyclif and Wycliff), morning star of the Reformation, the most important event of the modern world. The first printed book was a priest. Latin Bible in 1455; each was colorfully hand-illuminated. Gutenberg Completed the first hand-written English Bible manuscript from the Latin was left in poverty by unscrupulous business associates, but his invention Vulgate in 1384; Oxford scholar, philosophy professor, theologian; opposed was essential to the Reformation. His other trades were blacksmith and non-Biblical Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation. Wycliffe was goldsmith. condemned by the Council of Constance (along with Jan Hus) in 1414–1418 and by pope Gregory XI in 1377; his followers were derisively known as “Lollards”; forty-four years after the death of Wycliffe, pope Martin V ordered that his writings be burned and his bones dug up, burned and scattered in the River Swift. Wycliffe was the precursor to the led by and Myles Coverdale. 530 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 531

1463–1525 Frederick the Wise: Luther’s benefactor. 1472–1553 Lucas Cranach the Elder, appointed court painter by Frederick the Wise. Frederick, a very large man, ruled the Electorate of Saxony from 1486–1525; Famous for portraits of Electors of Saxony and Reformers, though he still As his primary home, he built a residential castle in lieu of a military fortress worked for Catholic clients. Luther’s German translation of the Bible in 1522 in Wittenberg. He protected Luther—who he had never met—for political, included Cranach’s illustrations. He passed his workshop on to his son, not spiritual, reasons, as he sought to weaken the powers of the pope Lucas Cranach the Younger, who became equally famous; world’s largest and the emperor. He earned the moniker, “The Wise,” for his success in collection of their work is in the Dresden State Art Collections; the Museum avoiding military conflict. On his deathbed, he received sacraments, a late of Fine Arts in Leipzig also has an extensive collection. commitment to the Reformation he had contributed to. Upon Frederick’s death in 1525, his brother, John the Steadfast, became 1473–1570 , Lord Chancellor of , Cardinal: Elector. John was friendly with the Reformers, and led the town of Torgau King Henry VIII’s chief advisor; burns Lutheran books; replaced by Sir to become the political center of the Reformation. In 1526, the League of Thomas Moore in 1529 for failing to get the pope’s approval for Henry’s Torgau was founded. John was followed in 1532 by his eldest son, John annulment from Catherine of Aragon so that Henry could marry Anne Boleyn Frederick the Magnanimous, who completed Hartenfels Castle with its (Moore is later beheaded by Henry for his opposition). incredible staircase, soaring like a spindle without support over two stories. While a supporter of the Reformation, his poor political skills led to the Schmalkaldic War. 1483–1546 : Father of the Reformation. Born and baptized in Eisleben; attended the University in Erfurt from 1501–1505. He called out to St. Anne for help in 1505 when caught in a 1466–1536 Desiderius : scholar, priest, theologian, social critic, humanist, severe thunderstorm, and vowed to become a monk. He entered a monastery teacher. in 1505 and was ordained in 1507 in Erfurt. Luther visited Rome in 1509; he Educated at Cambridge; published Greek-Latin Parallel —an became disillusioned and sermonized against the selling of indulgences, instant best-seller—in 1516 in Basel, Switzerland. Sourced directly from the posting his 95 Theses to the door of All Saints Church in Wittenbergb, more reliable, original Greek New Testament rather than from the corrupt, Germany on October 31, 1517. He defended his position to Augustinians in inaccurate Latin Vulgate (translated later into German by Luther). The Heidelberg and met with cardinal Cajetan from Rome in Augsburg in 1518. Roman church continued to threaten to kill anyone who read Scripture in any In 1520, Luther burned the papal bull threatening his excommunication if he language other than Latin, even though the originals were written in Hebrew did not recant. and Greek. He remained a Roman Catholic, recognized the pope’s authority Luther was many things: law student, monk, theology professor; taught and kept his distance from Luther and Melanchthon. Erasmus died in Basel. grace alone, faith alone, Christ alone, Scriptures alone, glory of God alone; Johann Froben, who had taken possession of the Amberbach printing authored first common German Bible; translated Erasmus’s New Testament establishment, agreed with Erasmus to print his Latin translation in return into German in 1522 and the entire Bible in the . Following the Diet for Erasmus’s editorial work on the Greek text. The texts were to be printed of Worms in 1521, Luther was excommunicated by pope Leo X and exiled. side by side in a single volume. It required a great deal of courage to print a Luther was hidden in Wartburg Castle by Frederick the Wise after a fake Latin translation that was not the Vulgate, since the Vulgate translation was kidnapping. then considered nearly infallible. Protected by Frederick the Wise, he preached from the New Testament in the Block Cloister in Wittenberg, wrote many hymns including “A Mighty Fortress” (1527), and wrote against Jews in 1538. Luther married Katherine von Bora in 1525 at the age of 42, putting the seal of approval on clerical marriage. Luther died on a trip to Eisleben and is buried in Castle Church in Wittenberg where he nailed the 95 Theses years earlier. 532 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 533

