Social Integration Feasibility of Free-Ranging Dogs for Animal Welfare, Public Health, and Conservation Benefits

A Major Qualifying Project submitted to the Faculty of WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degrees of Bachelor of Science in Biology and Biotechnology and Environmental and Sustainability Studies Submitted on April 7, 2020

Submitted by: Urmila Mallick

Project Advisor: Professor Marja Bakermans, BBT, EVS

Acknowledgements There are numerous people, organizations, (and free-ranging dogs) without whom this project would have been impossible. I want to sincerely thank them for their continuous support and contributions toward this project.  Professor Marja Bakermans, my project advisor, for giving me constant feedback and support, and always challenging me to push the boundaries.  Kristin Hartness, for inspiring a significant portion of this project and supporting me throughout its development  Professor Khalid Saeed, for his extensive insight and expertise in system dynamics and its applications for this project  WPI’s Women’s Impact Network for the Women’s Young Investigator Fellowship, funding this project in 2019-2020 to keep it moving forward.  My parents, for actively supporting my research and travel in India  Pranjal Baruah and Lakhi Nandan Baruah at Kaziranga National Park for sharing their experiences and expertise in anti-poaching conservation work  Meghna Basu Mallick, Proshenjit Bishnu, Sajal Kumar Mandal, and Soumendranath Dey at Kolkata Police for sharing their experiences and insight in groundbreaking K9 training work  Chandrima Home, Meghna Uniyal, Christina Taddei, and Abhi Tamim Vanak for their guidance and expertise in various fields  Asha, Quarmy, and all the free-ranging dogs throughout India, who with their actions and experiences motivated the entirety of this project and all future endeavors to improve the lives of millions of stray animals

Table of Contents Acknowledgements 2 Table of Contents 3 List of Figures and Tables 4 Introduction 5 Chapter 1: Literature Review 7 I. The Free-Ranging Dog (FRD) 7 Characteristics and Social Dynamics 7 Population Estimation 9 II. Interactions and Impacts of FRD 10 FRD-Human Interactions and Public Health Consequences 10 FRD-Wildlife Interactions and Conservation Concerns 12 III. The Current Situation 13 India’s Stray Dog Policies in WHO Context 13 Population Reductions Methods, Interventions, and Results 15 IV. Potential Means of Social Integration for Indian FRD 17 Current Experimental Attempts in India 17 Potential Conservation Applications 18 Psychological Health in India 19 a. Stigma and Efforts 19 b. Medical Services and Therapy Applications 20 V. Barriers to Overcome for FRD Integration 21 Chapter 2: FRD Observational Study and Public Perceptions 23 Abstract 23 Introduction 23 Methods 25 Results 28 Discussion 36 Chapter 3: FRD Social Integration System Dynamics Model 38 Abstract 38 Introduction 38 Methods 40 Results 41 Discussion 47 References 48 Appendices 55 Appendix A: FRD Observation Data- Google Earth Maps 55 Appendix B: R Code for Statistical Analyses 58 Appendix C: Kolkata Public Survey Questionnaire 59 Appendix D: Indian (International) WPI Students’ Survey Questionnaire 59

List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: The Indian Pariah Dog. 7 Figure 2. Selected images of Indian dog breeds: Jonangi, Bakharwal, Tibetan 8 Spaniel, Rajapalayam, and Himalayan Mastiff, from top left to bottom right. Figure 3. Map of estimated canine rabies deaths as a global comparison. 11 Figure 4. Map showing the routes of sites 1 (Dum Dum Cantonment) and 2 26 (Prince Anwar Shah Area). Figure 5. Example of site maps: site 1 trial 1 and site 2 trial 1 maps shown above 29 with land use designation and observation points. Figure 6: FRD survey count results from all sites and trials, categorized by points of 30 observation. Figure 7: Overall FRD distribution across land use types in sites 1 and 2. 31 Figure 8: Boxplots of male and female dog density (+SE) distribution found across 32 land use types in sites 1 and 2. Figure 9: Selected images from FRD survey trials. 33 Figure 10: Selected charts showing (a) level of fear for FRD, (b) level of fear for 35 pedigreed dogs, and (c) reasons of fearing strays. Figure 11: STELLA model sectors 1 and 2, showing policies and testing/training 44 methods for population management and social integration. Figure 12: STELLA model sector 3, showing selected FRD interactions and impacts 45 on humans and wildlife.

Table 1. FRD observation metrics with terminology and purpose, modified from the 27 WSPA’s FRD population survey guide and Hiby & Hiby (2017). Table 2. Land use designation for sites 1 and 2, modified from Anderson et al. (1976). 29 Table 3. Key takeaways from SASA survey responses. 35

Introduction Problem Statement The free-ranging dog (FRD) or stray population in India, estimated to be between 30 and 60 million, rises steadily due to the lack of a comprehensive population management intervention. The FRD population, consisting of the native Indian pariah dogs, mixed-breed dogs, and abandoned foreign pedigreed dogs, face harsh welfare conditions and simultaneously jeopardize public health and safety for humans through disease transmission and territorial behavior. As both human commensals and independent roamers, FRD also prey on livestock and pose a conservation threat for wildlife particularly within protected areas. The Animal Birth Control policy set forth by the Animal Welfare Board of India in 1994 and pet control laws have been weakly implemented, leading to a significantly larger population today that needs an alternative solution to the status quo.

Objective The purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of harnessing the qualities of FRD in India to train and deploy them into various fields of service. The concept of service, therapy, and working dogs remains largely unheard of in India, although a small number of experiments have proven that there may be infrastructure and potential for FRD, Indian breed dogs, and pedigreed dogs to be trained for these purposes. This study proposes that redirecting a nation’s resources from commonplace FRD population intervention methods to social integration techniques can replace the undesirable effects of FRD with various societal benefits such as companionship, law enforcement, anti-poaching efforts, search-and-rescue, and security measures.

Scope Preliminary information regarding the Indian FRD population, FRD interactions with humans and wildlife, current policies and interventions, and potential areas of specialized training are discussed in the literature review in chapter 1. Chapter 2 comprises an FRD survey completed in Kolkata, India and semi-structured surveys involving residents in Kolkata and Indian university students, with multivariate analyses to understand FRD population characteristics. The final chapter discusses interviews with professionals in FRD studies, law enforcement, and service training in the US and India and proposes a pathway for FRD social integration using a systemic dynamics model. All acronyms used in this report are listed below in the following section.

Abbreviations

FRD Free-ranging dog(s) WHO World Health Organization HDM Human-derived materials INDog Indian Native Dog, or Indian Pariah Dog CDV Canine Distemper Virus CPV Canine Parvovirus WSPA World Society for the Protection of Animals BCS Body Condition Score IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature PCAA Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act ABC Animal Birth Control AWBI Animal Welfare Board of India AWO Animal Welfare Organization TNR Trap-Neuter-Release CVNR Capture-Neuter-Vaccinate-Release PEP Post-exposure prophylaxis WD4C Working Dogs 4 Conservation HAI Human-Animal Interaction AAI Animal-Assisted Intervention ADA Americans with Disabilities Act PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder SASA South Asian Student Association SAR Search and Rescue

Chapter 1: Literature Review I. The Free-Ranging Dog (FRD) Characteristics and Social Dynamics The issue of free-ranging dogs (FRD) plagues several developing countries today and requires sustained, combined attention from policymakers, conservation professionals, and the public. The exact origin of the domesticated dog, Canis lupus familiaris, is believed to have been about 15,000 years ago in Central or East Asia from the grey wolf (Canis lupus), although it has been highly debated by various other findings (Baskaran, 2017). Several projects and studies have used phylogenetic analytical methods, which reveal that East Asian dogs have the greatest genetic variation (Rinzin, 2015). Crucial changes in cranio-dental morphology and body size allowed the modern dog to adapt to surviving independently on mammalian prey, as well as scavenging through human-derived materials (HDM) (Vanak, 2009). With a unique range of traits and high morphological and behavioral adaptability, further evolutionary and ontogenetic changes allowed dogs to develop social tolerance and social attentiveness, two abilities crucial for cooperating with and responding to the actions of social partners such as humans (Range, 2015). The ratio of FRD to humans in most places globally is between 10 to 33 dogs per 100 people, but can vary drastically between urban and rural settings (Hiby et al., 2017). Over time, domestication created an unparalleled bond between humans and dogs, but not without the advent of FRD, or unowned dogs with unrestricted access to public property, representing 70- 80% of the world’s 700-million dog population (Daniels, 1989; Paul, 2018; Hiby 2017). The “Indian Pariah dog” or Indian Native Dog (INDog), named in the British colonial times, is a medium-sized hound with various kinds of coat color and a lifespan of 13-15 years (Baskaran, 2017; DogSpot, n.d.). Depicted in Figure 1, the typical mature INDog stands between 18-25 inches tall, weighs between 15-30 kgs, and is indigenous and naturally selected to the Indian subcontinent (DogSpot, n.d.). With high tolerance to heat and a constant need for exercise, the INDog is highly intelligent, alert, patient, and easily adaptable to new situations and training environments (Dogspot, n.d.). INDogs reach sexual maturity at 6-9 months and can have anywhere between 6-12 puppies per litter (Dogspot, n.d.). Stray dogs in India include a variety of pedigreed, INDog, and mixed-breed dogs that co-exist and compete to survive in a challenging environment.

Figure 1. The Indian Pariah Dog (Photo: Wikimedia Commons).

India is estimated to have around 30-60 million stray dogs, fourth highest number in the world, an unfortunate result of ineffective dog control laws, spay/neuter programs, and excessive resources available for FRD survival (Ghosh, 2018; Daniels, 1989). The fact that dogs are essentially domestic companion animals has disappeared in the public eye in terms of FRD. These dogs, scavengers or pack hunters depending on competition for food availability, are uniquely flexible in social behavior (Paul, 2018). As communal breeders in a constantly changing environment, FRD effectively increase pup survival by dividing active (nursing, play, protection, etc.) and passive (social bonding, care, etc) responsibilities among females and males (Paul, 2018). The variety of challenges and threats posed by their environments make Indian FRD a landrace rather than a specific breed, as is clear from their vast physical and behavioral differences (Baskaran, 2017, p. 38). Relatively unknown and neglected, the 25 accepted Indian dog breeds classified as hounds, working dogs, and companion dogs still exist in pockets in India. The qualities of these dogs vary greatly, and thus can be used for usual jobs such as hunting, guarding, and giving companionship or for carrying out highly specified, unusual tasks often for tribal or village people (Baskaran, 2017). Selected examples of these Indian dog breeds are shown below in Figure 2. The immense demand for imported dog breeds that heightened during India’s colonial period led to frequent cross- breeding with local breeds and the creation of several mixed breeds (Baskaran, 2017). The Indian pariah dog and other abandoned/roaming dogs seen today represent a population that generally survives until a mere 3-4 years of age and faces constant human threats (harassment, poisoning, accidents), diseases/infections, malnutrition, high mortality, dehydration, starvation, competition for food and mating, parasitism, rabies/CDV(Canine Distemper Virus)/CPV(Canine Parvovirus)/tumors, female welfare issues (pregnancies and puppy feeding), and other significant welfare problems (Rinzin, 2015; Lenin et al., 2016).

Figure 2. Selected images of Indian dog breeds: Jonangi, Bakharwal, Tibetan Spaniel, Rajapalayam, and Himalayan Mastiff, from top left to bottom right (Rao, 2017).

