Response of the Proto- and Small Metazooplankton Assemblage During an Iron Fertilization Experiment in the Polar Frontal Zone of the Southern Ocean

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Response of the Proto- and Small Metazooplankton Assemblage During an Iron Fertilization Experiment in the Polar Frontal Zone of the Southern Ocean Alfred-Wegener-Institut für Polar- und Meeresforschung Bremerhaven Response of the proto- and small metazooplankton assemblage during an iron fertilization experiment in the Polar Frontal Zone of the Southern Ocean DISSERTATION zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Naturwissenschaften (Dr. rer. nat.) am Fachbereich Biologie/Chemie der Universität Bremen vorgelegt von Joachim Henjes Bremen Januar 2004 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Victor Smetacek, Alfred-Wegener-Institut für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Gunter-Otto Kirst, Universität Bremen Danksagung / Acknowledgements Danksagung / Acknowledgements Keine Doktorarbeit ist ohne die Mithilfe und Unterstützung anderer möglich! Zuallererst möchte ich mich besonders herzlich bei meinem Doktorvater Prof. Dr. Victor Smetacek für die Überlassung des Themas und die Betreuung meiner Promotionsarbeit bedanken. Bei ihm habe ich mich auch für anregende und interessanten Diskussionen während der Durchführung dieser Doktorarbeit zu bedanken. Prof. Dr. Gunter-Otto Kirst danke ich herzlich für sein Interesse and dieser Arbeit sowie für die Übernahme des Koreferates. Ich möchte auch Prof. Dr. Ulrich Bathmann für seine Unterstützung bezüglich formeller Angelegenheiten danken. Mein Dank gilt auch allen Wissenschaftlern der Expedition ANT XVIII/2 (EisenEx) des Forschungsschiffes „Polarstern“, die mir wichtige Daten für die Anfertigung dieser Arbeit zur Verfügung gestellt haben. Für die Hilfsbereitschaft bei der Arbeit auf See danke ich ebenso Christine Klaas, Ulrich Freier und der Besatzung der PFS „Polarstern“. Philipp Assmy, Mauricio Brichta, Sören Krägefsky, Sabine Schultes und Karen Stumm möchte ich für die konstruktiven Kommentare während meiner Doktorarbeit und bei der Fertigstellung der vorliegenden Arbeit herzlich danken. Herzlich bedanken möchte ich mich auch bei den Mitarbeiterinnen und Mitarbeitern des Alfred-Wegener-Institutes, sowie den Wissenschaftlern aus anderen Instituten, von denen ich während meiner Dissertation viel Hilfe und Unterstützung bekommen habe. Dabei möchte ich im Besonderen nennen Andrea Abelmann, Erika Ahlhusen, Dick Crawford, Ulrike Berninger, Jelle Bijma, Boris Cisewski, Gabi David, Gerhard Dieckmann, Corinna Dubischar, Malte Elbrächter, Frank Gervais, Hanne Halliger, Christian Hamm, Carmen Hartmann, Miriam Harjes, Friedel Hinz, Sandra Jansen, Uwe John, Ulla Liebert, Rubens Lopes, Christiane Lorenzen, Irini Mataliotaki, Bettina, Meyer, Thomas Mock, Marina Montresor, Evi Nöthig, Yuri Okolodkov, Evgeny Pakhomov, Ulf Riebesell, Renate Scharek, Sigi Schiel, Katrin Danksagung / Acknowledgements Schmidt, Uta Schneider, Helga Schwarz, Volker Strass, Anja Terbrüggen, Klaus Valentin, Dieter Wolf-Gladrow, Werner Wosniok, Sybille Zitzmann. Ganz besonderen Dank gebührt meiner Familie und meiner Freundin Aretha sowie meinen Freunden Achim, Aljoscha (halte durch), Arnd, Carsten, Frieder, Heiner, Juanita, José, Michael, Sebastian und Tim für die liebevolle Unterstützung. Table of Contents Table of Contents Page Zusammenfassung 1 Summary 6 1. General Introduction 10 1.1 The evolving role of heterotrophic protists in the perception of marine plankton ecology 10 1.2 The role of small copepods in the pelagic ecosystem of the Southern Ocean 19 2. Aims and outlines of this thesis 21 3. Manuscripts 26 3.1 Assmy, P. and Henjes, J. (to be submitted). Response of a diatom community to iron fertilization in the Polar Frontal Zone of the Southern Ocean (EisenEx) 27 3.2 Henjes, J. and Assmy, P. (to be submitted). Response of the protozoo- and small metazooplankton assemblage to an iron-induced phytoplankton bloom during EisenEx. 76 3.3 Assmy, P. and Henjes, J. (to be submitted). Vertical distribution of non-motile particles and planktonic organisms during an iron fertilization experiment in the Polar Frontal Zone of the Southern Ocean (EisenEx). 126 3.4 Henjes, J. and Assmy, P. (to be submitted). Response of larger protozooplankton to an iron-induced phytoplankton bloom in the Polar Frontal Zone of the Southern Ocean (EisenEx). 