1484–1531 Ulrich Zwingli, Father of the Swiss Reformation 1491–1547 Henry VIII, king of England, 1509–1547 (From 1542 also king of Ireland). Zwingli, who was born in Wildhaus, believed in simple theology based on Inherited the throne in 1509 at age eighteen, second in the Tudor dynasty. literal, explicit Biblical beliefs and practices. As an ordained priest, he Henry formed the (Anglican) and named himself its head denounced music, paintings, and sculptures in church, opposed Luther’s when the pope refused his annulment from Catherine of Aragon to marry his belief in transubstantiation in the Lord’s Supper and never reconciled those mistress, Anne Boleyn. He broke relations with the Roman church in 1529 differences with Luther. Like Luther, he preached sermons from the New and pressured the clergy to submit to the king (not the pope) as supreme Testament. spiritual authority in 1532. Switzerland was not a country but a confederation of thirteen city-states Henry married the already pregnant Anne Boleyn and crowned her queen (cantons), the most powerful being his home canton of Zürich. In 1519, after his marriage to Catherine was voided in 1533; neither Catherine nor Zwingli used his most powerful ecclesiastical position in the city, that of Anne produced a male heir. Henry executed two of his six wives (including “People’s Priest,” in order to encourage dissent. In 1523 Zürich became Anne); dissolved hundreds of nunneries and monasteries in 1536; named the first Protestant state outside of Germany after he took on the city himself Head of the Irish Church in 1541. Henry was succeeded by Edward council, arguing his own sixty-seven-point thesis and replacing the mass VI (who died six years later and was succeeded by Mary I, known as Bloody with a simple service. Zwingli was killed in the Swiss civil war that he had Mary). encouraged, to force the remaining cantons to accept Protestants.

1488–1569 Myles Coverdale, Printer of the First Complete English Bible. Disciple of Tyndale, Coverdale finished translating the (using Luther’s German text) into English and printed first complete English Bible, the , in 1535. He published the “” for and Henry VIII in 1539 and dedicated it to Henry and his ex-wife Anne Boleyn; fled to the Church at Geneva with John Foxe in 1554.

1489–1556 Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury. Named Archbishop in 1533 as a married man (so Anglican clergy were no longer required to be celibate, similar to the effect of Luther’s 1525 marriage in Germany). In 1539, at king Henry VIII’s bidding, Cranmer hired Myles Coverdale to publish the “Great Chained Bible,” fourteen inches tall, to be distributed and chained to the pulpit of every church in England, with a reader provided so the illiterate could hear the Word in their own language for the first time; only seven editions were ever printed. Part of the White Horse Tavern Bible study group with fellow Cambridge scholars (including William Tyndale), Cranmer was burned at the stake by Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary) in 1556 after he was removed as Archbishop in 1555. 534 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 535

1494–1536 William Tyndale, Author of First Printed English New Testament. 1499–1552 Katherine von Bora, Luther’s wife. Born near Gloucestershire, Tyndale, an Oxford/Cambridge scholar, began Birthplace and birthdate unknown (perhaps in Lippendorf, south of Leipzig at age twelve in 1506 reading the Bible in English to fellow students at on January 29, 1499), she was placed in a convent at age six upon her Magdalen College, Oxford, eleven years before Luther wrote his 95 Theses. mother’s death. Katherine entered the Cistercian Marienthron convent in Tyndale, a theologian, genius, fluent in eight languages, and Master’s degree 1509 in Nimbschen near Grimma; Luther helped her and eleven other nuns holder, refused monastic orders as a newly ordained priest. escape the convent in 1522. She then lived with artist Lucas Cranach’s family Part of the White Horse Tavern Bible study group with fellow Cambridge until marrying Luther in 1525 in the Black Cloister in Wittenberg. Together scholars (including Thomas Cranmer); Tyndale was a spiritual leader and they raised six children and four orphan children. She was a devoted wife (he Captain of the Army of Reformers; referred to as “Father of the English called her “my Lord Katie”) and a great manager of the household despite Bible,” and “Architect of the English language”—some say even more than limited funds and many guests. Katherine died in Torgau, where she had fled Shakespeare. due to the plague in Wittenberg, six years after Luther died. Tyndale escaped to Germany in 1525 with only parts of his English New Testament, and finished translating the New Testament into English in 1501–1536 Anne Boleyn, Queen of England. Worms before completing its printing in 1526. Subsequent printings were Lady-in-waiting to Henry VIII’s first wife, Catherine of Aragon, she married often elaborately hand illustrated. The Church confiscated and burned Henry after his controversial divorce. She was the second of his six wives, as many copies as they could. Privately they found no errors, but publicly and one of two that he executed. declared that it contained thousands of errors. If the people could read Scripture in their own language, and understand Salvation through faith, not works or donations, the Church would lose power and income, e.g. , no longer 1505–1572 , Father of the Scottish Reformation. selling indulgences for forgiveness of sins, or for the release of loved ones Founder of Presbyterianism and the Calvinist Scottish Reformation in 1541, from a church-manufactured purgatory. John Knox had attended St. Andrews College, became a Catholic priest, was Only two known copies remain today of Tyndale’s first edition. The king made a French galley-slave, worked in England, taught with Calvin in Geneva, and the Church confiscated every available copy to burn, but Tyndale was and returned to Scotland where he was born in Haddington. He formed the funded to print even more. He was betrayed by a friend, imprisoned for Reformed Church in 1560. fifteen months and finally strangled and burned at the stake. Two of his followers, Coverdale and John Rogers, submitted a New Testament in English 1509–1564 John Calvin, Swiss Reformer. in 1538, that was virtually identical to Tyndale’s translation, which became Born in Noyon, France, Calvin was a humanist, lawyer, pastor, and theologian. the “Chained Bible” approved by the same king who had Tyndale killed Calvin had a sudden conversion from Catholicism in 1533. He went on to seventeen years earlier. The first English Bible drawn directly from Hebrew systematize the Reformed tradition in agreement with Luther’s views on and Greek texts; predestination; taught strict sobriety, thrift, and self-denial. In 1536, Calvin Tyndale, who had been influenced by Erasmus and Luther; had his writings authored possibly the most influential theological book ever,Institutes of banned and condemned as heresy. Tyndale was condemned to death by the Christian Religion. Calvin introduced Protestantism to France; escaping Henry VIII, and ordered to be strangled and burned at the stake in 1521. in 1533 after being called a heretic by Catholics. He then moved to Geneva, previously intending to only stay one night on his way to . 1497–1560 Philipp Melanchthon, A Leader of German Reformation. In 1538 he was banished by Geneva’s city council over differences and moved Second to Luther in Lutheran Reformation; Melanchthon was a scholar, to Strasbourg, France, to pastor a church; returned to Geneva in 1541 to humanist, and a Greek professor at the University of Wittenberg with Luther. create a theocracy, a “City of God”; established University of Geneva in 1559. He wrote and presented the Augsburg Confession on then-outlawed Luther’s behalf, at the 1530 Diet of Augsburg. 536 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 537