Population Estimation Knowledge of the current FRD population is essential in order to prioritize areas needing immediate intervention, to plan the kind of intervention suitable for the location, and to evaluate the success of the intervention (Hiby et al., 2017). This can be done in many ways, such as by sourcing local communities for firsthand information, obtaining records from experienced professionals, and making direct observations on the FRD population (World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), 2011). Dogs are classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) by their level of dependence on humans and level of restriction in the following categories: restricted dogs, family semi- restricted dogs, semi-dependent neighborhood dogs, and independent/ unrestricted feral dogs (Hiby et al., 2017). Most dog population management plans fail due to the lack of enough data verifying FRD population estimations and the impacts of interventions, leading to lessened funding and political interest (Hiby & Hiby, 2017). Guidelines on surveying FRD populations need to be effectively followed to evaluate the intervention type by recording the number of dogs, bite incidences, and rabies/disease (WSPA, n.d.). The WHO recommends total or indirect survey counts, regression methods, capture-mark-recapture, and Beck’s method (photographing individuals in multiple trials to account for counting error) to estimate stray population sizes, with the assumptions that each individual is equally likely to be counted and that mortality, emigration, and recruitment is minimal during this time (Belo, 2015; Rinzin, 2015). The usual indicators observed for welfare status during such population surveys are gender, age (pup, juvenile, or adult), reproductive status, skin condition, Body Condition Score (BCS), bodily injury, and sterilization status, following either representative routes to extrapolate overall roaming dog density per road length or hotspot routes to assess specifically high-density areas (Hiby & Hiby, 2017). Recommended methodology for epidemiological surveillance and FRD population estimations suggest collecting FRD indicator data using GPS devices or mapping applications for point location geo-coordinates, with quick observation and minimal interaction with dogs to ensure not double counting individuals that may move out of their territories (Hiby & Hiby, 2017). Repeating the same protocol three times to account for time/day variation, the observer should note survey start/end times, average survey speed, mode of transport, weather conditions, and specific methods used to find FRD hidden out of sight (Hiby & Hiby, 2017). To make the best estimate for detection probability (“p”) of FRD for a survey, the capture-mark-recapture method is recommended as it is definitively the most accurate (Rinzin, 2015). Surveys are most successful about 6 weeks post-whelping time due to a higher number of visible pups, and males usually have higher populations since they are kept as guard dogs while females have higher mortality from difficult pregnancies, childbirth, and pup raising (Belo, 2015; Rinzin, 2015). It is crucial for the surveyors to choose the most appropriate method of surveillance in order to optimize funds, time, and resources available to them.

II. Interactions and Impacts of FRD FRD-Human Interactions and Public Health Consequences The familiarity dogs experience in contact with humans is often the cause of serious public health issues and corresponding animal welfare issues for FRD. Dogs use their hyper social behavior to access humans as a source of food and shelter but have also developed in their ability to assess the intentions of individuals before allowing them into their space, especially in urban environments (Bhattacharjee et al., 2017). Social and food rewards create the strongest bonds between FRD and unfamiliar humans, although overall treatment towards dogs is highly dependent on cross-cultural differences in people’s attitudes (Bhattacharjee et al., 2017; Hughes & Macdonald, 2013). With this naturally trusting behavior, early-life mortality of FRD remains high as only 19% of pups in India reach sexual maturity with 63% human-induced mortality from actions such as beating, poisoning, and road accidents (Bhattacharjee et al., 2017). There is also a general preference to take care of and adopt male pups in India, which is why females are more involved in road accidents and feral packs, thus creating an unequal sex ratio for dogs at sexual maturity (Paul, 2016; Daniels, 1989). It is also important to understand that FRD-human interactions depend on the different roles dogs play in communities throughout the world, such as guards or working animals, waste consumers, sacred icons, family members, and wild animals (Hughes & Macdonald, 2013). Dogs can transmit a wide range of parasitic, bacterial, viral, protozoal, and fungal infections to humans, and represent the urban cycle of the two epidemiological rabies cycles (Rinzin, 2015). The corresponding sylvatic/wild cycle for rabies consists of hosts such as raccoons, skunks, foxes, coyotes, bats, cattle, and humans, and excludes some warm-blooded animals like birds (Rinzin, 2015). One study states that about 20 million Indian people were bitten by dogs in 2006, with a loss of 38 million days of work and Rupees 2 billion spent on treatment (Lenin et al., 2016). Not only have these numbers increased over the years, but actual incidence is much higher since only hospital cases that were reported during awareness campaigns are counted for these records (Rinzin, 2015). Density of FRD is observed to vary inversely with the socio-economic status of the nearby human community, which is why the risk of rabies from dogs is highest in poorer regions of India (Richen et al., 2019). Less awareness, scarce financial resources, weak healthcare support, and adherence to traditional medicine/practices, along with a greater availability of trash are major reasons for negative interactions between FRD and humans (Tiwari, 2018). Endemic canine rabies is estimated to cause an annual human mortality of 59,000 worldwide, with an economic loss of 8.6 billion USD per year and estimated 84% of the deaths occurring in remote rural communities with no rabies awareness measures (Rinzin, 2015). Even if people’s awareness of rabies is high, often the ability or awareness to prevent rabies is quite low, especially among communities of lower socio-economic status (Rinzin, 2015). Between 60 to 75 percent of dog bite cases involve people less than 20 years old, with children between ages 5 to 9 most targeted, as well as weak or old people (Rinzin, 2015).

Rhabdoviridae lyssa (rabies) is a fatal, viral disease that has a preventable vaccine and is hosted mostly by dogs in India (Uniyal, 2005). It is transmitted not only from biting, but also from licking, scratching, ingesting, and contact with skin, mucous membranes, and feces from animals that may have rabies incubated in them for 2-3 months before signs of respiratory failure and paralysis (Rinzin, 2015). Once the virus enters motor and sensory nerve endings of the body, it travels up to axons of the spinal cord’s nerve cells and enters the central nervous system via peripheral nerves (Rinzin, 2015). This occurs at 12-24 mm per day, with nearby non-nervous tissues such as salivary glands also getting infected, taking between 1 and 5 days for complete respiratory failure (Rinzin, 2015). The virus itself, however, is inactivated under sunlight, while fat-soluble solvents such as soap, chloroform, and acetone can be used to disinfect it (Rinzin, 2015). Due to its uncontrolled FRD population, India reports a disproportionate 35% of global deaths from rabies each year, although the World Health Organization’s National Multi-Centric Rabies Survey from 2003 predicted that the actual number of deaths is ten times more than what is reported (Uniyal, 2005). Each rabies outbreak incurs high costs for livestock losses, postexposure prophylaxis, rabies control program efforts, income losses, societal impacts, and much more (Tenzin et al., 2019).

Figure 3. Map of estimated canine rabies deaths as a global comparison (Gorman, 2019). A primary reason for the uncontrolled FRD population growth in India is the number of households and sheer abundance of food waste and garbage dumps available for sustenance (Home et al., 2017). Tourist areas, military camps, and crowded residential areas may dispose of garbage in unregulated and unsanitary ways, often expecting FRD to help them clean up the surroundings through consumption (Parvaiz, 2018). Not only does this scenario contaminate the environment with excreta and food waste, but also with social nuisances such as noise pollution, threats to tourists and residents, and crowded roadways that lead to accidents and injuries (Rinzin, 2015). These human-animal interaction issues, including the fact that 99% of human

11 deaths from rabies occurs from dogs, have prompted the One Health Initiative Task Force of the American Veterinary Medical Association to work on a local, national, and global level to promote the health of people, animals, and the environment as a whole (Rinzin, 2015). Of the many hidden consequences of having FRD around humans, one important consequence remains that dependence of domestic dogs on humans leads to increased competition between FRD and wildlife such as carnivores (Vanak, 2009). Improving these interactions poses a challenging task for conservation scientists today.

FRD-Wildlife Interactions and Conservation Concerns FRD have adapted to sustaining their populations in a way that often poses a threat to humans and wildlife both directly and indirectly. The most numerous terrestrial carnivore is now the free-ranging dog, an animal that has adapted to reach sexual maturity earlier, have larger litters, and digest carbohydrates from human-derived materials (Home et al., 2017). It is one of the five most invasive species and is most hard to eliminate due to its relationship with humans as a domesticated, introduced species (Home et al., 2018). They are the most abundant generalists and resort to preying on livestock more than local carnivores if HDM are lacking, such as during off-seasons in tourist areas (Bhattacharjee et al., 2017; Home et al., 2017). The increase in tourism, a crucial source of income and economic betterment for many communities such as the Spiti Valley in the Himalayas of India’s Himachal Pradesh, increases garbage availability and the corresponding FRD population, which in turn threaten local wildlife such as the snow leopard and Tibetan wolf (Home et al., 2017). Similarly, certain carcass disposal locations such as Jorbeer Dump in Bikaner, Rajasthan provide extensive sources of trash food for FRD, which chase off or threaten critical species such as the Eurasian Griffon and Himalayan Griffon from feeding during their migratory winter stay in Jorbeer (Krishnan, 2014). Thus, especially in rural locations where FRD can outnumber human populations and depend less on HDM, dogs must be treated as a part of the local biological diversity, as their interactions with wildlife are maximal from greater resource needs and movement (Ghosh, 2018; Hughes & Macdonald, 2013). Studies in various locations such as Zimbabwe and Himachal Pradesh have found that dogs are responsible for transmitting several zoonotic diseases such as rabies, distemper, and parvovirus to wildlife through competitive and predator-prey interactions (Rinzin, 2015). Urban dogs in the Coquimbo region of Chile, for example, have been observed to transmit CDV to wild carnivores at a higher rate than expected due to the weakened immune systems of FRD (Acosta- Jamett et al., 2013). Ongoing malnutrition, starvation, disease, abuse, and heightened mortality rates cause CDV to replicate and transfer faster to wildlife, especially other canids and felids such as the dhole, wolf, jackal, and fox (Acosta-Jamett et al., 2013; Ghosh, 2018). Apart from disease transmission, dogs pose an enormous conservation threat by competing for prey, attacking species in protected areas with packs, disturbing migration patterns, and causing species hybridization (Ghosh, 2018; Hughes & Macdonald, 2013).

Domestic and human-dependent species such as dogs, cats, rodents, and pigs are responsible for endangering more than 600 species globally, a number increased by interactions in fragmented habitats (Ghosh, 2018). Threatening at least 188 threatened species overall, domestic dogs have caused 11 vertebrate extinctions worldwide (Doherty, 2017). FRD in India have been recorded to attack at least 80 species of wildlife, 48% of the time in or around wildlife protected areas, of which 31 are under the IUCN Red List’s threatened category and 4 are critically endangered (Ghosh, 2018; Home et al., 2018). Studies done in the Changthang region of Ladakh, the only Indian breeding ground for black-necked cranes (Grus nigricollis), have found that the increasing feral dog population is responsible for the decline in the cranes’ breeding success rate, from 60% in 1995 to 29% in 2016 (Parvaiz, 2018). Around 1200 dogs, mostly owned by nomadic hunters and army officers, are estimated to roam in a 10-kilometer radius around 13 crane breeding sites, where the dogs make regular visits to eat eggs and chicks (Parvaiz, 2018). According to Andrew Rowan, chief scientific officer for The Humane Society of the U.S., human encroachment with free-roaming pets into protected areas thwarts conservations efforts and requires severe policy adjustments (Ghosh, 2018). Domestic dogs cause chronic stress that changes reproductive capabilities, behavior, and fitness of wildlife depending on the level of wildlife protection and access given to dogs (Home et al., 2018). Just their presence can impose an edge effect on native wildlife, a serious issue for countries like India, home to one of the 35 global biodiversity hotspots.

