DEVELOPMENT OF A CURRICULUM MODEL IN PRINTMAKING FOR A HIGH SCHOOL ART EDUCATION PROGRAM

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN AR T IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE TEXAS WOMAN ' S UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF HUMANITieS AND FINE ARTS DEPARTMENT OF ART

BY DONNA FLANAGAN BARNARD , B.F. A.

DENTON , TEXAS AUGUST , 1980 The Graduate School Texas Woman's University Denton, Texas

August 19 80

We hereby recommend that the thesis prepared under

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...... iv CHAPTER I Introduction . . • ...... 1 CHAPTER II Relief Printmaking ...... 7 CHAPT ER J II Intaglio Printmaking ...... 19 CHAPTER I V Planogr aphic Printmaking ...... 27 CHAPTER V Stencil Printmaking ...... )8 CHAPTER VI Collagr aph Printmaking ...... 50 CHAPTER VII Summary and Conclusion ...... 55 APPENDIX ES ...... 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 69

iii

",0 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Ill ustration Page Suggested Registration Methods for Relief Color Printing . • ...... 14 2 . Color Sequence for Linoleum Print ...... 17 J . A Linoleum Reduction Print . . . . 17 4. An Embossing from a Linoleum Plate . . . . . 18 5. A Pl astic Plate Drypoint Print •••. 26 6 . Prints from Paper Lithographic Plates . . . . . 37 ? . A Common Screen Printing Set- up ...... 4J 8 . Serigraph from Lacquer Film and Photographic Stencil . • . . . • 49 9 · Serigraph from Liquid Block-out Stencil . . . 49

iv CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The proposed problem for study was the development of a curriculum model in the area of printma king for a high school l evel art education program .

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of the study was to develop a functional art education r esource model in printmaking for the high school l evel in compliance with guidelines stated by nat i on­ al and regional accreditation agencies .

JUST I FICATION FOR THE STUDY A documented resource model in the area of printmaking would a i d in the transition from t he traditional art curric­ ulum (Art I , II , III , and IV ) in the writer ' s school t o a dept h program in major art areas . In the r esearcher ' s schocu thi s need has been fel t for several years, and the mechanics of cPanging to such a depth program would be impleme nted sooner given appropriate curriculum models .

BACKGROUND INFOR~~TION The writer teaches in a hi gh school in which the

1 2 three art instructors desire to integrate a depth program into the art curriculum. Currently Art I and II are rather broad in spectrum, with further depth del ayed until the third and fourth year courses (Art III and IV) . Many stu­ dents are unable to enroll in more than two years of art courses due to schedule conflicts and increased graduation requirements which greatly limit enrollment in elective courses . In this writer's opinior., a depth program should be established, which would be offered following completion of one basic design course . The researcher feels that the de- velopment of suitable curriculum models in major art areas would expedite such a change in her own school ' s curriculum, and eventuall y aid in district- wide changes . This art edu­ cation approach is described as a depth program by the National Art Educatior. Association: DEPTH PROGRAMS . Courses in which one area of instruction is carried on at a time in a space appro­ priately equipped , and in which the instructor teaches his/her area of specialization, supports current devel­ opments and motivational schemes . Rather than dealing with the broad spectrum, the teacher and the students concentrate on developing behavioral goal s , s kills , and sophistication of concept in one area that i s applicable to non-verbal understanding of the abstract qualities we are often r eluctant or unable to identify as t he con­ t ent of art. Rather than merely being conversant with the obvious and measurably achievable concepts which are largely descriptive in nature, e . g . , the el eme nts of art , the student works in one area, gaining exper­ ience necessary for him/her to relate to his/her area and to become aware . Through this approach hPishe 3

l earns to appreciate process as an aspect of art.l

The writer feels that such a change in curriculum structure would provide students with an opportunity to gain greater competence and awareness of process . As stated by Leon Frankstons Through an increasing dept h approach to the subject matter, each student will come into more direct contact with sequential activites in the pursuit of a personal metaphor or style of working . His struggl e for self­ expression is therefore given a dimension of time . And whether the adoles cent plans to beco~ e an artist or not , he will have a better understanding and appreciation of the meaning of art and the a esthetic experience . I f eel that through depth experiences in art we may l ook forward to a society in which adoleschents as they become adults will be able to r elate their speci a lized experiences t~ new and imaginative elements of the world around them. A number of successful depth programs have been observed by the researcher at the high school l evel during her teachi ng years . This has strengthened her belief that a depth approach in her own high school and district would make the art program more relevant and valuable to the student , and present a greater challenge at every abili ty l evel .

! National Art Education Association, Art Education: Senior High School , (Washington, D. C. : N. A. E. A., 1972) p . 64. 2Leon Frankston, "The Case for Depth in Art : A Re ­ action Against the Kaleidoscopic Effects of the Breadth Approach to Teaching Art at the Secondary School Level , " Art Education, Oct . 1967 , P · 9 . 4 DELIMITATIONS The following delimitations were proposed for the study : 1 . The researcher limited the curriculum to the area of printmaking at the high school l evel . 2 . The curriculum model was designed for the high school student who had completed a one-year basic design course or its equivalent . J . The art resource model followed guidelines stated by national and regional accreditatior. and professional agencies . 4. The study did not attempt to suggest all possible con­ tent for such a curriculum, but provides suggested art activities in major printmaking areas . A comparison of major graphic art processes is provided in Appendix A. 5. The curriculum was designed for use in the eighteen week semester system, allowing adequate time for the activities listed. Further individual exploration would be r ecom­ mended after the initial one semester beginning course . Educational objectives for the course are incl uded in Appendix B. 6. The art education model provides : A. A table of contents dividing the activity units according to major printmaking processes . B. A brief historical overview in each printmaking area 5 C. Suggested activities in each process appropriate for high school level. D. A glossary of printmaking terms . E. A reference source of suggested visual aids, supply sources for materials, and a bibliography.

DEFINITION OF TERMS The following terms are used in the introductory chapter . Terms specific to printmaking processes are de­ fined in the glossary of printmaking t erminology . 1. Content : Subject matter, as of a book. (American Her­ itage Dictionary , p . 156 . ) 2 . Curriculum: The course or subject matter offered by an educational institution. (Webster ' s Seventh New Co lleg­ iate Dictionary, p . 204 . ) 3. Develop: To expand or bring out the potentialities , capabilities . . . (Standard Encyclopedic Dictionary , p . 174 . ) 4 . Guideline: A statement of general policy . (American Heritage Dictionary, P • 317 . ) 5. High School: A school that usually includes grades nine through twelve . (American Heritage Dictionary,

P• 335 · ) 6 . Level: Relative place , degree , or stage . (Standard Encyclopedic Dictionary , p . 372 . ) 6 7. Model: A type or design; an example to be emulated . (American Heritage Dictionary, p . 454.) 8 . Objective : Serving as a goal for a course of action. (American Heritage Dictionary , p . 491 . ) 9 . Processes : A series of continuous actions that bring about a particular result . (Standard Encyclopedic Dictionary , p . 527 . ) CHAPTER II

RELIEF PRINTMAKING The t echnique of dupli cating images goes back several thousand years to the Sumerians (ca . 3000 B. C. ) who engraved desi gns and cuneiform inscriptions on cylinder seals which, wh en rolled over soft cl ay tablets , l eft r elief i mpressi ons . On the basis of stone designs and seals found in China, there is s peculation t hat the Chinese may have produced a primitive form of print - the rubbing - about the second century A.D. J With the development of paper on the Chinese mainland in the second century A. D. , the stamping devices gradually evol ved into woodblocks . The practice spread to Japan in the sixth c entury A.D., where the early woodcuts were re- l i gious in subject matter, a s in China . It was not until the seventeenth century that a more highly developed ar t came forth . The Japanese printmaker ' s concept of symbol- ism in subject matter , asymmetrical composition, and the use of flat color, pattern, and line were a great influence on the work of Gauguin, Van Gogh , Lautrec , Whistl er , and

3Encycl opedia Brittanica Macropedia, 1975 ed . , s . v . "Pr i ntmaki ng. "

7 8 other European artists . 4 It is believed that the first woodblock prints on textiles were mad e by the Egyptians in the sixth or sevent h century, but the earliest printed image with a n authenticat ed date is a scroll of the Diamond Sutra (one of the discourses of the Buddha) printed by Wang Chieh in A.D. 868 , which was found in a cave in Ea s t ern Turkistan. In Europe , stamping (to imprint royal seans and sig­ natures) preceded printing by rubbing or wi t h a press . The earliest documented impressed roya l s i gnature i s that of Henry VI of England, da t ed 14) 6 . Textile print ing wa s known in Europe from t he s ixt h century , with designs cons i sting largely of r epeated dec­ orati ve patterns . Printing on paper developed f r om text ile printing following the introduction of paper from the Orient . The first European paper was made in 1151 , a t Xativa (modern Jativa) , Spain. Soon paper manufacturing began in France and then in Germany and Italy, notably by Fabriano , whose enterprise was established in 1276 and still exis ts t oday . 5 The first woodcuts on paper, printed in quant i ty, wer e playing cards and primitive r eligi ous figur es . As t he in­ vention of printing from movable type became a r ealit y in