1516/17– John Foxe, Publisher of Actes and Monuments (commonly known as Foxe’s 1320 John Wycliffe is born. 1587 Book of Martyrs). 1337 Hundred Years War between France and England begins. Fled to the Church at Geneva in 1554 with Myles Coverdale; authored the only exhaustive reference work on the persecution/martyrdom of 1347–1351 The bubonic plague kills up to two-thirds of the population in parts of Europe. early Christians and Protestants from the first through the mid-sixteenth 1369 Jan Hus is born. centuries. 1370 John Wycliffe, an English priest, known as “The Morning Star of the 1703–1791 John Wesley, Cofounder of Methodist Church with brother Charles Wesley. Reformation,” opposes doctrines such as transubstantiation, proclaims Scripture should be in everyone’s heart language, and proposes limits to the pope’s powers. 1377 The pope Gregory XI releases five bulls (declarations sealed for 1707–1788 Charles Wesley, Composer of 4,500 Hymns, Cofounder of Methodist Church authentication) condemning Wycliffe, puts him under house arrest and with brother, John Wesley. returns the papal court from Avignon to Rome. “Jesus, Lover of My Soul,” published in 1740, was his most famous hymn: 1378 Two opposing papal elections (Urban II in Rome versus Clement VII in translated into more languages than any other. Initially rejected by his Avignon) divide Catholics until 1413. brother John Wesley as too sentimental, the hymn is now lauded with “People will sing that hymn until the end of time and then on our lips in 1382 Wycliffites (or Lollards) complete the first translation of the Bible from Latin Heaven.” Out of 188 words, 156 are one syllable. Christ is portrayed as lover, (not Biblical Hebrew or Greek) into English. healer, refuge, fountain, pilot and all-sufficient. 1384 Wycliffe dies. Multiple tunes have been used with his words; “Christ the Lord is Risen 1395 Johann Gutenberg is born. Today”: published in 1739 for Wesleyan Chapel’s first service, originally called “Hymn for Easter Day,” composer unknown, added a joyous 1405 The pope Innocent VII issues an interdict over the entire city of Prague due to “Hallelujah” at end of each line, from an ancient Hebrew worship service (see support for Hus’s teachings and followers. One Hundred and One Hymn Stories by Kenneth Osbeck). 1408 English law forbids translating or reading the Bible in English without a bishop’s permission. 1413 Jan Hus codifies Wycliffe’s teachings by writingDe Ecclesia. Key Timeline of the Reformation 1415 Wycliffe is denounced (thirty-one yearsafter his death) at the Council of Pre-Reformation (1215–1515) Constance in Germany on 267 counts of heresy. He is burned at the stake 1215 Magna Carta signed, in which English aristocrats pushed king John to state when he will not recant his beliefs. their rights, the founding document of English (and eventually American) 1428 Pope Martin I orders Wycliffe’s writings burned and his remains unearthed, liberties. burned, and tossed into the River Swift, forty-four years after his death. 1290 King Edward I expels Jews from England. 1447–1450 The Renaissance period begins (through 1521). 1295 Edward I summons England’s first Parliament, the first representative 1453 Hundred Years War ends. form of government which allowed someone other than royalty to make 1455 The printing press (with movable metal type) is invented in Mainz, Germany; legislation. Johann Gutenberg prints the first non-handwritten book in Europe, the Latin 1302 Pope Boniface VIII declares that popes have authority over every person and Vulgate or Bible. civil authority, that there is only one true Church (the only path to Salvation). 1466 Desiderius Erasmus is born. 1306 England expels100,000 remaining Jews. 1468 Johann Gutenberg dies. 1309 The pope Clement V establishes the papal court in his country of France (in Avignon, until 1377). 538 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 539