III. The Current Situation India’s Stray Dog Policies in WHO Context The development of India’s animal welfare policies has been minimal in the last two decades and is decreasingly influenced by scientific reasoning and recommendations. The complex web of ties between social systems, intervention methods, and available HDM leading to higher FRD populations is often overlooked in the FRD problem. For the FRD issue, the WHO recommends epidemiological surveillance, mass vaccination, and continuous dog population control, along with strictly enforcing pet control laws, re-immunization, and the removal of unwanted dogs by sheltering, rehoming, and euthanizing (Rinzin, 2015; Swarajya, 2018). The WSPA also suggests prohibiting pup breeding to lessen livestock losses, FRD welfare issues, and the roaming of lost and abandoned pups (Uniyal, 2005). Pet dogs are the most crucial to watch, since owners dislike “unnaturally” spaying/neutering their pets, and if dropped off on the streets, these pets can live up to 15 years, produce litters frequently that mostly survive, and are never picked up by the municipality for removal (Uniyal, 2005). Unfortunately, although there are laws that penalize owners of cattle, pigs, and other animals that may stray and cause social nuisance, there are no such laws for dog owners (Uniyal, 2005). It is this kind of unaddressed poor dog ownership, lack of population control measures, and abundant food waste that are reasons for India’s high dog density (Ghosh, 2018). Public policies relevant to current animal welfare laws in India began in 1960 with dancer and activist Rukmini Devi Arundale’s Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (PCAA), specifying

“no ill treatment, neglect, and abandonment” and making India one of the first countries to protect its domestic animals by law (Swarajya, 2018). However, the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI), set up by the PCAA in 1962, established the controversial Animal Birth Control (ABC) program in 1994 to reduce the dog population and control the spread of canine rabies in multiple cities (Swarajya, 2018). The Ministry of Health remains uninvolved in the issue of rabies control, while the unrelated Ministry of Culture issued the 2001 Dog Control Rules (Swarajya, 2018). The Action Plan for Control of Stray Animal Menace, established by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 2005, locates FRD, transports them to an ABC center for pre-operative care, surgery, and post-operative care, and releases them at the original location with one ear notched as required by law (Uniyal, 2005). The AWBI also supposedly funds Animal Welfare Organizations (AWOs), essentially volunteer organizations, to set up shelters for FRD that may be suffering or need special attention (Swaraja, 2018). Currently, however, no government agencies or NGOs cater to FRD in rural India, leaving an immense number of people and wildlife at the risk of feral dog attacks (Lenin et al., 2016). Reviews of the ABC program and the AWBI, by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, show corruption, mismanagement, fund misallocation, and inadequate scientific knowledge, and are difficult to access (Swarajya, 2018). The ABC program thus requires that dogs remain unsupervised and roaming on streets, with no regard for subsequent injuries, welfare issues, and death. This forces dogs into direct conflict with people, decreasing the likelihood of positive social interactions from a high FRD density (Swarajya, 2018; Daniels, 1989). There is still no significant difference made between abandoned pets, indigenous Indian breeds, INDogs, and mixed-breed, as all “Indian/desi dogs” are designated by the AWBI as “street animals” and falsely believed to maintain the ecological balance in cities by consuming HDM and guarding territories (Swarajya, 2018). Both government agencies and activists overall have little understanding of population dynamics, and do not allow the removal of FRD by the public or municipal corporations (Swarajya, 2018; Lenin et al., 2016). One notable and controversial case was the removal of two FRD by IIT-Kanpur guards in February 2018, an action taken after 87 dog bite cases were recorded on the IIT campus in a single year. Maneka Gandhi, Union Minister for Women and Child Development and animal rights activist, demanded the Human Resources Development Ministry to act against the people involved (Swarajya, 2018). At the same time, many have requested Maneka Gandhi to decide on interventions with municipal counselors, due to increasing dog bites and FRD attacks on children (Swarajya, 2018). Human and animal welfare activists await an amendment to the ABC Dog Rules from 2001, as the current FRD situation is technically illegal and unconstitutional in regards to the PCAA Right to Life (Article 21), Municipal State Laws, the Police Act, and Public Nuisance Laws of India (Swarajya, 2018). Meghna Uniyal, director and co-founder of the Humane Foundation for People and Animals, explains the FRD problem as a struggle for state governments, local authorities, citizens, livestock, wildlife, and the dogs themselves, with often only the AWOs benefitting from taxpayer money to provide special services for pets instead of FRD (Swarajya, 2018). India continues to compensate for treatments, vaccinations, deaths,

14 working hours lost, accidents, and human/animal welfare issues, as misappropriation of funds and inadequate policies continue to be overlooked (Swarajya, 2018). The current ABC policies appear to contradict the PCAA from 1960, as well as WHO recommendations, in the treatment and responsibilities that come with pets and stray animals (Uniyal, 2005). The PCAA (Section 11) does not allow any animal to be abandoned or let to die as a stray without food, water, or medical attention (Vanak & Uniyal, 2019). The “owner”, defined as anyone in possession of the animal at any point, is strictly prohibited from abandoning the animal on the streets and letting it roam, especially if it is diseased or disabled (Vanak & Uniyal, 2019). The ABC Policy, alternatively, legalizes the existence of stray animals, encourages feeding stray animals, and does not mention the necessary re-immunization of dogs for rabies control (Vanak & Uniyal, 2019; Uniyal, 2005). ABC agencies often do not keep accurate records and data, making it impossible to assess exactly how funding and time has been used exactly (Uniyal, 2005). Municipal authorities act arbitrarily, even though Municipal State Laws mandate the control of stray animals and contagious diseases (Vanak & Uniyal, 2019). Many believe that instead of depending on the dysfunctional AWBI, India should allow each state to decide how to allocate funds and support its citizens and animals (Uniyal & Vanak, 2016).

Population Reduction Methods, Interventions, and Results Several population control measures have been adopted in countries over the years, each with their own unique challenges and results. “Dog population management” refers to minimizing the street animal population, maintaining proper dog health and welfare, and monitoring public health risks stemming from dogs, all while keeping the local cultural ideas in mind (Hiby et al., 2017). An important aspect of proper management is trying to reduce the number of impounded and euthanasia cases for abandoned or problematic dogs (Hiby et. al., 2017; Rinzin, 2015). It has been established that to lower a street dog population by 70%, 90% of the population must be annually sterilized for at least 13-18 years (Totton et al., 2010). Just maintaining a stable dog population requires 70% vaccination and 70% sterilization, according to the 2004 WHO Expert Committee (Rinzin, 2015). It is imperative that the urban method of delivering vaccines reaches the maximum number of street animals and is accompanied by educational material suitable for the cultural environment (Rinzin, 2015). To observe the success rate, it is necessary to continuously monitor relevant indicators and evaluate the progress of such interventions, through household surveys, field counts, and local health records (Hiby et al., 2017; Rinzin, 2015). This explains why most Trap-Neuter-Release (TNR) and Capture-Neuter- Vaccinate-Release (CNVR) programs have failed to reduce FRD populations in the short-term (Rinzin, 2015). An initial ABC program adopted in Bhutan for rabies control, for example, failed with only 10-20% overall sterilization because of limited funds and a lack of public and stakeholder support (Rinzin, 2015). As a result of similar efforts, wildlife professionals, conservationists, and other groups of interest recommend combining the TNR program with immunization, euthanasia, reduction of food resources, and establishment of dog shelters

(Ghosh, 2018, Home et al., 2018). Other crucial interventions include providing basic veterinary care and educating pet owners (Hiby et al., 2017). Reproduction control measures for CNVR programs now include surgical methods, chemical/immunological sterilization, contraception, and confinement during oestrus (Rinzin, 2015). Surgery for males includes castration, vasectomy, and sclerosis of epididymis, while female surgical methods range over ovariectomy, midline ovariohysterectomy, lateral flank ovariohysterectomy, laparoscopic ovariohysterectomy, and tubal ligation (Rinzin, 2015). Some countries have adopted oral rabies vaccines for mass dog vaccination but find it unsafe for non- target species and expensive to provide in bait form (Rinzin, 2015). Chemical and immunological methods provide a more humane, risk-free, and cheaper alternative to surgical methods, and are currently undergoing trials (Rinzin, 2015). The key criteria for large-scale non- surgical reproductive control methodology after one dose is minimal side effects, effectivity for both genders, and complete loss of fertility and sexual behavior (Rinzin, 2015). Studies show that Indian cities with successful ABC programs have less prevalence of CDV and CPV, the two most contagious viral diseases in dogs and carnivores, as well as canine leptospirosis, an infectious bacterial zoonosis (Rinzin, 2015). Rabies cases appear to decline in ABC program areas but can become more prevalent in non-sterilized areas. In terms of negative FRD-wildlife interactions, a study in central India explains the need to additionally reduce FRD populations and restrict dogs from entering wildlife habitats, as vaccination on its own is not enough to reduce disease transmission (Belsare & Gompper, 2015). Sterilizing female dogs is safer as a reproductive measure and keeps intact male dogs territorial, important for minimalizing dog migration (Rinzin, 2015). All terminally sick dogs should be euthanized, as done often in CNVR programs (Rinzin, 2015). Cash incentives for people who bring in street dogs for sterilization/vaccination is advised and notching one ear of the sterilized/vaccinated dog is useful for identification and efficiency (Rinzin, 2015). It seems that the best method of dog population management is for each ward or district to manage its own community, with permanent identification of each local dog and a one-health approach that considers the environment, humans, and animals together (Rinzin, 2015). Intervention success for rabies vaccination campaigns can be measured by the number of dog and human rabies cases and post-exposure prophylaxes (PEP) or rabid dog bite cases (Hiby et al., 2017). Throughout campaigns, it is imperative to check for improved dog welfare, veterinary care level, population stability, a risk-free environment, public FRD awareness, and adoption efforts (Hiby et al., 2017). Turnover stability can be observed by measuring the percentage of puppies and lactating females in the population, along with mortality, fecundity, and the ratio of males to females (Hiby et al., 2017). The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test is used to measure differences in dog density among locations, while regression analysis can measure density differences over time (Hiby & Hiby, 2017). A Kruskal-Wallis H-test can measure differences in location for females lactating, dogs with low BCS, and dogs with skin conditions (Hiby & Hiby, 2017).

The practice of culling, used in several countries in the past, destabilizes the population and increases the spread of disease through increased migration and breeding (Rinzin, 2015). Sterilized dogs have shown lower seroprevalence of CDV and CPV, as well as higher average BCS since the loss of sex hormones decreases metabolic rates and leads to less activity/energy and resulting weight gain (Rinzin, 2015). Skin condition scores are often worse for sterilized dogs due to unhygienic conditions in CNVR facilities and reduced physical movement during the recovery phase (Rinzin, 2015). Natural disasters pose a serious threat towards FRD populations in areas with little sterilization, such as the Coquimbo region of Chile, as reproductive rate can drastically rise and pose a threat to debilitated human communities (Acosta-Jamett et al., 2013). Often dogs are dropped in new areas post-treatment or for translocation, causing disputes between the two areas and territoriality issues with existing FRD (Rinzin, 2015). The exact relationship between humans and dogs must be understood alongside the ecological, social, cultural, and economic situation so that intervention methods do not make people uncomfortable and unhappy regarding costs (Hughes & Macdonald, 2013).

IV. Potential Means of Social Integration for Indian FRD Current Experimental Attempts in India The range of uses for FRD in India remains extremely minimal even today, despite research that shows FRD adaptability and usefulness in certain scenarios. Although dogs may be used by tribal populations who have developed the skills of specific Indian breeds for specific tasks, the mainstream Indian population overall has no working connection with the stray dog population. A very small number of records exist, however, that hint at potential uses of FRD in India, through mostly law enforcement applications. One notable, current example is the recent training and induction of Asha, the first “Indian Mongrel Cop”, by Kolkata Police as an initiative to try out local stray dogs for the job reserved for only foreign breeds (ET Bureau, 2019). Contrary to popular belief and preconceived notions regarding the capacity of a stray dog, Asha has proven by training alongside pedigreed dogs such as Labradors and German Shepherds that she has equal or sometimes even greater capabilities than her counterparts (Pandey, 2019). The popular belief that Indian strays, used to the life of scavenging on their own, are too independent- minded and unfit to become disciplined has been overturned by Asha’s perfect obedience training and fitness that can occasionally exceed the bulkier breeds’ abilities (ET Bureau, 2019; Pandey, 2019). Asha’s success in training can also be attributed to the tendency of FRD to show specific interest and intelligent judgment in appointing themselves as territorial guardians of public spaces (ET Bureau, 2019). Despite Asha’s successful training by Kolkata Police, there are aspects of her participation and effectiveness that are affected by various social and welfare issues specific to Asha and Indian FRD in general. These will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Similarly, an initiative by the Indian armed forces was carried out in 2017 with the training of eight Mudhol hound pups at the Remount Veterinary Corps Institute in Meerut (Ali & Desai, 2017). Training the Mudhols in obedience, periphery guarding, explosives and mine detection, risk perception, and assault have proven to be highly successful and thus were taken to

Jammu and Kashmir to be tested and validated in 2018 for deployment (Ali & Desai, 2017). Following their induction into the Indian armed forces, Central Reserve Police Force, and police squads, the demand for Mudhol breeding has risen for purposes like warding off wild animals and guarding coffee/tea estates and property in south India (Goudar, 2019). Although the breed is disease-resistant and a high-stamina sight hound in areas of extreme tropical conditions, there are drawbacks such as the Mudhol’s inability to survive in lower temperatures (Ali & Desai, 2017). However, it is speculated that the breed could adapt to different conditions over the course of two generations if given proper exposure and training (Ali & Desai, 2017). Although the Mudhol is an Indian breed dog, these kinds of experimental initiatives with local dogs indicate the Indian stray dog’s potential capacity to serve in law enforcement and other fields of public service with dedicated training and care.