4John Ross and Cla re Romano , The Comple t e Printmaker , (New York : The Free Press , 1972) , p . 1 . 5Encyclopedia Brittanica Macropedia . 9 the mid- fifteenth century , the woodcut began to appear in more highl y developed forms as illustrations for religious books . By the late fifteenth century the gr eat artists of the time , Albrecht Durer and Hans Holbein in Germany , Lucas von Leyden in the Netherlands , and Titi an in Ital y were using the new medium with great eloquence . The flexibility and richness of l ine engraving and etching attracted moEt of t he major artists after the mid­ sixteenth century , causing a decline in the use of the wood­ cut as a vehicle for es t hetic expression . The wo odcut, and later t he wood engraving became a means for reproducing pop­ ular painters ' work and was used to illustrate books , mag­ azines , and newspapers . I t was not until the revival of the woodcut a s a sensitive, personal art form in the late nine­ teenth century that it r egained its place as a major expres­ sive for m. Co l or in t he woodcut was first used in the West to hand tint t he early black and whi te woodcuts of saints and playing cards , a cheap means of supplying colored pictures to the widely illiterate public of the late Middle Ages . The method of printing pictorial woodcuts from separat e blocks , known as "Chiaroscuro , " appeared in Germany in 1508 in the earliest dated print . These prints, though they were printed from separate blocks , were tonal and interpr eted the line and wash drawings of the period . 10 It is the multicolor prints of the eighteenth and nineteenth century Japan that have given us such and elo­ quent concept of color in the woodcut . The Ukiyo-e prints (the pictures of the floating world , the World of Everyday Life) were made by major artists with great refinement and taste for the generally poorer classes and the uneducated . The subject matter covered a wide range t girls , actors , genre scenes , popular landscapes . Utamaro , Sharaku , Haru­ nobu , and Hiroshige were among the great names . In the early 1800 ' s the Ukiyo-e prints became a col­ lector ' s item in Paris . By 1862 a Japanese curio shop opened in Paris and sold many Ukiyo-e prints . In 1867 the Paris Exposition Universelle exhibited a large quantity of these prints , and the Paris art world became profoundly aware of the new art forms . Gauguin, Van Gogh , Mary Cassatt, Toulouse-Lautrec , Whistl er, Degas , Manet and Pissarro came under the influence of the asymmetrical composition, strong design , and stylized form . The flat color , pa ttern, and line as intrinsic compositional elements were deeply inspir­ ing to these artists . Gauguin ' s use of the woodcut had a strong Japanese influence . His work influenced Munch , who further exper­ imented . In some instances Munch used separate blocks for each color, in others he used one block cut into separate color areas , inked separ atel y , and reassembled for printing 11 in one step. 6 I n Ameri ca , wood engraving was wi del y used by 1850 . Thomas Nast created powerful cartoons by the woodcut method , i nf luencing t he whol e development of the pol itical and s oci al car toon . Timothy Cole , one of the period ' s most s killful i llustrators , made independent wood engravings for pur el y artistic purposes . In Mexico , the corrido developed at the turn of the c entury . The corrido i s a brilliantly colored tissuelike piece of paper on which may be printed a topical political , soci a l , or economic satire, a pungent piece of poetry , or a ballad , ill ustrated with forceful woodcuts . Th e corrido i s sol d in the marketplace and at fairs , where the words may be sung by a man with a gui tar . 7 A major innovation occurred with Picasso ' s linocuts of t he 1950 ' s . Hi s use of one bl ock for a multicolor print was probabl y the first time anyone had devised a reduction method for cutti ng and printing each color out of one block~ The printmakers of today continue to experiment and use many i nnovative relief techniques , employing a variety of sur faces besi des wood and linoleum. Masonite , cardboard,

6R oss and Romano , The Compl ete Printmaker , pp. 28- 29 . 7Jul es Heller , Printmaking Today , (New York: Ho l t , Ri nehart and Wi nston, Inc ., 1972) pp . 138 -140 . 8Ross and Romano , The Complete Printmaker , p. 29 . 12 plastics , and various other materials are used.

THE LINOLEUM REDUCTION PRINT The following description of a linoleum reduction print, the method which Picasso pioneered in the 1950 ' s , is suitable for a school situation of limited supplies and equipment . High qua lity multi-color prints can be achieved from one linoleum plate and hand printing tools , or with a press if available . The same basic procedure could also be used for a r eduction woodblock print. Tools and Material s To prepare the plate : mounted or unmounted linoleum, perm­ anent felt-tip markers , bench hooks , carving tools . To print: brayers , water solubl e or oil based inks , appro­ priate solvents , glass or plexigl as for ink , burnishing equipment (wooden or metal spoons , barens , cl ean brayer s , wringer or other printing press if avail able) Procedure 1 . In devel oping designs , students can work directly from nature , the imagination, or s lides and photographs . It may be necessary to abstract and simplify in order to adapt sub­ ject matter to designs suitable for a linol eum bl ock . Chosen from three preliminary desi gns , the sel ected design should have the best use of positive and negative space and a strong linear quality . The color planning should be done 13 on white paper, using three or more values (including white . ) The l ightest val ue indicates the area to be carved first . The medium value wil l remain and will be printed first . The darkest value represents the areas that will be printed after further cutting. The design is then transferred to the linoleum with permanent felt-tip markers which won ' t wash off between printings . More colors may be planned as desired . 2 . The linoleum should then be placed in a bench hook , a safety device which hooks on the edge of a table to prevent s l ipping. A demonstration shows students how to carve away from the body and hands and how to keep turning the block to get the easiest angle for cuts. An el ectric hot plate can be used , if available , to soften the linoleum for easi er cutting by heating it for a few seconds above the burner. J . After the initial cutting is complete , a trial proof is pulled and inspected for corrections and any changes if needed . Then the first color can be printed . Since ac­ curate registration is of utmost importance in printing the next colors , the best r egistration method for the type of plate used should be determined . See illustation on page 14 for several suggested col or registration methods . An edition of five or more prints should be adequate . A variety of experimental printing surface will yiel d in­ teresting results . A few possibilities are colored papers , 14 SUGGESTED REGISTRATION METHODS FOR RELIEF COLO R PRINTING

cardboard or METHOD masonite base ONE

~-... paper linoleum over holder -...... , linoleum

1 . 2 ~------~ 1 . Attach an L-shaped holder for linoleum to base ~oard with glue or tape . Add L-shaped holders for paper .

METHOD TWO

1. ~~==~-=====~==~ 1 . For mounted linoleum or wood blocks , glue or tape small stops made of wood or heavy cardboard to base next to bloc~ 2 . Add stops for paper . Attach all stops before printing. 1°

METHOD THREE wood guide for mounted blocks

2 .

In thi s method , an L- shaped guide and plastic or thin car­ board tabs are used . The L- shaped guide should be the same depth as the desired margin for paper .

9Thomas Browne , ed ., Dyeing and Printing, (N .Y.: Excal­ ibur Books , 1977) , P • 98 . 1°william Reid , jr., The Art of Printmaking, (~a ine : J , Weston Wal ch , Publisher , 1974) , P• 28 . 15 tissue papers , newspaper , phone book pages , and fabrics such as burlap or canvas . Unusual textural effects can be achieved by layers of colored inks . 4 . When the first run is completed , the ink i s removed from the plate and the permanent marker lines r emain. The medi um value areas are then carved out to prepare for the second printing. Being careful to register accurately, the second run is printed on top of the first prints. Different color combinations can be tri ed for changes in t he mood of the subject. The printing procedure i s repeated as necessary for the number of colors to be printed. 5. The final step i s the signing and matting of each print. A pencil is used to sign the edition of prints, indicating the numb er of the individual print and the total number of prints under the image on the l eft side. This appears as a fractional number . - 1/ 10 , 2/10 , etc. Th title is pl aced i n the center and the artist ' s name and date on the right side . 11 und er the J.mage . EMBOSSING Uninked linoleum plates can be used to produce fine embossings , with best resul ts obtained with an etching press equipped with at l east one f elt blanket. The paper should be dampened and blotted in newsprint or blotting paper . Paper

