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EUI WORKING PAPERS Access European Open Author(S) Repository. Research Institute University European Institute. Cadmus, EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE EUI WORKINGEUI PAPERS on University Political CorruptionPolitical thein Belgian Partitocracy: Access European Open (Still) a Endemic (Still) Disease? Robert Schuman Centre for Advancedfor Studies L ieven RSC No. RSC 2000/31 Author(s). Available D The 2020. © e in W inter Library EUI the by produced version Digitised Repository. Research Institute University European Institute. Cadmus, on University Access European Open Author(s). Available The 2020. © in Library EUI the by produced version Digitised Repository. Research Institute University European Institute. De Winter:De Cadmus, on University EUI Working Paper RSC No. 2000/31 Access Political Political Corruption in the Belgian Partitocracy: (Still) (Still) a Endemic Disease? European Open Author(s). Available The 2020. © in Library EUI the by 4 EUR 321.0209 WP produced version Digitised Repository. Research Institute University European Institute. Studies. European European Forum to become the Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced The Robert Schuman Centre was set up by the High Council of the in EUI PublicationsRSC-Welcome.htm. PublicationsRSC-Welcome.htm. In 1999, the Robert Centre Schuman Centre merged with for Working Papers and Policy Papers the Advanced are also available on the Studies: website of the http://www.iue.it/RSC/ take the form of Working Papers, Policy Papers and books. Most of the European European integration and public policy in Europe. Research publications 1993 to carry 1993 out disciplinary and interdisciplinary research in the areas of Cadmus, European University Institute on 3 3 0001 0033 7257 2 University Access European Open Author(s). Available The 2020. © in Library EUI the by produced version Digitised Repository. Research Institute University European Institute. EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE, FLORENCE Cadmus, Political Corruption in the Belgian Partitocracy: BADIA FIESOLANA, SAN DOMENICO (FI) on University EUI Working Paper Access ROBERT SCHUMAN CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES Université Catholique de Louvain and and de Louvain Catholique Université (Still) (Still) a Endemic Disease? European Open Katholieke Universiteit Brussel Universiteit Katholieke LIEVEN DE WINTER Author(s). Available The 2020. © RSC in No. No. 2000/31 Library EUI the by produced version Digitised Repository. Research Institute University European Institute. Cadmus, on University No No of part this paper may be reproduced any in form Access European Open without permission of the author. the of permission without I -I 50016 San Domenico (FI) European University Institute Printed in Printed in June Italy in 2000 © © 2000 Lieven De Winter Author(s). Available All rights reserved. rights All Badia Fiesolana The 2020. © in Italy Library EUI the by produced version Digitised I. INTRODUCTION* The topic being related to white crime, the scientific study of political corruption poses several methodological problems both with the measurement Repository. of the dependent variable (i.e. the size and type of corruption) and the independent factors that can explain such levels of corruption. This is particularly true in the Belgian case, as until now, little empirical scientific Research research has been carried out on political corruption in Belgium* 1 *. In addition, the number of cases for which solid data exists is rare, given the fact that only a small number of corruption allegations has been brought to trial (see below). Institute On the other hand, there are several indicators suggesting that political corruption is, or at least has been, widespread in Belgium in the 1970s and University 1980s. Secondly, many of the factors that in the comparative literature on political corruption have been identified as facilitators of political corruption are, or until the beginning of the 1990s, were strongly present in the Belgian European case. Institute. So below, we will first look at the indicators about the degree of political Cadmus, corruption in recent Belgian history. Secondly, we will present a short overview on of the types of political corruption that have been identified. Thirdly, directing University particular attention to the party factors identified by Della Porta in her discussion paper, we will ask to what extent classical causes of corruption are in Access fact salient for explaining political corruption in Belgium. In terms of the time European limits in this paper, as most corruption cases refer to practices in the 1970s and Open 1980s, we will focus on this period, but also indicate the changes brought about in the 1990s. Author(s). Available A. SIZE The 2020. © 1. Transparency International Index in According to the TI Political Corruption Perception index of 1998, Belgium is Library after Italy and Greece perceived as the most corrupt country in the European Union' (it holds the 28th place from among the 85 countries included in the EUI index). In 1997 (26th place in the index) it was only surpassed by Italy. the by ' This paper was prepared for the conference on Political Parties and Corruption, European University Institute, Florence, March 18-20, 1999 1 Also the journalistic accounts are of dubious quality in terms of sources and tend to produced denounce rather than to reveal or clarify. ' In 1996 (20th place) it was surpassed by Portugal, Greece, Spain and Italy. In the 1980-1985 period, it was at the 10th position, in 1988-1992 at the 17th place. version Digitised It should, however, be kept in mind that this index is only a perception index, an assessment of the corruption level as perceived by business people, risk analysts and the general public (based on 9 and 10 surveys in 1998 and Repository. 