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Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Senior Projects
8-1-1972
A Study of Serigraphy: Its Origins, Techniques, and Application to the Creation of Light Effects
Paul A. Stenhjem
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Recommended Citation Stenhjem, Paul A., "A Study of Serigraphy: Its Origins, Techniques, and Application to the Creation of Light Effects" (1972). Theses and Dissertations. 3401. https://commons.und.edu/theses/3401
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, and Senior Projects at UND Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UND Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A STUDY OF SERIGRAPHY: ITS ORIGINS , TECHNIQUES, AND
APPLICATION TO THE CREATION OF LIGHT EFFECTS
by Paul A. Stenhjem
Bachelor of Science, University of North Dakota, 1963
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of the
University of North Dakota
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Arts
Grand Forks , North Dakota
August 1972 This Thesis submitted by Paul A. Stenhjem in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts from the University of North Dakota is hereby approved by the Faculty Advisory Committee under whom the work has been done.
347949 ii Permission
Title A Study of Serigraphy: Its Origins, Techniques, and
Application to the Creation of light Effects
Department Art
Degree Master of Arts
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a graduate degree from the University of North Dakota, I agree that the Library of this University shall make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for extensive copying for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor who supervised my thesis work or, in his absence, by the Chairman of the Department or the Dean of the Graduate School. It is understood that any copying or publication or other use of this thesis or part thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also under stood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of North Dakota in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis .
Signature__/V.
D a te y— ^ < 0 i 1 3 ^ ______
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank the following people for their assistance and criticism: Committee members Stanley O. Johnson, Frank Kelley, and
Dr. Clyde Morris; former University of North Dakota Art Professor Dr.
Robert A. Nelson; University Photographer Jerry Olson; and Austin
(Minnesota) High School Graphic Arts Instructor Harlan Koch.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... Iv
LIST OF PLATES...... vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS...... vlii
ABSTRACT...... lx
INTRODUCTION...... 1
Chapter I. ASPECTS AND DEVELOPMENTS ...... 5
History of Serigraphy History of Photo screen Light Effects by Selected Artists
II. PROCEDURAL M ETH O D S...... 43
The Silk Screen Process The Creation of Light Illusions
III. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... G4
IV. CONCLUSION...... 85
Restatement of the Problem and Procedures Summary of Results of the Study- Recommendations for Further Research
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 89
v LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page
I. Degas: A Ballet Seen from an Opera Box 1885 ...... 16
II. Duchamp: Nude Descending a Staircase No. 2 1912 . . . 17
III. Russolo: The Solidity of Fog 1 9 1 2 ...... 18
IV. Rouault: The Old King 1916-37...... 19
V. Picasso: Three Musicians 192 1 ...... 20
VI. Hartung: Untitled 1963 ...... 2 1
VII. Lindner: Hello 19 b b ...... 2 2
VIII. Manet: Impression: Sunrise 1872 ...... 24
IX. Redon: The Birth of Venus 1912...... 25
X. Bonnard: Dining Room in the Country 1913...... 26
XI. Cleizes: Symphony in Velvet 1930 ...... 27
XII. Reinhardt: Abstract Painting, Blue 1952 ...... 28
XIII. Marca-Relli: The Blackboard 1 9 6 1 ...... 2 9
XIV. Bell: Memories of Mike 1967...... 30
XV. Mondrian: The Red Tree 1908...... 32
XVI. Balia: The Street Light— Study of Light 1909 ...... 33
XVII. Klee: La Belle Jardiniere 1939 ...... 3 4
XVIII. Annszkiewicz: All Things Do Live in the Three 1963 . . . 35
vi XIX. Poons: Nixes Mate 1864 ...... 36
XX. Manet: A Bar at theFolies-Bergeres 1881-82 38
XXI. Cezanne: The Bay from L'Estaque 1886...... 39
XXII. Kokoschka: The Bride of the Wind 1 9 1 4 ...... 40
XXIII. Soutine: Woman in Red 1922 ...... 41
XXIV. Blue Luster...... 66
XXV. Rose L u s t e r ...... 67
XXVI. Seed Pod # 2 ...... 68
XXVII. Opaline W e b ...... ' ...... 71
XXVIII. Pink Horizon...... 72
XXIX. Arrow Reversal...... 73
XXX. Seed Pod...... 76
XXXI. Even G lo w ...... 7 7
XXXII. Black Hammer S t o r e ...... 78
XXXIII. The O rn am en t...... 79
XXXIV. Orange Chroma...... 82
XXXV. Yellow Chroma...... 83
XXXVI. The D oor...... 84
vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Silk Screen...... 4 7
viii ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to relate silk screen processes to the intrinsic qualities of light in nature. Due to recent broad experimen tation by artists using silk screen and photoscreen, the problem became significant.
The past was examined for possible links to the researcher's t current study. The writer investigated techniques in an effort to gain knowledge of light effects in nature. The materials used by the writer
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ix INTRODUCTION
For nearly all animals, vision is an instrument of survival, but for most of them, from those who stalk the jungle to those who flee, it is little more than that. For man, on the other hand, vision is not only an aid to survival but also an instru ment of thought and a means to the enrichment of life (Mueller and Rudolph, 1966).
As music is used to enrich man's ear, art can be used to enlighten his vision. Ofttimes a melodic phrase is used to mimic nature's sound; a bird's song, a babbling brook, ora coming storm. Art, too, is used to awaken man to some of the visual occurrences in nature.
The purpose of this study was to relate silk, screen processes to the intrinsic qualities of light in nature. Faber Birren (1963), an authority on color, discussed nature's art of coloration. He reported the luminescence seen upon the ocean due to shining microscopic light.
Luminous colors radiate from seaworms, jellyfish, various shellfish, cuttlefish, squid, the Portuguese Man-of-War, glowworms, some bacteria and fungi, fireflies and the toad fish. Luminescence does not seem to occur in any creature of higher order than the fish and insect. This effect of luminosity can also be observed in stars, the sunset, and man made forms of light such as the electric or gas light. Luminous effects are due to chemical reactions.
1 2
Another effect observed in nature is that of iridescence. Not all colors are chemical. That is, not all colors are obtained by the mixing of pigments. The rainbow, an opal, a drop of oil on water, and peacock feathers manifest light refraction, diffraction, interference, polarization, and are more related to physics than to chemistry. Soap bubbles inter fere with light, causing much the same effect observed in a peacock feather , the brilliant head of a mallard duck, the wing of iridescent beetles, dragonflies, and butterflies. Here the spectrum's colors are separated by thin films. When seen from different angles, the colors change (Fox and Vevers, 1960). Light is diffracted for the iridescent colors of mother-of-pearl. Scattered light accounts for the blue of the sky and the blue of the eye. Iridescence, then, is a light effect frequently noticed.
Birren (1969) commented:
Nature produces color in many ways, by dyes and pigments, by refraction and diffraction (the rainbow, iridescence), by scattering (the blue sky), polarization, and other methods. Although the physical nature of such colors may differ radically, the sensations they produce in vision may be more or less alike. A color such as red can have a wide variety of modes of appearance: it can be solid and opaque like an apple; filmy and atmospheric like a sunset; three-dimensional like a goblet of wine; transparent like cellophane; luminous like a traffic light; dull like suede or lustrous like silk; metallic like a Christmas tree ornament; iridescent like the gleam of an opal. While these several reds might well be the same in a physical sense, they would have quite different visual and psychological aspects. 3
There may be little, if any, physical difference (in light energy or wave length) between surface or film colors, luminous or lustrous ones.