11Beth Dunn, "Linoleum Block - Reduction Cut ," Arts and Activities , Nov . 1979 , pp . 46 -48 . 16 with some rag content is more durable, but fairly good re­ sults can be achieved with inexpensive construction paper . Pressure should be adjusted gradually to allow for best def­ inition of lines and shapes . Figure 2 On page 17 shows the successive colors used on the r eduction l inoleum print, Figure J . An emboss ­ ing from a linoleum plate is shown in Figure 4 , page 18 . 18

Fig. 4 . An embossing made from a linoleum plate , using an etchinp press . The construction ~ap er was dam­ pened and blotted before it was placed over tha unmounted linoleum plate . CHAPTER III

INTAGLIO PRINTMAKING The general term intaglio (from the Italian i tagliare , which means to engrave , carve , or cut) covers a multitude of processes , including engraving , etching , drypoint , aquatint , soft ground , lift ground , and mezzotint, as well as a variety of associated techniques . The incised line in the plate holds the ink while the surface is wiped clean. The beginning of the intaglio process can be traced to the work of fifteenth century European craftsmen in metal. Most of the early engravers who began to experiment with printing on paper had been apprenticed in gol dsmiths ' shops . Engraving on paper may have evolved out of a need to r ecord designs engraved on armor and decorative gold r eceptacl es . The earliest dated intaglio print on paper is one from an anonymous German engraver who did a series of The Passion of Christ in 1446 . The first engraver on metal known by name was the gifted German artist Martin Schongauer. In Italy the art of engraving developed more directly out of the classical ideals of the Renaissance . In Florence , two methods of working evolved , the Fine Manner and the Broad Manner . The Fine Manner used much fine gradation and cross­ hatching, and the Broad Manner used a freer kind of pen draw- 19 20 ing with wide shading . Andrea Mantegna, who produced a great number of engravings , s eems to have been an early developer of the atelier system of producing work, with craftsmen doing most of the engraving . This system was highly devel oped by Rubens of Antwerp i n the seventeenth century; he had a l arge studio of engraver s busy producing his pa intings on plates to satisfy t he wide popular demand for his engravings . 12 Though known early in t he sixteenth century, the tech­ nique of etching did not fully mature until the seventeenth. Chemistry entered into the print process in a new way . In­ stead of the s kill and t he physical force needed for engrav­ ing , the artist could now use the action of acids on metal to bite lines into the plate . Etching was therefore a tech­ nical breakthrough , comparable to t he invention of litho­ gr a phy at the end of the eighteenth century . 1J In Germany Albrecht Durer used engravings and etchings with great inventiveness and richness . His search for classical beauty served as a bridge between the Gothic and the Renaissance . His travel s i n Italy and his exposure to s ome of the great Renai ssance masters such as Mantegna and Bellini made a l asting impact on him. A more expressive use of etching began to be seen in

12Ross and Romano , The Complete Printmaker , pp . 7- 8 . l )Jules Heller , Printmaking Today , p . 191. 21 the sixteeenth century. In the landscape etchings of Al­ brecht Altdorfer , a freer line of varied thickness began to explore the possibilities of space . The use of successive bitings to achieve lines of varying depth soon began to appear in numerous etchings. However it was not until the seventeenth century under the genius of Rembrandt that etchings with flexibility and creative freeedom evolved . His extraordinary etchings in­ cluded more than three hundred plates with a rich vari ety of subject matter , from landscapes to portraits, to biblical compositions . His innovative plates explored technical and esthetic possibilites unheard of in etching. His use of dry­ point in combination with etching produced rich blacks and enhanced his dramatic use of chiaroscuro. Hercules Seghers , a contemporary of Rembrandt and much admired by him, was apparently the first to use color in etching. He seems to have used one color at a time and a­ chieved tints by hand coloring in addition. After Rembrandt and Seghers , an entire school of por­ traiture developed in the Netherlands , the etchings of Van Dyc k being most noteworthy . In France , Jacques Callot did a series of etchings showing peaceful villages occupied with tiny figures involved in the horrors of war . This was probably one of the first 22 statements of protest in the print . In the eighteenth century there were fewer noteworthy arti sts working with etching, except Francisco Goya in Spain, Hogarth in Engl and with engraving and etching, and Tiepolo , Canaletto , and Piranesi in Italy. The visionary work of Goya and his incredible skill with the newly developed aqua­ tint method to enhance his powerful satirical fantasies is carefully studied by students of etching and sought by collectors . The Desastres de la Guerra, Goya ' s biting re­ flection on the French occupation of Spain, is one of the great commentaries of all time on the horrors of war and man ' s inhumanity to man . The nineteenth century, with its obsession with per­ fection, brought only a decline in etching as a creative medium . Great technical proficiency became more and more an end rather than a means . Later, the arti sts who developed a new awareness of the beauty of the medium through the artist ' s own creative exploration of the pl ate and the printing hel ped to i mplE­ ment an etching renai ssance . On e such artist wa s Meryon in France . Towards the end of the century, Whistler , Ensor , and Munch began to use etching with bold imagination. The development of the intaglio process i n the years since the end of Worl d War II has been almost limitless in inventiveness of image and exploration of technique . 23 The earl y impetus of Stanley William Hayter ' s Atelier 17 in Paris and New York City played a l eading role in tech­ nical experimentation and development of unique methods for the use of col or . The creative use of the intaglio process in France , England , Germany , Yugoslavia, Poland , and the United States owes much to the heritage of Atelier 17 . 14

THE PLASTIC PLATE DRYPOINT PRINT A suitable activity in the intaglio process for school use is the making of drypoint prints from an acrylic plastic plate, as described below. Sheet plastic may be obtained from art supply houses , glass shops , and plasti cs suppliers. It can be bought sized or can be cut to desired size wi th a saw or a lastic-cutting tool . Tools and Mat erials To prepare the plate : plastic plates , s harp tools such as scribers or etching needl es , file , mas king tape . To print: etching inks , appropriate s olvent such as mineral spirits , old phone book , Tarlatan or cheesecloth, papers , photographic tray or dishpan for soaking paper , newsprint or blotting paper , wringer type press or etching press with felt blanket . To dry prints: wooden or plastic clothespins can be used to hang prints for drying from a clothes line of cord or rope .

14Ross and Romano , The Complete Printmaker , pp . 8- 9 . 24 Procedure 1 . The selected drawing shoul d emphasize line , and it shoul d be remembered that the image will reverse . Cross­ hatching and other line techniques can be used for value areas . The drawing can be taped under the plastic plate to keep it immobile during the cutting process . The sharp tool is then used t o scratch the image into the surface of the plastic . A change in line thickness can be achieved by consciously varying the amount of pressure exerted when carving . The edges of the plate may need to be filed to prevent cutting the paper during printing, depending on the thickness of the plastic plate. A plate 1/ 16 inch thick or l ess probably will not need filing. 2. Prepare printing area, soak paper very briefly and blot . Leave in blotters until needed . Mat board scraps can be used to spread etching ink over the plate . Take care to see that ink i s forced into the channels of the design. Phone book pages can be used for prel iminary wiping of the surface, followed by careful cleaning with a Tarlatan or cheesecloth pad . Care is taken not to remove ink from furrows in plate . J . After placing the pl ate face up on the press bed , the dampened and blotted paper is carefully lowered over it . The felt bl ankets are pulled dovm over the paper, and the bed is rolled through the press with an even movement , with­ out stopping . The print is then removed for drying on a 25 clothesline or drying rack. The first print can be exam­ ined for any needed reworking of the plate. If all i s sat­ isfactory, the printing can continue until the edition is completed . If there is a delay in printing , the plate shoul d be thoroughly cleaned to prevent ink drying on the plate . (An old toothbrush is helpful in cleaning ink from the incised lines. ) After pulling the last print, the ink can then be left on the plate if desired . Experiments can be done on different types of paper. Very good results are obtained with an etching paper such as Arches , but experimentation is encouraged and can l ead to a variety of effects . 15 It is quite acceptable to hand-color intaglio prints, and watercolors or colored pencils can be used to enhance the prints, if desired . After drying , the prints should be properly signed by the artist and matted . A sample print is shown on page 26 .

