Implementing Case Studies in Teacher Education and Professional Development

Kenneth Kelch and Miralynn Malupa-Kim Alliant International University

A case study is a method of teaching robust definition of a teaching case must in- that is used in a variety of disciplines. While clude a scenario delineating a problem that specific definitions may vary, in general a requires an interactive response by the learn- case is a description of an actual or hypo- er” (p. 523). thetical yet realistic/real-world situation in which a person or persons face a problem or Case studies are often traditionally challenge. The following definition of a case thought of as being used in medical, legal, is provided by Shulman (1999): “Cases are and business training. Physicians have long usually accounts of practical or strategic di- been trained by the case method, as medical lemmas that confront a teacher. To be valua- school students are presented with the partic- ble to use as a case, however, the narrative ulars of a patient’s medical problem and are should be representative of a class or type of tasked with providing a diagnosis and course dilemma, problem, or quandary that arises of treatment. In the legal field, Stanford Law with some frequency in teaching situa- School, for instance, uses case studies that tions” (p. 92). “place students in the roles of lawyers and policy makers and teach fundamental law- In teacher education, the case study yering skills such as investigating facts, method is a motivating, student-centered counseling, and resolving ethical dilem- approach in which theoretical models and mas” (Stanford Law School Case Studies concepts are illustrated through their appli- Collection, 2012). In business schools, case cation to practical situations. Engagement in studies have been used to teach business eth- case studies promotes active involvement, ics, management, marketing, consumer be- participation, and critical thinking among havior, sales, organizational behavior, entre- participants. Case studies “can be used in preneurship, and any number of other topic any discipline when instructors want stu- areas (Smith, 2010). dents to explore how what they have learned applies to real world situations…[and] re- In short, case studies can be and are quire students to answer an open-ended utilized in any subject area, including civil question or develop a solution to an open- engineering (Newson & Delatte, 2011), ac- ended problem with multiple potential solu- counting (Doran, Healy, McCutcheon, & tions” (“Using Case Studies to Teach,” O'Callaghan, 2011) and physical education 2013). In the case method, participants are (Richards, Hemphill, Templin, & Eubank, exposed to the breadth and depth of the con- 2012). In fact, prospective applicants to tent being studied. In short, students learn by these types of professional training schools doing, and they develop their ability to en- might use case studies as one method of pre- gage in “teacher theorizing” (Prabhu, paring for the admissions process and to im- 1992) and “robust reasoning” (Johnson, prove their chances of acceptance into their 1999). Heitzmann (2008) stated that “any desired program (“Case Studies,” 2013). 10 ORTESOL Journal