1483 Martin Luther (founder of the German Reformation) is born in Eisleben, 1519 Luther debates the claimed infallibility of popes and begins teaching from Germany, on November tenth and is baptized at the Church of St. Peter and the New Testament, as does Zwingli, birthing the Swiss Reformation. St. Paul. 1520 Luther publicly burns the papal bull that threatened excommunication if he 1484 Ulrich Zwingli (founder of the Swiss Reformation) is born in Wildhaus did not recant. (Toggenburg), Switzerland. 1521 Luther is excommunicated. He attends the Diet of Worms, again will not 1488 Myles Coverdale is born. recant, is condemned as a heretic, which at the time was punishable by 1491 Henry VIII is born. death by the civil authorities, and is hidden at Wartburg Castle by Elector Frederick the Wise after a fake kidnapping. The bans 1494 William Tyndale is born in Gloucestershire, England. everyone from possessing or reading any of his writings. Luther begins 1495 Leonardo da Vinci paints the “Last Supper.” his thirteen-year translation of the Bible into German. The first Protestant 1497 Philip Melanchthon is born. communion is served, in Wittenberg. William Tyndale is charged with heresy due to his teaching, and forms a study group with fellow Cambridge scholars 1501 Music is printed by movable type. (including Thomas Cranmer) at the White Horse Tavern. John Knox (leader of the Scottish Reformation) is born in Haddington, 1505 1523 Zürich becomes the first Protestant state outside of Germany, under Ulrich Scotland; while caught in a severe thunderstorm, Luther vows to be a monk. Zwingli. William Tyndale reads the Bible in English at Oxford (age twelve, at Magdalen 1506 1525 William Tyndale escapes from England with only part of his English New College; eleven years before Luther’s 95 Theses); St. Peter’s Cathedral in Testament, later completing it in Worms; Anabaptists (later Brethren and Rome is begun. Mennonites) proclaim baptism for believers and separation of church and 1507 Martin Luther celebrates his first Mass as a newly ordained priest. state; Martin Luther and Katherine von Bora marry in the Black Cloister in 1508 Michelangelo begins painting of Sistine Chapel ceiling. Wittenberg, putting the seal of approval on clerical marriage. 1509 John Calvin, leader of the Swiss Reformation, is born in Noyon, France. Henry 1526 Tyndale prints the New Testament (the first in English and the first from the VIII becomes king in England at age eighteen and weds Catherine of Aragon. Biblical Greek) in Worms. Copies are then smuggled into England. Henry Luther visits Rome. VIII’s chief advisor, Cardinal Wolsey, burns Lutheran books. Protestant churches start in and Sweden. 1515 William Tyndale, a newly ordained priest with his Master’s degree, refuses to enter monkhood; Thomas Wolsey becomes Lord Chancellor of England. 1527 Luther writes the great hymn, “A Mighty Fortress”; he disagrees with Zwingli’s teachings; the first Protestant university is started, in Germany; the Reformation: 1516–1563 purchase and burning of Tyndale’s testaments ironically funds his second 1516 Erasmus issues his New Testament translation from Greek into Latin, the New Testament edition; the plague hits Wittenberg. foundation of future Luther, Tyndale, and King James translations. 1529 King Henry VIII and Parliament break relations with the Roman church; 1517 Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses to the door of the Church of All Saints in Luther’s followers are called “Protestants” for the first time at the Diet of Wittenberg, Germany, challenging the Church on selling indulgences, papal Speyer, based on beliefs including: justification by faith alone, the Bible as authority, penance and other issues; seven people burned at stake by the the only source for truth and the priesthood of all believers; Sir Thomas Roman Catholic Church for teaching their children to recite the Lord’s Prayer Moore is appointed to replace Wolsey as Lord Chancellor for failing to get the in English rather than Latin. pope’s approval of Henry VIII’s annulment from Catherine (to marry Anne 1518 Luther defends his positions to Augustinians in Heidelberg and meets with Boleyn). cardinal Cajetan from Rome at the Imperial Diet in Augsburg; his protector, 1530 Copies of Tyndale’s Pentateuch (first five books of the Old Testament), Frederick the Wise, prevents Luther’s imprisonment by Rome after he refuses printed in Worms, arrive in England; the Diet of Augsburg results in the to recant his theology. Augsburg Confession, Lutheran beliefs presented on (outlaw) Luther’s behalf by his friend, Philipp Melanchthon. 540 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 541

1531 Tyndale declines Henry VIII’s offer to come back to England; Ulrich Zwingli 1541 Calvin returns to create a theocracy in Geneva. John Knox founds the is killed in the Swiss civil war he encouraged, to force Catholics to accept Calvinist Scottish Reformation, known as Presbyterians, due to being under Protestants. the authority of a group of presbyters (elders) vs. that of a single leader. The 1532 Henry VIII pressures the Church to submit to the king (not the pope) as the Regensburg Conference also is unable to reconcile Catholic and Protestant supreme spiritual authority; John Calvin introduces Protestantism to France. differences. Henry VIII names himself Head of Irish Church. 1533 Calvin escapes Paris after being called a heretic by Catholics; Thomas 1544–1545 The Council of Trent opens in Italy to reform the Catholic Church (ongoing Cranmer, a widower, replaces William Warham as archbishop of Canterbury, through 1563). Catholic Counter-Reformation disapproves of nepotism, signifying Anglican clergy no longer need to be celibate. Luther’s 1525 selling indulgences, immoral clergy . . . and Protestants. marriage in Germany had also shown approval for clerical marriage. Henry 1546 Martin Luther dies and is buried in Eisleben. VIII’s marriage to Catherine is voided and Anne Boleyn is crowned queen. 1547 Henry VIII dies and is succeeded by Edward VI. 1534 The Act of Supremacy makes the king the head of the Church of England. 1549 The forges a compromise between Protestantism Luther finishes his thirteen-year translation of the Bible into German. The and Catholicism. Society of Jesus (Jesuits) was formed in Paris by Catholic priest Ignatius Loyola to counter the Reformation. Tyndale’s revised New Testament is 1553 Edward VI dies, succeeded by Mary I (“Bloody Mary”). printed. 1554 Henry VIII’s daughter, Mary I (Tudor), persecuted Protestants. After Tyndale’s 1535 Tyndale is imprisoned for heresy, in part due to challenging Henry’s divorce assistant is burned, along with 300 others including bishops, priests, and from Katherine of Aragon, on behalf of king Henry VIII near Brussels, women, many flee to Calvin; Myles Coverdale and John Foxe among them. Belgium. Myles Coverdale completes translating Tyndale’s Bible, the first 1555 Peace of Augsburg Treaty lets each regional ruler in Germany choose complete Bible in English, and ironically dedicates it to Henry and his between Lutheranism and Catholicism; Thomas Cranmer is removed as consort, Anne Boleyn. Anabaptists are killed by Catholics in Germany (and archbishop of Canterbury. later commit to pacifism); Thomas Moore is beheaded for opposing Henry 1556 Thomas Cranmer is burned at the stake. VIII. 1558 Mary I dies and is succeeded by Elizabeth I (reign 1558–1603); Elizabeth 1536 Tyndale is strangled and burned at the stake after fifteen months in jail. names herself Supreme (not Head, a male term) Governor of the Church Luther fails to reconcile disagreements with the Swiss Zwinglians over the of England and tries to reconcile differences between Protestants and Lord’s Supper. Norway and Denmark become Lutheran. Henry VIII dissolves Catholics. hundreds of convents and monasteries. Calvin publishes Institutes of the The first Bible divided into verses is completed, with margin notes: The Christian Religion and moves to Geneva. 1560 , by the Church of Geneva, for the English families exiled there. 1538 Calvin is banished by Geneva’s city council over differences and moves to John Knox in Scotland forms the Reformed Church; Philipp Melanchthon Strasbourg, France, pastoring a French speaking congregation for three dies. years. Luther writes against Jews. 1562–1563 The most major Protestant statement of doctrine, the Heidelberg Catechism, 1539 Henry VIII authorizes the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, to is established. commission Myles Coverdale to publish the “Chained Bible,” a large Bible to be chained to the pulpit of every church in England-the first English Bible for Post–Reformation (1564–1698) public use-with a reader provided for the illiterate. Only seven editions were 1564 Protestants trying to purify the Church of England of non-Biblical traditions ever printed. are called “”; John Calvin dies. The Jesuit order is recognized by the pope and increase their role in 1570 Elizabeth is excommunicated by the Church of Rome and persecutes 1540 Counter-Reformation and evangelism; the Worms and Hagenau (Haguenau) Catholics. Conferences are unable to reconcile Catholic and Protestant doctrinal 1572 John Knox dies. differences. 542 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 543