Such modes of appearance or effects normally depend on human inter pretations which are usually built upon clues offered by the background or environment in which the colors appear. Therefore, if the artist understands the clues, he may create virtually any result he wishes.
The technique used to carry out these results then becomes two-fold.
First, he must create a psychological illusion. Secondly, he must choose a medium which will lend its capabilities to these color effects.
It was the belief of the writer that serigraphy, or silk screening, was
n u n V i v> rv*> i 1 1 r-*-»
The silk screen process requires no complicated equipment and permits the production of multi-color prints inexpensively. Biegeleiser. and Cohn (19 58) stated, "Compared with other graphic art mediums, silk screen is easily the most versatile means of quantity printing within the reach of the contemporary artist. " The other graphic arts media include intaglio, relief, and planograph which print in reverse (as in a mirror image). In working with silk screen, the image is not reversed in the finished product, a full range of colors is available for use, including artist's tube colors, and complete color accuracy in printing is possible.
The registration process is simple, making multiple color work possible, and the silk screen can be used to print on a variety of surfaces 4 including canvas or masonite. The silk screen process can simulate subtle transparent washes or heavy impasto.
By producing multi-copies, the artist not only makes more art available to the public, but is also able to lower the per copy price.
In this study, the artist combined the capabilities of the silk screen process with some of the fascinating color effects found in nature. I. ASPECTS AND DEVELOPMENTS
Plistory of Serigraphy
The process to he discussed is a method of printmaking generally referred to as silk screen printing, although the American term serigraphy is often used to denote the medium when referring to the production of artists1 prints.
Basically, screen printing is a form of stenciling. Stencils in their simplest form are made from thin, durable materials into which a figure or shape is cut. The stencil is placed on a surface, covering it except for the area exposed through the opening in the stencil material.
Paint or dye can be mopped over the exposed surface, and when the stencil is removed, an exact image of the open area remains on the surface in paint or dye. The stencil serves as a protective mask to prevent paint from contacting any part not exposed by the opening. The deposit of paint or dye remains on top of the paper.
Researchers feel that silk screen printing may likely have had its origin when insects' borings in leaves suggested the stencil method to primitive man (Biegeleisen and Cohn, 1958). Fiji islanders cut perfora tions in banana leaves and applied vegetable dyes through the openings onto bark cloth. These types of stencils were later improved upon by
5 6 the Europeans and eventually were used for quantity printing of religious pictures and psalms. The Japanese added the idea of holding centers or loose parts of the stencil in place by gluing raw silk or human hair to these parts (Auvil, 1965). This process, by a stretch of the imagina tion, may be called a primitive "silk screen." In France, in the eighteenth century, Jean Papillion designed and printed wallpaper by stencil. Also, in England, flocked wallpaper was at the height of fashion and was being printed by applying glue through a stencil and covering the glue with fine wool flock dust.
Samuel Simon of Manchester, England, was granted the first silk screen patent in the early 1900’s. It was not long until multicolor print ing with silk screen was being done in San Francisco, California, by
John Pilsworth. Following this development, the process was used by sign shops, textile industries, furniture manufacturers and many other commercial firms. As a result, the process was almost strictly com mercial between 1900 and 1930.
The emphasis from the commercial process to the fine art process shifted when a group of artists under the direction of Anthony Velonis created a silk screen Art Project through the W.P.A. of New York City.
Original prints began being accepted by exhibitions and museums. Art critics and writers brought the prints to the attention of the public, and the new name, serigraph was given to silk screen (Biegeleisen and Cohn,
1958). This was necessary in order to distinguish it from the commercial 7
process. Now, at a time when silk screen prints are recognized art, the
word serigraph is being used less often.
Between 1935 and 1950, artists often took pride in making the silk
screen imitate other media such as painting, drawing, or watercolor.
Images were frequently derived from the American Scene and emphasized
popular subjects. The artists sought to make available inexpensive color
prints for the masses (Field, 1972).
As time passed, artists began to explore the abstract possibilities
of silk screen that characterized' abstract-expressionism of the 1950's
with its emphasis on the creative gesture. The "new" interest in screen
printing had its beginning in Enaland in the early sixties.
For years, printmaking had been looked upon in a condescending
manner by those who saw it primarily as a means of disseminating their work. Artists began to break away from some of the traditional print
making attitudes and explored “the manifold possibilities of commercial
and industrial processes of reproduction" (Smith, 1970). Moreover,
Smith commented, prints no longer were limited to two-dimensional representations on paper, but embraced all sorts of contemporary
materials including mylar, aluminum and plastic.
The "schools" of optical, minimal, pop and hard edge art were
those which made respectable the application of mechanical means to
reproduce their art work. 8
In Paris, Victor Vasarely could have been responsible for stimu lating interest in the optical possibilities of silk screen. In his work shop, the basic premise of limited involvement in one's own work of art prevailed.
In 1962 , Andy Warhol approached The Aetna Silk Screen Supply
Company, a commercial shop already involved in incorporating a variety of images into a single layer of ink. Field (1972) also stated:
Beginning from news and publicity photographs, Warhol would interpolate halftone screens, specify the degree of enlargement, and decide on the "hardness" or contrast of the photographic "positives" .... Thus the work of art was reintegrated into the stream of life because both the image and its interpretation issued from a pre-existent and understood methodology. Tire artist simply exploited the processes available and amalgamated the skills and feelings of others with his own work.
The ability of the screen to print on unlikely surfaces intrigued
Joe Tilson. He mixed materials and techniques in his print, Diapositive
Clip-o-matic Lips (1967), by combining printing on acetate with metallized acetate (Baynes, 1967). He also combined vacuum-formed plastic with screen printing to make brightly colored three-dimensional prints (Finch, 1972).
Rauschenberg's experimentation with silk screen began in the early 1960's when he pressed tusche through the screen directly onto the surface of a lithographic stone (Davis, 1969). Robert Rauschenberg's gigantic Currents, 1970 (6 feet by 54 feet), consists of screen prints of newspaper collages in a grid scheme. It encompasses the viewer in an 9
environmental situation. The observer becomes bombarded first of all by
the sheer size of the work, and then is involved with the photographic
images placed together. Currents (shown at Dayton's Gallery 12,
Minneapolis, 19 70) was evidence that it is practical to use screen
printing on a huge scale.
The last decade has seen an upsurge in the production of screened
images, so much so, that screen printing has become a major vehicle for
expression.
