Homer Conference 2017 Proceedings

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issn 1105-3135 issn 1105-3135 isBn 978-960-354-510-1 isBn 978-960-354-510-1

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issn 1105-3135 issn 1105-3135 isBn 978-960-354-510-1 isBn 978-960-354-510-1

ithaCa 2020 ithaCa 2020 a and omeric a and omeric ΙΘακη 2020 ΙΘακη 2020 h h The Upper and T and Upper The T and Upper The in in Centre for odyssean studies

The Upper and the Under World in Homeric and Archaic Epic

Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium on the Odyssey Ithaca, August 25-29, 2017

Editors μENELaos christoPouLos μachi Paϊzi-aPostoLoPouLou

ithaCa 2020 KentΡΟ ΟΔΥΣΣΕΙακΩΝ ΣΠΟΥΔΩΝ

Ο Επάνω και ο Κάτω Κόσμος στο ομηρικό και το αρχαϊκό έπος

Από τα Πρακτικά του ΙΓ΄ Διεθνούς Συνεδρίου για την Οδύσσεια Ιθάκη, 25-29 Αυγούστου 2017

Επιστημονική επιμέλεια μΕνΕλαοΣ χρΙΣτοπουλοΣ μαχη παϊζη-αποΣτολοπουλου

ΙΘΑΚΗ 2020

ΠΕΡΙΕΧΟΜΕΝΑ / CONTENTS

NAOKO YAMAGATA, Thetis: the Goddess Between Four Worlds 11 ATHENA KAVOULAKI, Searching One’s way In Extremis: Confluent Routes and Odyssean Otherworldly Transitions 31 Ezio Pellizer, Le char de l’arc en ciel. Changements dans l’espace et voyages fantastiques chez Homère 77 Françoise Létoublon, How to Talk About Death? 91

Constantin Antypas, Sailing to the Land of the Dead: A Passage Towards Abstraction? 117 Ariadni Gartziou-Tatti, The “Οrphic” Voyage of the Suitors’ Souls and the Role of Hermes in the Second Nekyia (Odyssey 24. 1-204) 129 Menelaos Christopoulos, Patroclus and Elpenor: Dead and Unburied 163 JONATHAN BURGESS, Taking Elpenor Seriously: The Tomb of Elpenor 175 Giuseppe Zanetto, Always a Mother: Antikleia and her Son 199 Alexandra Zervou, Inter-narrativity and Game of Reception(s) in the Odyssean Nekyia 213 Athanassia Zografou, Relocating Nekyia: Textual Manipulation and Necromantic Ritual in the Roman World (Κεστός 18, 228-231 AD) 243 LAURA SLATKIN – NANCY FELSON, Exchanges in the Underworld: Odyssey 11 and 24 263 Olga Levaniouk, The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey 279

9 Efimia Karakantza, More Dead Than Alive; Odysseus’ Near Death, and the Re-Constitution of his Identity in the Land of the Phaeacians 315 Anton Bierl, The Phaeacians’ Last Transfer from the Under World to the Upper Word: Petrification and Crystallization between Anthropology, Narratology and Metapoetics (Odyssey 13.125-187) 333 DOUGLAS FRAME, From Scheria to Ithaca 369 MALCOLM DAVIES, From Night to Night: Apollo, Artemis and Hermes in Homer 383 JENNY STRAUSS CLAY, A Stroll Through Hesiod’s Tartarus 393 Avgi Anna Maggel, Odysseus’ Fragile Journey Through Time: An Epic Approach from Homer to Michael Longley 413