15Nicholas Roukes , Crafts iD_J?l astics, ( New York: Watson Guptill Publications, 1972) PP• 28- ) 1. 26

Fig. 5. Shown is a plastic drypoint plate on the l eft, a handcolored drypoint print in the center , and a one color print on the right . Pencils were used on the print in the center to add color . CHAPTER IV

PLANOGRAPHIC PRINTMAKING Planographic printmaking, lithography, is based upon the antipathy between grease and water ; it is essentially chemical in nature . A lithographic drawing is made with a greasy material on the surface of a block of limestone , or a zinc , aluminum, or paper plate. After chemical treatment with gum arabic and nitric acid, an ink-charged roller is passed over the surface . Ink is accepted by the grease image and simulataneously repelled by the undrawn areas of the stone , which retain water. A print is obtained by placing a sheet of paper upon the inked stone , which sits on the bed of a lithographic press , and then running the stone and the paper, with the necessary backing, under the scrap­ ing pressure of the press. Lithography may be considered a surface phenomenon in that the image on the stone is neither above nor below but on the surface being printed . It is generally agreed that Alois Senefelder of Bava­ ria invented lithography in 1798 . He was one of several men who were trying to perfect and control a process for chemical printing from stone . The invention was a major one , not only as a new medium in the fine arts , but also as a step in the evolution of commercial printing. Senefelder 27 28 call ed the process polyautography, which means making of mul tiple copies from a handwritten or drawn original. At first the most immediate and practical use for lith­ ography was thought to be the reproduction of musical scores and dramas at prices that undercut the older printing system. Senefelder himself, as an author and an actor , was motivated toward this commercial advantage and quickly made connections with music publishers and printers in Germany and England . During 1800-1801 he visited England where he assisted Phil­ ipp Andre in setting up a lithographic press and advised artists of the process . Among others , American-born artist Benjamin West , a portraitist and painter of historical and mythological subjects , was one of the first to use the process . By chance , the lithographic process came into being almost simultaneously with the rise of Romanticism, and it offer ed artists of the movement an expressive means freer than woodcut or engraving and presenting far l ess resistance to the spontaneous action of the draftsman ' s hand . Exper­ imentation with the medium revealed endl ess possibilities foc dramatic tonal contrasts, fine- grained shading, and luscious blacks cut by fine white lines into the stone . For emotion­ al drive , the human sensibiliti es , the worship of nature , and the awakening social conscience of the times , litho- 29 graphy was well- suited . 16 The l ater development of lithography in Paris by major artists was noteworthy for the use of the media for its own intrinsic qualities . Gericault , Delacroix, Daumier , and later Rudolph Bresdin worked expressively in the medium , and even Goya in Bordeaux did some remarkable lithographs of bullfights in his later years . It was Daumier , through his creative use of the lith- ographic crayon and his wit , satire , and excellence at car- icature, who reached wide masses of people through his lith­ ographs in the daily and weekly newspapers . His total out­ put was close to four thousand lithographs . The full potential of the medium through color and washes was explored by major French painters such as Laut r eq Degas , Manet , Renoir , Pissarro , Cezanne , and Redon . During this period zince plates began to be used . 17 American-born artist James Abbott MacNeill Whistler created 166 lithographs of merit , working in London and Paris . In the United States, lithography flourished as a method that permitted widespread publication of popular images . Before the middle of the nineteenth century , a

16Jules Heller, Printmaking Today , pp . 17-20 . 17Ross and Romano, The Complete Printmaker, p . 191 . 30 fir m consolidated under the name of Currier & Ives and by 1857 had begun to issue lithographic prints for a wide mar- ket . The subjects, treated by a number of artists , covered a tremendous range of city views , rural scenes , Civil War engagements , ships , trains , architecture , and episodes of hunting, fishing , and genre narrative - all drawn on stone a nd ex ecuted in col or . Fanny Farmer was one of the most a ctive and prolific lithographers employed . She executed hundreds of stones in a distinctive style of her own . 18 In the early twentieth century the German expression­ ists used lithography with inventiveness and individualism. Emi l No l de , Ernst Kirchner , and Norwegian Edvard Munch pro- duced notable works . Picasso , the master graphic artist , was captivated by the possibilities of lithography and created innovative works in the 1940 ' s . There has been a rich resurgenc e of the medium , no t onl y in France after World War II , but also in England with notabl e works by Henry Moore , Graham Sutherland, and others . In the United States, independent workshops in the fifti es and sixties were extremely influential in involving the arti st in lithography . The Tamarind Lithography Work­ shop in Los Angel es was abl e , through private funding, to

18Jul es Hell er , Printmaking Todal , pp . 36- 37 · 31 commission both artists already involved in prints and pain~ ers and sculptors who had never done a print to experience the medium . The Pratt Graphics Center in New York City has been a lively workshop in which both American and foreign artists take classes in lithography or simply use the fine facil­ ities. Universal Limited Art Editions , located on Long Island , and directed by Tatyana Grossman, has publis hed editions of lithographs by painters and sculptors such as Robert Rauschenberg, Larry Rivers , Helen Fra nkenthaler , Grace Hartigan, Jasper Johns , and James Rosenquis t . The appearance of skilled artis t-printmaker s of lith­ ographs promises a rich potential for future expression and exploration. 19

THE PAPER PLATE LITHOGRAPH PRINT The development of a paper master for lithography occurred in the early 1960 ' s . The process , called Litho­ Sketch , uses a stiff paper master which is specially treated to hol d greasy lines made by litho pencils , crayons , or tusche which repel the water and attract the ink, t he basic principle and original method of stone lithography . The supplies necessary for the Litho-Sketch process are relatively inexpensive and are avail able from many art

19Ross and Romano, The Complete Printmaker, p . 192 . 32 suppliers . The process is quite suitable for school situ­ ations and has much potential . Tools and Materials To prepare the plate : Litho-Sketch Master paper plates (available in several sizes , and are easily cut) , marking tools such as litho crayons , litho pencils , liquid tusche , wax crayons . To print: Litho-Sketch plate solution, lithography ink , brayers , glass or plastic inking surface, gum arabic solu­ tion, cotton balls, rags , (or commercial paper wipes) , sponges , hard-surfaced printing paper , old magazines or newspapers to ink plates on, mineral spirits for cleaning, spoons or roller type press To dry prints: clothesline method or drying rack Procedure

1. Drawing is executed on the plate surface using litho pe~ cils and crayons , liquid tusche (with a drawing pen) , or waxy media such as standard crayons or cray-pas . Because the presensitized surface is sensitive to skin oils, it should be protected by a cover sheet . Sgraffito, or scratch­ ing techniques into value-developed areas , is also possible. Using a sharp tool for scratching, carefully avoid punctur­ ing the plate . If liquid tusche is used , it is important to allow it to dry completely . All images will be reversed . A Litho- Sketch eraser is available for removing images that 33 are unwanted, in a wet or dry state . Leaving a white border about one half inch from each edge will help in avoiding ink­ ing problems l ater . Gum solution may be applied to large areas of white surface to insure protection from ink pickup. 2 . The presensitized plate is desensitized by moistening the entire surface with Ensink Plate Solution , using a satu­ rated applicator (cotton or commercial wipe ) . The entire surface must remain moi st during t he subsequent inking of the plate, but not saturated. The non-image areas remain clear because the moisture lying in these areas rejects the oil-bas ink from the brayer. Keeping an adequate filrr of moisture on the plate surface whil e inking is the critical point of the lithographic process. Inadequate moisture control i s the cause of most beginners ' problems . 3. A stiff l itho ink must be used in the inking process , as etching or block printing ink will not work . The ink is roll ed out thinly on the inking sl ab . A soft printmaking brayer , or composition type roller , is used to ink the paper litho plate . The plate must r emain moist during the inking process . If any of the plate surface dries while ink roll­ ing , unmoistened image areas will fill in with unwanted ink. Overinked areas can be r eopened by wiping the pl ate surface agai n with a moistened applicator . Unwanted ink should wipe off filled-in areas after moisture is reintroduced to t he plate surface. Quick but gentl e passes with the inking J4 roller over the image areas will charge the drawing with ink. The brayer i s replenished with ink by re- rolling it on the inking slab . Keeping count of the number of ink passes across the i mage area is necessary for consistent inking throughout the e ntire edition. Initial proofs are usually light until an adequate l ayer of ink has been built up over the image . Full strength blacks should be available by the third proof , For most effective inking , the brayer should be as wide as the width of the image . It is difficult to ink a large image area with a small brayer because brayer lap marks will be difficult to roll out . The inked image is ready f or proofing . 4. Newsprint is recommended as the initial proofing paper. Any flat bed roller type printing pressure wil l work . Small etching presses work admirably . Spoons work satisfactorily on small prints . The freshly inked plate is placed on the press bed and is covered with proofing paper . Both are covered with a blanket layer of cushion papers and run through the press wi th moderate pressure . The print is re­ moved and the plate returned to the worktable for desensitiz­ ing and r ei nking. This procedure is repeated for each print . When the edition has been printed, the plate can be saved for future printing if the r esidue ink is removed by r unning the plate through the press with clean paper without r einking the image . The ent ire plate surface should be protected by 35 wiping a watery solution of gum arabic over it until the surface dries . The plate is then covered and stored. Al­ though paper pl ate editions are usuall y smaller than those achieved by using metal plates or stone , it depends upon the type of drawing, or the drawing materials used . Beginners should expect to get six to ten good prints . Identical procedures of drawing, desensitizing, inkin& and printing are utilized in color lithographic printing . As in other color additive processes , a system of registra­ tion must be developed so that color placement is control­ lable . The foll owing simple process is effective. Imagine we are editioning a three- color print; a yellow plate (plate 1) , a blue plate (pl ate 2) , and a r ed plate (plate J ). Prepare plate 1 and print the desired num­ ber of prints . While the ink is still damp , place a print face down on a clean, identical sized new Litho-Sketch plate. Run both through the printing press . Moist ink from the print will transfer to the clean plate surface (plate 2) and produce a visibl e transfer of the yellow image . Additional drawn areas are added to plate 2 and it is subsequently printed in blue . The blue image is printed on top of each yellow print . The only registration needed is to perfectly align the edges of plate 2 with the plate edge mark of plate 1 which remains visible due to the press pressure on the print paper . The internal configurations are in automatic 36 registration because the additive drawings have been placed on the new plate with the initial image in a fixed position. A moist proof of the blue image is positioned on the third clean plate and run through the press. Drawing is again added in reference to the blue image and the third plate (red) is printed over the first two colors. An internal im­ age regi stration has been accompl ished by registering to the emb ossed plate edges of the previous plates . In graphic terms , color addition is similar to silkscreen, woodcut, or linocut complexities . As is often the case , constraints of class time can be a significant factor governing students ' choice of color complexities. The paper lithography process allows students to de­ velop and reveal graphic ideas . Its flexibilities , modest cost , and satisfying results are most effective in intro- ducing the concepts and techniques of lithography . It allows the student to make and share a significant image 20 through graphic multiples . Figure 6 on page 37 shows two paper lithograph plates and prints from the plates.