History of Photoscreen
The first reported process that could be remotely related to photography was discovered in the seventeenth century. An Italian
scientist, Angelo Sala, realized that when silver nitrate powder was exposed to sunlight, it turned black. Carrying this experiment further,
Johann Heinrich Schulze, in 1927, found that he could paste paper
stencils onto a flask of silver nitrate and expose it to the sun. Thus, he produced darkened areas where the light hit the silver nitrate solu tion. Still in the nineteenth century, Thomas Wedgewood was trying
similar experiments to those of Schulze. Instead of a solution of silver nitrate, Wedgewood used silver treated papers. The fault with these experiments was that the image could not be saved. As light worked or. the silver, it eventually turned dark. Since the image'could not be viewed without light, it made the process impractical. 10
Joseph Niepce ran a small printing shop in France. Fie set to work finding a method of reproducing images other than drawing. He knew that bitumen of Judea asphalt hardened when exposed to light and that the unexposed area would dissolve in oil of lavender. Niepce coated a sheet of pewter with the asphalt mixture and placed a translucent draw ing over it. Light shone through the paper, but was blocked by the drawing. He then washed the exposed plate with lavender oil, a solvent used in varnishes. This removed the soft asphalt that had been struck by light. The cleaned areas were then etched with acid. The incised lines held ink to make a print. Niepce called his new process "heliogravure"
4-1-, ^ -> 4-1-,/-, TV /-.I- ,-N-v—,-T, , ^ v— rfjvjz-v t ' Y r - T ' * ' i i u i i i u i l uiooK iioiioo j,o i o u u cxiicx uxxvj n o i i U i vj x o. v gj. o xux c -ixm i cx v u xcj \i\Ui. a /
1970).
In 1829 , Joseph Niepce formed a partnership with a Parisian named
Louis Daguerre in order to share their knowledge of photography. Early in 1839, Daguerre was satisfied with a process that he and Niepce had been working on, and it was presented to the French Academy of Sciences.
Since Niepce had died six years earlier, the process went under one name, that of Daguerre. He called it the "daguerreotype. " This early photographic method was accomplished on a light-sensitive silver-coated metallic plate and was developed by mercury vapor. The impressions, however, could not be duplicated without re-photographing.
Toward the middle of the nineteenth century, Robert Bingham, a
British chemist, developed an emulsion based on gelatin, the jelly-like 11 substance produced from cattle bones and hides. This process is very much akin with the photographic silk screen process used today.
Photography was first patented for screen printing early in the twentieth century. Although there is historical confusion as to which of several persons was the first to develop the photographic screen process, it is generally accepted that the direct screens were the first photographic screens used (Kosloff, 1962). Direct screen process involves applying the photo solution to the screen and then either projecting the image on or contacting it to the screen for exposure. Another type of process, developed later, is the transfer type. With this method, the exposure is done on a gelatin coated backing. After exposure, the sensitizing and washout of the image takes place on the original backing sheet and then is transferred to the screen fabric. Transfer type printing plates are widely used and are known as photographic film, carbon tissue, or pig ment paper (Kosloff, 1962).
In the early 1960's, there occurred:
. . . a split between the artists' use of the medium, which was often referred to as serigraphy, and the impersonal, mass- produced, commercial process called screen-process printing. It was only when artists began to seek alternatives to touching the medium, to search for a way back to figural subject matter and to comment on the threatening crush of mass-ad and mass- media communication, that silkscreen was to come into its own. Silkscreen was no longer regarded as a technique for making something, but as a process. The idea of process was embedded in commercial habits, including the unrestricted use of photography ...... Screenprinting served to integrate half-tone repro ductions into paintings and prints, and made it possible for 12
artists to restrict their participation in the creative process. There were many from Albers to Warhol, who executed their works by instruction rather than by physical interaction with the medium--without "touching" the screen, as Warhol put it (Field, 1972).
Photographic imagery was also employed by Rauschenberg in his
work Currents, previously discussed by the writer.
Richard Hamilton's Kent State (1970, 26 1/2 inches high), is an
example of three-media production. A photograph taken from the BBC telecast of the Kent State tragedy was made into separate positives and
negatives and then transferred photographically to nylon screens.
The pale pigments and mesh of the nylon screens cause an appropriate ghostly quality to pervade the final image of an event nobody wants to remember; but the artist insists nobody forget (Goldman, 1972).
Since 1916, commercial silk screen printers had been involved with the photographic process and had attained high standards. New, this
same printer can offer the artist all kinds of techniques based on modem photography. Photographic methods have become increasingly important to the artists who wish to be involved with creating a concept. The an product is left to technical craftsmen.
Conversely, innovations sometimes come from the creative mind’s working with the actual production of the technical work. Artists' con cepts may partially be derived from an indefinable thought process and partially from the knowledge gained in working with and learning respect for a medium. 13
Light Effects by Selected Artists
It is . . . appropriate that the history of art should be written in terms of experimentalists. On their experiments are built the traditions of the next generation, which are then attacked by a new group of experimenters (Arnason, 1968).
Any artist, designer, or student appreciates that the world is undergoing many changes. Art in frames and art on pedestals is giving way to art that is more a part of life. There is now sculpture on grand scale found in shopping centers (Calder's mobile, Minneapolis Mall).
There is painting and decoration that envelops space. There is art into which people walk. There are colored light demonstrations that relate to sound. Artists and designers are taking a greater role in life itself.
They are becoming psychologists and sociologists (in part, at least).
Color is everywhere and is being given more dynamic use and broader distribution in all quarters of life. All of this opens new avenues for color and for all who use it.
The following pages indicate examples of selected artists' use of color in various illusional techniques. The actual techniques are dis cussed later in this paper. There is much history connected with these art works; however, the artist feels that an explanation of how the works were accomplished is not significant at this point. The pictures were chosen on their historical coloristic merits. The illusions were arranged according to type (luster, iridescence, luminosity, and chromatic light).
These illusions are explained in Chapter II. Characteristics which the 14 viewer may observe include the illusionary qualities of inner light (light seeming to radiate from within the painting), and the appearance of viewing through colored glass. To anticipate the following works of art, a dark field allows for lustrous effects; a gray field allows for iridescent effects; a tinted field allows for effects of chromatic light.
The artist's success or failure is left for the viewer to consider.