1601 Calvinism (predestination, that God predetermines our entrance into Heaven) inspired, breathed Word of God is consistent in facts and theology and is as is disputed by Arminianism (man chooses Christ as our entry into Heaven) by relevant today as when it was written. Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius, based on the book of Romans— Nearly one-fourth of the Bible includes prophecies, including 300 in the see Five Points each of Arminianism and of Calvinism in Appendix. Old Testament about Christ, written from 450 to over 2000 years before He 1603 Elizabeth I dies, succeeded by James VI and I. came and fulfilled every one of them. 1605 Guy Fawkes, along with fellow Catholics, fail to assassinate James I and blow up ’s Parliament in the hope it would result in England having a We celebrate the many mostly unnamed church fathers who, often at the Catholic king (“Gunpowder Plot”). risk of loss of their freedom and lives, protected, hand-copied, translated, 1611 The of the Bible is released after six years of work by printed, published, and distributed not only original manuscripts, but fifty-four scholars. This became the most-used Bible until the mid-1900s. copies and translations in so many heart languages, that we may read God’s Much of the text was from Tyndale’s translations. sixty-six love letters to us today. 1620 Pilgrims leave the Church of England. Pilgrims on Mayflower voyage land at Cape Cod in Massachusetts Bay Colony. They founded Plymouth Colony and 1400 BC Ten Commandments given to Moses, God’s first written Word. are later followed by the Puritans who start the first colonies. 500 BC Completion of all original Hebrew manuscripts, representing the eventual 1642 Puritan Parliamentarian Oliver Cromwell wins the civil war over Charles I and thirty-nine books of the Old Testament. protects Protestants. 200 BC Completion of the Septuagint Greek manuscripts of the thirty-nine Old 1647 The Westminster Confession of Faith, defining Presbyterianism in England Testament books plus fourteen Apocrypha books (intertestamental books and Scotland, is drafted at Westminster Abbey. George Fox establishes the written hundreds of years before Christ) by seventy scholars. Quakers. 1st Century AD Completion of all original Greek manuscripts, representing the eventual 1648 The Thirty Years War ends allowing equality between Protestants and twenty-seven books of the New Testament. Catholics through most of the remaining Roman empire (Peace of 315 The twenty-seven books of the New Testament are identified by the Bishop Westphalia). Some say this was the end of the Reformation. of Alexandra, Athanasius. 1665 Great Plague hits London. 382 Completion of Jerome’s Latin Vulgate manuscripts containing eighty 1666 Great Fire takes place in London. books: thirty-nine Old Testament, fourteen Apocrypha and twenty-seven New Testament. Jerome was a zealous promoter of monastic life. 1689 Constitutional monarchy and Bill of Rights created in England, barring Catholics from the throne. Dissenters given freedom to worship by the 500 Scriptures have been translated into over 500 languages. Toleration Act. 600 Latin is deemed the sole language authorized for Scripture. 1698 Protestants establish missionaries. 1384 John Wycliffe produces first hand-written manuscript of the eighty-book Bible into English, from the Latin Vulgate. Bible Translation Timeline 1455 Johann Gutenberg invents the movable-type printing press, the first non- handwritten book printed is the Bible, in Latin (Vulgate). The Bible was written over the course of 1,600 years of history, in sixty- 1516 Erasmus completes a Greek/Latin Parallel New Testament. six books, by forty different authors from all walks of life. It was written in different locations, from the thrones of kings to the dungeons of the 1522 Martin Luther completes first German New Testament including illustrations by Lucas Cranach the Elder. imprisoned, on three different continents—Asia, Africa, and Europe. It was 1526 William Tyndale completes first English New Testament in Worms, written in three different languages—Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek. Yet the Germany; it is also the first translated from the Biblical Greek; copies smuggled back into England. 544 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 545

