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An Analysis of the Lanczos Gamma Approximation AN ANALYSIS OF THE LANCZOS GAMMA APPROXIMATION by GLENDON RALPH PUGH B.Sc. (Mathematics) University of New Brunswick, 1992 M.Sc. (Mathematics) University of British Columbia, 1999 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of Mathematics We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard .................................. .................................. .................................. .................................. .................................. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA November 2004 c Glendon Ralph Pugh, 2004 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an ad- vanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. (Signature) Department of Mathematics The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date Abstract This thesis is an analysis of C. Lanczos’ approximation of the classical gamma function Γ(z+1) as given in his 1964 paper A Precision Approximation of the Gamma Function [14]. The purposes of this study are: (i) to explain the details of Lanczos’ paper, including proofs of all claims made by the author; (ii) to address the question of how best to implement the approximation method in practice; and (iii) to generalize the methods used in the derivation of the approximation. At present there are a number of algorithms for approximating the gamma function. The oldest and most well-known is Stirling’s asymptotic series which is still widely used today. Another more recent method is that of Spouge [27], which is similar in form though different in origin than Lanczos’ formula. All three of these approximation methods take the form z+1/2 z w Γ(z +1)=√2π(z + w) e− − [sw,n(z)+ǫw,n(z)] (1) where sw,n(z) denotes a series of n + 1 terms and ǫw,n(z) a relative error to be estimated. The real variable w is a free parameter which can be adjusted to control the accuracy of the approximation. Lanczos’ method stands apart from the other two in that, with w 0 fixed, asn the series s (z) ≥ →∞ w,n converges while ǫw,n(z) 0 uniformly on Re(z) > w. Stirling’s and Spouge’s methods do not share this→ property. − What is new here is a simple empirical method for bounding the relative error ǫ (z) in the right half plane based on the behaviour of this function | w,n | as z . This method is used to produce pairs (n, w) which give formu- las| (1)|→∞ which, in the case of a uniformly bounded error, are more efficient than Stirling’s and Spouge’s methods at comparable accuracy. In the n = 0 case, a variation of Stirling’s formula is given which has an empirically determined uniform error bound of 0.006 on Re(z) 0. Another result is a proof of the limit formula ≥ z 1 12/r z 22/r z(z 1) Γ(z + 1) = 2 lim r e− + e− − + r 2 − z +1 (z +1)(z +2) ··· →∞ as stated without proof by Lanczos at the end of his paper. ii Table of Contents Abstract ii Table of Contents iii List of Tables vi List of Figures vii Acknowledgments viii Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Lanczos and His Formula ................................ 2 1.2 Thesis Overview ........................................ 8 Chapter 2. A Primer on the Gamma Function 20 2.1 First Encounters with Gamma ......................... 20 2.2 A Brief History of Gamma ............................. 22 2.3 Definition of Γ ......................................... 25 2.4 Standard Results and Identities ........................ 27 2.5 Stirling’s Series and Formula ........................... 29 2.5.1 The Formula .................................... 29 2.5.2 Some Remarks about Error Bounds .............. 34 2.6 Spouge’s Method ...................................... 36 2.7 Additional Remarks .................................... 39 Chapter 3. The Lanczos Formula 40 3.1 The Lanczos Derivation ................................ 41 3.1.1 Preliminary Transformations ..................... 42 3.1.2 The Implicit Function v(θ) ...................... 44 3.1.3 Series Expansion of fE,r ......................... 46 3.2 Derivation in the Chebyshev Setting .................... 47 3.3 Derivation in the Hilbert Space Setting ................. 49 3.4 Additional Remarks .................................... 50 Chapter 4. The Functions v and fE,r 52 4.1 Closed Form Formulas ................................. 52 4.1.1 Closed Form for v(x) ............................ 53 iii Table of Contents 4.1.2 Closed Form for fr(x) andf E,r(x) ................ 54 r 4.2 Smoothness of v (x), fr(x) andf E,r(x) ................. 56 r 4.3 Smoothness of v (θ), fr(θ) andf E,r(θ) .................. 