The'real merit of any visual art form is not in academic verbalization, but in visual competency. The paintings were carefully selected and categorized so that the viewer may ponder the images, relate to :he past, and observe the light effects created. Note:
Plates I, II, III, IV, V, VI, and VTI were selected as examples of the luster effect. iG
PLATE I
DEGAS: A BALLET SEEN FROM AN OPERA BOX 1835 pastel on paper, 25 1/8" x 19 1/4" John G. Johnson Collection Philadelphia (Arnason, 1968) 17
PLATE II
DUCHAMP: NUDE DESCENDING A STAIRCASE NO. 2 1912 oil on canvas, 58" x 35" The Philadelphia Museum of Art (Arnason, 3 368) 18
PLATE III
RUSSOLO: THE SOLIDITY OP FOG 1912 oil on canvas, 39 3/8" x 28 5/8" Collection Gianni Mattioli Milan (Arnason, 19 68) 19
PLATE IV
ROUAULT: THE OLD KING 1916-37 oi..l on canvas, 30 1/4" x 21 1/4" Carnegie Institute Pittsburgh (Arnason, 19 68) 20
PLATE V
PICASSO: THREE MUSICIANS 1921 oil on canvas, 79" x 87 3/4 " The Museum of Modern Art New York (Arnason, 19 68) 21
PLATE VI
HARTUNG: UNTITLED 1963 oil on canvas, 39 3/8" x 31 7/8" Private Collection (Arnason, 1968) 22
PLATE VII
LINDNER: HELLO I960 oil on canvas, 70" x 60" Private Collection New York (Arnason, 1968) 23
Note:
Fidles VIII, IX, X, XI, Xu , XiJi, and XIV w ere selected as examples of iridescence. 2 \
PLATE VIII
MANET: IMPRESSION: SUNRISE 1872 oil on canvas, 19 1/2" x 25 1/2" Musce Marnottan Paris (Arnason, 1968) 25
PLATE IX
REDON: THE BIRTH OF VENUS 1912 oil on canvas, 56 1/2" x 24 3/8" Kimball Art Foundation Fort Worth, Texas (Aina son, 1968) 26
PLATE X
BONNARD: DINING ROOM IN THE COUNTRY 1913 oil on canvas, 64 1/2" x 00" Minneapolis Institute of Arts Minneapolis, Minnesota (Arnason, 1968) 27
PLATE XT
GLEIZES: SYMPHONY IN VELVET 1930 oil on canvas, 92 7/8" x 77" The Museum of Modern Art New York (Arnason, 1968) 28
PIATT XII
REINHARDT: ABSTRACT PAINTING, BLUE 19 52 oil on canvas, 75" x 20" Museum of Art, Carnegie Institute Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Arnason, 1968) 29
PLATE XIII
MARCA-RELLI: TIIE BLACKBOARD 1961 oil and canvas collage, 7' x 10' Seattle Art Museum Seattle, Washington (Arnason, 1968) 30
PLATE XIV
BELL: MEMORIES OP MIKE 1967 vacuum-plated glass, 24 1/4" cube Collection Mr. and Mrs. Arnold Clincher New York (Arnason, 1968) 31
Note:
Plates XV, XVI, XVII, XVIJi, and XIX were selected as examples of luminosity. 32
PLATE XV
MONDRIAN: THE RED TREE 1908 oil on canvas, 27 3/2 " x 39" Gemeente Museum The Hague, The Netherlands (Aina son, 1968) 33
PLATE XVI
BALLA: THE STREET LIGHT— STUDY OP LIGHT 1909 oil on canvas, 68 3/4" x 45 1/4" The Museum of Modern Art Now York (Arnason, 19 68) 34
PLATE XVII
KLEE: LA BELLE JARDINIERE 1939 tempera and oil on canvas, 37 3/0" x 27 5/8" Paul Klee Collection Kunstmuseum, Bern (Arnason, 1960) N 35
PLATE XVIII
ANNSZKIEWICZ: ALL THINGS DO LIVE IN THE THREE 1963 acrylic on canvas, 21 7/8" x 35 7/8" Collection Mrs. Robert M. Benjamin New York (Knobler, 1967) 36
PLATE XIX
POONS: NIXES MATE 1964 acrylic on canvas, 5'10" x 9'4" Collection Mr. and Mrs. Robert C. Scull New York (Arnason, 1.968) 37
Note:
Plates XX, XXI, XXIi, and XXill were selected as examples of chromatic light. 38
PLATE XX -
MANET: A BAR AT THE EOLIES-BERGERES 1881-82 oil on canvas, 37 1/2" x 51" Courtauld Collect ion Home House, London (Knoblor, 19 C 7) 39
PLATE XXI
CEZANNE: THE BAY FROM L'ESTAQUE 1886 oil on canvas, 31 1/2" x 38 1/2" The Art Institute of Chicago (Arnason, 1968) 40
PLATE XXII i.
KOKOSCHKA: THE BRIDE OF THE WIND 1914 oil on canvas, 71 1/4" x 86 5/8" Kunstmuseum, Basel (Arnason, 1968) 41
SOUTINE: WOMAN IN RED 1922 oil on canvas, 25" x 21" Collection Dr. and Mrs. Harry Bakwin New York (Arnason, 1968) 42
Some of the paintings presented in this chapter were naturalistic and others were non-objective. All of them were intended for considera tion as color studies. The reader was asked to accept them as con scientious efforts to create a series of original color effects. The color plates were selected to include several art forms. II. PROCEDURAL METHODS
The Silk Screen Process
The silk screen process is extremely versatile. Using it, one can print on almost any surface or any material. The structure includes a stencil in which a design has been cut. This stencil is attached to the back side of a fabric screen. After the object to be printed upon is placed directly under the screen bearing the cut design, paint is forced through the fabric screen with a squeegee. The part of the stencil that is open will let paint penetrate through to the paper. The part of the screen which is closed, stops passage of the paint. Consequently, the design cut into the stencil will be reproduced on the material placed under the screen fabric and stencil.
The name silk screen originated because silk was the first fabric used for the screen. Now, silk, nylon, and even wire mesh screens are employed. Although there are various types of stencils and methods of preparing them, the ones discussed in this paper give the fundamental principles underlying the techniques used by the researcher.
To do the work, the processor needs a screen frame, a squeegee, silk screen inks, a stencil, and stock on which to print.
43 44
The Printing Frame
A choice frame is made of soft, kiln-dried wood, such as pine or basswood, that is free of knots and other imperfections. The lumber is cut about two inches wide, two inches thick, and long enough for the sides of the frame. The frame should have no sharp edges and must have well constructed corners. It is important that the fabric be stretched tightly and held in place securely with carpet tacks or wood staples placed about one inch apart around all sides of the frame.
The Fabric
The fabric may be silk, nylon, or stainless steel. Silk has a standardized number to signify its thread count per inch. This is usually stated as a number from 2 to 25. The smaller number indicates the larger opening. A number 12 silk has a smaller opening than a number 5 silk due to the fact that it is more closely woven. To designate the quality of the silk, the number has a single (X), double (XX), or triple (XXX) following it. A double (XX) indicates a stronger weave than does a single (X). A 12XX or 14XX silk is commonly used. Silk and other fabrics are available in various widths and bolt lengths.
The Squeegee
The unit used to force paint through the mesh openings of the screen is called a squeegee. It is an extremely important factor in creating a sharp impression. The squeegee consists of a strip of rubber, 46
Transparent Toner Colors. --These colors are made especially for color overlay work where the preceding color will bleed through giving the third color, etc. The colors as they come are generally too strong and require letting down. This is done by mixing with poster type transparent base or a crystal type of base. In doing this type of work, it is best to make a test sheet overlaying various colors of various strengths, and marking on this sheet the exact mixtures cr strength of each color. This will then tend to act as a guide or color selector when getting ready to run a job. When running yellow on red one certain shade of orange will result. Therefore, when getting ready to run a job you must first select your color strength, then take into consideration the manner and sequence of color runs. Thin the color with recommended thinners ....
Other inks which Zahn discussed included high gloss or synthetic colors, lacquers, and watercolors.
Registration
Registration is the technique of aligning an image or images on printed matter. This is important in the production of good quality prints, and is especially significant with multi-color work.
To eliminate some of the problems of registration, the frame is often secured to a base. This allows the processor to obtain prints of greater consistency. The frame may be fastened with push-pin hinges or special hinge clamps, to a metal or wood printing base. A table can serve as a printing base if hinges are secured to the top.
The actual registration is done using one of two procedures; with tabs, or with a transparent overlay. The tab or guide system is the one most often used. Tabs are made by cutting strips of paper one-half inch 45 nylon, or plastic about three-eighths of an inch thick mounted onto a v/ood or metal handle. The length of the squeegee is placed at right angles to the length or width of the frame and pulled over the stencil design. For printing on most surfaces, the blade must be kept sharp.
An irregular blade will result in uneven amounts of color on the printed article.
Squeegee Types
U flat surface detail textile
The Inks
Bert Zahn, in Screen Process Methods of Reproduction (1956), divided color and paints for process work into five categories and analyzed the use of each. This writer employed two of them in this study; flat or poster colors and transparent toner colors.