1997 respectively). The recent Belgian position on the index is characterised by a very high variance3 between the rankings of Belgium in the different surveys used, which suggest quite diverse opinions between different sources. The high Research variance is mostly due to inclusion (since 1997) of the General Gallup survey presenting the perception of the public at large and a lesser degree by reassessments of business people and risk analysts. Thus, the recent worsening Institute of the position of Belgium on the Tl-index is mainly due to the inclusion of public opinion (a source that was not included for any country in the previous years either) that perceives politicians, public officials, policemen and judges to be more corrupt than those of most other European countries placed higher on University the perception index. Thus, this deconstruction of the Belgian score shows to what extent the European index is vulnerable to shifts in moods or perceptions of the public. Evidently, the wave of corruption cases that since 1994 have shocked the Belgians had an Institute. effect on public perception of the degree of corruption of Belgian politicians4, Cadmus, independently of the fact that most of the cases that emerged were related to on affairs that occurred in a more distant past, i.e. the period before party public University financing. However, through a matter of coincidences (the judicial enquiry on the murder of socialist party leader Cools murder, that lead to the discovery of Access Agusta-Dassault affair) these cases were only now being investigated or European Open brought to trial. 2. Allegations of Corruption in the Past 25 Years Author(s). Available A quick overview on the basis of inventories made by national press organs The 2020. suggests that since the first big political corruption affair (the 1973 RTT affair) © in we find less than a hundred files of allegations of corruption (independent of the fact whether these cases were brought to court at all).5 In twenty cases, one or more public officials or entrepreneurs were put on trial with charges of active or Library EUI the 3 Of the EU countries, only Greece has a larger variance. by 4 The development of the Dutroux affair since 1996 and the 1998 Agusta-Dassault trial will has further undermined people’s trust in judges and policemen as well. In fact, Belgians have the lowest degree of confidence in public institutions of the EU member states, and are the produced least satisfied with the way democracy works in their country (Eurobarometer 49). 5 Based on the inventory of Barrez, the inventories published by the quality papers De Standaard en De Morgen and consultation of the archives of the weekly Knack/Trends/Le Vif- version Express/Tendances). 2 Digitised passive corruption. In only eight cases, politicians were condemned6. A few trials are still pending7. Also, there are hardly any cases that refer to corrupt practices subsequent to the second law on public financing of political parties of Repository. 1993. Hence, in comparison with Italy, Japan and the US, we can argue that Research Belgium is a rather weak case. Still, some soft indicators of systemic corruption indicate that corruption was much more widespread that the ’top of the iceberg’ presented above may suggest. Some indicators point to regular, stable, Institute organised and to some extent formalised forms of occult exchange. First there are indicators that at certain decision-making levels, bribes were sometimes expressed in fixed percentages of tenders.8 Still, in most corruption cases University mentioned in the press, corruption deals were more ad hoc, the size of the bribe being decided each time by the contracting parties, rather than referring to a fixed, "normal" or "just" percentage. Also, privileged access to decision-makers European in exchange for party donations was a widespread and systemic practice.9 Finally, during the last five years of scandalitis, most leaders of the traditional Institute. governing parties admitted that the 1980s were a period of I’argent fou, of "grey" party financing, of a culture in many decisions could be bought or Cadmus, "fixed".10 on University Access 6 RTT-Baudrin-Pepermans, Versteele, Hooge Maey, Liège Parkingmeters, Smans, UNISOP, European Open Reyniers, Agusta-Dassault 7 The 'mortar shells', Falkenberg, Rozenberg, en Goderis affairs.
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