1534 Luther completes his thirteen-year translation of the complete Bible into 1901 The American Standard Version (ASV) is printed, the first major American German; Tyndale’s revised New Testament is printed. revision, in response to the ERV. 1535 Myles Coverdale completes (Tyndale’s) first complete English Bible (eighty 1971 The New American Standard Version (NASB, NASV, or NAS) is printed, the books) and dedicates it to king Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne most accurate word-for-word English translation, nearly identical to the Boleyn. ASV; direct and literal, but not conversational. 1539 The Great Bible (a.k.a. the Chained Bible) is printed, the first in English 1973 The New International Version (NIV) is printed, a phrase-for-phrase authorized for public use. A large copy was to be chained to the pulpit English, junior high reading level translation; the best-selling modern of every church in England, with a reader provided for the illiterate; only English translation. seven editions were ever printed. 1982 The New King James Version (NKJV) is printed, in modern English 1560 The Geneva Bible (a.k.a. the Breeches Bible) is printed in Geneva for the maintaining the KJV style, by Thomas Nelson Publishers; never taken English exiles, the first English Bible with numbered verses and margin notes. seriously by scholars. The Geneva Bible is quoted hundreds of times in Shakespeare’s plays; it was 2002 The English Standard Version (ESV) is printed, to bridge the gap between the preferred English Bible for over 100 years. Printed in 144 editions, and the NASB’s precise accuracy and the NIV’s simple readability. retaining over ninety percent of Tyndale’s original English translations, it was the Bible of the Protestant Reformation. The Geneva Bible was also the first taken to America and used by the Puritans and Pilgrims. Church Branches and Denominations Timeline 1582 Roman Catholic Church prints the Rheims New Testament (along with the Roman Douai Old Testament in 1609), surrendering their “Latin only” fight, but Catholics still using the corrupt and inaccurate Latin Vulgate as the source, despite 1517 Lutherans Erasmus’s exposure seventy-five years earlier of its thousands of errors; up to today, Catholic still contain the fourteen Apocryphal books. 1525 Anabaptists 1611 The King James Bible is printed (eighty books), much from Tyndale’s 1537 Mennonites (USA translations and not widely used until decades later; despite the accuracy 1725) and commentary of the widely accepted Geneva text. King James I (also 1693 Amish James VI of Scotland) authorized this Bible without its controversial 1536 Calvinists/ margin notes (e.g. , calling the pope an antichrist); the translation to Reformed/ end all translations; over seven years by forty-seven scholars; most Presbyterians Protestants do not realize it is actually Anglican designed to compete with 1607 Congregationalists the Protestant Geneva Bible; the most printed book in history (over five billion copies). 1607 Baptists 1782 The first English Bible (KJV) is printed in America by Robert Aitken, 1801 Church of Christ the only Bible ever authorized by the U.S. Congress; needed due to the 1844 Seventh Day embargo of imported English goods during the Revolutionary War. Adventists 1808 The first English Bible (KJV) printed by a woman, Jane Aitken (Robert’s 1845 Southern Baptists daughter). 1924 American Baptists 1833 Noah Webster, after publishing his Dictionary, prints a KJV revision. 1950 Evangelical Free The English Revised Version (ERV) removes the fourteen Apocryphal books 1885 (with no widely accepted reason for doing so). It is the first major English revision to replace the KJV. 546 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 547

1534 Church of Five Points of Calvinism: England/ 1. Total depravity (inability): Sin affects every part of human nature, Anglican/ resulting in our inability to choose good over evil. We must be Episcopal regenerated by the Holy Spirit in order to believe. 1738 Methodists 2. Unconditional election: God’s choice (election) determined not by 1814 African Methodist our foreseen response (faith); rather, faith and repentance are also Episcopal (AME) gifts given by God. God’s choice of us, not our choice of God, is the 1880 Salvation Army cause of Salvation. 1908 Nazarenes 3. Limited atonement: Jesus’ death and Resurrection actually saved the 1901 Pentecostals elect; it guarantees everything necessary for Salvation, including the 1907 Pentecostal gift of faith. Assembly 4. Irresistible grace: The Holy Spirit is called irresistible; God’s grace 1914 Assemblies of God never fails to result in Salvation for those to whom it is extended. 1927 Foursquare Gospel 5. Perseverance of the saints: Salvation cannot be lost, as it is completely Charismatics powered by God; thus, the elect will persevere (be preserved) to the 1965 Calvary Chapel end. 1983 Vineyard Five Solas of the Reformation: Five Points of Arminianism: 1. Sola Scriptura: Scripture Alone; the Bible alone is the sole authority, 1. Free will or human ability: Free will consists of our ability to choose not fallible men. good over evil; we have the power to cooperate with God’s grace or 2. Soli Deo Gloria: For the Glory of God Alone; all that we are, say, to resist it. and do subsequent to our Salvation should be for His Glory only. 2. Conditional election: God’s choice (election) determined by 3. Solo Christo (or Christus): By Christ’s Work Alone are We Saved; knowledge of what man would do (foreseen faith). Our choice of Jesus finished the work on the Cross. God, not God’s choice of us, is cause of Salvation. 4. Sola Gratia: Salvation by Grace Alone; our works only mater after 3. Universal redemption or general atonement: Jesus’ death and our redemption (Eph 2:8–9). Resurrection made it possible for all to be saved, but is effective only 5. Sola Fide: Justification by Faith Alone; faith is a gift, also not by for those who choose to accept it. virtue of our works. 4. Resistible grace: Our free will limits the Holy Spirit’s ability to draw us toward Salvation; God’s grace can be resisted. Solo Christo summarizes Sola Fide, Sola Scriptura, and Sola Gratia into 5. Falling from grace: Salvation can be lost, as it requires our cooperation. one primary principle. 548 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 549