Flat Type or Poster Colors. --With both of these materials the finished job will result in a flat, uniform finish in all colors, unless more varnish is added to one color than the other. If varnish is used, it is important that only the flat type of mixing varnish is added. There is on the market . . . a transparent base, when mixed with the above colors will . . . tend to lower the cost per job and will render the color transparent. It will also make the color run smoother; but any great amount will make it impossible to run one color on top of another, especially any light color on a dark color or background, due to the transparency resulting. Thin either of these colors with any petroleum distillate such as oleum or mineral spirits; wash screen with same or kerosene. 47
Fig. 1 .---Silk Screen. wide and two inches long which are then folded into the shape of the letter "Z." The "Z" tab is secured to the base with masking tape. Three tabs or guides are located along the edge of the print paper. Two are placed, along the length of the paper and one along the width. These guides are all taped into position allowing for complete registration of each print.
/ / tab Z__ 7 7777 / / print paper / 48
The second procedure is the transparent overlay system. This is beneficial for extremely fine registration or if, for some reason in the process of multi-color printing, one of the colors has slipped out of register. The transparent overlay is accomplished by taping a sheet of plastic or thin parchment paper over the print area. The taping is done on only the width or shorter side allowing for a hinge type of flip-back and- making it possible for the overlay to be lifted out of the printing area when not in use. Registration is accomplished by placing the overlay sheet into position on the printing area. The first print is squeegeed onto the transparent sheet. The printing material is placed under the transparent overlay until it is aligned. The overlay is then lifted out of the printing area and the first image is produced.
These two methods of registration are among the simplest and yet are perhaps the most effective types used in the silk screen process.
Stencils
Artists working in the area of silk screen will find a wide range of stencil techniques that may be utilized. The choice depends only on the nature of work to be reproduced. Frequently, two or more stencil methods are combined in one print. Silk screen stencils do not print in reverse, allowing for ease in layout. 49
The Paper Stencil
The paper stencil is nothing more than a cut paper mask attached to the fibers of the screen. Paint squeegeed across the screen will penetrate the open areas of the mask which correspond to the shape of the design. The cost cf stencil paper is negligible. The stencils are easy to cut and easy to remove from the screen when the printing is finished. Artists who like heavy deposits of paint can achieve the technique by cutting their stencil form heavier paper or cardboard. The only restriction is that this type of stencil should be reserved for large area work of simple design. Usually, the paper stencil is made of any thin, white bond, parchment, butcher, waxed, newsprint, or regular stencil paper. Newsprint is probably the least durable of these, but even so, experimentation has found that as many as one hundred copies can be run from this inexpensive material. The design to be printed is drawn or traced on the stencil paper and the areas to be printed are cut out. Any razor blade, X-Acto, or stencil knife is practical for the cutting.
After the design has been cut, the remaining paper serves as a block-out for the screen printing .
Implementation
1. Raise the screen and center the paper to be printed upon.
2 . Set the registry guides. Make sure the guides are placed
snugly against the printing stock. 50
3 . Carefully place the cut stencil over the printing stock
so that an even border remains around the print.
4. Lower the screen. Draw a pencil line onto the fabric
inside the border of the stencil paper.
5. Raise the screen. Fill in the open mesh of the silk
between the pencil line and the wood frame with a
LePage's glue mixture. The mixture is made by using
one part LePage's glue and one part water plus enough
tempera to give it visible color on the screen.
6. After the glue is dry (about 30 minutes), the screen
should again be lowered onto the stencil paper.
7 . The ink is then poured onto the screen and the image
■ can be printed by drawing the squeegee firmly across
the screen.
Removing the Stencil
At the end of the run, the remaining paint is scooped out and returned to its original container. The stencil can then be peeled from the mesh easily, as it is held in place only by the adhesive property of the printing ink. Wash the screen with the proper solvent. It is important that no paint or solvent remains in the mesh. The LePage's glue can be removed by washing the mesh in warm water until clean. 51
The Glue Stencil
The glue stencil or block-out form of stenciling is accomplished by blocking or masking out portions of the screen with a liquid such as
1/1 glue and water, shellac, or lacquer, and leaving other portions of the screen untouched where the paint is to go through. When the block- out is dry, the screen is ready to print. The block-out can best be applied to the fabric by brush, Speedball pen, or sponge. The sponge or brush can also be used to give texture to the printed image.
Implementation
1. Raise the screen and center the original drawing on the
b ase.
2 ., Lower the screen. The original should be visible through
the fabric.
3. Trace the drawing onto the fabric with pencil or draw
directly onto the fabric without the aid of an original
drawing.
4 . Prop the screen up at a height of two or three inches.
This is done to keep the block-out from touching and
sticking to the printing base.
5. If an original drawing is used, remove it from the print
ing base after it has been traced. 52
6. Brush the glue mixture on the screen design. These
parts will be the closed areas of the stencil. The
parts left untouched will be open for the ink to flow
through and create the image.
7 . Allow the glue to dry.
8. Examine the screen carefully when it is dry to see if
any pinholes remain open in the blocked-out areas.
Touch up any holes with a small brush and LePage's glue.
9 . Place the printing stock under the screen and lower the
screen. Apply registration tabs and print tl?e stencil.
Removing the Stencil
Remove all printing ink. Apply the proper solvent for the ink used,
and clean the screen. Use the correct solvent for the block-out and
clean thoroughly. Dry the screen completely before storing.
An advantage of the block-out method is that it is a more
permanent type of stencil than a paper stencil. It can be used repeatedly
without altering the image. It is also more flexible, in that many effects
can be produced.
The Tusche Stencil
The tusche stencil is the most practical and adaptable of the hand-
done stencils. It works on the principle that an oil mixture, such as
■ lithographic tusche, and a water mixture like LePage's glue, do not mix. 53
The tusche is applied to the screen in the desired areas and left to dry.
The l / l glue mixture is squeegeed over the entire screen. Mineral spirits are presented to the tusche areas. When the tusche is dissolved, the glue remaining becomes the stencil mask. The open areas of the screen are then ready to receive the ink. With some stencil methods, the artist must confine his work to the background or block-out areas.
An advantage of the tusche method is that the image applied to the screen is the exact image printed. That is, instead of'blocking out the background areas as in the glue 'stencil, the actual image sought is painted on the screen. Tusche, a dark color, contrasts sharply with the whiteness of the fabric, making the image clearly visible. It can be obtained in crayon, liquid, or pencil form. Therefore, it can be used to create a variety of desired effects.
Implementation
1. Raise the screen and place the original design under the
frame. Trace the image onto the fibers with a pencil.
2. With the screen still raised, make a facsimile of the
drawing with liquid or crayon tusche. Any mistakes can
be removed with turpentine.
3. When the image is dry, pour a 1/1 mixture of LePage's
glue and water onto the screen. Scrape the mixture
across the entire screen, including the tusche image. 54
4. Allow the glue to dry completely and examine the screen
for pinholes. Touch up holes with additional glue.
5. When the glue is thoroughly dry, remove the tusche
with mineral spirits.
6. Dry the stencil and wipe clean using clean rags. Check
again for flaws in the block-out.