Potential Conservation Applications Instead of being a threat to endangered and/or conserved species, FRD have the immense potential to change the arena of conservation work in India today. According to Working Dogs for Conservation (WD4C), a leading organization that sources, trains, and deploys conservation detection dogs, the work genres for these dogs include ecological monitoring and habitat mapping, poaching and trafficking prevention, aquatic and invasive species detection, and disease and contaminant detection (Working Dogs for Conservation, n.d.). The training, based on law enforcement detection techniques, brings extreme specificity to the dogs’ olfactory skills, making use of their 220+ million scent receptors in comparison to the mere 5 million scent receptors of humans (Working Dogs for Conservation, n.d.). The WD4C working dogs are primarily sourced through Rescues2TheRescue, an organization that matches candidate shelter dogs for various dog work organizations such as WD4C’s conservation program (Working Dogs for Conservation, n.d.). WD4C notes the importance of the high-energy drive of shelter dogs that becomes essential to focus on this kind of work (Working Dogs for Conservation, n.d.). Similarly, New Zealand’s Department of Conservation Te Papa Atawhai trains dogs for pest detection, identification of specific animals, and protected species detection (Thyne, 2016). Handlers and their selected pups undergo initial training for a year, followed by interim certification for six months and finally full certification for a target species (Thyne, 2016). Pest detection dogs locate and provide evidence for invasive animals, insects, and plants, while species-identification dogs identify feral animal populations and endangered species detection dogs locate protected species that need ongoing monitoring (Thyne, 2016). The trained dogs and their handlers must pass reassessments every three years to stay in the field (Thyne, 2016). Dogs also play an important role in anti-poaching efforts in various countries, as can be seen with Animals Saving Animals, an organization that was founded in 2016 to provide conservation organizations with trained Anti-Poaching Dogs and training for handlers to prevent wildlife crime (Animals Saving Animals, n.d.). ASA supports conservation by training and deploying specialized Anti-Poaching Dogs in Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, India, Belize, the United States, and Malta, with funding from the European Union for

18 certain projects (Animals Saving Animals, n.d.). In India, Animals Saving Animals has been involved with the development of anti-poaching K9 units since 2018 to support Kaziranga National Park, Orang National Park, and Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, three conserved parks in the north-eastern state of Assam (Animals Saving Animals, n.d.). Kaziranga National Park, in particular, is iconic for its greater white-horned rhino population, representing two-thirds of the world’s species population, as well as its Bengal tiger population and strict policies prohibiting poaching (UNESCO, n.d.). The local NGO Aaranyak in Assam, in partnership with the UK’s David Shepherd Wildlife Foundation and Germany’s Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union, supported and funded the first K9 dog squad unit to prevent illegal wildlife trade from Kaziranga to east-Asian countries (Animals Saving Animals, n.d; DSWF, n.d.). Introducing Jorba, a Beligian Malinois, to Kaziranga in 2011 resulted in over 40 poaching arrests and led to training and deployment of several other dogs through TRAFFIC India that has significantly strengthened conservation efforts in the park (Animals Saving Animals, n.d.).

Psychological Health in India Stigma and Efforts The term mental health is defined to be a state of well-being that gives an individual self- confidence and the ability to deal with daily societal stresses, work productively, and contribute to the community (Reddy et al., 2013). For various reasons, countries like India with low/middle income on average have higher proportions of mental disorders and are unable to provide a stigma-free environment for those experiencing mental illness due to the lack of attention on mental health assessment, infrastructure, and effective professionalism (Reddy et al., 2013). The mass population experiencing mental health issues in India are subject to the overwhelming daily struggles of facing indifference, anger, and fear from society (Padukone et al., 2018). A 2015 WHO study found that 1 in 5 Indians, approximately 200 million people, experience depression in their lifetime and only 10-12% of those inflicted by mental illnesses avail professional help (Padukone et al., 2018). A combination of stigma, lack of mental health awareness, delayed treatment seeking behavior, and limited/unavailable access to diagnostic tests and professional medical treatment is India’s biggest challenge today (Reddy et al., 2013). Work, school, and family environments are key determinants in the pathogenesis of mental disorders and are most closely associated with deprivation and poverty (Reddy et al., 2013). From 1995 to 2005, a 27.7% increase in overall suicide rate was recorded (Reddy et al., 2013). In current times, however, India has assumed a dangerously high suicide rate in specific societal aspects. For example, India was responsible for 36.6% of female suicides and 24.3% of male suicides globally in 2016 (Dandona et al., 2018). Excessive pressure from competition, anxiety and depression, and parental pressure in high schools and colleges have caused over 26,000 students to commit suicide over three years, creating the national statistic that a student commits suicide every 55 minutes in India (Iyer, 2018). In 2010, India had an average national psychiatrist deficit of 77%, along with an estimated 71-million population experiencing “serious” mental illnesses (Thirunavukarasu & Thirunavukarasu, 2010). Diagnostics and treatment are often delayed due to

19 traditional medicine and community beliefs and the lack of intervention from an early stage of the mental disorder progression (Reddy et al., 2013).

Medical Services and Therapy Applications Human-Animal Interaction (HAI) has become widely acknowledged and documented as having positive effects on social attention, social behavior, interpersonal interactions, and mood (Beetz et al., 2012). Therapy dogs as Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAI) can effectively lower blood pressure, reduce asthma and allergy rates, improve heart disease recovery, and improve psychological well-being and self-esteem (Junge & MacDonald, 2011). It has been proposed that HAI has a strong psychological effect due to activation of the oxytocin system and the non- judgmental, supportive characteristics of such trained animals (Beetz et al., 2012; Siegel, 2004). This can manage several stress-related parameters including fear, anxiety, heart rate, blood pressure, and many other aspects of mental/physical health such as immune system functionality, pain, and aggression (Beetz et al., 2012). Other than being a strong tool for medical intervention, AAI is also documented as having positive effects on students by improving learning perspectives and supporting greater social interaction with peers and teachers (Lloyd, J., & Sorin, R., 2014). Research studying the impacts of the Delta Society Classroom Canines program assisting in Queensland, Australia found that social and emotional skills and literacy learning in primary schoolchildren may be boosted with regular AAI (Lloyd, J., & Sorin, R., 2014). Perhaps the most challenging question behind creating a service animal system in a country such as India is how to create a set of effective service animal laws on par with the Disability Rights Section of the US Civil Rights Act (eCFR, 2011). The Americans with Disabilities Act defines a service animal as a dog that has been specifically trained to help a disabled individual perform tasks (eCFR, 2011). According to Title II regarding state and local government services and Title III concerning public accommodations and commercial facilities, a service animal is allowed into all public spaces as long as it is tethered or effectively controlled by the owner at all times (eCFR, 2011). The ADA specifies that no documentation is required for owners to prove their service animals in public, and that the only two questions that may be asked are if the dog is needed for a disability and what task the dog is trained to perform (eCFR, 2011). The ADA is integral to the success of the service animal system essentially since all public entities are required to modify their policies, practices, and procedures so that service animal use is permitted on their premises (eCFR, 2011). Currently in India, only foreign pedigreed dogs are used for therapy to a minimal extent in schools, nurseries, mental health centers, schools for children with developmental disabilities, and institutes (Animal Angels Foundation, n.d.). The dogs of Animal Angels Foundation, for example, help children with learning disabilities in improving social, cognitive, and motor skills which helps them learn alongside their classmates (Animal Angels Foundation, n.d.). The cost of such therapy however makes it impossible for most people with lower socioeconomic status to avail psychological benefits. Service animals have not yet been tested in India with pedigreed or FRD and are thus not largely considered to be a therapeutic method for reducing negative

20 psychological symptoms. The Comfort Dog Project run by The BIG FIX Uganda may be one of the most exemplary models yet to illustrate this aspect of FRD social integration (The BIG Fix Uganda, n.d.). Northern Uganda, a region left war-torn by the civil unrest between the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) and the Ugandan government since the 1980’s, now experiences an astonishing mental health depravity and massive economy collapse (The BIG Fix Uganda, n.d.). The traumatic tactics used by the LRA, including widescale child abduction for rebel ranks, rape, and forced violence, have caused high suicide and substance use rates, especially in the Koro Sub County region, from severe levels of clinically diagnosed PTSD, anxiety, and depression (The BIG Fix Uganda, n.d.). The BIG FIX identified this region in 2015 as an ideal location for their Comfort Dog Project, which uses AAI by training Ugandan stray dogs to help war survivors with “psycho-social rehabilitation” through a dog-guardian companionship bond (The BIG Fix Uganda, n.d.). The program has five distinct phases that focus on community sensitization and participation recruitment, client assessment, counseling and dog-guardian bond development, final assessment and community integration, and client service as future mentors and outreach ambassadors (The BIG Fix Uganda, n.d.). The BIG FIX supports all veterinary and support services, financially supports clients who mentor future program participants, and has been successful in lowering PTSD symptoms and bringing awareness and interest throughout the region for the human-animal companionship bond (The BIG Fix Uganda, n.d.).

V. Barriers to Overcome for FRD Integration One of the greatest struggles in attempting FRD integration is not knowing the actual characteristics of Indian stray dogs. Given the extreme mixing of pedigreed, INDog, and mixed- breed dogs, it is impossible to understand the exact capabilities and behavioral aspects of stray dogs from their variety of backgrounds and experiences. For example, one initiative called Lives of Streeties attempts to track and understand the activity budgeting of FRD in terms of specific environments in Indian cities (Lives of Streeties, n.d.) This kind of information would give important insight into fitness and natural tendencies that FRD have on their own. The capabilities of the “pariahs”, descendants of a group known as primitive and aboriginal dogs, lie predominantly undiscovered though it is known that they are very hardy, alert, independent- thinking, and able to coexist with humans while also survive alone in the wild as well (DogSpot, n.d.) The common INDog of remote rural areas have been found to be largely indigenous and genetically pure in lineage in comparison to urban FRD and modern breeds that have European ancestry (Shannon et al., 2015). This issue of behavioral assessment regarding FRD will be addressed in chapters 2 and 3. Another challenge with training FRD to match the level of their foreign pedigreed counterparts in India is the lack of infrastructure needed to support the immense population. A 2014 report from Lasell College on “The Power of Prison Pups: The Impact of the NEADS Program on Inmate Dog Trainers, MCI/Framingham, and the Community”, however, provides an interesting solution to this problem (Drew et al., 2014). The NEADS program at MCI/Framingham, Massachusetts, a correctional facility for women, was started in 2004 and

21 matched trustworthy inmates who had 18 months of prison time ahead of them with specific dogs to raise and train as service animals (Drew et al., 2014). From the age of 8 weeks to 12-18 months, the dogs remain with their inmate trainers and leave the prison compound on weekends with secondary handlers, along with weekly NEADS-led professional training sessions that guide the handlers’ progress (Drew et al., 2014). With approximately 8-10 dogs training in the prison program at a time, 90-95% of NEADS service dogs are trained by inmates, halving the advancing training time since inmates can give their full attention to the training experience (Drew et al., 2014). The NEADS Prison Pups program, along with the VET Dog program established in 2011, are highly cost-effective for both NEADS and their clients and leave a lasting impact on the long-term prisoners who bond with the dogs and strive to make them succeed as service animals (Drew et al., 2014). In some cases, shelter dogs are selected from kill shelters to train through the prison program and thereby given a second chance at life (Drew et al., 2014). Dogs that fail service training can become pets if they are sufficiently trained (Drew et al., 2014).

Chapter 2: FRD Observational Study and Public Perceptions Abstract The Indian free-ranging dog (FRD) population threatens public health, conservation of wild species, and domestic animal welfare in both rural and urban environments. Currently estimated at 35 million, Indian FRD have never experienced a comprehensive population assessment, impact analysis, or management intervention despite their increasing effect on ecosystems and outdated policies established since the 1960’s that stagnate welfare efforts by non-governmental organizations. According to the World Health Organization, maintaining a stable stray dog population requires an unrealistic 70% vaccination and sterilization rate annually, hinting at the need for alternative measures. More importantly for this study, knowledge of FRD genetics and capabilities is extremely low, despite some analyses showing that the Indian FRD is a primitive landrace that has intelligence highly comparable to that of pedigreed dogs. I assessed FRD population characteristics in relation to local environments and dependency on humans in areas of Kolkata, India alongside local and national surveys on perspectives and treatment of FRD. Multivariate analyses involving FRD density, gender, pack behavior, body condition score, primary activity, and human interactions showed significant correlations with land use, indicating several characteristics and challenges of FRD management. The FRD survey metrics developed in this study will help to analyze the nature of FRD in varying environments to understand their relationship with the environment and its resources, ascertain FRD training capabilities, and find possible means of integration into Indian society.