20William Schulman, "Paper Plate Lithography ," School Arts , April 1980, PP· 34-37 · 37

Fig. 6 . In the center are two paper lithograph plates . Liquid tusche was used on the floral print , litho pencils were used on the portrait . CHAPTER V

STENCIL PRINTMAKING The stencil process can be traced back 20 , 000 years to the caves at Les Eyzies and Lascaux where prints of hands appear on the walls among the reindeer and horse paintings . These prints were stenciled by placing the hand on the wall of the cave and blowing pigments through a reed or hollow bone onto the area l eft uncovereed by the hand . The hand was then removed to reveal the stenciled print. For centu- ries the stencil was used for applying areas of color to walls , textiles , and furniture . The Egyptians and the Greeks used stencils to decorate their pots , fabrics , and buildings . Children of Roman times learned the letters of their alphabet by drawing through l ettered cut stencils. 21 Stencil printing in China and Japan was a highly devel­ oped technique . Intricate images of great delicacy and com­ plexity were cut from durable sheets of thin waterproof paper doubled . Freestanding stencil forms and thin linear areas were held together with fine threads of silk or human hair glued between the double s tencil paper . Sometimes the silk threads or hairs were attached to the stencils in a

21 Frances Lassiter and Norman Lassiter , Scr een Print­ ing - Methods and Materials, (Philadelphia: Hunt Manufactur- ing Co . 1978) P · 5· 38 39 regular grid so fine than when the stencil was printed on s i lk with delicate water-based colors or dyes the lines of the grid were never visible. Some sources feel that this mesh- like weave may have suggested the use of silk as a printing vehicle . In the Orient the stencil developed as both fine art and craft. Chinese and Japapnese artists and artisans used it to make stencil pictures and screens and to print fabrics for robes and decoration. European craftsmen adopted more utilitarian aspects of stencils. In Northern Europe stencils were used to color playing cards and religious pictures from woodblocks . Grad­ ually the craft began to be used to enhance furniture , fab­ rics, and wallpaper . In France stenciled wallpaper enjoyed great popularity under the inventive development of Jean Papillon. Oiled paper stencils and then metal stencils were often used to make intricate designs. Homes in New England

in the eighteenth and ear~y nineteenth century were filled with stenciled papers , walls, textiles , and furnishings . The earliest documentation of a patent for a silkscreen process is the record of one awarded to Samuel Simon of Man ­ chester , England , in 1907 . Simon ' s patent covered a screen, but did not use a squeegee . He employed a brush similar to that used in stenciling to distribute the paint. Improve­ ments and developments spread fairly rapidly in spite of 40 the early secretiveness about the new process. Th e silk­ screen had obvious comm ercial application. 22 Since screen printing does not involve indirect trans­ fer by extreme pressure as other processes do , it is not con­ fined to paper . The fact that the image does not reverse also makes the medium very versatile . Screen printing can be applied to almost any surface - glass , fabric , wood, met- al , and plastic , to mention but a few . There can be little wonder why it was seized upon by commercial printers. Its unique characteristics ma6e it capable of successfully com­ peting with other printing processes . Screen printing is used on items all around us - wallpaper , bumper stickers, decals , signs , posters , T- shirts, bottles, cans , highway and traffic signs , pennants , boxes , greeting cards , and , of 2 course , fine art prints. J The evolution of the stencil process into a unique fine arts med i um was , however, a development that took place mainly in the United States in the 19JO ' s , when it came to the fore with astonishing rapidity . In a sense it was a product of the economic crisis, for it grew out of the great stimulus of the WPA Federal Arts Project. About two years after the project was initiated, a separate screen printing unit of the New York City WPA Art Project was set up with

22Ross and Romano , The Complete Printmaker, pp . 149- 50. 2JLassiter and Lassiter, Screen Printing. p . 5 . 41 Anthony Velonis as its head , and much as owed to his pio­ neering technical and aesthetic achievements . Museums and critics began to show interest in silkscreening , and Carl Zigrosser, art historian and curator, christened the term serigraph to identify the new prints . "Seri" is from the Latin work meaning silk, and "graph" i s from the greek graphos , meaning to draw or write. This versatile process offers challenging color poss­ ibilities, adaptability to new materials and still newer aesthetic cons iderations , and richly satisfying optical effects. 24

THE SCREEN PRINT one of t he many advantages of screen printing is that it does not r equire elaborate mechanical apparatus . The necessary equipment can be simple , quite inexpensive , and portable . The basic printing unit cons i sts of a fabric­ covered frame , the scr een, which is hinged to a baseboard, upon which the printing is done , and a squeegee , which i s used to apply the ink. Tools and Materials To prepare the scr een: purchased prepared screen, or pre-cut wood strips, pine or redwood frame lumber; synthetic fabric , tacks , staples and staplegun, or cord for attaching fabric ;

24Jules Heller, Printmaking Today , p . 271 . 42 gummed paper tape ; shellac or urethane varmish; plywood or other suitable material for baseboard; loose pin hinges, bol ts . To prepare the image on the screen: waxed paper or tracing paper ; masking tape; exacto knife ; cardboard; liquid block­ out ; brushes . (Several stencil methods will be described . ) To print: squeegee; water-based or oil- based inks ; textile inks for fabric; paper; rags and paper towel s ; solvents for cleaning purposes . Procedure 1. Finished screens can be purchased, or can be built with less expense . Pre-cut grooved and miter ed l umber strips are available from art suppliers in many s i zes . Pine or redwood strips can also be cut and used. Joining is done with nails, corrugated stapl es , or screws . Mitered corners can be strengthened with glue . Synthetic fabrics are suit­ able for school use and can be purchased in coarse to very fine weaves . Common methods of attaching fabric to the frame are with tacks , staples, and a cord and groove method . The damp fabric is stretched and tacked down in the centers of each side , and gradually fastened toward each corner . Gummed paper tape should be used to seal the edges wh ere the frame and the fabric meet . Then shellac or urethane varnish is used to seal the tape , using several coats . The other major component of the printing unit is the 43 baseboard which holds the screen and forms the printing sur­ face . The printing area must be flat and smooth since i t supports the paper and carries the registration tabs for accurate stencil alignment . The base should be several inch- es longer and wider than the largest print to be used on it, and can be made of plywood or other suitable materials . The screen frame is attached to the hinge bar on the base with loose-pin hinges to allow for easy removal . The hinge bar ~ The same thickness as the frame , and it is bolted to the base with carri age bolts . A kick-leg can be added to the side of the screen with a screw to support the screen when removing prints from base.

, - squeegee

Fig. 7. A common screen printing set- up .