7. Pour ink onto the screen, and print.
Removing the Stencil i Remove all remaining ink and clean the screen with the appropriate solvent. Eliminate the glue by washing the screen with warm water and sponges. Dry the screen thoroughly before storing for future use.
The Photographic Stencil
The photographic principle can be used to reproduce detailed draw ings or photographic images. This process has the advantage of being able to reproduce almost every detail. The original can either be drawn or photographed onto a transparent surface.
It should be stressed at this point that photoscreen printing is not necessarily competitive in method to hand made stencils. Rather, it supplements them, helping to fill a gap which hand made stencils cannot satisfy. With the photographic stencil, every element can be arranged to the best possible advantage. 55
A knowledge of many photographic techniques naturally begins with the original art, since the lens reproduces what it sees and ultimately translates the subject into a stencil illustration. A camera's most valuable asset, according to Charles Close, one of the new realists, is its inability to make decisions. Close said, "The camera is not aware of what it is looking at. It just gets it all down" (Nemser, 1970).
There are many treatments, all photographic, even for simple line art, that are available to produce a variety of results. All art intended for photoscreen reproduction must be clean and precise, as every flaw will show in the final operation.
The principle used in making photographic screens involves an emulsion which hardens when exposed to light. The direct photoscreen emulsion may be applied to tiie fibers of the screen, or it can be prepared on thin transparent plastic sheets such as vinylite or celluloid and then attached to the screen. The latter method is referred to as a transfer- screen .
Although there are many types of screens on the market, this writer investigated only one type of direct screen and one type of trans fer screen. The methods selected were chosen because of their ease in preparation. Kosloff (1962) examined, in detail, numerous models of photoscreens. 56
Direct Photographic Screens
Implementation. 1. Examine the transparent positive (a film
that is intermediate between the original copy and the final
photoscreen) to make sure that light will not penetrate
through the darkened portions of the image. The darkened
portions will become the openings in the photographic
stencil.
2 . Prepare the coating exactly as described in the directions
for the given product. Generally, a coating solution
consists of two ingredients—an emulsion and a sensitizer.
3. Apply the coating solution to the screen fabric by pouring
some of the solution on one edge of the screen. Smooth
back and forth several times with a squeegee or cardboard
until the coating is uniform. After coating, allow the
screen to dry in total darkness.
4. When the first coat is dry, apply a second coat in a
similar fashion. Dry again in total darkness.
5. When the screen is completely dry, place the drawing or
transfer positive, right side up, onto the back side of
the screen.
6. Expose the screen to a strong light source, such as a
pair of #2 photoflood bulbs, for the length of time
recommended by the manufacturer. 57
7. After the film is exposed, remove the positive and wash
it with water until the image appears clean and clear.
8. Blot dry with newspaper and allow the screen to dry
thoroughly.
9. Pour ink on the screen, and print.
Removing the Stencil. —Following printing, clean ink thoroughly from the screen with the appropriate solvent. Remove the gelatin coat ing with hot water.
Photo-Transfer Film
Photo-transfer film consists of a thin acetate or vinyl sheet supporting a layer of gelatin. A positive exposed on the film forms the substance of the stencil. The film should be used within a few weeks of purchase, as it deteriorates with time.
Implementation. — 1. Cut the photofilm to size, slightly larger
than the design to be reproduced.
2. Fasten the film, gelatin side up, on a sheet of glass,
and tape it well so that it remains flat.
3. Prepare the sensitizer as directed by its manufacturer.
4. Sensitize the photofilm and let it dry in a dark room.
5. Remove the photofilm from the glass. 58
6. Prepare the contact set-up. Lay the film or drawn image
on top of the sensitized gelatin photofilm. Cover this
with a clean sheet of glass to keep the positive firmly
pressed against the emulsion.
7. Make the manufacturer's recommended exposure.
8. Remove the positive and wash the emulsion film in hot
water until the image is clear.
9. Adhere the film to the screen fabric when it is still wet.
Be sure the screen is clean and free from grease or dust.
Lower the screen so its underside comes in contact with
the film.
10. With a block-out solution, such as LePage's glue, mask
out the portions of the screen surrounding the photo
stencil .
11. When the screen is dry, it is ready to print.
Removing the Stencil. — The photostencil can be removed with hot water and careful scrubbing with a fingernail brush.
The Creation of Light Illusions
Concerning color, the following terms are defined:
Chroma—refers to a word coined by Albert H. Munsell, a color theorist, to signify the relative purity, intensity, or saturation of a color. Tan is of weak chroma; orange is of strong chroma. 59
Tint--relates to the addition of various amounts of a colored pig ment to white. Some examples of tinted colors are pink, flesh, peach, ivory, and lavender.
Shade— pertains to the mixing of various amounts of black pigment with other colors. Shades include maroon, olive, and navy blue.
Tone—refers to the addition of gray or a color's complement
(opposite on the color wheel) to any given color. Some examples would be rose, tan beige, and taupe.
Value— refers to the amount of lightness or darkness in a color.
Examples would be pink (high value) and navy (low value).
Faber Birren, in History of Color in Painting (19 65) , stated:
The perception of color— including feeling and emotion--is the property of human consciousness. If man is awed by what he sees in his surroundings, he should be far more impressed by what lies within the sanctuary of his own being. This is where to look, not in ignorance but in sensitive understanding.
The art of color owes a debt to the psychology of visual perception.
Perhaps the old cliche, "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder," could better be stated, "Beauty is in the mind of the beholder." Seeing is an individual experience and sensation. As far as the art of color is con cerned, a person does not merely see what is before him. On the con trary, he participates in the imagery, and adds much of his own experi ence and emotion.
In Creative Color (1961) Birren declared: 60
Perceptionism, an advanced art of color, is built largely upon visual phenomena. And it has much to do with the subtleties of perception, of impressions of illumination, and of the ways in which colors take on unusual qualities when handled expertly.
The difference in modes of illumination depends largely upon human interpretation. These interpretations are usually built upon clues offered by the background or environment in which the colors appear. If an artist knows what he is about, he may create virtually any result he wishes. Whether the productive effort be abstract, realistic, or non objective, the design may be converted to a "color" effect. The artist may plan not only in terms of tints, shades, colors and tones, but also around an overall perceptual quality that finds its secret in the character istics of field or background. Joseph Albers reported, in his Interaction of Color (1963), that "In order to use color effectively it is necessary to recognize that color deceives continually. " Therefore, a knowledge of color can enable an artist to create unique and sometimes startling expressions.
In the major field or background of a design lies a basis upon which illumination can be built. From this established background, an artist can produce luster, iridescence, luminosity, and the like. Although illusion is involved, the creation that is forthcoming is well served by the artist who skillfully employs color.
Birren (1961) suggested: 61
The artist's job is perhaps not to use metal to portray metal, or silk to portray silk, but to have control over his palette and by shrewd observation and resourcefulness suggest the effect without being literal about it.
This writer explored four color effects as set down by Birren in his
studies of color.
Luster
Many types of luster may be noticed by the observant eye, and each is visually unique. Luster can be translucent like fine metallic cloth, or sharp like polished metal. This effect intrigued the Old Master painters. It was often accomplished by using thin glazes of color over white, so that light would be reflected. It can also be created by pro ducing these "bright" areas in relatively small size. These small areas
should be fairly pure in color, strong in chroma, and placed into a sur rounding area of suppressed colors. One way to restrain the surrounding colors is to add various amounts of black to them, or, in other words,
shade the background colors .