Introduction For the last half-century, India has been trying to tackle the unending problem of stray dog population growth in different ways. The stray population, estimated to be anywhere between 30 and 60 million, has now become a serious threat to public health and conservation of wild and protected species (Ghosh, 2018). As both human commensals and independent free- roamers, the INDogs (native landrace), mixed breeds, and abandoned pedigreed pets of this stray population have become deeply intertwined with Indian society and wildlife, changing the ecological environment of urban and rural life in India. Socio-economic status within communities has been seen to vary inversely with FRD density, leading to higher proportions of rabies cases among disadvantaged populations in India and an 84% death rate globally within remote rural communities that lack rabies awareness (Rinzin, 2015). India alone reports approximately 80% of annual global deaths from rabies, while global statistics show an annual human rabies mortality of approximately 59,000 (Rinzin, 2015). In rural localities, the high density of FRD depends much less on human-derived materials and instead on interaction and competition with wildlife for resources (Ghosh, 2018; Hughes & MacDonald, 2013). Negative interaction with FRD can cause wildlife to experience chronic stress that affects their reproductive capabilities, behavior, and fitness, concerning given that about 48% of FRD attacks on wildlife occur in or around protected areas (Ghosh, 2018; Home et al., 2018). FRD inadvertently threaten wildlife conservation in India, home of one of the 35 global biodiversity

23 hotspots, through attacks, disease transmission, competition for prey, hybridization, and disturbance of migration and activities (Ghosh, 2018; Hughes & Macdonald, 2013). Despite the critical nature of this problem, a significant gap exists in the literature pertaining to regular nationwide population assessments and key characteristics of the stray population. This data is key to understanding the root causes of the stray proliferation in India and is currently only available for specific areas that have been used for study purposes, such as the city of Jodhpur in Rajasthan (Totton et al., 2010). Studies in other countries have clearly shown the dramatic effects of natural disasters, political changes, and social behavior of people on stray population growth (Saeed, 2009). Without a clear year-to-year record of such effects from events throughout the country, birth rate, mortality rate, and resulting population growth simply cannot be accurately projected. Thus, a series of elemental questions regarding population size and life history traits remain unanswered and of prime interest to policymakers, activists, and scientists seeking a solution to this problem. The first part of this project makes an initial assessment of population characteristics among FRD in relation to their immediate environment and dependency on humans. A universally accepted set of guidelines by World Society for the Protection of Animals and recommendations from Hiby & Hiby (2017) for assessing roaming dog populations with GPS mapping are followed to find reasons for uncontrolled FRD proliferation in varied urban settings (WSPA, n.d.). Although this tool is commonly used to plan widescale population management programs or interventions, in this case, it has been applied to study two specific parts of Kolkata city to uncover the complexities at the local level. Various kinds of canine behavior were surveyed at these two sites by observing FRD activity and interactions using the point count method along the routes. Two types of surveys, for residents of these site areas and Indian international students attending WPI, were completed alongside this observational study for several reasons. The main objectives of this study were to analyze the nature of FRD in varying environments to understand their relationship with the environment and analyze the complexity of human-FRD coexistence. The observational study and surveys were constructed to test the hypothesis that interactions and perspectives of humans towards FRD can be linked to specific, ascertainable location-based human-animal associations. Based on the observational study site characteristics, I hypothesized that male and female FRD distribution and defining characteristics such as primary activity, skin condition, body condition score, pack behavior, and interaction with humans among different land uses would vary significantly. Each question within the surveys assesses an aspect of FRD-human relationships and is used to find trends based on socioeconomic status, experience, and location. For the WPI survey with Indian international students, I hypothesized that students from rural parts of India would specify FRD as having a meaningful place in their community but also experiencing conflict with rural wildlife.

Methods FRD Survey The FRD population was surveyed and assessed for various characteristics in two areas of Kolkata (erstwhile, Calcutta), India. I adapted the guidelines on stray assessment prescribed by the “Surveying roaming dog populations: guidelines on methodology” by the World Society for the Protection of Animals’ Companion and Working Animals Unit to survey stray populations in Dum Dum Cantonment (South Subhash Nagar, North Kolkata) and the Prince Anwar Shah Road area (Lake Gardens, South Kolkata) (WSPA, n.d.).The WSPA’s document specifies methods to assess FRD population sizes by periodic indicator counts or density estimates, of which indicator counts present a more cost-effective method to monitor locations over time (WSPA, n.d.) Other than age, sex, and reproductive status, several other categories such as skin condition, body condition score, and pack number may be implemented during surveys to further assess the population’s welfare status (Hiby & Hiby, 2017). Following WSPA recommendations, I conducted site observations at 4:30 am for sets of three consecutive days in both sites in early June. This time of day was ideal for data collection because garbage was still uncollected and strays were highly active due to less traffic and human presence. The three trials accounted for errors since strays were not tagged in this assessment and easily shifted their locations day to day. However, I kept all parameters of the assessment identical, in terms of route assessed, time of day, exact metrics observed, and survey methodology, to lessen all possible effects of confounding factors. I chose the 2.06-mile Dum Dum Cantonment route as a representative route of the semi- densely populated part of north Kolkata, in contrast to the densely populated 2.3-mile Prince Anwar Shah Road route representative of south Kolkata (Figure 5). For both sites, I surveyed the routes with minimal stops for identification purposes only in order to complete the route within the same time period of 50 minutes. While using Open GPX Tracker to mark all points of observations, I voice recorded all data for compilation later. I did not interact with any strays as this could cause location shifts and therefore double counting during the same survey. Also, strictly only strays on the specified routes were observed along with strays under cars and within 10 feet on an alleyway or house pathway off the route.

Site 1: Dum Dum Cantonment

Site 2: Prince Anwar Shah Area

Figure 4. Map showing the routes of sites 1 (Dum Dum Cantonment) and 2 (Prince Anwar Shah Area). I chose sites 1 and 2 for their representation of Kolkata through varied types of residential areas, commercial areas, and open spaces. As a critical indicator and causal factor for ecosystem function, land use for each site was first observed during a preliminary test trial. I referred to a land use and land cover classification system published by the U.S. Geological Survey to characterize the landscape of sites 1 and 2 and subsequently create land use maps of the routes (Anderson et al., 1976). The relevant major categories specified for this study were residential, transportation, mixed urban, transitional areas, and altered lands, along with some site-specific land use types (Anderson et al., 1976). I constructed a primary land use Google Earth map for each site’s route and mapped observation points for each of the six trials. The metrics collected during each survey are described in Table 1 below.

Table 1. FRD observation metrics with terminology and purpose, modified from the WSPA’s FRD population survey guide and Hiby & Hiby (2017) (WSPA, n.d.). Metric Terminology/Purpose Sex Designated as female, male, or unknown Age Designated as adult, juvenile, or pup # Dogs in 10-foot Assessment of pack behavior and social structure according to land Radius use Activity Designated as primarily “being walked”, “running”, “eating trash”, “fighting”, “barking”, “sitting”, “sleeping”, “standing”, or “foraging” Interaction Designated as none, or with another dog, a person, or owner Disease/Bodily Injury Visible wounds designated, such as severed tail, severed ear, burn marks, fight bite marks, skin disease, or missing/injured limb. Body Condition Designated as 1-5, based on observed body weight, visibility of bones, Score relative fat content, and waist structure. 1: Very thin. 2: Underweight. 3: Ideal body weight. 4: Overweight. 5: Obese. Visible Skin Designated as 0-3, based on clear skin (0), slight marks or wounds (1), Condition severe skin patches or conditions (2), and extreme cases with possible mange (3). Breed Designated as “I/M” (INDog or Mixed breed) or “P” (Pedigreed) Habitat Specifics Short description of exact observation location type, such as “marketplace trash pile”

The original proposed observation metrics differed from those listed in Table 1 above due to on-site modifications that were made from information gathered during a preparatory survey trial. I initially considered ear notch as a metric to observe signs of spay/neuter prevalence in the area. However, as an initial trial demonstrated that none of the FRD had ear notches, it was not included in the final methodology. Due to the complexity of the semi-densely/densely populated landscapes and lack of direct interaction with the FRD, there was a larger number of FRD with “unknown” sex identified than expected beforehand. Thus, for multivariate analyses in R involving only female versus male comparisons, “unknown”-sex FRD were given equal chance of being either sex. Overall FRD count distribution across sites and trials was compared to observe consistency and patterns of FRD presence. Kruskal Wallis rank sum tests were conducted to compare distribution of observation counts and densities of male and female FRD across land use.

Kolkata Resident Survey Interacting with many individuals along the routes made it clear that a majority of the shopkeepers were residents living within the locality of the shop or living directly above the shop itself in apartments. I identified this population of resident shopkeepers, with their immense personal experience of witnessing and coexisting with FRD, as a highly informed group of

27 individuals who could offer significant experiential knowledge from a purely insider point of view. During the six observational study trial days, I used a semi-structured survey format to interview several shopkeepers along sites 1 and 2 to find trends in their perspectives and treatment of local FRD. The 17 major questions surveyed basic knowledge of FRD welfare problems, daily involvement with FRD versus pedigreed dogs, and opinions on FRD population management. Without any prior introduction of the project, shopkeepers were also asked in various ways about FRD social integration feasibility. The questions focused on understanding the interviewee’s personal connection with FRD and allowed for significant additional input from the interviewee if they wanted to share more information. In order to interview shopkeepers at different land use sections, I interviewed every third shopkeeper and marked exact interview locations on Open GPX Tracker. All interviews were carried out in the local Bengali language and recorded using an iPhone for transcription later. Responses were analyzed to find key types of FRD-human interaction that define the commensal nature of FRD, as defined by Home et al. (2017). The exact questionnaire is available in Appendix C.

South Asian Student Association Survey Another population that represents a different sample of the Indian population than those described in the previous section is the body of Indian undergraduate and graduate students that attends WPI. As a member of the South Asian Student Association, I was able to contact and survey a significant number of such Indian international students using a structured survey format. This population, ranging between undergraduate and PhD levels, was surveyed using a Google survey to assess knowledge and perspectives of the FRD situation. As a representation of Indian residents with higher education and international exposure, this group was surveyed to find additional experiential knowledge of living with FRD. Responses were analyzed by grouping response types into categories defining perspective. The exact survey questionnaire is available in Appendix D. The WPI Institutional Review Board approved Protocol IRB-19-0669 for the two surveys in this study.

Results Field FRD Survey A total of 319 individual free-ranging dog observations were recorded over the six trial days, consisting of 144 point observations that represented “pack” sizes ranging from one to eight FRD within a 10-foot radius of each other. Examples from both sites are provided below in Figure 5, with all maps available in Appendix A. The land use maps are further explained in Table 2 below, with specific measurements of each land use section from both sites.

Figure 5. Example of site maps: site 1 trial 1 and site 2 trial 1 maps shown above with land use designation and observation points.

Table 2. Land use designation for sites 1 and 2, modified from Anderson et al. (1976).