Approaches to Teacher Education which present information about and guide- lines on how to use cases in education Language teacher education in the (“Using Case Studies to Teach,” 2013). The past several decades has incorporated many use of case studies in TESOL has been less of the approaches and practices of general extensively used than in other educational teacher education (Freeman & Richards, and professional fields (Bailey, 2006). None- 1993; Clarke, 1994; Crandall, 2000; Woods, theless, the literature shows that the case 1996). A current approach to teacher educa- method is increasingly incorporated in tion includes the notion of teacher reflection, TESOL teacher education. Crandall (2000) the incorporation of personal experience, states that “Teaching case studies and stories teacher cognition, problem-posing, and teach- (like those used in the medical, legal, or busi- er professional development (see, for exam- ness education) provide a means of bridging ple, (Richards & Lockhart, 1994; Golombek, theory and practice and demonstrating the 1998; Schleppegrell, 1997; Richards & Far- complexity of teaching as a profession. They rell, 2005). Crandall (2000) states that there provide contextualized portraits of the many has been a shift in lan- factors which influence guage teacher education, Engagement in case studies teacher decision making which is evident in four and behavior in the essential areas: there is promotes active involvement, classroom” (p. 41). an emphasis on con- participation, and critical thinking structivist, process- among participants. Johnson (1996) advocat- oriented approaches; a ed that in teacher educa- focus on linking theory with the realities of tion a transition from a traditional transmis- classroom teaching; inclusion of teachers’ sion-based approach to a constructivist ap- prior learning and experience; and a focus on proach can be achieved through a case-based teacher learning as including self-directed method. This approach provides “rich de- and collaborative components. In a similar scriptions of the complexities of teachers’ way, McNamara (2008) posits a view of lan- work by revealing the complex variables that guage teaching and learning which involves are considered as teachers sort out, make individuals who are in interaction with oth- sense of, and justify the use of particular ac- ers, and in which learning and teaching occur tions” (p. 767). Ellis (2010) suggested that within institutional constraints. As Tsui teachers, both pre- and in-service, can con- (2003) states, “Teachers’ knowledge must be nect theory and practice through “narrative understood in terms of the way they respond discourse that arguably corresponds more to their contexts of work, and this in turn closely to how teachers make sense of their shapes the contexts in which their knowledge work….through carefully selected case stud- is developed” (p. 2). The elements of teacher ies of classroom learners and of instructional education outlined here can be realized in the interventions in language learning” (p. 187). use of the case method. Case studies have also been incorpo- Case Method in Teacher Education rated in TESOL teacher education training materials (Roberts, 1997; Plaister, 1993). The As the case approach has become an TESOL international organization has a se- important component of teacher education ries of books in its Case Studies in TESOL programs, there has been an increase in the Practice , each highlighting a different theme, availability of teacher training materials which present the accounts of practitioners,

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with the aim being that readers of such cases collaboration enables teachers to grow pro- may reflect on and come to deeper under- fessionally by exploring their personal belief standings of the issues that they face in their , understanding how those beliefs are own teaching context (for a review of the realized within their particular teaching con- series, see Stoynoff, 2004). text, and articulating their experiences. When teachers come together in faculty meetings, Bailey (2006) used the case approach staff development days, or other collabora- in her book on language teaching supervi- tive settings, they may employ case study sion, in which current and future supervisors topics, which draw upon the practical matters can read about and engage in activities relat- faced by instructors in their classrooms and ed to commonplace issues such as teacher institutions. They may also go beyond the observation and evaluation, autonomy and technical aspects of teaching and delve into authority, and supervisory discourse. deeper, more philosophical issues, such as the nature of teacher learning and the person- The Case Method al values and beliefs inherent in the craft of in Professional Development teaching.

The benefits of the case method apply Benefits of Utilizing the Case Method not only to pre-service teacher training, but they also can be used to promote professional As the subject of an empirical re- development among experienced teachers. search study, the case-based approach was Time on the job in and of itself may not be shown to improve college students’ ability to sufficient to develop and maintain pedagogi- solve problems such as those that arise in cal skills. Therefore, experienced educators dealing with classroom management issues can further their professional competencies (Choi & Lee, 2009). through engagement in activities which allow them to bridge the theory-practice divide. Through their own use of the case The case method allows teachers to interact approach, the authors have found that partici- with theoretical principles by drawing upon pants are able to improve their skills in the their own and others’ experiential and practi- following areas: cal knowledge in addressing real-world prob- lems. Teachers are able to view a particular • Critical thinking case “as a member of a class of events and to • Oral communication (speaking and call attention to its value” (Shulman, 1992, p. listening) 21). As Bailey (2006) states, “These appar- • Writing skills ently imaginary situations provide us with • Interpersonal skills safe contexts for thinking out alternative so- • Resolving disagreement and consensus lutions to the problems raised” (p. 25). building • Qualitative analysis The issue then becomes, in what way • Problem identification, problem posing, can the case study approach be applied with problem solving in-service teachers? One method is through • Evaluating criteria the implementation of a teacher study group • Identifying, evaluating and selecting (TSG). A teacher study group is a form of among alternatives workplace learning, a collaborative effort de- • Decision-making signed to enhance teaching practice. Such • Formulating, articulating, and imple-