59 4.3.1 Generalized fr(θ) ................................ 59 4.3.2 Derivatives of G(β,j,k,l; θ) ...................... 61 4.3.3 Application to fr ................................ 61 4.4 Fourier Series and Growth Order of Coefficients ......... 64 Chapter 5. Analytic Continuation of Main Formula 66 5.1 Domain of Convergence of Sr(z) ........................ 66 5.2 Analytic Continuation ................................. 69 5.3 Additional Remarks .................................... 69 Chapter 6. Computing the Coefficients 72 6.1 The Lanczos Method ................................... 72 6.2 A Horner Type Method ................................ 74 6.3 Another Recursion Formula ............................ 76 6.4 Discrete Fourier Transform ............................. 77 6.4.1 Finite Fourier Series ............................. 77 6.4.2 Finite Chebyshev Series ......................... 78 6.5 Some Sample Coefficients .............................. 80 6.6 Partial Fraction Decomposition ......................... 80 6.7 Matrix Representation ................................. 82 Chapter 7. Lanczos’ Limit Formula 84 7.1 Some Motivation ....................................... 85 7.2 Proof of the Limit Formula ............................. 87 7.3 Additional Remarks .................................... 95 Chapter 8. Implementation & Error Discussion 98 8.1 A Word or Two about Errors .......................... 99 8.1.1 Absolute and Relative Error ..................... 99 8.1.2 Lanczos’ Relative Error ......................... 100 8.1.3 Restriction to Re(z) 0 ........................ 101 8.2 Some Notation and a Theorem≥ ........................ 102 8.3 Lanczos’ Error Estimates ............................. 105 8.4 Luke’s Error Estimates ................................ 108 8.5 Numerical Investigations & the Zeros of ǫr,n∞ ........... 109 8.5.1 The Motivating Idea ........................... 109 8.5.2 Zeros of ǫr,n∞ .................................... 111 iv Table of Contents 8.5.3 Improved Lanczos Formula ..................... 111 8.5.4 Optimal Formulas .............................. 114 8.6 Additional Remarks .................................. 116 Chapter 9. Comparison of the Methods 120 9.1 Stirling’s Series ....................................... 120 32 9.1.1 Γ(20+17i) with ǫρ < 10− ................... 120 | | 32 9.1.2 Γ(1+ z) with ǫρ < 10− Uniformly ............ 122 9.2 Spouge’s Method .....................................| | 123 32 9.2.1 Γ(20+17i) with ǫρ < 10− ................... 123 | | 32 9.2.2 Γ(1+ z) with ǫρ < 10− Uniformly ............ 124 9.3 Lanczos’ Method .....................................| | 125 9.4 Discussion ............................................ 125 Chapter 10. Consequences of Lanczos’ Paper 128 10.1 The Lanczos Transform ............................... 128 10.2 A Combinatorial Identity ............................. 133 10.3 Variations on Stirling’s Formula ....................... 134 Chapter 11. Conclusion and Future Work 139 11.1 Outstanding Questions Related to Lanczos’ Paper ..... 140 11.2 Outstanding Questions Related to Error Bounds ....... 141 11.3 Conjectures on a Deterministic Algorithm ............. 143 Bibliography 145 Appendix A. Preliminary Steps of Lanczos Derivation 148 Appendix B. A Primer on Chebyshev Polynomials 149 Appendix C. Empirical Error Data 152 v List of Tables 1.1 Relative decrease of ak(r), r =1, 4, 7 ......................... 4 2.1 Upper bound on EN,n(6+13i) in Stirling Series ............ 33 2.2 Coefficients of Spouge’s| Series, |a =12.5 ..................... 38 6.1 Scaled summands of c6(6) .................................. 75 6.2 Coefficients as functions of r ................................ 80 8.1 Lanczos’ uniform error bounds ............................. 106 8.2 Location of maximum of ηr,n(θ) ............................ 107 8.3 Errors at infinity .......................................... 107 8.4 Approximate Zeros of ǫr,∞6 .................................. 113 8.5 Sample coefficients, n = 10, r =10.900511 ................. 116 8.6 Comparison of Mr(n),n and an+1(r(n)) ...................... 119 9.1 Upper bound on E (19 + 17i) in Stirling Series ......... 121 | N,n | 9.2 Upper bound on EN,n(0) in Stirling Series ................ 122 9.3 Coefficients of Spouge’s| series,| a =39 ...................... 124 9.4 Coefficients of Lanczos’ series, r =22.618910 ............... 126 C.1 Error Data, n =0,...,30 .................................. 153 C.2 Error Data, n =31,...,60 ................................. 154 vi List of Figures 1.1 Cornelius Lanczos .......................................... 3 1.2 Relative
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