Type of Land Use Color on Site 1 Site 2 Percentage Maps Total Total Of Distance Distance Total (ft) (ft) Distance Residential Areas Single Unit, High Density (SU) Light green 305 0 1.47% Multiple Dwelling, Low Rise (MDLR) Yellow 2661 5804 40.88% Transportation Areas Railroad Facilities (RF) Purple 306 0 1.48% Rickshaw/Bus/Auto Stand (RBAS) Light purple 356 202.4 2.70% Mixed Urban Areas

Mixed Urban Predominantly Residential Black 489.4 564 5.09% (MUPR) Mixed Urban Predominantly Red 1831.4 4091 28.60% Commercial (MUPC) Transitional Areas Residential Construction Site (CS) Blue 466.8 0 2.25% Altered Lands Disturbed/Trashed Wetland (DTW) Brown 211 0 1.02% Added for site-specific reasons Temple (T) Orange 249 159.5 1.97% Marketplace (M) Pink 1137 810 9.40% Slum (S) Light blue 180 884 5.14%

Figure 6. FRD survey count results from all sites and trials, categorized by points of observation. Figure 6 above demonstrates a significantly higher proportion of males within the population, along with several points of observation where females were not present at all. Over the three trials, I identified 112 females, 187 males, and 20 “unknown”-sex individuals. Figure 6 also shows a clear lack of consistency from day to day in terms of overall count, points of

30 observation, and sex identified. The overall distribution of FRD observations across land use types is displayed below in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Overall FRD distribution across land use types in sites 1 and 2. FRD distribution from sites 1 and 2 shows the prevalence of strays in primarily two areas: mixed urban primarily commercial (MUPC) and marketplace (M). A Kruskal Wallis rank sum test for FRD sex distribution across land use types, however, shows significant differences (Kruskal-Wallis chi-squared = 9.864, p-value = 0.007). Density of male and female FRD per land use segment were calculated and multiplied by 100 to standardize and subsequently plot across all land use types. The 20 “unknown”-sex FRD were given 50% chance of being male or female for this statistical analysis. Figure 8 below shows land use versus dog density found from both sites combined, taking relative land use lengths into consideration.

Figure 8. Boxplots of male and female dog density (+SE) distribution found across land use types in sites 1 and 2. Kruskal Wallis tests for male and female dog densities across land use types show significant differences for both sexes but especially for males (Male: chi-squared = 31.167, p < 0.001; Female: chi-squared = 18.436, p = 0.030). The most prevalent activity among observed FRD was foraging for scraps from stores and streets, observed among 37% of the 319 individuals. Another crucial observation was that due to the early-morning timings of the trials, FRD were crowded in areas in anticipation for human activities to begin. Since the trials consisted of both weekend days and weekdays, different timings of human activities directly correlated with the differences in FRD counts. Delays in marketplace activities on weekend days, for example, resulted in far less FRD being observed, indicating that FRD have preferred alternate locations when primary food sources are less accessible. Sixteen percent of the FRD were observed interacting directly with humans by approaching for food, following, or threatening, while 17.2% of the FRD were observed interacting with both dogs and humans and 13.8% of the FRD with only dogs, not including dogs roaming in packs with indirect interaction. All expected injuries, which included ear cuts, tail cuts, fight/bite marks, skin injury, and missing/injured limb, were observed among a small percentage of the FRD population observed. Body Condition Scores of 3 was found among 84.3% of the FRD, while 10.7% of FRD displayed characteristics of BCS 2. Skin Condition score 1 was found among 57% of the FRD, while 39.2% of the FRD had SC 0. The three primary location types for observed FRD involved trash piles (40.8%), storefronts and temples (31.3%), and construction sites (8.8%). All other location types were either rickshaw stands or gates of residential complexes.

Figure 9. Selected images from FRD survey trials. Kolkata Interviews and Analyses Over the six trial days, I interviewed 24 residents and shopkeepers from sites 1 and 2 to confirm and explore the range of perspectives people have towards FRD in their locality. Given the small sample size, I did not statistically analyze these interviews, but instead assessed them to find key trends that define these localities’ views. I found no preference among the interviewees for foreign pedigreed dogs over FRD, although there was one response of brief ownership from a breeder in the area. Most interviewees stated that it would be difficult and not preferable for FRD to be entirely gone from the streets due to their important role as guards and companions. Various interviewees stated that they value FRD because they conveniently consume leftover trash food and ward off strangers in return. Interviewees in their 60s-80s and those with allergies or a history of FRD bites preferred that FRD be removed to create cleaner streets and a safer environment for vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly. Those particularly passionate regarding the FRD welfare status, however, were willing to forego the benefits of having FRD in their locality if they knew that the FRD were in a better welfare condition.

Some shopkeepers stated that the Kolkata Municipal Corporation, responsible for the city’s infrastructure and administration, comes to remove rabid, diseased, or dead FRD if residents report them to the Corporation. Otherwise, there has been no government activity in the areas in terms of vaccination, sterilization, or medical/welfare support for FRD. According to most interviewees, the Municipal Corporation collects daily waste every morning, but residents often dispose trash at other times at street corners, places frequented by FRD. Many residents stated that they frequently observe FRD experiencing skin problems and all had memory of witnessing a rabid dog at some time or other in their locality. As a result, shopkeepers and residents help the population with daily feeding and medicinal help, especially during the peak mating season, when fights among males can result in serious injuries. All interviewees noted the frequent need to remove FRD from their neighborhoods to break up pack fights, lessen noise, and stop them from making the streets unhygienic. Three interviewees had extensive experience with adopting FRD but did not vaccinate or sterilize their pets and allowed them to roam free on the streets. All interviewees were aware of the risk of canine rabies and knew exactly where to go for treatment if needed. Asking residents and shopkeepers for their opinion on FRD social integration, three responses emerged. Most interviewees said that FRD may perform well and provide several societal benefits if given sufficient training, while others were doubtful because FRD did not have special genetic traits. A few interviewees mentioned that training the next generation of FRD may be more successful.

SASA Survey and Analyses The 24 major questions in this survey were intended for the students’ hometown/city experience, which varied geographically throughout India. The survey among Indian undergraduate and graduate students of the South Asian Student Association at WPI resulted in 34 full responses from students between the ages of 19 and 29. The main takeaways from this survey are given in Table 3 and Figure 10 below. Table 3. Key takeaways from SASA survey responses. Question/Criteria Key Takeaways Hometown 32.4% from Mumbai Others: Bangalore, Chennai, Bhilai, Gandhinagar, New Delhi, Indore, Malegaon, Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune, Solapur, Vadodara, Wani, Songadh Owning a pet dog 67.6%: No 32.4 %: Yes Kind of pet dog and reason for 2 of the 15 indicated pet dogs were strays adoption All pedigreed pet dogs obtained from breeders or pet shops for visual appearance and/or breed characteristics Initial reaction upon seeing FRD 67.6% Negative or Neutral FRD management preferences 94.1%: Move to shelters 50%: Population control methods

Feeding FRD 91.2%: Yes Educational stress Mid-high stress (5-10) for all Interacting with FRD on campus 70.6%: Yes it will help reduce stress and make school interesting FRD attack history 73.5%: Yes FRD not being on the streets 58.8%: Fine with no dogs in hometown Reasons for wanting FRD: Interaction with animals, companionship, security Preference for trained FRD on 91.2%: Yes school/college campuses Opinion of FRD professional 52.9%: Maybe training feasibility 47.1%: Yes Reasons for doubt: Pedigreed capabilities, malnutrition among FRD, age of FRD, heightened senses among pedigreed, mental and physical trauma in FRD history Animal welfare club presence 76.5%: No or “I don’t know” Involvement in helping FRD 50%: Yes

6% 22% Aggressive, territorial 22% behavior Fear of being bitten/diseases 11% Fear of animals

39% Incidents in the past

Figure 10. Selected charts showing (a) level of fear for FRD, (b) level of fear for pedigreed dogs, and (c) reasons of fearing strays. Approximately two-thirds of interviewees responded with reasons for why they believe FRD cause problems to society, which included FRD attacks on children, the elderly, and the injured, unhygienic conditions, poor FRD welfare, causes or road accidents, noise and pack fights, and an overall sense of insecurity and fear among residents.

Discussion The observation metrics used in this study’s FRD surveys provide a preliminary set of criteria that may be applicable as baseline criteria for any region in India to monitor FRD population characteristics. However, doing preliminary test trials will identify unique characteristics of the region that will need to be observed and monitored prior to any intervention proposal. For example, regions that have experienced sterilization campaigns would require a metric to observe the prevalence of ear notches or marks indicating sterilization among the present FRD population. Observing land use creates a unique profile for localities and is especially important in urban developing regions that have predominantly heterogeneous land use. Government activity and presence of non-governmental organizations must also be assessed by observing proof of sterilization/vaccination campaigns and/or surveying long-term residents. Since sterilization campaigns have not been done on a national level, population counts and patterns of FRD movement can be helpful to identify their territorial behavior and frequency of entry/exit from localities, which will help further define an appropriate territory for the intervention. Evaluating FRD with the metrics in this chapter will help identify FRD characteristics, experience, and training capabilities, information that is still lacking for this breed-less population. Inspired by the FRD survey metrics used by Hiby & Hiby (2017), the range of survey metrics proposed in this chapter can be used to establish a more complete representation of FRD and their role in communities and the ecosystem. An intervention proposed while considering each locality uniquely will result in a more sustainable and appropriate outcome. Residents’ knowledge of FRD, rabies, and animal-assisted interventions must be assessed before attempting FRD training so that community response for service-trained FRD is supportive for FRD handlers and non-judgmental. A significant finding from this study, further verifiable through additional interviews and surveys, is that people of lower socioeconomic standing have higher immediate value for FRD as active members of their communities. The FRD population is significantly more indispensable for local shopkeepers who have more constant interaction with FRD than the average university student, as seen from the surveys. However, most of this first group expressed one or both of two concerns with the idea of removing FRD to train for service streams. One, all residents, as well as students interviewed agreed that they experience a significant connection to FRD due to their constant, reassuring physical presence and role as informal guards to ward off intruders and warn homeowners of outsiders in the locality. Thus, as socially attentive beings highly dependent on human-derived materials, FRD have retained their natural territorial characteristics but adapted to human coexistence by creating value specifically within human-dominated landscapes. Establishing a system of FRD training would require attention towards finding ways to replace this need for security in neighborhood communities to avoid the unintended consequence of reduced safety and vulnerability. Second, without proof of the physical and mental abilities of FRD as a definite breed and the continuous example of only foreign pedigreed dogs as active

36 members of law enforcement, military initiatives, and therapy, residents are generally quite doubtful of the results of FRD training efforts. Surveying international students and local shopkeepers indicated that the majority require an optimal FRD example to believe that FRD are equally capable as foreign pedigreed dogs. The surveys exposed a preference for foreign pedigreed dogs among people of higher socioeconomic status, who are also more likely to purchase a pet dog. Surveying local shopkeepers, however, demonstrated a need to maintain the interactions they experience with FRD in terms of security and companionship, which can be done by increasing the range of services FRD can provide based on their abilities. Despite the various issues with FRD, many respondents commented on the positive effects of witnessing FRD and that removing this would severely affect them in their daily experience.

Chapter 3: FRD Social Integration System Dynamics Model Abstract A small number of experiments with FRD in India have revealed that the capacity of local FRD to serve in local environments can be much higher than foreign breed dogs and can possibly create a cost-effective alternative for local governments and organizations. Interviews conducted with professionals in FRD studies, law enforcement, and service training in the US and India were used in conjunction with historical FRD data and training techniques to propose an aptitude test and deployment process for FRD social integration in India. I constructed a preliminary STELLA (system dynamics) map model for FRD social integration to demonstrate increases in FRD welfare and societal and conservation benefits in comparison to conventional intervention techniques. The structure of the model can be used to simulate dynamic behavior within a feedback system defining the role of FRD as a stray population and as a service-oriented population. The model channels the initial stray population into the Volhardt’s aptitude testing process followed by an extensive training process, considering rates of failure and external effects such as funding and support networks along the way. The FRD population’s ongoing effect on the economy through rabies deaths and person-days lost due to disease transmission is countered by a series of positive societal effects such as financial benefits, medical services, and increased illegal wildlife crime detection, from training and deployment into three major categories of service. The model can be simulated using essentially any context of FRD by altering the converters (rates and factors) as required for the social, political, and population characteristics in any location. Thus, the FRD model here can be eventually applied to serve any nation challenged by an overwhelming and seemingly irreversible population of FRD and simulated to find aspects of social service that may be most applicable and of interest. By investigating innovative approaches to managing FRD populations in the Indian context, this study shows that giving value to FRD through social integration can replace undesirable effects of FRD with societal and environmental benefits for all stakeholders.