10 Olga Levaniouk

The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey1

eturn from the dead is everywhere in the Odyssey, and its symbolism R is in no short supply: there are caves, mysterious otherworldly islands, and, of course, a literal journey to Hades and back. And then there is the sea, the element that connects different worlds, the land and the sky, the humans, the dead, and the gods.2 It is at sea that Odysseus encounters what is arguably his clearest and most graphic experience of rebirth: the journey by sea from Calypso’s island to the Phaeacian shores. This episode in Book 5, in which Odysseus is tossed by the waves for days before finally reaching dry land, has been interpreted in this vein for over a century, and I will not belabor this point here.3 I would like to focus instead on the help- ing figure of this episode, Ino-Leukothea, a figure who is herself reborn and transformed from mortal woman to a marine divinity: τὸν δὲ ἴδεν Κάδμου θυγάτηρ, καλλίσφυρος Ἰνώ, Λευκοθέη, ἣ πρὶν μὲν ἔην βροτὸς αὐδήεσσα, νῦν δ’ ἁλὸς ἐν πελάγεσσι θεῶν ἒξ ἔμμορε τιμῆς. ἥ ῥ’ Ὀδυςῆ’ ἐλέησεν ἀλώμενον, ἄλγε’ ἔχοντα·

1. I would like to express my profound gratitude to the organizers of the 2017 Interna- tional Symposium on the Odyssey (The Upper and the Under World in Homeric and Archaic Epic) for making possible this inspiring, enlightening, and productive event and for inviting me to take part in it. I am also very grateful to all the participants of the symposium for their helpful questions, comments, and suggestions concerning this paper. 2. On this point, see especially Beaulieu 2015:119-144. 3. On Ogygia as a place of death see, e.g. Güntert 1919: 28-36, 264-72, Anderson 1958: 6-7; Holtsmark 1966: 206; on the sea voyage as rebirth see Segal 1962, Holtsmark 1966. 208-10 Especially extensive and conclusive are discussions in Newton 1984 and Bergren 2008.66-69, La Fond 2017:64-97. Frame 1978: 1-80 and Nagy 1990: 223-262 passim focus especially on the solar symbolism in Odysseus’ rebirth.

279 Olga Levaniouk

αἰθυίῃ δ’ ἐϊκυῖα ποτῇ ἀνεδύσσετο λίμνης, ἷζε δ’ ἐπὶ σχεδίης και μιν πρὸς μῦθον ἔειπε· The daughter of Kadmos saw him, beautiful-ankled Ino Leucothea. She had formerly been a mortal with human speech, but now is allotted the honor of a goddess in the salty sea. She pitied Odysseus, seeing him lost and in distress, and, looking like a shearwater, rose up flying from the sea, sat on his boat and spoke to him. (Odyssey 5.333-338).

The double name Ino-Leucothea, the apparent dichotomies in her cult, and the extraordinary complexity of her myths, have given rise to various speculations regarding the merging of two originally distinct figures, Ino and Leucothea.4 Whether or not anything of this sort took place in the pre-history of Ino is not essential for my argument. Rather, what is important for my purposes is precisely the doubleness of Ino-Leucothea, which is fully evident in the Odyssey and her Dionysiac aspect, which is not unrelat- ed to her doubleness. Already in 1951 Jeanmaire saw Leucothea as connected to the ritual immersion in the sea that precedes some Dionysiac rituals and mysteries, for example, those at Eleusis.5 Jeanmaire contended that the madness that overtakes Ino and compels her to leap into the sea, just as the madness that overtakes Ino’s husband Athamas and drives him to murder his son and chase his wife, with murderous intentions, is Dionysiac madness. Since Ino is often, in myth as well as in cult, the nurse of her nephew Dionysos, and since the maenads are represented collectively as the god’s nurses, Jeanmaire concluded that Ino is, fundamentally, a prototypical maenad, a point that was subsequently argued in detail by Henrichs.6 The story of Ino’s marriage to Athamas, her jealous plotting against his

4. e.g. Farnell 1921:35-47, Will 1955, Schachter 1981:152. 5. Jeanmaire 1951:208-10. 6. Jeanmaire 1951:208-210, Henrichs 1978:123-143. Ino was certainly known as the first maenad in the Hellenistic period, as witnessed by an inscription from Magnesia regarding her supposed descendants, brought to the city to celebrated the orgia of Dionysos (Kern, Inschriften von Magnesia 215a), see Burkert 1987:34 and Henrichs 1978:123-143.