Luther’s 95 Theses 13. The dying are freed by death from all penalties, are already dead as 1. When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said, “Repent” (Matthew far as the canon laws are concerned, and have a right to be released 4:17), He willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance. from them. 2. This word cannot be understood as referring to the sacrament of 14. Imperfect piety or love on the part of the dying person necessarily penance, that is, confession and satisfaction, as administered by the brings with it great fear; and the smaller the love, the greater the fear. clergy. 15. This fear or horror is sufficient in itself, to say nothing of other 3. Yet it does not mean solely inner repentance; such inner repentance things, to constitute the penalty of purgatory, since it is very near to is worthless unless it produces various outward mortification of the the horror of despair. flesh. 16. Hell, purgatory, and Heaven seem to differ the same as despair, fear, 4. The penalty of sin remains as long as the hatred of self (that is, true and assurance of salvation. inner repentance), namely till our entrance into the kingdom of 17. It seems as though for the souls in purgatory fear should necessarily Heaven. decrease and love increase. 5. The pope neither desires nor is able to remit any penalties except those 18. Furthermore, it does not seem proved, either by reason or by imposed by his own authority or that of the canons. Scripture, that souls in purgatory are outside the state of merit, that 6. The pope cannot remit any guilt except by declaring and showing is, unable to grow in love. that it has been remitted by God; or, to be sure, by remitting guilt in 19. Nor does it seem proved that souls in purgatory, at least not all cases reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission in these of them, are certain and assured of their own salvation, even if we cases were disregarded, the guilt would certainly remain unforgiven. ourselves may be entirely certain of it. 7. God remits guilt to no one unless at the same time He humbles him 20. Therefore the pope, when he uses the words “plenary remission of in all things and makes him submissive to the vicar, the priest. all penalties,” does not actually mean “all penalties,” but only those 8. The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and, according imposed by himself. to the canons themselves, nothing should be imposed on the dying. 21. Thus those indulgence preachers are in error who say that a man is 9. Therefore the Holy Spirit through the pope is kind to us insofar as the absolved from every penalty and saved by papal indulgences. pope in his decrees always makes exception of the article of death 22. As a matter of fact, the pope remits to souls in purgatory no penalty and of necessity. which, according to canon law, they should have paid in this life. 10. Those priests act ignorantly and wickedly who, in the case of the 23. If remission of all penalties whatsoever could be granted to anyone dying, reserve canonical penalties for purgatory. at all, certainly it would be granted only to the most perfect, that is, 11. Those tares of changing the canonical penalty to the penalty of to very few. purgatory were evidently sown while the bishops slept (Matthew 24. For this reason, most people are necessarily deceived by that 13:25). indiscriminate and high-sounding promise of release from penalty. 12. In former times, canonical penalties were imposed not after but 25. That power which the pope has in general over purgatory corresponds before absolution, as tests of true contrition. to the power which any bishop or curate has in a particular way in his own diocese and parish. 550 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 551

26. The pope does very well when he grants remission to souls in 39. It is very difficult, even for the most learned theologians, at one and purgatory, not by the power of the keys, which he does not have, the same time to commend to the people the bounty of indulgences but by way of intercession for them. and the need of true contrition. 27. They preach only human doctrines who say that as soon as the 40. A Christian who is truly contrite seeks and loves to pay penalties for money clinks into the money chest, the soul flies out of purgatory. his sins; the bounty of indulgences, however, relaxes penalties and 28. It is certain that when money clinks in the money chest, greed and causes men to hate them—at least it furnishes occasion for hating avarice can be increased; but when the Church intercedes, the result them. is in the hands of God alone. 41. Papal indulgences must be preached with caution, lest people 29. Who knows whether all souls in purgatory wish to be redeemed, erroneously think that they are preferable to other good works of since we have exceptions in St. Severinus and St. Paschal, as related love. in a legend. 42. Christians are to be taught that the pope does not intend that the 30. No one is sure of the integrity of his own contrition, much less of buying of indulgences should in any way be compared with works having received plenary remission. of mercy. 31. The man who actually buys indulgences is as rare as he who is really 43. Christians are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to penitent; indeed, he is exceedingly rare. the needy does a better deed than he who buys indulgences. 32. Those who believe that they can be certain of their salvation because 44. Because love grows by works of love, man thereby becomes better. they have indulgence letters will be eternally damned, together with Man does not, however, become better by means of indulgences but their teachers. is merely freed from penalties. 33. Men must especially be on guard against those who say that the 45. Christians are to be taught that he who sees a needy man and passes pope’s pardons are that inestimable gift of God by which man is him by, yet gives his money for indulgences, does not buy papal reconciled to Him. indulgences but God’s wrath. 34. For the graces of indulgences are concerned only with the penalties 46. Christians are to be taught that, unless they have more than they of sacramental satisfaction established by man. need, they must reserve enough for their family needs and by no 35. They who teach that contrition is not necessary on the part of those means squander it on indulgences. who intend to buy souls out of purgatory or to buy confessional 47. Christians are to be taught that their buying of indulgences is a privileges preach unchristian doctrine. matter of free choice, not commanded. 36. Any truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty 48 Christians are to be taught that the pope, in granting indulgences, and guilt, even without indulgence letters. needs and thus desires their devout prayer more than their money. 37. Any true Christian, whether living or dead, participates in all the 49. Christians are to be taught that papal indulgences are useful only blessings of Christ and the Church; and this is granted him by God, if they do not put their trust in them, but very harmful if they lose even without indulgence letters. their fear of God because of them. 38. Nevertheless, papal remission and blessing are by no means to be 50. Christians are to be taught that if the pope knew the exactions of the disregarded, for they are, as I have said, the proclamation of the indulgence preachers, he would rather that the Basilica of St. Peter divine remission. 552 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 553

