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Dissertation FINAL The Modern Condition: The Invention of Anxiety, 1840-1970 Simon Taylor Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2014 © 2014 Simon Taylor All rights reserved ABSTRACT The Modern Condition: The Invention of Anxiety, 1840-1970 Simon Taylor The present work seeks to explain the process by which anxiety was transformed from a trope of nineteenth-century existential theology into the medicalized conception we have today. The dissertation begins in the 1840s with the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. In his attempt to resolve a series of debates within German idealist philosophy regarding the nature of evil and its impact on human freedom, Kierkegaard argued that anxiety was an intermediate stage between the awakening of man’s potential for freedom and its manifestation in the form of sin. On the basis of this reading, Kierkegaard concluded that anxiety was the psychological manifestation of humanity’s collective guilt for original sin. Despite the psychological idiom of his account, then, anxiety remained for Kierkegaard an irreducibly theological category. Chapter two of the dissertation examines two very different approaches to anxiety in the early twentieth century. For Sigmund Freud, anxiety was nothing more than the expression of libidinal conflicts, especially the Oedipal complex/fear of castration. Although it is commonly believed that Freud’s understanding of anxiety underwent a dramatic shift toward the end of his career, I demonstrate that little of substance changed. Martin Heidegger, by contrast, applied Kierkegaard’s existential understanding of anxiety to his ontological analysis of being. For Heidegger, anxiety was a “mood” that guided human beings to authenticity. Heidegger’s phenomenological approach to human being strongly influenced the Swiss- German psychiatrist Ludwig Binswanger. On the basis of his clinical experience at Bellevue, his family owned sanatorium, Binswanger came to believe that there was a somatic reality to the subjective accounts of anxiety advanced by the philosophers. More than just a mood, anxiety was a concrete medical disorder with an array of psychosomatic symptoms that required diagnosis and treatment. In this way, Binswanger played a significant role in transforming anxiety from an abstract philosophical idea into material medical reality. Chapter four examines the work of the German-Jewish neurologist Kurt Goldstein, whose 1935 work The Organism drew extensively on Heidegger and Binswanger to develop a fully realized medical account of anxiety. Drawing on his treatment and rehabilitation of brain-injured soldiers in World War I, Goldstein observed that severe neurological injuries were accompanied by especially acute bouts of anxiety. Alongside the traditional understanding of anxiety as “objectless,” Goldstein argued that it was also a somatic process than could be observed and quantified like any other. Goldstein’s conclusions placed anxiety at the heart of a comprehensive account of the meaning and significance of biological life. In the years during and immediately after World War II, anxiety became a privileged mode of expression in American medicine and culture. The final two chapters of my dissertation explain how the medical conception of anxiety proliferated across multiple disciplines in postwar America, including theology, literature, and psychotherapy. I then demonstrate the way in which anxiety was co-opted into the Cold War struggle against the Soviet Union. Figures like Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., Reinhold Niebuhr, and, especially, Rollo May argued that anxiety was the price Americans had to pay for many of the values they held most dear – above all, freedom and creativity. Rather than trying to eliminate anxiety, Americans should aim to harness its creative potentiality and channel it toward productive ends. Anxiety thus became part of the Cold War armory, another weapon in the struggle for liberty and prosperity. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction, or, What’s Modern about the “Modern Condition”?…………………………….…1 Chapter 1: Anxiety Between Freedom and Sin: Søren Kierkegaard and the Theological Roots of the “Modern Condition”…………………………………………………………………………21 Chapter 2: Libido or Existence? The Divergent Paths of Sigmund Freud and Martin Heidegger………………………………………………………………………………………...57 Chapter 3: Anxious Psychiatry: Ludwig Binswanger and the Medicalization of Existentialism…………………………………………………………………………………...112 Chapter 4: “Biologist with an Ontological Attitude”: Kurt Goldstein and the Courage To Be Anxious…………………………………………………………………………………………163 Chapter 5: The Grand Hotel: Dread in the Era of Cold War Politics, Part I…………………...215 Chapter 6: The Grand Hotel: Dread in the Era of Cold War Politics, Part II…………………..265 Conclusion: Toward A Pharmacological History of Anxiety…………………………………..309 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………316 i Acknowledgements As every member of the academy knows, ours is a peculiar occupation. Take the dissertation: for those endeavoring