280 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey children by previous marriage to Nephele (or Themisto) is told with vary- ing details in different sources, but invariably the household is destroyed, the children murdered, and multiple sources mention what seems to be a particularly salient feature of Ino-Leucothea’s myth, her frantic running away from Athamas and her transformative leap into the sea with baby Melikertes in her arms.7 This transformative leap is the most stable feature of Leucothea’s myth, and not only hers. There are many such leaps in Greek myth (Bo- line, Hemithea, Britomartis, Alkyone):8 often it is a woman escaping rape or her father’s anger, sometimes a wife grieving for her husband, most of them desperate or deranged. The feminine destiny of marriage and children is denied to all of these divers, mostly by others, sometimes through their own will. Some of these figures become sea goddesses like Leuco thea, other turn into birds, as she does, briefly, in the Odyssey. There are also multiple Leucotheae, most of them sea- goddesses who aid sailors, attested in the eastern Mediterranean.9

7. Ino is the nurse of Dionysos in Euripides’ Bacchae (683), and possibly in the Ehoiai (Hesiod fr 70.6-7MW), the Ehoiai also seems to have told the story of Phrixos and the golden ram (Hesiod fr 68 MW). The story is mentioned by Pindar (Pythian 4.159-162) and was recounted by Pherekydes (3F98-99), but Ino’s role is unclear. According to Hyginus, in Eu- ripides’ Ino the troubles in Athamas’ household start when Ino goes to join a Bacchic revel and does not come back until after Athamas has taken another wife, Themisto (Fabula 4). Other sources on Ino as Dionysos’ nurse and her leap into the sea include Euripides, Medea 1282-1289, Ino fr. 398-427 N2, Apollodorus 3.28, Plutarch, Roman Questions 267e, Ovid, Fasti 6.485-488. See LIMC s.v. Ino numbers D 10-12 for representations of Ino and Athamas with baby Dionysos and Oakley 1982 for a discussion of these and other depictions of the scene. See Beaulieu 2015:161-166 for a comprehensive discussion with further references. 8. Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis 189-203, Pausanias 2.30.3 (Britomartis is pursued by Minos, throws herself into the sea and becomes Dictynna; she then receives cult as Aphaia on Crete and Aegina); Pausanias 7.23.3 (Boline is pursued by Apollo, leaps into the sea, and becomes immortal), Diodorus Siculus 5.62.1-4 (Molpadia and her sister Parthenos throw themselves into the sea and afterwards receive hero cult, Molpadia under the name Hepi- thea), see Larson 1995: 110 on her cult; Hesiod fr. 10d MW, Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.410- 748, Hyginus, Fabula 65, Apollodorus 1.52 (Alkyone throws herself into the sea in despair over Keyx’s death and is transformed into a halcyon). 9. Myrsilus of Methymna called the Nereids collectively “white goddesses” FGrH 477

281 Olga Levaniouk

There is no surprise, then, in the role Leucothea plays in the Odyssey: a divinity who has passed through death, she helps mortals in their plight. A marine goddess, she saves those who are drowning. The submergence and emergence of Odysseus in Book 5 corresponds to the trajectory of Ino’s own transformation, and signals his nostos, that is, as Frame has shown, salvation and return to life.10 But if Ino’s role is not surprising, it is also not exhausted by the obvious. The focus of this paper is on a further aspect of Ino’s role, namely her connection with Dionysos, a god known for his encounters with death and for his katabasis to lead his mother Semele out of the underworld and into immortality.11 Dionysos does not take an explicit and visible role in immortalizing his aunt Ino, but I agree with Lyons that it is hard to dissociate Ino’s immortalization from her divine nephew, both because the madness that leads to it is ultimately caused by Ino’s role in rearing Dionysos and also because flight to the sea with a maddened threatening figure in pursuit is such a typically Dionysiac element.12 I sug- gest that Ino’s Dionysiac ties are active in the Odyssey and are part of the more general Dionysiac tone in Book 5. I think, further, that the Ino episode shares some elements with the mysteries of Dionysos. Of course, a connection between Odysseus’ escape from the sea and at least one of the mystery cults, the cult of the Great Gods at Samothrace, was made in antiquity. A scholiast to Apollonius of Rhodes 1.917 says that