2 . The stencil functions as a mask with open areas which a llow ink to pass through to the paper or other material beneath it . The covered areas act as a mask which blocks the flow of ink . There are four basic screen printing stencil types : hand cut , block- out , tusche resist and photo- 44 graphic . The hand cut and block- out methods require a min­ imal amount of materials for school use and are recommended, but the photographic and tusche resist method should al so be explored if time and materials allow. Kits are available for photo- silkscreen methods from art suppliers . Each meth­ od will be descreibed briefly: A. The hand cut stencil involves cutting a mask in paper or a special fil m stencil made specifically as a sep­ arate el ement for screen printing. After it has been cut , the stencil is attached to the screen. The hand cut paper stencil i s the s i mplest form of stencil. A heavy tracing paper can b e used . It is placed over the art work for trac­ ing the i mage . The paper is then placed on cardboard and cut with a v ery sharp exacto knife . The adhesive nature of the i nk will hol d the stencil in place under the screen for a small number of prints . Glue or rubber cement can be used to attach paper stencils to the screen. Masking tape and adhesive backed papers can also be used as paper stencils . The othe r hand cut stencil method involves a commercially prepared film lightl y bonded to a transparent plastic back­ ing sheet. Wat er-sol ubl e and l acquer films are available . After the stencil is cut and the printing area is pulled away and discarded, the fil m i s adhered to the screen with the appropriate solvent , with rags or paper towels. The plastic backing can then be removed . 45 B. The direct block-out method fills in the areas not to be printed. The image to be printed is placed under the screen and traced on to the screen with a soft pencil . The screen is then pla ced on small blocks so that i t does not touch the surface below it. A sui tabl e liquid block- out material is used , with appropriate sized brushes , to fill in areas not to be printed . Mor e t han one coat may be needed. The screen is then dried and is ready to print. C. The tusche resist stencil also works directl y on the fabric. The design is traced on to the screen with a soft p encil , then liquid tusche is painted into the areas t hat are to be printed . After drying, (a fan may be used) , a water soluble glue i s s queegeed with a stiff piece of card­ board across the entire inside of the screen fabric . When thoroughly dry , the screen is placed flat on a pad of news­ papers , and mineral spirits or turpentine are poured into

the screen to saturate it. Since the gl~ e is water soluble , the mineral spirits will not affect it. However , with a lit­ tle light rubbing, the solvent dissolves the tusche which is soluble in it. When t he tusche has been comple tely removed,

the screen will ~av e open areas for ink to pass through , while the gl ue will act as a screen filler. A similar meth­ od employing a drawing fluid and scr een filler is available

from Hunt Speedball Co . D. In the direct photographic stencil method , a thick liquid 46 emulsion is used to coat the cl ean screen fabric directly . The coated screen is dried away from light and heat . Then a positive image , either photographic or hand- drawn, is placed on the dried emulsion and exposed to a light source . After exposure , the screen is washed and the warm water re­ moves any parts of the stencil that were masked by the pos­ itive . The screen is dried and any area, space , or pinhol e not inteded for print i ng is filled in with screen filler . In the indirect method, a film i s used which comes in sheet or roll form . It is composed of a gelatin- like substance coated on a clear plastic backing. The film is cut slight­ ly l arger than the image . The film and the positive are placed in contact with each other, usual ly in a vacuum frame or under wei ghted gl ass , and exposed to the light source . Then the film is treated in a sensitizer bath , a solution of peroxide and water . The next step is to gently wash the film side with warm water . The wet film is placed on a pad of newspaper and the screen is lowered gently into the damp emulsion, which adheres to it . Any pinholes are blocked with screen filler . The "positive" referred to can be an actual photographic image on a clear base film or an image dravm on acetate with an opaque ink . The light , during exposure , hardens any unblocked positive areas . J . Before the printing is begun it is important to have all the required materials conveniently at hand . This includes 47 the s queegee , the ink, masking tape , newspaper , paper towels, scissors, and the correct solvent for ink. After the sten­ cil is made and the scr een properly set up on the base , the printing operation is quite simpl e . Many screen printers employ the "off - contact" technique of printing. This in­ volves creating a situation whereby the screen, when lowered to the printi ng position does not make contact with the pa­ per until it is forced down by the squeegee . Pieces of car~ board are inserted under the hinge bar and small strips of cardboard are taped to the two opposite corners of the screen frame . This keeps the screen, when lowered to the printing position, from touching the surface by about one ei ghth inch. Because t he screen does not touch the paper until forced down by the squeegee, the printed edges will be cleaner and sharper. This avoids a double image from the previous print ' s ink . Registration tabs are attached to the base , as shown in Fig. 7, page 4J . Tabs are made from thin, stiff cardboard or plastic and are taped down . This is necessary for proper alignment of subsequent colors . The printing operation begins with ink poured into the edge of the screen. The screen is raised one to two inches and the squeegee pulls the ink from one side of the screen to the other leaving a thin film of ink on top of the stencil . Th~ is called the "flood strol e " - its purpose is to fill the open image area with ink. Then the screen is allowed to 48 rest on the kick- l eg while a sheet of paper is positioned. The screen is lowered gently to the printing position. The squeegee is used to pull the ink back across the screen with a firm , steady stroke . This forces the ink through the ste~ cil and prints the image on the paper; this is called the "printing stroke." The whole process is repeated until the desired number of images have been printed. After the print­ ing operations , screens shoul d be thoroughly cleaned and the stencils r emoved for future use of the screen. 25

The screen printing process offers the student and ar~ ist unli mited possibilities to explore . In a school situa­ t ion, the process is suitable for prints, posters , fabric desi gning, banners , T- Shirts, pillows , and other uses .

Figure 8 on page L~9 shows a print using a photographic stencil combined with lacquer film stencil for large color areas . Figure 9 is an example using a liquid block-out stencil .

25Lassiter and Lassiter , Screen Printing - Contemporary Methods and Materials , PP• 6- 40 . Pig . 8 . In this seriFraph , l~cqucr film stencil waG used for the large color areas . A photoGraphic stencil was used for the line work , printed in black .

Pig. 9 . A liquid block-out stencil was used for this print . The metal­ lic gold oil-based ink was printed over water based iM . CHAPTER VI

COLLAGRAPH PRINTMAKING

The term collagraph was first applied to collage prin~ by Gl en Alps . A teacher at the University of Washington in 1956 , Alps was conducting the experiments he has described thus : Some of the experiments incl uded the printing of natural and man- made textures , surfaces , cutout shapes , areas , and forms by roll-up, rubbing, relief , and in­ taglio methods of printing . Most of these wPre printed as loose , individual pieces in arranged complcm~nts . Then the impression was evaluated , selected, cut up , rearranged , and gl ued to form collage units . The n ext step was obvious . We f elt the n~ctssity to a rrange these final impressions into more substan­ tial , physically immobile arrangements . To accomplish this , we stapled or glued them to plywood , Upsom board , cardboa r d , or Masonite panels . A~ proofs were pulled , and techniques improved, the knowledge of the potential of thi s procedure grew into an overwhe l min~ conviction that our experiments were l eading to a vital force in contemporary graphi cs . During thi s period of experimenting, our group real­ ized that we must have a name for our new approach, or philos ophy . After enthusiastic d~scuss~o': , it w~s.u ­ nanimo us l y agreed that we call th1s add1t1ve pos1t1ve way of developing a matrix collagraphy . The first works called collagraphs were exhibited in the Northwest Printmakers Annual at the University of \•/ash- ington in 1957 . In 1958 Alps ' Collagraph No . 12 was shown 26 in the Brooklyn National Print Exhibition .

26Jules Heller , Printmaking Today, pp . 178-179 . 50 51 The i nnovating experiments with collage and assemblage by the earl y twentieth century artists Picasso , Matisse , and Gris did much to open the way for the later printmaker ' s use of unorthodox materials . This freedom of concept and use of mater ials had a direct influence on many contemporary printmakers . 27 Diverse materials such as fabric , masonite , tape , met- al, and found objects are just some of the materials used for construction of a coll agraph plate . Collagraphy is a technique to stimulate discovery and expression. The mater­ ial s are inexpensive yet rich in tactile quality . They can yiel d designs of extreme simplicity or complexity but all can achieve successful statements of shape and form. While sel ecti ng found objects and a variety of materials , students become original and inventive . In the process of construction, otherwise ordinary materials take on new meaning. Designs are built which , when printed , produce subtle values of white and black or color. Mani pulation of the materials within the additive process provides a sense of visual design not easily atta~ in other media . Since there are many materials and methods of constru~ tion for a collagraph plate, students must be aware of the

27John Ross and Clare Romano , The Complete New Tech­ ni ~ ues in Printmaking, (New York: The Free Press, 1974, p . JO. 52 problems they generate . A simple fabric can emit rich tex­ tural effects that dominate the student instead of being a vehicle for personal expression. It is wise , therefore , to do more with less! If levels of materials are built too high, the plate will not flow freely under the printing pres s . All surfaces , unless necessary to produce an inher- ent va l ue , must be made non-porous to stand up to the oil based inks and solvents used in printing . There are , then, concerns with the process but nothing that stands in the way of completing successful pieces of art . The l earning and creativity that emerGe are well wort.h the studen ' s effort , energy , and skill . Drawing, relief scul pture , and the process of printmaking merge for positive 28 and handsome results .