to produce one, it is an all-consuming and overwhelming task. From another perspective, however, it could be said to be common, even trivial: almost everyone the graduate student encounters in his or her daily life has produced one. Exceptional beyond the confines of academia – at least in the world in which I grew up – dissertations are ubiquitous within. I can only hope that others were as fortunate in the writing of their opus as I have been. If it is true that graduate school is an essentially solitary endeavor, it is equally the case that it is unimaginable without the kindness, generosity, and support of one’s mentors, friends, and family. The first and, in many ways, greatest thanks must go to Samuel Moyn. Since he is too self-effacing to tolerate a lengthy encomium, I will simply say that it has been my extraordinary fortune to work with such an encouraging, patient, and generous supervisor. I came to Columbia to write one kind of project and ended up doing something entirely different; Sam was ideal for both. Matthew Jones is, quite simply, the sharpest reader I have ever encountered, capable of seeing depths in my work, and the work of others, I had no idea existed. Beginning with the graduate class I took with him in my second year at Columbia, he taught me how to think methodically and methodologically. Marwa Elshakry was kind enough to step in close to the last minute; I am very grateful for her patience, support, and feedback. I would also like to thank the Department of History more generally: I arrived at Columbia interested in ideas that happened to exist in the past; although I didn’t know it yet, this was not the same as being an historian. Particular thanks are due to Volker Berghahn, Susan Pedersen, and Chris Brown (especially for that timely conversation) for helping me make the transition from the former to the latter. ii Beyond Columbia, I must immediately thank Stefanos Geroulanos, who has been my de facto second supervisor for over half a decade. That I might find someone who so precisely shared my eclectic set of interests seemed unlikely but possible; that this person would prove to be such an unwavering mentor, colleague, and friend is more than I could have hoped. Stef’s generosity is all the more extraordinary given that he had no obligation or duty to help me as he has. Andreas Killen, too, has supported me for a number of years and has always been on hand to provide advice or feedback. His comments on chapter four were especially invaluable. Particular thanks must also be reserved for Jon Parkin, my undergraduate supervisor. Jon introduced me to an entire world of ideas, saw potential in my work, and pushed me, always, to be a better writer and thinker. Without him, I would not be here. Over the past seven years, James Chappel has offered me friendship, advice, consolation, encouragement, and endless feedback, edits, and constructive criticism. Breanne Scanlon came with me to Germany, nursed me – quite literally at times – through the birth of this project, and spent countless hours listening to my ideas, enthusiasms, doubts, and fears. James and Bree, too, fall into the category of those without whom this project would never have been finished. Joe Bray, under very different circumstances, first introduced me to the ideas that would eventually form this work; Betsy Hegeman helped ensure the self-performativity of my topic never entirely breached the walls. Natasha Wheatley has been the most thoughtful, selfless, and kind friend I could ever hope to find, while Dirk Moses has always found time to offer advice, feedback, edits, and more besides. Isabel Gabel has been like a sister. I have been materially supported by Columbia’s Graduate School, the Doris G. Quinn Foundation, the Consortium for Intellectual and Cultural History, the Leo Baeck Institute, Howard & Natalie Shawn, and the Social Sciences iii Research Council. Finally, Reed College gave me a home in which to finish the dissertation – I am especially grateful to Benjamin Lazier on this score. I have accrued so many debts in the writing of this work that a mere list of names seems grossly inadequate, but I trust that everyone mentioned in what follows knows why they are here and how grateful I am: Daniel Mahla; Alexa Winnik, Dirk Muench & Co.; Daniel Avery; Adam Winkel; Adam Bronson; Daniel Jenkins; Peter Gordon; Fritz Stern; Tom Meaney; Michael Kasenbacher; Seth Anziska; Jonathan Sekhar; Yiftach Ofek; Ezra Siller; James Uden; Stephen Wertheim; Ben Wurgaft; Tamsin Shaw; and Stan Kachnowski. And then, of course, my family. Ours has not been the most straightforward journey, but it is one that I would willingly make again. Natalie: from even before I was born, you have always and without exception been there for me. I am so happy that you now bring Josh – to whom I would also like to express my sincere gratitude – and Lev with you. Mum and Dad: although the academic world is, in many ways, foreign to you both, you have given me the most tremendous encouragement and support (Mo: I’m sorry about the pink jeep) over the past years.
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