were burned to ashes than built up with the skin, flesh, and bones 61. For it is clear that the pope’s power is of itself sufficient for the of his sheep. remission of penalties and cases reserved by himself. 51. Christians are to be taught that the pope would and should wish to 62. The true treasure of the Church is the most holy Gospel of the glory give of his own money, even though he had to sell the Basilica of St. and grace of God. Peter, to many of those from whom certain hawkers of indulgences 63. But this treasure is naturally most odious, for it makes the first to cajole money. be last. 52. It is vain to trust in salvation by indulgence letters, even though the 64. On the other hand, the treasure of indulgences is naturally most indulgence commissary, or even the pope, were to offer his soul as acceptable, for it makes the last to be first. security. 65. Therefore the treasures of the Gospel are nets with which one 53. They are the enemies of Christ and the pope who forbid altogether formerly fished for men of wealth. the preaching of the Word of God in some churches in order that 66. The treasures of indulgences are nets with which one now fishes for indulgences may be preached in others. the wealth of men. 54. Injury is done to the Word of God when, in the same sermon, an 67. The indulgences which the demagogues acclaim as the greatest graces equal or larger amount of time is devoted to indulgences than to the are actually understood to be such only insofar as they promote gain. Word. 68. They are nevertheless in truth the most insignificant graces when 55. It is certainly the pope’s sentiment that if indulgences, which are a compared with the grace of God and the piety of the Cross. very insignificant thing, are celebrated with one bell, one procession, 69. Bishops and curates are bound to admit the commissaries of papal and one ceremony, then the gospel, which is the very greatest thing, indulgences with all reverence. should be preached with a hundred bells, a hundred processions, a 70. But they are much more bound to strain their eyes and ears lest hundred ceremonies. these men preach their own dreams instead of what the pope has 56. The true treasures of the Church, out of which the pope distributes commissioned. indulgences, are not sufficiently discussed or known among the 71. Let him who speaks against the truth concerning papal indulgences people of Christ. be anathema and accursed. 57. That indulgences are not temporal treasures is certainly clear, for 72. But let him who guards against the lust and license of the indulgence many indulgence sellers do not distribute them freely but only preachers be blessed. gather them. 73. Just as the pope justly thunders against those who by any means 58. Nor are they the merits of Christ and the saints, for, even without whatever contrive harm to the sale of indulgences. the pope, the latter always work grace for the inner man, and the 74. Much more does he intend to thunder against those who use Cross, death, and hell for the outer man. indulgences as a pretext to contrive harm to holy love and truth. 59. St. Lawrence said that the poor of the Church were the treasures of 75. To consider papal indulgences so great that they could absolve a man the Church, but he spoke according to the usage of the word in his even if he had done the impossible and had violated the mother of own time. God is madness. 60. Without want of consideration we say that the keys of the Church, 76. We say on the contrary that papal indulgences cannot remove the given by the merits of Christ, are that treasure. very least of venial sins as far as guilt is concerned. 554 | DEFINING MOMENTS Appendix: The Reformation | 555

77. To say that even St. Peter if he were now pope, could not grant 87. Again, “What does the pope remit or grant to those who by perfect greater graces is blasphemy against St. Peter and the pope. contrition already have a right to full remission and blessings?” 78. We say on the contrary that even the present pope, or any pope 88. Again, “What greater blessing could come to the Church than if the whatsoever, has greater graces at his disposal, that is, the gospel, pope were to bestow these remission and blessings on every believer spiritual powers, gifts of healing, etc., as it is written, 1 Corinthians a hundred times a day, as he now does but once?” 12:28. 89. “Since the pope seeks the salvation of souls rather than money by 79. To say that the cross emblazoned with the papal coat of arms, and his indulgences, why does he suspend the indulgences and pardons set up by the indulgence preachers is equal in worth to the Cross of previously granted when they have equal efficacy?” Christ is blasphemy. 90. To repress these very sharp arguments of the laity by force alone, 80. The bishops, curates, and theologians who permit such talk to be and not to resolve them by giving reasons, is to expose the Church spread among the people will have to answer for this. and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies and to make Christians 81. This unbridled preaching of indulgences makes it difficult even for unhappy. learned men to rescue the reverence which is due the pope from 91. If, therefore, indulgences were preached according to the spirit and slander or from the shrewd questions of the laity. intention of the pope, all these doubts would be readily resolved. 82. Such as: Why does not the pope empty purgatory for the sake of Indeed, they would not exist. holy love and the dire need of the souls that are there if he redeems 92. Away, then, with all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with “Peace, peace,” and there is no peace! (Jeremiah 6:14). which to build a church? The former reason would be most just; the 93. Blessed be all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, “Cross, latter is most trivial. Cross,” and there is no Cross! 83. Again, “Why are funeral and anniversary masses for the dead 94. Christians should be exhorted to be diligent in following Christ, continued and why does he not return or permit the withdrawal of their Head, through penalties, death and hell. the endowments founded for them, since it is wrong to pray for the 95. And thus be confident of entering into Heaven through many redeemed?” tribulations rather than through the false security of peace (Acts 84. Again, “What is this new piety of God and the pope that for a 14:22). consideration of money they permit a man who is impious and their Note: This document was originally made available to the Internet by Bob enemy to buy out of purgatory the pious soul of a friend of God and Van Cleef, converted to HTML format by Jonathan Hall Barlow. do not rather, because of the need of that pious and beloved soul, free it for pure love’s sake?” 85. Again, “Why are the penitential canons, long since abrogated and dead in actual fact and through disuse, now satisfied by the granting of indulgences as though they were still alive and in force?” 86. Again, “Why does not the pope, whose wealth is today greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build this one Basilica of St. Peter with his own money rather than with the money of poor believers?”