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menting a plan of action and methodologies which participants can • Ability to see complexity of real-world draw upon in addressing the issue. events and the impact of variable and un- anticipated factors One approach is to write cases based • Ability to understand the perspective of on teacher training course content, material others from a TESOL course textbook, or other TESOL-related readings. As an example, the authors have used theory and method course How to Use Case Studies textbooks (Brown H. D., 2007a; Brown H. D., 2007b) as the stimulus for the writing of Case studies may be easier to imple- cases. The content of these textbooks give a ment with relatively small numbers (15 par- sense of the range of issues that are suitable ticipants). While large numbers of partici- for the development of case studies. pants may present additional challenges (e.g., loss of flexibility, decreased individual partic- • Acquisition ipation), research presents evidence that the • Age and Acquisition approach is still workable and can be effec- • Learning Styles and Strategies tive even with larger groups (Doran et al., • Personality Factors 2011). • Communicative Competence • Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom As mentioned above, case studies can • Teaching Across Age Levels be found in commercially published sources • Teaching Across Proficiency Levels (Roberts, 1997; Plaister, 1993; Bailey, 2006). • Sociocultural, Political, and Institutional However, case studies which are written by Contexts the teacher educator or teacher study group • Lesson Planning facilitator for a particular group of partici- • Technology in the Classroom pants have the benefit of being tailored to • Initiating and Sustaining Interaction in the their specific needs and being directly aligned Classroom to course content or institutional/ • Classroom-Based Assessment programmatic context. Personal experience with pedagogical The following sections provide infor- content and other professional issues are also mation designed to assist the reader in creat- ideal catalysts for or foundations of case stud- ing and implementing the case approach in ies. Examples include: his or her own teacher training or professional development context. • Classroom management • Student resistance to pedagogical change Guidelines for Writing Case Studies • Administrative duties • Implementing new curriculum The process of writing a case study • Textbook adaptation begins with a consideration of the educational • Culture shock among students or professional development objectives. First, • Teacher “successes” and “failures” determine what theories, constructs, and con- tent you want the participants to learn through After the topic is selected, it is neces- the case. The goal is for the case to highlight sary to write a case that is sufficiently rich in (rather than simply present) concepts, theories context, details, personalities and culture in

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order to promote discussion. The presenta- form of a worksheet to be completed in the tion of the case should be in a narrative, sto- class or session, or in other instances a case ry-telling format, which provides sufficient analysis report or case summary can be writ- background information about the people ten outside of the original meeting for home- and actions involved in the problem situa- work or later discussion. tion. In this way, participants are able to identify with the decision-maker’s situation. When pre- or in-service teacher par- In addition, the case must be written so that ticipants are sufficiently familiar with the it is sufficiently challenging and interesting. case study approach and have engaged in the The events should be authentic, realistic, and experience several times, they can try their relevant to the particular group of partici- hand at writing their own cases to share with pants who will be using the case. The case their classmates or colleagues. must also contain enough “urgency” and dy- namic tension in order to produce competing Assessing participants’ work with views among the participants. The issues case studies (“problems”) presented in the case should be complex and multidimensional and open to Case studies, which are incorporated reasoned interpretations and tradeoffs among as part of a professional development pro- competing alternatives (Farhoomand, 2004). gram, may not require an assessment compo- A sample case study is provided in nent. In teacher education contexts, however, Appendix 1. assessment may be desired. Because a case study approach involves group and class col- Classroom delivery of case studies laboration and discussion, assessing partici- pation tends to be subjective. However, there Case study method allows flexibility are several techniques that can be used to in how the instructor or facilitator chooses to provide an objective evaluation (i.e., scores) structure its implementation. One approach to case study work. Rubrics can be utilized is as follows: the case and any accompany- for this purpose. It may be sufficient to pro- ing materials may be given to the partici- vide holistic ratings such as “very good,” pants prior to the session in which the case “good,” “fair,” and “poor” to capture the in- will be discussed so that they can become structor’s subjective assessment. In other familiar with its particulars and prepare for situations, however, a detailed rubric against group/class discussion and activities. which specific criteria are assessed might In the class or professional development ses- include categories such as depth and breadth sion, the instructor/facilitator may guide dis- of analysis, individual engagement, collabo- cussion of the topic, theory, or issue before rative effort, and peer interaction. Guidelines transitioning to group work on the case. for the creation and use of rubrics, as well as Groups then discuss the case, presenting rubric templates, can be found at sites such their opinions, clarifying the issues, propos- as www.learningoutcomeassessment.org/ ing solutions, reaching opinions, or whatever rubrics.htm. the particular task calls for. In-class and out-of-class assign- Afterward, the group as a whole may ments, which can be graded, may also be engage in discussion, group presentation, or utilized. During class time when the case is other type of debriefing task. A written prod- being discussed, work sheets, jigsaw tasks, uct may also be incorporated, either in the mini presentations, and other tasks which are