Introduction Approximately 30-60 million FRD currently exist throughout urban and rural India, as a result of ineffective population interventions, weak pet control policies, and vast amounts of human-derived materials available for FRD survival (Ghosh, 2018; Daniels, 1989). Although FRD provide benefits of companionship and security as territorial, human commensals, they complicate rural/urban environments as disease transmitters and experience a high level of human-induced mortality and welfare problems such as diseases/infections, malnutrition, starvation, and injury or debilitating conditions (Rinzin, 2015).With a human population of 1.35 billion and density of up to 21,000 people per square kilometer, India presents a complex scenario for FRD interactions with humans and domestic animals (Ghosh, 2020). An estimated 15 million cases of animal bites, 91.5% involving endemic canine rabies, arise yearly in India with an incidence rate of 17.4 per 1000 people (Menezes, 2008). Roughly 38 million person-days are lost due to recovery time, alongside an estimated cost of $25 million for postexposure

38 prophylaxis treatment (Menezes, 2008). Canine endemic rabies claims 25,000 to 30,000 human deaths annually in India, representing 36% of the global annual deaths from rabies (Menezes, 2008). FRD also globally pose a conservation threat for wildlife by transmitting zoonotic diseases, competing for resources, threatening as predators, and attacking a variety of species residing within protected areas (Rinzin, 2015; Ghosh, 2018; Home et al., 2018). Since the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960, several unsuccessful attempts have been made to manage this largely unmonitored population in India (Uniyal, 2005). Some attempts have also been made to socially integrate these FRD into fields of service where they can be a more cost- effective and realistic alternative to using foreign pedigreed dogs. However, there is a lack of information regarding FRD population genetics, characteristics, and training capabilities, which are necessary to develop an effective social integration intervention. This study demonstrates a method by which FRD can be assimilated into society, thereby improving their welfare issues and interactions with humans and wildlife. I interviewed several professionals in conservation, animal behavior, activism, and public service to obtain advice on how to change perspectives toward FRD, boost public interest in FRD-related work, and begin FRD social integration from the ground-level up. Interacting with these professionals also solidly established an understanding of debates on government animal welfare policies, their efficiency level and impacts, and how they can be improved for welfare and public health benefits. The individuals who I extensively interviewed for this chapter were Kristin Hartness (Executive Director, Canines for Disabled Kids), Chandrima Home (FRD Researcher, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment- ATREE) Meghna Uniyal (Co-Founder and Director, Humane Foundation for People and Animals), Sajal Kumar Mandal (Deputy Superintendent, Kolkata Police), Pranjal Baruah (Crime Investigation Range Officer, Kaziranga National Park), Soumendranath Dey (Handler of Kolkata Police’s first stray K9, Asha), Lakhi Nandan Baruah (Handler of Kaziranga’s wildlife sniffer dog, Quarmy), Christina Taddei (K9 and service dog trainer, Alpha Dog K9 Training), and Abhi Tamim Vanak (FRD Researcher, ATREE). I hypothesized that if these selected professionals can be effectively interviewed to understand the current state of animal welfare for FRD in India, then policy changes and an organizational structure can be proposed to facilitate social integration of FRD. The complexity of the FRD problem calls for careful analysis of the various feedback loops that affect FRD life history traits in India and their relationships with human and wildlife. In order to propose a feasible policy that can decrease the FRD population without negatively affecting any other aspect of these feedback systems, it is necessary to be able to initially define and model a closed-system structure that sufficiently illustrates the causes and effects of the FRD problem. Establishing such a system that contains the exact factors involved prohibits various extraneous factors from influencing the dynamics of the system and creates a more accurate representation of parameter sensitivity. The information I obtained through literature review (chapter 1), FRD and public surveys (chapter 2), and interviews with professionals were compiled and applied to build this model. The FRD problem is visually represented through a system dynamics-based model using STELLA Architect, exhibiting both the tangible and

39 unexpected benefits of assessing and training this massive population to incorporate them into service fields. The STELLA model is intended to present a preliminary pathway for assessment, training, and deployment of FRD in three main areas of public service: emotional support animal/companion/pet/therapy, medical services, and other specialized training fields. As explored in chapter 1, specialized training may involve a wide variety of services, including law enforcement (K9), military assistance (K9), ecological data collection (bio-detection), search and rescue (SAR), guard, pastoral (agriculture management assistance), and anti-poaching conservation efforts, most of which are not sufficiently funded and advocated for currently in most countries including India (Breeding Business, 2019). The FRD integration model also includes opportunities for various societal benefits that can bring long-term changes to policies, animal welfare services, mental health, and endemic canine rabies. The end goal of the model is to prove that redirecting attention and efforts from culling campaigns or TNR programs and finding a multi-pronged intervention primarily focusing on FRD social integration methods can eventually reduce the FRD population and benefit people in countless ways.

Methods Interviews with Professionals I interviewed eight professionals in the US and India between May 2019 and January 2020, addressing each interviewee with questions pertaining closest to their field of work. I met Kristin Hartness, an expert in the field of service animals, multiple times at Canines for Disabled Kids to discuss how service/therapy animal organizations can be developed in nations that initially lack service animal laws and stigmatize mental health. I later interviewed her associate Christina Taddei regarding the details of specialized dog training and how this needs to be adjusted for an FRD population. I spoke to Dr. Chandrima Home to clarify several aspects of her research on FRD-wildlife interactions in northern India and ask for her opinion and advice on socially integrating FRD to create an Indian service/therapy system. I interviewed Meghna Uniyal to discuss the latest animal welfare policies set by the Indian government and her views on if the situation can be improved via social integration of FRD. Per her advice, I then interviewed Dr. Abhi Tamim Vanak from ATREE to discuss how social integration will help the population management problem for FRD in India. While in India, I interviewed Sajal Kumar Mandal at Kolkata Police to understand the costs and benefits of using local FRD instead of foreign pedigreed dogs in their K9 dog squad and implications this can have on training FRD for all of India’s police dog squads. At the same compound, I interviewed Soumendranath Dey regarding the challenges of training, handling, and deploying an FRD rather than a foreign pedigreed dog. At Kaziranga National Park, I interviewed Pranjal Baruah regarding the costs, benefits, and challenges of developing a K9 dog squad to assist them in their anti-poaching efforts, as well as his opinion on training FRD instead of foreign pedigreed dogs for this genre of conservation work. Lakhi Nandan Baruah, handler of Quarmy at Kaziranga, was also simultaneously interviewed regarding his experience of working with Quarmy in the field.

Designing the STELLA Model For this study, I created the STELLA model in map view to provide a preliminary visual for how FRD could progress through a structured system in comparison to implementing certain commonplace population management interventions. I generated the first sector to give the user the option to implement sterilization, culling/euthanasia, and waste management measures. This sector affects the FRD population in the second sector, which focuses on the levels of training FRD would need to pass through to enter different fields of service. The third sector was structure to highlight key indicators that show undesirable effects of FRD on humans and wildlife.

Results Interviews Kristin Hartness, an advocate for service animals, highlighted the importance of communicating effectively and rallying support among schoolchildren and the public for this project, especially since there are no service animal laws in India yet. Working out initial “bugs” in the training system may be easier, according to Hartness, if FRD are initially trained through student projects, where professional supervision can guide a large number of students to train many FRD simultaneously. From her experience, this kind of experimental work may be supported financially with more flexibility since it is a learning experience and can help to gain trust and support among the families in the area. As the director of a nonprofit in this field, Hartness discussed the possible costs and benefits of starting this in India and advised me on how an organization attempting to train and deploy FRD could be financially sustained. She referred me to Christina Taddei, who shared with me the detailed regime required to train and assess dogs for service training, as well as her experience of working in prison dog training programs. For the case of FRD, she estimated an initial training failure rate of 80-90% from her experience with mixed breed dogs from shelters and other sources. Taddei made it clear that many dogs would need to be screened continuously to find enough candidates for specialized training but that with more screening and training, FRD characteristics and capabilities will be understood earlier on in the process. Taddei stressed that in order to match international standards of trained pedigreed dogs, FRD should only be trained as pups and their characteristics should be noted to help future testing and training. Taddei also discussed the range of work that FRD can be trained for and how successfully trained FRD can be publicized to make changes to service animal laws over time. Prior to starting FRD surveys in India, Dr. Chandrima Home advised me on developing survey methodology for both FRD population characteristics and resident perspectives. Home discussed the ongoing challenges of implementing sterilization campaigns and mentioned that combining intervention methods may be more effective. She also shared her experience of communicating with the Animal Welfare Board of India and the polarized debate between animal welfare advocates and conservation advocates. Regarding social integration, Home mentioned that FRD may be of interest due to their adaptive nature to various environments. I

41 next interviewed Meghna Uniyal, who stressed the need for stronger pet control policies and discussed the ongoing debate between the implementation of the Prevention of Cruelty Act of 1960 and state or municipal laws due to conflicting interests. Uniyal voiced her concern with the need for extensive infrastructure if FRD are integrated via training and also discussed the reasons behind the public’s preference for foreign pedigreed dogs and their specialized training capabilities. Uniyal referred me to Dr. Abhi Tamim Vanak from ATREE, who spoke to me about population management strategies and policies needed to lower the FRD population, such as stronger pet control laws. As with the other professionals, he expressed some doubt regarding the effect of this integration program on population control since only a small number of FRD could be trained at a time. I then visited Kolkata Police in India to interview Sajal Kumar Mandal, who discussed the challenges of training Asha that arose from not assessing the FRD precisely enough. Although she can perform as well as the others, there are drawbacks due to mental and physical trauma from her prior experiences on the streets. He mentioned the possibility that training the next generation of FRD would be more successful since they would not have trauma related to the stray lifestyle. I interviewed Soumendranath Dey at the Kolkata Police K9 training compound, who said that it is difficult to deploy Asha, the first trained FRD for Kolkata Police, due to stigma from VIPs and the lack of official papers that define her breed and approve her training. He stressed that Asha had unrelenting physical ability, with a friendly disposition, a competitive rush, and almost no maintenance due to strong immunity. While the German Shepherds and other pedigreed dogs need regular upkeep, especially during the summer season, Asha needs little to no vaccinations or medicine and is on par with all other dogs. However, similar to Mandal’s observations, Dey also mentioned Asha’s occasional struggles that may stem from her past mental trauma and that future experimental FRD training should start at an earlier stage. Dey voiced his opinion that any dog, given the proper training and an understanding handler, can be successful given the right kind of work. The last interview I conducted, with Pranjal Baruah and Lakhi Nandan Baruah at Kaziranga National Park, introduced me to Quarmy, a successful Belgian Malinois sniffer and tracker dog who had helped reduce the range officer death rate from poacher-ranger conflict in the park. Pranjal Baruah discussed the challenges of continuing Quarmy’s regular training due to stringent funds and health complications for a foreign pedigreed dog in the climate of Assam. He also explained the extent of Quarmy’s service with Kaziranga’s range officers and police cases in the town of Biswanath Chariali and that the Belgian Malinois breed characteristics are specifically desirable for anti-poaching work due to its physical challenges and strategic planning against new poaching techniques, routes, and trends. Lakhi Nandan Baruah delineated the extent of Quarmy’s initial training at Border Security Force at Gwalior and her ongoing training and case work with Baruah and Quarmy’s assistant handler that ensure her high-level performance. Kaziranga had no record of using trained FRD instead of foreign pedigreed dogs.

The STELLA Model The structure and logic of the preliminary STELLA model shown below developed while progressing through FRD literature review, population management method comparisons, surveys and interviews, and innovative case studies that indicate a social integration pathway for FRD in India. Figure 11 below features sectors 1 and 2 of the model, Previously Proposed Policies and Social Integration, which identify all commonly prescribed population management practices for FRD populations and subsequently an additional method of socially integrating them for various benefits. Sector 3 in Figure 12 gives a simple representation of some health- related issues and economic costs that result from human and wildlife interactions with FRD.

Figure 11. STELLA model sectors 1 and 2, showing policies and testing/training methods for population management and social integration.