THE COLLAGRAPH PRINT The collagraph print is an excellent printmaking ac­ t ivity which employs both relief and intaglio techniques . The process i s r el atively inexpensive , considering the in­ credible range of materials which may be used . Tools and Materials To prepare the plate: thin Masonite, plexiglas, or heavy cardboard for base ; a variety of papers and mat board scraps;

28Jack Zichitella, "Collagraphs , " Arts and Activities , November 1979 , PP · 28 - 29 · 53 fabrics , trims , laces ; tapes; modeling paste; sandpaper; found objects such as washers and coints ; sci ssors and exac­ to knives ; gesso and polymer medium; white gl ue ; brushes ; s i ngle- edged razor blades ; spray plastic sealer. To print: phone book pages : oil-based and water-based inks ; s tiff brushes ; brayers ; approproate solvents ; inking slab: Tarl atan or cheesecloth; wringer type press or etching press with felts (a piece of sheet foam rubber one fourth inch or thicker will aid in printing collagraphs ) Procedure 1. A preliminary sampl er collagraph can be made to under s t and the way the materia ls will print . On the chosen base , glue a variety of materials down . Cuts can be added to the surface to produce intaglio lines . Modeling paste , gesso , and glue can be brushed on to give variety to the line or mass . Materials such as sand , coffee grounds and sawdust will g ive t extural interest. Al low the materials to dry well and then seal the surface with a spray plastic sealer or polymer medium . If Masonite is used as a base , it may need to be beveled on the edges to ease printing and to avoid sharp pl ate marks in the f elts . 2 . Ink can first be applied with small squares of cut mat board . A stiff brush will help to fill in deeper areas . The plate shoul d then be wiped with Tarlatan or cheesecloth , 54 f ollowed by phone book pages . A brayer is then used to ink the relief surface areas . Place the plate on the press bed . Dampened and blotted paper is placed over the plate, and a piece of foam should be placed over paper if available .

The ~e l t blankets are then pulled down . Experimentation will determine the correct pressure. The plate is run through the press . When correct pressure is determined , continue r e-inking to print the edition. After the prints are dry , they can be signed and matted as in other printmaking processes . For multicolor printing, it may be helpful to cut the plate apart with a saw . After inking it can be reassembled 29 for printing on the bed of the press . The collagraph continues to be an exciting method for students and artists to explore, and it is very adaptible to a school situation.

29Ross and Romano , Xhe Complete Nbw Technigu~s in Printmaking , pp . JJ- )8 . CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION This study was undertaken to develop a printmaking curriculum for a high school art education program. Se­ lected activities have been described which the author feels can be realistically and successfully accomplished without great expense . Budget limitations are one factor that must be considered by most art teache rs . The history and art appreciation aspcch of printmaking are very important and should be allowLd adequate class time. Reproductions and slides can be shown to allow the student to develop a better understanding of the similarities and differences in printmaking methods , and to study composition and use of subject matter . Films and filmdtrips are avail­ able covering printmaking methods and techniques . A know­ l edge of the correct terms associated with printmaking should be developed, and a familiarity with the major print­ makers who wer e instrumental in the evolution of the art . Critiques and discussi ons should be conducted as learning tools . The reading of current art periodicals and visits to museums will build an awareness of continuing develop­ ments . Invitations to professional printmakers should be extended to visit the class or speak to a school group . 55 56 Exhibits and sales can be sponsored throughout the year, and demonstrations are recommended for the education of other s . At a high school in Austin, Texas , the art de­ partment has been able to raise funds for equipment and supplies thr ough print sales at the school and in local gal l eri es . The students can donate one print to the depart­ ment , and will still have the rest of the 8dition to sell, trade with other students , or give as gifts . Proper mat~ng t echni ques shoul d be observed . The area of printmaking has tremendous potential for self-expression and personal awareness by the student , and experimentation with new ideas should always be encouraged . It is hoped that this study will provide helpful information in the formulation of a curriculum model in printmaking as a depth program at the high school level . APPENDIX A

A COMPARISON OF ORIGINAL GRAPHIC ARTS PROCESSES

57 A CO MPARIS ON OF ORIGINAL GRAPHIC ARTS PROCESSES PROCESS RELIEF I NTAGLIO PLANOGRAPHIC STENCI L A. Wo odcut Etching Linoleum Cut Engraving Lithography Serigraphy or CO MMON Embossing Drypoint Screen Printi ng NArl!E : B. Wood Engr av- Aqua tint i ng COLLO ~ RAPH

WHAT AREA ~:, e§s: PRINTS : ~ ~ ~~21 Prints what i s Prints what i s Prints what i s Prints open l eft of the below the sur- dra\'m on the a r eas of the ori ginal surface face of plate surface stencil I

A. Spoon, Baren Etching Press Litho Press Screen and \..}\ 0) TYPE B. Washi ngton (Clotheswringer (sl idi ng, scrap- Squeegee , by OF Press , Letter- type) ing pressure) hand PRESS : pr~="SS + 8 ~ 6-· • I • A. Plank- grain Limestone , Copp-,r, Silk, Nylon, MATERIALS : Wood Zinc , Alum- Organdie , Linoleum Zinc , Plastics, inum Plates , Synthetics B. ~nd-grain etc . e-cc . ~Jood

Knif'"' , :tchir.g N- cdle , Litno Crayons , Squeegee, BJ\SIC Gou:="e , Burin , Burin, Acid , Tusche, Litho Screen, Tusche, TOOLS : etc . Grounds , etc . Inks , etc . Glue , Lacquer Film, Blackout , etc . APPENDIX B

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES OF PRINTMAKING CURRICULUM

59 60 EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES OF PRINT MAKING CURRICULUM Printmaking is any method in which an artist ART makes multiple original images from one orib­ CONCEPT inal design , increasing the availability of art for private ownership .

The l earner will produce editions of prints BEHAVIORAL d emonstrating knowledge of printmaking OBJECTIVES processes , craftsmanship, and l abeling.

A. Rel ief print - linoleum plate, carving tools , brayer , ink PROCESS B. I ntaglio - plasLic plate, etching needle c. Lithography - cardboard litho plate , plate s olution, litho ink D. Stencil - silkscreen fram.:. , sq·a cree E . Collograph - mat board , fabric , modeling paste A. Relief - linoleum print, embossing B. Intaglio - drypoint print PRODUCT c . Lithography- lithograph print o. Stencil - serigraph E . Collograph - collograph print

Identify the terms : edition, brayer , CR ITICAL baren, s queegee , registration , etc . DEVELOPMENT

CULTURAL Knowledee of work by such arti~ts as DEVELOPMENT Ourer , Toulouse-Lautrec , Gaugu1n , Escher , Picasso . 1

l sonni e Wilder , Curriculum Development Project , University of Houston, Houston, Texas , 1979 . APPENDIX C

SOURCES FOR PRINTMAKING SUPPLIES

61 SOURCES FOR PRINTtv!AKING SUPPLIES

Advanc e Process Suppl y Co . , 2626 Brenner Dr . , Dallas, Tx . 75220 (screen printi ng supplies) Dick Blick Co ., P . O. Box 1267 , Galesburg , Ill ., 61401 (gen · ) The Cra f t ool Co . , 1427 W. 240th St ., Harbor City , Calif. (general) Colonial Printing Ink Co ., Inc . , 180 E. Union Ave , East Rutherford, N. J , 07073 (screen printing ) Sam Flax Co . , 25 E . 28th St . , New York , N.Y. 10016 (general) Graphic Chemical and Ink Co . , 728 N. Yale Ave . , Villa Park, Ill. 60181 ( gener a l) Hunt Mfg . Co . , 1405 Locust St., Phila. , Pa . 19102 (general) Litho-Sketch Co r p . , 400 w. Mad ison, Chicago , Ill . 60606 (paper plate lithography supplies ) Nasco , 1524 Princ eton Ave . , Modesto , Calif. 95352 (general) Naz-Dar Co . , 1087 N. North Branch St . , Chicago , Ill . , 60622 (s creen printing) New York Central Supply , 62 Third Ave ., New York , N. Y. 10003 (genera l) Rembra ndt Graphic Arts Co . , Inc . Stockton , N.J . 08559 (gen.) Strathmore Paper Co ., West Springfield , Mass ., 01089 (papers) Triarco Arts & Cr afts , 14650 28th Ave . North , Plymouth, Mn . 55441 (general)

62 APPENDIX D

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS AND SOURCES

6J AUDIO-V ISUAL AIDS AND SOURCES Col or Reproductions Art Education, Inc ., Blauvel t , N.Y. 1091) Artext Prints , Inc ., Westport , Conn . 06880 Associated Ame r ican Artists , Inc . , 66) Fifth Avenue , New Yor k , N.Y . 10022 Me t ropoli t a n Museum of Art Book and Art Shop, Fifth Avenue a nd 82nd St., New York , N. Y. 10028 New York Gr aphic Society, 140 Greenwich Avenue, Greenwich , Conn . 068)0 Reinhold Publi shi ng Co ., 4)0 Park Avenue , New York , N. Y. 10022 Uni ver s ity Prints , 15 Brattle Street, Harvard Square , Cam­ br i dge , Mass . 02138

Fil ms a nd Filmstrips Graphi c Ch emical & Ink Co . has available several movies and f ilmstrips availabl e on a free r ental basis . The only re­ quire ment i s a prompt return with $)00 inGurancl . Address i s on suppliers listing. The movies ar~ : Color Lithography - an Art Medium; Etching and Color Intagl1o ; Screen Printin by Hunt / Speedball ; The Collagraph ; The Printmaker . The fil ms t rips are : How To Do : Creative Printmak~r ; Screen Process Printing. These are booke~ well 1n advance , alter­ nat e request dates should be suppl1ed .