161 3.5 Smetacek, V., Assmy, P. and Henjes, J. (submitted). The role of grazing in structuring Southern Ocean ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles. 211 4. Synthesis 269 4.1 Role of protozoa and small metazoa in the pelagic food web of the Southern Ocean 269 4.2 Role of protozoa and metazoa in particle production driving vertical fluxes and distribution of elements in the Southern Ocean 271 4.3 The importance of iron fertilization for future research 277 5. Literatur Cited 280 Zusammenfassung Zusammenfassung Obwohl der Südozean eines der größten ozeanischen Gebiete unseres Planeten darstellt, ist noch wenig über die Biologie der Arten bekannt, die dieses polare Ökosystem beheimaten. Das mangelnde Wissen über die Biologie dieser Arten ist die Konsequenz einer veränderten Gewichtung von einem traditionellen, Arten-orientierten Ansatz hin zu einem modernen Massenparameter (wie z.B. Chlorophyll und partikulärer organischer Kohlenstoff)- orientierten Ansatz. Die Evolution der Arten resultiert in einer Evolution der Ökosysteme, die biogeochemische Stoffkreisläufe antreiben und es sollte daher selbstverständlich sein, dass der Artgedanke wieder als wichtiger Faktor in der Planktonökologie manifestiert wird, da die Arten der ultimative Grundstein für alle formenden Prozesse im pelagischen Ökosystem sind. Diese Dissertation liefert eine umfassende Beschreibung der Reaktion und Vertikalverteilung von den Hauptkomponenten des pelagischen Ökosystems und hebt die Artenwechselbeziehungen hervor, die diesen ozeanische Lebensraum und damit verbundenen biogeochemischen Stoffkreisläufe formen. Die vorliegende Arbeit beruht auf der Bearbeitung von Proben und Durchführung von Experimenten mit Organismen, die während der EisenEx-Ausfahrt ANT XVIII/2 der PFS Polarstern gewonnen wurden. Hierbei wurde die Zusammensetzung und zeitliche Entwicklung von Nano-, Mikroprotozooplankton (Protozoen zwischen 2 und 20 bzw. 20 und 200 µm), Mesoprotozooplankton (> 200 µm) und kleinem Metazooplankton (Copepodennauplien, Copepodite und Adulte kleiner Copepodarten) während des Eisendüngeexperimentes (EisenEx) in der Polarfrontzone des Südlichen Ozeans im Frühjahr (November) 2000 untersucht. Der Fraßeinfluss von Mikroprotozooplankton auf die natürliche Phytoplanktonvergesellschaftung wurde ebenfalls unter kontrollierten Bedingungen an Hand der Dunkelinkubationsmethode untersucht. Die gewonnenen experimentellen Ergebnisse wurden zusammen mit den Daten über Artenzusammensetzung und zeitlicher Entwicklung von Mikrophyto- und Mikrozooplankton für die Abschätzung des Fraßdruckes von Mikrozooplankton auf die Primärproduzenten (insbesondere auf Diatomeen) während des Düngeexperimentes verwendet. Die zeitliche Entwicklung von Partikeln, die von Proto- und kleinem Metazooplankton produziert wurden, wie leere Diatomeenschalen, Protozoen- und Metazoen-Kotballen, Skelettteile und leere Loricae wurden untersucht und der Anteil dieser Partikel an den Vertikalflüssen von Kohlenstoff und Silizium diskutiert. 1 Zusammenfassung Nano- und Mikroprotozoen, Protozoen- und kleine Metazoen-Kotballen und leere Diatomeenschalen wurden aus unkonzentrierten Wasserproben, die vom 6. bis zum 29. November während 14 Stationen innerhalb und fünf Stationen außerhalb des gedüngten Fleckens in sieben diskreten Tiefen (zwischen 0 und 150 m) genommen wurden, ausgezählt. Das Gebiet welches für das Eisendüngeexperiment genutzt wurde, war ein zyklonischer Wasserwirbel, der sich bei 48° S 21° E befand, nachdem er sich von der Mäander-bildenden Polarfront abgetrennt hatte. Zur Markierung wurde eine Treibboje im Auge des Wirbels ausgesetzt. Ein Gebiet von ca. 40 km 2 um die Boje wurde mit vier Tonnen Eisensulfatlösung (FeIISO 4) dreimalig in jeweils 8tages Intervallen gedüngt (Strass et al . 2001). Schwefelhexafluorid (SF 6) wurde der Eisensulfatlösung als ein inerter Marker bei der ersten Düngung zugegeben, um den gedüngten Fleck jederzeit ausfindig machen zu können (Watson et al . 2001). Stationen innerhalb und außerhalb des gedüngten Fleckens wurden an Hand ihrer SF 6-Konzentrationen ausgewählt, die während einer horizontalen Oberflächenvermessung gewonnen wurden. So genannte „Innen-Stationen“ wurden in der höchsten SF 6-Konzentration genommen, wohingegen „Außen-Stationen“ im angrenzenden Wasserkörper genommen wurden, in dem Hintergrundkonzentrationen gemessen wurden. Zwei Stationen der „Innen- Stationen“ waren genau genommen, am Rande des gedüngten Fleckens angesiedelt (Rand- Stationen), wie durch Mittel hohe SF 6-Konzentrationen angezeigt wurde. Die Station „T-2“ wurde zwei Tage vor der ersten Eisendüngung genommen und galt wie auch zum Teil „Tag 0“ als Referenz-Station. Größere (> 50 µm) Mikro- und Mesoprotozoen zusammen mit kleinen Metazoen wurden in aufkonzentrierten Wasserproben (~12 L) ausgezählt, die an den selben Stationen und in den selben Tiefen wie die unkonzentrierten Wasserproben genommen wurden. Die tägliche Primärproduktion (PP) während EisenEx erhöhte sich innerhalb des gedüngten Fleckens und erreichte ihr Maximum mit 790 mg C m -2 d -1 am Tag 16. Danach kam es zu einer Abnahme der PP zu beinahe Ausgangswerten von 254 mg C m -2 d -1. Die Chlorophyll-a- Konzentration in den oberen 80 m erhöhten sich von anfänglich 0.5 mg m -3 auf maximal 2.5 mg m -3 am Ende des Experimentes, blieb aber mehr oder weniger konstant im Umgebungswasser (Gervais et al . 2002). Die Diatomeen dominierten die Phytoplanktonvergesellschaftung in der zweiten Hälfte des Experimentes und stiegen auf eine Biomasse
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