Iridescence
Iridescence in nature owes its existence to what physicists term diffraction (a type of light interference), not to pigmentation. The
iridescent structure works as a prism and breaks light into its spectral hues. Nonetheless, the iridescent effect can be approached, if not conquered, by control of color. Since the effect of iridescence is much 62 softer than that of luster, the features of beauty are made of delicate tints, or pastels against grays. The major portion of the design should be predominantly gray or toned. This serves to give the viewer the illusion of mistiness and uniformly reduced chroma. With softness as a key, incidental touches of clear tints are added and take on an interest ing glow.
Luminosity
Luminosity is seen in water, the sunset, sunlight, on snow and in stars. This effect is common in life but rare in art. Some of the qualities admired in works of art such as Klee (Plate XVII) and Poons
(Plate XIX) produced are the qualities of luminosity. The area to be made luminous must be relatively small in size and pure in chroma. The luminous color must be higher in value than its surroundings. The sur rounding colors must also take on some of the qualities of the prevailing color. That is, all surrounding colors should contain a quantity of the luminous color. The transition between colors should be subtle.
Chromatic Light
A white surface showered with colored light no longer appears white. The influence of colored light on surfaces can be studied, and corresponding mixtures of pigments can be substituted to make the chromatic illusion. This effect can most easily be accomplished if the artist sets up a design, or possibly a color wheel, and covers it with a 63
transparent colored sheet of plastic or cellophane. The colors seen
through this overlay can then be matched in pigment and the design or
color wheel reproduced in chromatic light. The design will appear to be
bathed in a colored light. The color wheel reproduced in this manner
can be used to create many chromatic light effects for other designs.
A shortcoming is that ail designs will appear to be viewed under the same colored light. If a different chromatic effect is desired, a different colored overlay must be substituted. III. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
Luster
The subject matter of Blue Luster (Plate XXIV) was derived from a stylized abstraction of land forms used to present the color effect of luster. Black and shaded colors were used to assign a field of dark or subdued light in a manner that set off the high chroma of the blue. This technique gave the blue a bright quality much as might be noticed in viewing the colors of a stained glass window of the Gothic era, or in paintings such as Rouault's The Old King. 1937 (Plate IV). The blacks helped to define the form and control the structure of the picture. The screen stencil was prepared with the use of tusche and glue drawn directly on the silk. In the upper and lower portions of the design, passages of transparent color were added to unify and create a more subtle gradation of color. The transparent color was developed by using a heavy mixture of transparent base and flat poster oil inks. The fasci nating line quality evident in the print was accomplished by dipping the edge of a cardboard strip into tusche and then making repeated applica tions to the screen.
The sweeping strokes observed in Rose Luster (Plate XXV) were also created with the tusche and cardboard method of drawing. The
64 65
colors in this print were more subtle and consisted of warm and cool
tints set off by a shaded and dark toned background. A grayed mixture
was placed between the warm and cool areas to separate them. This
mixture was composed of the warm and cool colors with white added.
This effect was an attempt to produce an additive color mixture. When
pigments were used , a combination of the three primary colors (red ,
yellow, and blue) created a dark gray or black appearance. This was
called a subtractive mixture because it subtracted light. In using
colored lights or lights covered with theatrical gelatins, the same red,
yellow, and blue combination appears as a white projected light or an
additive mixture. By blending the warm pink and the cool blue-gray and
adding white in sufficient amounts, the appearance, theoretically, should
have approached that of the additive mixture of light. The result was not
completely successful. The print did, however, have intriguing qualities
of luster, iridescence, and luminosity combined into one design.
Seed Pod #2 (Plate XXVI) was done as a luminous effect. When
printed onto a black field, the design became one of luster. The tinted
blue or accent area appeared more brilliant than that created by Seed Pod
(Plate XXX) , which made use of a more subtle color in the background.
These prints were all examples of screens which had the design worked or drawn directly on the fabric. The stencils were the tusche and
glue type. In each instance, the paint used was oil base poster ink and
the screen fabric was silk. G6
PLATE XXIV
BLUE LUSTER
Serigraph, 14" x 17 1/2" 67
PLATE XXV
ROSE LUSTER
Serigraph, 15 3/4" x 20" > 68
PLATE XXVI
SEED POD #2
Sertgraphy, 15 1/2" x 20" 69
Iridescence
The first in the series of prints on iridescent (or mother-of-peari) effects was Opaline Web (Plate XXVII). The color field was accomplished by mixing various grays with blue. The background had an atmosphere of mistiness on which tinted red (pink) had been used to accomplish the illusion. The stencil used was a combination of glue and tusche/glue technique. The image was drawn directly onto the screen following a previously executed thumbnail sketch. The ink was of the poster variety with an oil base, and the fabric was 12XX silk.
It was during the process of printing this image that a new method of registration was developed. Previously, masking tape was used as a registration guide, but as each print paper was pushed into the guide on the printing base, the tape became compacted, and each print moved a little farther from registration. At this time, the paper tab method of registration was utilized. Since then, there has been very little, if any, problem in registration except for extremely detailed work.
Pink Horizon (Plate XXVIII) was an example of iridescence done with glue stencil and transfer photoscreen. The photographic image was developed on lithographic line copy film which eliminated all the gray from the image. Dark grays were translated into black and light grays became white or clear. Next, the image was contact-printed on the photoscreen fiim and then adhered to the fabric of a silk screen. The printing of the sky and land areas was accomplished by tracing the 70 photo image (the line copy) and blocking the selected areas with a
LePage's glue mixture. To produce the finished product, the photo screen was later printed over hand-created images. The registration was crucial, so a transparent overlay was used to guide the image into the correct area. In working with the effect of iridescence, it was noted that there was little variation in value of any part of the image. It became a belief of the researcher that value may be the key to the iridescent quality.
The print titled Arrow Reversal (Plate XXIX) was an attempt to create this illusion using only two colors of nearly equal value. The values were matched using a technique discussed by Joseph Albexs in his book, Interaction of Color (1963). The ink (oil base of the poster quality) used was dried and then checked visually. Wet paint or ink could not be used to match colors since a change in appearances occurred as the ink dried .
The stencil used to print this hand-created image was a paper stencil cut into newsprint with a single edge razor blade. A nylon screen was used for printing. 71
PLATE XXVII
OPALINE WEB
Serigraphy, 11" x 16 1/2 72
PLATE XXVIII
PINK HORIZON
Serigraph, 8 1 / 4 "x 12 1/2" 73
PI ATE XXIX
ARROW REVERSAL
Serigraph, 10 1/2" x 10 1/2" 74
Luminosity
A pomegranate served as the subject matter for the print Seed Pod
(Plate XXX). The drawing was accomplished by abstracting and stylizing the likeness of the fruit. Ink colors in the subject area of the print were the same as those used for Seed Pod #2 (Plate XXVI). The difference between these prints was in the background. The black field of Seed
Pod was altered to grays that raised in value as they approached the accented, or subject area, in Seed Pod #2 . Grays of the background were mixed from the blue of the luminous subject which gave the illusion of a prevailing light of blue emitted or radiating from the accented blue tint.