The Art and Cr aft of Printmaking by Arik Kilemnik and ~duca­ tiona l Des ign, Inc ., New York . This filmstrip/cassette spot­ lights linol eum bl ock and woodcut relief printmaking.

Printmaking - Four A r ~ists , Fo~r Me~ia , produce~ by BFA , 1968 . 16mm color film, 19 ffilnutes . c xpla1ns four bas1c methods .

Artist ' s Proof, by Robert Erskine , color fil~ , 25 minutes . Six Brit i sh artis t s demonstrate a woodcut , lithograph , etch­ ing aquatint engraving, and silkscreen . Distributed in the ' unit ed St ~t es by Brandon Films , J4 ~acQuesten Parkway So uth , Mt . Vernon, N. Y. 10550 .

64 APPENDIX E

A GLOSSARY OF PRI NTMAKING TERMS

65 A GLOSSARY OF PRINTMAKING TERMS

1. ~qu a t i nt : an intaglio process in which a porous ground of r es1n or ot her substances is applied to a plate, heated , and etched ; produces a range of tonal values . 2. Arti st ' s proof : a proof reserved for the artist for his own record or use , excluded from the numbering of the edi­ tion. J . Ba r en: a s l ightly convex tool with a handle which is used f or burni shing the back of the paper in relief printing. 4. Bench hook: a safety device used to keep a wood or lino­ leum bl ock from slipping during cuLting, made by faGtcning t wo cl eats at opposite ends and sides of a board . 5. Bl ankets : rectangl es of felt (or foam rubber) used be­ t ween t h e paper and the roller in an etching pres~ . u~u~lly t hree blankets are used : the s i zing catch~r , next to the paper , the pusher, and the cushion . 6. Bon a tirer: (Fre nch , " good to pull ." ) A proof so labeled by the artist to indicate that the quality of the printing meets his requirements and that it may ~erve as the st~ndard for pri nti ng the edition. Also called printer ' s proof. ?. Ca ncellation proof: a proof mad e from a defaced stone , plate , bl ock , or screen, to show that no furlh~r prints can be made from the original art work . 8 . Collagraph : a print pulled from a surface built up in the col lage manner . 9 . Desensiti ve : in lithography , to treat a drawing on a stone or plate with acidified gum etch so that th~ undrawn areas become insensitive to grease and will not print. 10 . Dr ypoi nt : an intaglio process in which the plate is need­ led with a steel point , inked , wiped, and printed. The burr cr eated by the cut of the need~e provides.a.warm, velvety l i ne , but tends to break down 1n large ed1t1ons . 11 . Ed iti on: t he total number of prints pulled and authenti­ cated by the artist for . distribution. The eleventh print in an edi tion of fifty 1s numbered as follows : 11/50 . 12 . Emb ossing: creating a raised image or design element in the surface of a print . In blind embossing, the raised 66 67 el ement is printed without ink and thus appears white (or paper color. )

1J. Eng~av~n~ : in t~ e in~a glio and r eliev e processes , the act of 1nc1s1ng a l 1ne w1th a burin or graver into a metal plate or the end-grain block of wood .

1L~ . Etching : an intagl io process in which a n acid-resistant ground is a pplied to a plate , an image is cut into the ~r ound with a needl e , and acid is applied to bite the image 1nto the plate for printing . 15 . Intaglio: one of the four major divisions of print­ making , in which an image is either cut or bitt~n with acid into a metal plate . Ink i s forced into the lines of the image , the surface of the plate is wiped clean, and th~ print i s made wi th the pressure of an etching prL~~ . 16. Linoleum cut: a relief print made from an image cut on a pi ece of battleship linoleum , also called linocut . 17 . Lithography: one of the four major printmaking division in which a drawing is made with a greasy substance on a stone or plate . The surface i s then treated so that the image accepts ink and the non-image areas rep~l ink , and the print is made wit h a lithographic press . 18 . Planographic printing : printing fron a flat surface ; l ithography . 19 . Proof: an impression made an any stage of the work from an i nked stone , plate , bl ock, or screen ; not part of an edition of prints . 20 . Pull: To make a print by transferring ink to the paper .

21 . Re lief printing : one o~ the ~our ~ajor divisions of printmaking , in which the 1mage 1s pr1nt:d ~rom the surface of a wood or linoleum block (or other ma~erla l) , the non­ printing areas having been cut a way .

22 . Registration: placement . of th e . pap ~r , when. printing, so that each succeeding color 1mpress1on 1s made 1n correct r elationship to the first one . 23 . Serigraphy: a t erm originated by Carl Zigrosser for screen printing as a fine arts medium . 24 . Solvent : a liquid capable of dissolving another sub- 68 stance; mineral spirits ca n be used as a solvent for oil­ based printing inks . 25 . Squeegee : a tool consisting of a flat wood en bar with a rubber blade ; used to apply ink in stencil printing. 26 . Stencil printing : one of the four major divisions of printmaking , in which paint or ink is forced with a squeegee through the f abric screen onto the paper . The non-image areas are blocked out on the screen by applying a paper stencil , film , glue , or other specoally prepared products . 27 . Tusche : Grease in liquid or stick form, used in making lithograph drawings ; also used in serigraphy . 28 . Woodcut : A relief print made from a plank grain wood block cut with burins or other tools .

SOURCE : Jules Hell er , Printmaking Todal , ( New York : Holt , Rinehart and Winston, 1972 ) , PP · JJ2-J Jl ~ . 70

Nationa~ Art Education Association. Art Education: Senior H1gh School . Washington., D. C. : NAEA , 1972 .

National A~t Education Association . jhe Essentials of a Quallty School Art Program : A Position Statement by the National Art Education Association . Virginia : NAEA , 1979 . O'Connor , John. Introducing Relief Printmaking. New York : Watson Guptill Publications , 197).

Reid , jr., William . The Art of Prinlmaking. Maine : J , Weston Walch , Publisher , 1974 . Rhein, Erich . The Art of Printmaking . New York1 Van Nos­ trand Reinhold, 1976 . Ross , John and Romano , Cl are . The Complete Printmaker . New York: The Free Press , 1972 . Ross , John, and Romano , Clare . The Complete New Tt•chniques in Pr intmaking . New York: The Free Press , 1974 . Roukes , Nicholas . Crafts in Plastics . New York: Watson Guptill Publications , 1972 .

Russ , Stephen . Fabric Printin~ by Hand . New York : Wat.:;on Guptill Publications , 19 2.

Schachner , Er win . Step by Step Printmakin6 • New York 1 The Golden Press , 1970 . Searl e , v., and Clayson, R. Screen Printing on Fabric . New York : Watson Guptill Publicat1ons , 19o8 . Schulman , Wi lliam . "Paper Plate Lithography , " School Arts (April 1980) : J4- J7 . Stevens , Harold . Transfer: Designs , Textur~s , and Images . Massachusetts : Davis Publicat1ons , 1974 . Stoltenberg, Donald . Collagraph Printmaking. Massachusetts: Davis Publications, 1975 · Termini , Maria . Silk Scr eening . New Jersey : Prentice-Hall , Inc ,, 1978 : Texas Education Agency . Education Through Art : Secondary School . Bulletin 697 , Austin, Texas : TEA , 19?0 . 71 Tri tten, Gottfried . Teaching Color and Form in the Sec­ .ondary School . New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold , 1975 . Wasserman, Burton. Exploring the Visual Arts . Massachu­ setts: Davis Publications, I nc .• 19?6 . Wi l der . Bonnie . Curriculum Development Proj Gc t . Univ. of Houston. Houston, Texas , 1979 . Zichitella, Jack . "Collagraphs . " Arts and Activities . (Nov . 1979) : 28-29 . Zigrosser, Carl . A Guide to the Collecting and Care of Original Prints . New York: Crown Publishers. 1965 .