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implemented in the case analysis process References can be completed for a grade if desired (see Bailey, K. M. (2006). Language teacher su- Appendix 2). Participants can be required to pervision: A case-based approach . Cam- complete a comprehension check, write a bridge: Cambridge University Press. response paper, or complete another task that Principles of lan- is related to content/readings upon which the Brown, H. D. (2007a). guage teaching and learning, 5th edition case is based. . White Plains, NY: Pearson Education. Teaching by princi- For homework or follow-up work, Brown, H. D. (2007b). ples, 3rd Edition tasks which require the participants to sum- . White Plains, NY: marize the case, synthesize two or more cas- Pearson Longman. es, and apply the case principles to their own Case Studies (2013, February 2). Retrieved real-life experiences provide additional, in- from Admissions Consultants: http:// depth exploration of the case material. In a www.admissionsconsultants.com/ classroom situation, instructors may choose college/casestudies.asp to incorporate case studies in formal exams, Choi, I., & Lee, K. (2009). Designing and allowing students to apply the skills in which implementing a case-based learning en- they have been trained and which they have vironment for enhancing ill-structured practiced in class activities. problem solving: Classroom manage- ment problems for prospective teachers.

Education Technology Research Devel- Conclusion opment , 57, 99-129.

Case studies offer a pedagogically Clarke, M. A. (1994). The dysfunctions of TESOL sound approach to promoting the acquisition the theory/practice discourse. Quarterly 28 of course content among pre-service teachers , (1), 9-26. and to fostering the professional develop- Crandall, J. (2000). Language teacher educa- Annual Review of Applied Linguis- ment of in-service teachers. They are an ide- tion. tics 20 al vehicle by which to engage participants in , , 34-55. applying critical thinking skills to the identi- Doran, J., Healy, M., McCutcheon, M., & fication and evaluation of problems and is- O'Callaghan, S. (2011). Adapting case- sues which teachers face every day in their based teaching to large class settings: An Accounting classrooms and schools, and allow them to action research approach. Education 20 collaborate in articulating responses to these , (3), 245-263. problems. Ultimately, engagement in the Ellis, R. (2010). Second language acquisi- case method allows educators to develop a tion, teacher education and language Language Teaching deeper understanding of their own beliefs, pedagogy. , 182-201. values, and conceptions of their teaching in Farhoormand, A. (2004). Writing teaching Commu- relation to the particulars of the context in cases: A quick reference guide. nications of the Association for Infor- which they work. mation Systems, 13 , 103 – 107. Freeman, D., & Richards, J. C. (1993). Con- ceptions of teaching and the education of second language teachers. TESOL Quar- terly , 27 (2), 193-216. Golombek, P. R. (1998). A study of lan- guage teachers' personal practical