Even Glow (Plate XXXI) was executed in much the same manner as was Seed Pod , with the accented blue omitted. Even Glow had r.o accented area, yet it maintained an interesting light quality. Upon closer observation, the blue gray of the sky seemed to be of lighter value toward the horizon. This effect was caused by the illusion created when a light color touched a darker one. This same illusion could be easily observed if a red sheet of paper was overlapped upon an orange paper. The orange sheet would appear lighter toward the inner edge (next to the red).
The luminous effect created in Black Hammer Store (Plate XXXII) was accomplished by using a warm (pink) and a cool (blue-green) color set against subdued background tones. These tones were veiled using 75 a mixture of the warm and cool color with white added, giving the illusion of additive mixture. In this instance, pink was the color that had the quality of light being reflected from the setting sun. This occurred because the cool blues were repeated in the major portion of the print. Consequently, they tended to subtract from the strength of the blue. The less detailed portions of the print were accomplished by the use of paper stencils; the detailed areas of the store and tree were done by transfer photoscreen.
The Ornament (Plate XXXIII) was a design that derived its sub stance from a Christmas tree ornament. It was presented in this paper to provide the reader with a look at an original silk screen print. This print attempted to create the illusion of iuminosity. The background was achieved by using blue-toned paper. On this paper a lower value blue tone was printed using a photographic stencil of a design drawn on transparent acetate. The tinted or accented area was obtained by print ing through a paper stencil. The ink was poster quality printed through nylon fibers. 76
PLATT XXX
SEED POD
Serigraph, 15 1/2" x 21" 77
PLATE XXXI
EVEN GLOW
Serigraph, 9" x 12 3/4" 78
PLATT. XXXII
BLACK HAMMER STORE
Serigraph, 10 1/2" x 13 1/4" 79
PLATE XXXTII
THE ORNAMENT
Serigraph, 4 " x 5" 80
Chromatic Light >
In experimenting with chromatic light, it was initially thought by the writer that this effect was not different from a monochromatic color arrangement (tints and shades of one color). On further study, it was found that the monochrome method was not the real solution to obtaining the effect of chromatic light. If a viewer peered at the world through a colored lens, or became surrounded by colored light, the effect is not monochromatic. The situation becomes one in which there is a veiling of colored light working upon some colors to make them appear dark.
Other colors receive an influence from the lens, and still others change to colors completely different from those found in nature. Orange
Chroma (Plate XXXIV) was an attempt at using monochromatic means to create the light effect. Although it was not a true chromatic light illusion, it remained a pleasing one.
Throughout history, the monochromatic system of color harmony has remained a simplification of the solution to artistic exercises. An example is Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase (Plate II). In this work, Duchamp has created the appearance of luster along with the monochromatic harmony. Orange Chroma was accomplished by laying down a color field of orange and printing a shaded orange (brown) over the top through a photographic stencil. The inks were poster oils and the screen used was nylon. 81
Yellow Chroma (Plate XXXV) was the writer's second attempt at a chromatic light illusion. This time, the image was worked out before hand and covered with a yellow-orange cellophane. A hindrance con fronted this experiment. It was not feasible to reproduce the total effect by the print process because of the variations of colors that were viewed.
To simplify the process, only the most prominent colors were used.
Another solution would have been to use transparent inks (pigments used to overlay colors) allowing the strength of the color to come through the veiling.
The writer then experimented with process inks in an attempt to capture this evasive illusion. The Door (Plate XXXVI) was underprinted with poster inks squeegeed through two separate photoscreens. It was then overprinted with a magenta process color. The colors of the under printing came through the process ink, but yet gave the illusion of colored cellophane. If more colors had been laid in the underprinting, the researcher felt that the illusion would have been even more effective. > 82
PLATE XXXIV
ORANGE CHROMA
Serigraph, 14" x 8 3/4" 83
PIATE XXXV
YELLOW CHROMA
Scrigraph, 13 3/4" x 8 3/4" 154
PLATE XXXVI
THE DOOR
Serigraph, 12 1/2" x 7 1/4 IV. CONCLUSION
Restatement of the Problem and Procedures
This study discussed the problems and procedures involved in using serigraphy (silk screen) to create various light illusions. The color effects that were attempted can be found and viewed in nature and in the archives of past art. While this study drew much from tradition, its chief effort was to explore new realms of creation. Where the
Impressionists went to the physicist for new concepts in the manipula tion of color, the modern approach has led the artist to the psychologist.
In dealing with perception, the writer's problem was to delve into color, to attempt to comprehend and then to interpret technical findings in esthetic terms. Human perception is a fascinating area for the single reason that it is related to the firsthand experiences of everyone. It is not something apart from life, but intimately tied with it.
It was not the color alone that became the problem, but also the method of delivering this color as an image. The possibilities of the silk screen stenciling process are almost unlimited. A great many improvements and developments have brought screen printing production from a crude method to one that is very usable for both industrial and artistic endeavors.
85 86
The illusions attempted were luster, iridescence, luminosity, and chromatic light. The solutions were derived more from the information handed down by psychologists than from the physicist, and the success or failure depended not only upon the artist's techniques, but also lay in the eye and mind of the viewer.
Procedures used to bring these color effects to the viewer included those connected with silk screen production. The silk screen served as an effective means of producing art work. The materials employed by the researcher were paper stencil, glue, tusche and glue, direct photo screen, and transfer photoscreen. The shortcomings confronted were those of the artist's knowledge and capabilities in this area of study.
Summary of Results of the Study
The silk screen process was an extremely practical way of repro ducing color images . The results of the study were satisfying to the artist in that a new awareness of color occurred while working with serigraphy. The awareness touched the area of nature and the area within the picture frame. The implication was that a structural order underlies effective color expression and that such order was based upon the laws and principles of design. The validity of this concept was demonstrated by this study. Yet, the total problem of creative color cannot be easily summed.
Ellinger (19 63) commented: 87
There is . . . the highly significant capacity of color to carry expressive meaning . . . consider what this means to the creative colorist. In company with all visual elements of design, color provides certain visual stimuli which impinge directly upon the sensory organ of vision and so to speak directly to the emotions without intellectual intervention or interpretation. This direct sensory appeal to the emotions is the potential which gives color its status as a vehicle of artistic expression.
Good color achieves both emotional and organizational stimuli for the viewer. First, it conveys a meaning at the emotional level by expressing a feeling appropriate to the function and purpose of the project at hand . Secondly, through organization, it achieves visual unity or oneness. The solution to both aspects of the problem demands some technical understanding.
Recommendations for Further Research
This study opened many avenues of endeavor which were only briefly dealt with, or, in some cases, only mentally confronted by the researcher.
Process inks have possibilities beyond those discussed in this study. With the use of half-tone screens, a full range of colors could be achieved with only three printings instead of nine, as was done in
Rose Luster.
The material on which the image is printed is another avenue for exploration. Through silk screen, images can be printed on plastics 88
(flat and vacuum-formed), masonite, two and three dimensional surfaces, ceramics, for permanent art, and disposable art.
Extended work could be done in the area of photography. This writer did not thoroughly explore the processes of solarization, tone separation, and texture-screen printing.
Another possible direction would be an attempt at acquiring a strong knowledge of Gestalt psychology of visual perception.
The writer will not terminate his study with the experiences gained in this research. Further research is inevitable. BIBLIOGRAPHY Albers, Joseph. Interaction of Color. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1963.
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Fox, Munro, and Vevers , Gwynn. The Nature of Animal Colors. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1960.
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