Figure 12. STELLA model sector 3, showing selected FRD interactions and impacts on humans and wildlife. The FRD Population stock in Sector 2 is connected to two inflows, Stray Births and Immigration, and one outflow, Stray Deaths. This stock-and-flow structure of the stray dog population was largely derived from Saeed (2009)’s STELLA model depicting the “complete model subsuming the latent capacity support structure” for the stray dog population of Bangkok, Thailand (Saeed, 2009). The generic model in system dynamics for population structure would only consist of the Stray Births inflow, obtained by multiplying Birth Rate Fraction with FRD Population, and a Stray Deaths outflow, obtained by dividing FRD Population by Life Expectancy. Although this creates the “perceived structure of a pest population”, in reality, Saeed (2009) found that FRD population was being fueled by FRD through the inflow of Immigration that was taking over the territorial niches that were becoming available when Bangkok’s castration campaign decreased the original population. In terms of sustenance, Trash Food Availability, which increases per dog if FRD Population is reduced, naturally draws immigrant dogs from neighboring regions and increases the Normal Birth Fraction that affects Birth Rate Fraction for Stray Births, since dogs will breed more frequently and have more pups if food is more readily available (Saeed, 2009). Increased Waste Management thus represents one key policy to decrease the support system for FRD, in order to naturally reduce the FRD birth rate. Sector 1 also gives the options to simulate a Sterilization campaign at a specific Time of Intervention, as well as a culling or euthanasia campaign at a specific Time of Intervention, to change the rates of Stray Births and Stray Deaths. Sector 2 primarily focuses on the social integration pathway, which begins with Volhardt’s Testing to assess the temperament of the FRD Population at the age of 7-9 weeks. The rate of this testing depends on the existing Training Support Network, including

45 veterinarians, social workers, FRD raisers, FRD trainers and handlers, and infrastructure, as well as an Initial Failure rate and Batch Size. This first round of FRD testing develops a Candidate Population, from where Obedience Training + Aptitude Assessment with Failure Rate 1 establishes a Working FRD Population. FRD that fail at this preliminary obedience training stage return back to Candidate Population, from where FRD are transferred to the Establishing flow into a Shelter Population. FRD that failed the initial Volhardt’s Testing will also be transferred to the Establishing flow into the Shelter Population. Once a batch of FRD are identified as candidates for the Working FRD Population, they will move onto either Specialized Training or Service Training with Failure Rate 2 and Failure Rate 3, respectively. Since there is a high failure rate for mixed-breed and stray dogs, the large percentage of FRD that fail this training will be transferred to the Reassessing flow, with Failure Rate 4, into the population of ESA/Companion/Pet/Therapy FRD. If FRD do not pass this reassessment, they can be transferred back to the Candidate Population, from where they will join the Shelter Population. FRD that pass through Specialized Training will join Detection, K9, SAR, Guard, Pastoral FRD, a wide variety of specialized work that will try to provide as many opportunities as possible for FRD with natural capabilities. FRD that pass Service Training will join the select group of Medical Service FRD. Type 1 FRD are defined here as non-working dogs, while Type 3 FRD are medical service dogs and Type 2 FRD are trained in all other specialized services. Once Type 1 FRD undergo Deploy Type 1, the end goal is to see effects such as a reduction in Psychiatric Costs and other mental health-related variables, as was seen in The Big FIX’s Companion Dog Program in Uganda. FRD that successfully undergo Deploy Type 2 will cause Financial Benefits as an alternative to the costs of using foreign pedigreed dogs, while Deploy Type 3 will cause a change in Health Services Costs. With enough success, the role of FRD as service animals will lead to changes in Service Animal Laws, which in turn will help promote and fund Service Training. All effects from deploying Type 1, 2, and 3 FRD will be necessary to Publicize Success and build Awareness + Interest among the public. With greater success, Funding will increase at a higher rate and support larger Batch Size for each round of Volhardt’s Testing. Funding will also support the establishment of shelters, from where FRD can be transferred back into the training process if rehabilitated completely. Sector 3 will show changes in FRD interactions according to the changes in FRD Population size. FRD Population is shown to directly cause FRD Attacks on Humans and FRD Attacks on Wildlife, which lead to an overall Postexposure Prophylaxis Cost and number of Species Threatened or Affected. The public health concern of rabies is depicted in the Disease Transmission inflow, determined by FRD Attacks on Humans and FRD Vaccination Rate, into the number of Human Rabies Cases. Depending on the number of rabies cases and Medical Assistance available, the Human Deaths rate is determined, leading to Person-Days Lost.

Discussion Interviewing professionals in the fields of FRD studies, service training, and conservation and law enforcement work exposed several perspectives and experiences regarding FRD and their capabilities. Some individuals noted the benefits of replacing foreign pedigreed dogs with local FRD, whereas others mentioned its ineffectiveness for population management. There was a comparable level of doubt among professionals regarding the competencies and genetic capabilities of FRD as was seen with residents and SASA students in the chapter 2 study. Christina Taddei’s concern regarding the high failure rate for FRD testing and training could be resolved by completing a widescale FRD survey to find trends in FRD capabilities with characteristics of their locality, activity, and other metrics used in chapter 2. Although this would not generate genetic information regarding FRD, it would help to differentiate FRD within the population earlier in the process of training, making the system more efficient. Thus, without a widescale version of the FRD survey proposed in chapter 2, the social integration system will not be as informed. This model will be further developed to create a comprehensive, gaming environment that will feature all factors imperative to planning the most successful FRD population intervention. Ultimately, this model will be structured such that policymakers from any nation experiencing an FRD problem can apply it to plan an optimal intervention. The model, with certain added attributes, will be useful to define simulations pertaining to four key concerns. First, as professionals studying the stray dog problem are primarily concerned with finding a realistic solution to the population growth problem, this will be visualized by simulating the various policies in the model with location-specific parameters defined. For this, the input parameters must be integrally relevant for all locations with FRD problems, such as training infrastructure, trash food availability, and veterinary services, which must be assessed before planning a widescale intervention. Second, the model’s in-built policy choices and pathway for FRD assessment, training, and deployment will allow the user to simulate a cost comparison for all previously proposed FRD interventions versus using those same resources for an FRD social integration effort. Third, the various outputs that represent societal costs and benefits will allow the user to compare the benefits of using the same amount of resources for various FRD management policies versus social integration. The model gives several opportunities for societal improvement through mental health stigma reduction, policy advancement, better public health and safety, reduced threat to wildlife, advancement in veterinary services and training programs, and public involvement in various aspects of the social integration system. The fourth simulation, of high importance to professionals in service fields, will show a cost-benefit analysis and value comparison of using FRD versus foreign pedigreed dogs. Giving policymakers and other decision makers the ability to simulate these scenarios will lessen the chances of unintended consequences and improve measures of success. Involving FRD in various fields of work will elevate their welfare, but more importantly, change people’s attitudes toward FRD in the long run to choose more humane solutions to the FRD problem.

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Appendices Appendix A. FRD Observation Data- Google Earth Maps Land Use Maps (Please refer to Table 2 on page 27 for land use designation by color)

Trial Maps

Site 1 Trial 1

Site 1 Trial 2

Site 1 Trial 3

Site 2 Trial 1

Site 2 Trial 2

Site 2 Trial 3

Appendix B. R Code for Statistical Analyses and Data Visualization

#Male DogDensityx100 Land Use Boxplot a <- ggplot(data=dogs, aes(x=Landuse, y=MaleDogD100)) a + geom_jitter() + geom_boxplot(size=0.5, alpha=0.5)

#Female DogDensityx100 Land Use Boxplot b <- ggplot(data=dogs, aes(x=Landuse, y=FemDogD100)) b + geom_jitter()+ geom_boxplot(size=0.5, alpha=0.5)

#Histogram with Trials and Sites FRD1 <- ggplot(data= FRD, aes(x=Location)) F <- FRD1 + geom_histogram(stat="count", aes(fill=Sex), colour="Black") + facet_grid(Trial~Site, scales= "free", labeller = label_both) F <- F + xlab("Points of Observation") + ylab("Number of FRD") + ggtitle("FRD Survey Count") + theme(plot.title = element_text(hjust=0.5)) F + theme(legend.position = "right", axis.text.x=element_blank())

#Kruskal-Wallis Rank Sum Test kruskal.test(MaleDogD100 ~ Landuse, data = dogs) kruskal.test(FemDogD100 ~ Landuse, data = dogs)

#Visualize data types d <- ggplot(data=FRD, aes(x=SC, colour=Sex)) d <- d + geom_histogram(stat = "count") e <- table(FRD$SC) f <- table(FRD$BCS) g <- table(FRD$Interactions) h <- table(FRD$Problem) i <- table(FRD$Activity) j <- table(FRD$LandUse) l <- table(FRD$Sex)

#Factorize Landuse variable FRD$LandUse = factor(FRD$LandUse, levels=unique(FRD$LandUse))

#Kruskal Wallis Test for Land Use and Sex kruskal.test(LandUse ~ Sex, data = FRD)

Appendix C. Kolkata Public Survey Questionnaire 1. Do/did you own a dog? a. If yes, what kind or breed? (Stray or name of specific breed) b. Where did you get the dog from? c. Why did you choose this specific one? d. Was the dog vaccinated and/or sterilized? i. If no, why not? 2. Are your family members afraid of street dogs? a. If so, why? 3. Are your family members afraid of foreign breed dogs? a. If so, why? 4. Have you or a family member been previously injured/bitten/chased by a stray dog? 5. Did you ever have to get rid of a dog by throwing stones or anything similar? 6. Have you ever witnessed a stray dog beaten or abused? 7. How healthy are the dogs in this locality, in your opinion? 8. Have you ever helped/fed a stray dog? 9. Have you heard of rabies before? 10. What would you or your family members do if you/they are bitten by a stray dog? 11. In your opinion, is the government doing enough to manage the stray dog? Are policies being followed? 12. Do you think a stray dog could do the job of a foreign breed dog in a police K9 unit or trained profession (such as medical services)? 13. Do you think if these stray dogs are trained and brought to school campuses to interact with children then educational stress will be lessened? 14. How is garbage disposed specifically in this area? 15. If stray dogs were to be removed from the streets completely, would you be alright with that? 16. What is your age (range)? 17. What is your occupation?

Appendix D. Indian (International) WPI Students Survey Questionnaire Please respond to the questions below based on your hometown. Your responses will help immensely to assess experiences and perspectives toward Indian free-ranging dogs. Additional comments/questions are welcome and appreciated. Everything is kept anonymous! (Y = Yes, N = No, SA = Short Answer) Where city/town are you from in India? 1. What forms of wildlife exist in your hometown? (Short answer) 2. Is there dog-wildlife conflict in your hometown? (Y/N) 3. Did you own a pet dog there? (Y/N) a. If yes (for dog), what kind or breed? (Stray or name of breed) (SA) i. Where did you get the dog from? (SA)

ii. Why did you choose this specific one? (SA) 4. What is your initial reaction upon seeing a stray dog? (Good/Bad/Neutral) 5. Do you feel like helping an injured/orphaned stray dog if you see one? (Y/N/Sometimes) 6. What do you think should be done with these strays? (Nothing, Move to shelters, Euthanasia, Culling (mass killing), Population control methods (Birth control); Select 1 or more) 7. If you have ever fed a stray dog, what kind of food did you give? (SA) 8. Please state your undergraduate major subject and Master’s subject (if applicable). (SA) 9. How would you rate your educational stress back in school or undergrad? (1-Low, 10- High) (Choose number) 10. Do you think seeing/interacting with dogs or animals within the school campus could make school more interesting or reduce stress? (Y/N) 11. Are your family members afraid of stray dogs? (Y/N/A few/Majority) a. If so, why? (SA) 12. Are your family members afraid of foreign breed dogs? (Y/N/A few/Majority) a. If so, why? (SA) 13. Have you or a family member been previously injured/bitten/chased by a stray dog? (Y/N) 14. Did you ever have to get rid of a dog by throwing stones or anything similar? (Y/N) 15. Do you think stray dogs create a problem in society? (Y/N) a. If so, how? (SA) 16. If stray dogs were to disappear in your hometown, would you be alright with that? (Y/N) 17. What is your age? (SA) 18. Do you like the idea of having stray dogs on school/college campuses to visit at any time? (Y/N) 19. Do you think a stray dog could do the job of a foreign breed dog in a police K9 unit or trained profession (such as medical services)? (Y/N/Maybe) a. If you said NO or MAYBE above, then why? (SA) 20. Do you have an animal welfare club or organization at your last school/college in India? (Y/N/I don’t know) 21. Have you ever been involved in rescuing or helping a street dog? (Y/N) 22. Do you have friends or family members involved in animal welfare work? (Y/N) 23. Are you interested in working for animal welfare projects if given the chance? (Y/N) 24. Comments (SA)