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knowledge. TESOL Quarterly , 32 (3), 447 (3), 8-12. -464. Shulman, L.S. (1992). Toward a pedagogy of Heitzmann, R. (2008). Case study instruction cases. In Shulman, J.H. (ed.), Case Meth- in teacher education: Opportunity to de- ods in Teacher Education . New York: velop students' critical thinking, school Teachers College Press, 1 – 30. smarts and decision making. Education , Shulman, J. (1999). Case Methods in Teacher 128 (4), 523-542. Education . New York: Teachers College Johnson, K. E. (1996). The role of theory in Press. L2 teacher education. TESOL Quarterly , Smith, R. A. (2010). Professors' use of case 30 (4), 765-771. discussion leadership at Harvard and Johnson, K. E. (1999). Understanding Lan- Darden MBA programs: Characteristics of guage Teaching: Reasoning in Action . a successful case discussion. Academy of Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Educational Leadership Journal , 13-32. McNamara, T. (2008). Mapping the scope of Stanford Law School Case Studies Collection. theory in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly , 42 (2012, December 18). Retrieved from (2), 302-305. Stanford Law School: http:// Newson, T. A., & Delatte, N. J. (2011). Case www.law.stanford.edu/node/175680/ methods in civil engineering teaching. Ca- Stoynoff, S. (2004). Case studies in TESOL nadian Journal of Civil Engineering 38 , practice. ELT Journal , 58( 4), 379-393. 1016-1030. Tsui, A. B. (2003). Understanding Expertise Plaister, T. (1993). ESOL Case Studies: The in Teaching: Case Studies of Second Lan- Real World of ESL Teaching and Admin- guage Teaching . Cambridge: Cambridge istration . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents/ University Press. Prentice Hall. Using Case Studies to Teach. (2013, January Prabhu, N.S. (1992). The dynamics of the lan- 25). Retrieved from Boston University guage lesson. TESOL Quarterly , 26 (2), Center for Excellence & Innovation in 225 - 241 Teaching: http://www.bu.edu/ceit/teaching Richards, A. K., Hemphill, M. A., Templin, -resources/in-the-classroom/using-case- T. J., & Eubank, A. M. (2012). Student- studies-to-teach/ authored case studies as a learning tool in Woods, D. (1996). Teacher Cognition in Lan- physical education teacher education. guage Teaching: Beliefs, Decision-Making Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Classroom Practice . Cambridge: & Dance , 47-52. Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Farrell, T. S. (2005). Pro- fessional Development for Language Teachers: Strategies for Teacher Learn- Appendix A: Sample Case Study ing . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The Case of the Non-Native Speaking Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1994). Re- Teacher flective Teaching in Second Language You are the owner of a private lan- Classrooms . Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- guage school in Southern California. Your versity Press. institution serves approximately 60 – 80 stu- Roberts, J. (1997). Language Teacher Educa- dents at any one time. Your students are pri- tion . New York: Routledge. marily from Asia, but European and Latin Schleppegrell, M. J. (1997). Problem-posing American students attend your school as well. in teacher education. TESOL Journal , 6 Your students can be characterized as follows:

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They rely on their parents’ money and/or tion with – or teaching of – her students. they have been in the workforce and saved As a language teacher and program adminis- money to come to the United States for lan- trator, you believe that being a nonnative guage study, as well as to travel and sightsee. speaker should not necessarily disqualify These students are typically in their late someone from the profession. Teaching skills teens to early twenties. Most of them stay in and abilities matter most, and these two your program for about one to three months, women are perfect examples to support your though some of them are here for perhaps position. Today, however, a student who is only two weeks and others for as long as new to your program came to your office and nine to 12 months. Because the language made a complaint. “I’m not happy with one goal of these students is primarily social of my teachers,” he said. “I paid a lot of mon- English, your curriculum is not heavy on ey and I traveled a long way to be here. I writing or grammar. Instead, it centers on want an American teacher. I could have had a conversation skills, utilizing authentic listen- teacher like her in my home country.” ing and reading tasks as the basis for class- You explained to the student that a person room activities and discussions. does not need to be a native speaker in order There are six teachers in your school. All of to be an effective language teacher. You them have a Master’s degree in TESOL or shared with him your assessment of the and have a minimum of three teaching skills possessed by and favorable years of teaching experience. Two of your student evaluations of the teacher in question. teachers are non-native speakers of English. The student was not convinced, however, and One, named Mariana, is from Brazil. She demanded a tuition refund and assistance in taught English in her home country for seven finding a different language school. You fi- years prior to coming to the U.S. to obtain nally persuaded the student to stay in his clas- her Master’s in TESOL from a well-known ses one more week before he makes a final university. For two years she has been one of decision. After he left your office, you began your most hard-working, dedicated, and en- to question whether you are too loyal to your thusiastic teachers. The other NNS instructor two NNS teachers. Does the student have a is Wan-Yi (“Wendy”), who is from Taiwan. valid complaint? After all, “The customer is She, too, received her MA in the U.S. and always right.” has been working for your school since she began her teaching career four years ago. Appendix B: Sample Tasks for Wendy has a quick intellect and a solid SLA Working with Case Studies knowledge-base. You characterize her as a “natural teacher.” Task 1: Questions for Discussion Directions: With your group members, dis- You have known both of these teach- cuss the following questions based on the ers for several years, and you have a good case study. Be prepared to share your re- relationship with them, personally as well as sponses with the class. professionally. Your assessment of their • Should you persuade the student to remain teaching skills is very high. Each of them has in your program and stay in the class of the a good command of the English language, NNS teacher? Or should you simply assist although Wendy has a more noticeable ac- him to find another school where he be- cent than Mariana, and she sometimes makes lieves he will be happy? more grammatical mistakes. However, her • Is your relationship with the two teachers errors are not likely impede her communica- affecting your opinion on this issue?

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• What are the disadvantages of having a Task 3: Online Case Reflection NNS language teacher? Directions: Log in to the online learning plat- • What are the advantages of having a NNS form. Write a reflective response to the two language teacher? prompts below. After writing your own reflec- • How does the context of the situation af- tion, respond to at least two of your class- fect your opinion? In other words, would mates’ posts. the situation be different if this were a Prompt 1: Have you worked with, su- school located outside the U.S.? What if pervised, or studied under a NNS your school served a different type of stu- teacher in the past? If so, comment on dents? What if it were a public rather than that experience. private institution? • Are some nonnative-speaking teachers Prompt 2: Would you hire a NNS “less nonnative” or “more nonnative” than teacher if you were in a position to do others? If so, how? How might this affect so? What factors might influence your your actions in this situation? decision? Have you ever, in fact, hired • Is a nonnative speaker ALWAYS accepta- (or chose not to hire) an NNS teacher? ble as a teacher? How about NEVER ac- ceptable? • By what criteria would you determine Ken Kelch is an assistant professor of TESOL at whether a NNS is acceptable or not? Alliant International University in San Diego, • Are there nonlinguistic advantages and/or California. He taught ESL/EFL in the U.S. and disadvantages to having a NNS teacher? Japan before becoming a teacher educator for TESOL master’s and doctoral students. His pro- fessional interests are qualitative research, lan- Task 2: Group Presentation of Case guage program administration and curriculum Analysis development. Directions: Based on your small group dis- Mira Malupa-Kim is a visiting assistant professor cussion, be prepared to summarize your re- of TESOL at Alliant International University in sponses to two or more of the discussion San Diego, California. She taught ESL in South questions. Class members will have the op- Korea, the Philippines, and the U.S. She has also portunity to engage in critical, reflective dis- trained teachers in university and government set- cussion on the presenters’ points. tings. Her professional interests include teacher development, grammar pedagogy, assessment and CALL.

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