F 10; Eustathius (on Iliad 1.38) and scholia on Iliad 1.38 give Leucothea as the name of the sister of Tennes, the eponymous hero of Tenedos. Hesychius states categorically that all marine goddesses are Λευκοθέαι (s.v. Λευκοθέαι). According to Diodorus Siculus (5.55.4-7) there was a cult on Rhodes of Leucothea, also called Halia. On epigraphically attested cults of Leucothea and/or a month Leukatheon in the eastern Mediterranean, see RE s.v. Leu- cothea (Eitrem), Krauskopf 1981:144, Aliquot 2002 and 2006, Kaizer 2005. 10. See Nagy 1973:141-148, 172-173, 145n31 and Nagy 1979/1990:203 on Ino as a par- allel for Odysseus, and Frame 2009:21-58 on nostos. 11. Pindar Olympian 2.25-27 (Semele is said to be immortalized after being killed by lightning and Dionysos is mentioned as loving her, but not directly as responsible for her divinization), Pausanias 2.31.2, 2.37.5, Diodorus Siculus 4.25.4. On the relationship between Dionysos and Semele, see Lyons 2014: 103-133, esp. 111-112. 12. Lyons 2014:111-112.

282 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey the mystai at Samothrace were saved at sea and that Odysseus is initiated and uses Leucothea’s veil in place of the customary purple sash:

τὰς τελετὰς λέγει τὰ ἐν Σαμοθρᾴκῃ ἀγομένας, ἃς εἴ τις μυηθείη, ἐν τοῖς κατὰ θάλασσαν χειμῶσι διασώζεται. καὶ Ὀδυσσέα δέ φασι μεμυημένον ἐν Σαμοθρᾴκῃ χρήσασθαι τῷ κρηδέμνῳ ἀντὶ ταινίας· περὶ γὰρ τὴν κοιλίαν οἱ μεμυημένοι ταινίας ἅπτουσι πορφυρᾶς. He (sc. Apollonius) means the mysteries that take place in Samothrace; if someone is initiated into them, he is saved in storms at sea. They say Od- ysseus was initiated in Samothrace and used the veil instead of a fillet. For the initiates tie purple fillets around their torsos. (Scholia in Apollonii Rhodii Argonautica 77.16).

Burkert discussed the connection, pointing out that there are analogies between the myths associated with Samothrace and the Odyssey (Darda- nos sails from Samothrace on a σχεδία, just as Odysseus does, from Ogy- gia; Dardanos’ voyage happens at the time of the great flood and Ogygos is the hero of a Boeotian flood legend). There are also links between Samo- thrace and the cult of the Cabiri in Boeotia and pottery from the Cabirion frequently features Odysseus. On one vase the hero is shown driven by Borias, as he is in Odyssey 5.13 “Was Odysseus involved in the mysteries of the Cabiri?” Burkert asks.14 I am interested, in a sense, in the obverse side of this question: were mysteries involved in the Odyssey? On the Cabirion vase, Odysseus’ escape from “Borias” is marked by Dionysiac iconography: his raft is made of two amphorae put together. This makes it reminiscent of a red-figure cup by Nikosthenes in the Lou- vre on which satyrs ride amphorae over the sea.15 On the other side of the cup satyrs ride askoi, sitting astride them as if on horses, just as Od- ysseus does with one of the wooden beams from his raft (κέληθ’ ὡς ἵππον

13. BAD 680002. Oxford, Ashmolean museum G 249. 14. Burkert 1983:131-133. 15. BAD 201118. Musée du Louvre G 92.

283 Olga Levaniouk

ἐλαύνων “riding as if on horseback,” Odyssey 5.371).16 In the Odyssey, the Dionysiac coloring is somewhat covert, as it usually is in Homer, and so is the evocation of the mysteries. Still, it is possible for the epic to refer to Dionysiac themes in general and to mysteries in particular in terms that are not specific yet are evocative of the religious experience and recognizable aesthetics of such rites.17 The mysteries of Demeter and Dionysos followed to some extent a common pattern: the mystes experiences terror which is then dispelled and as a result acquires secret knowledge and a promise of blessed life after death.18 Contemplat- ing the possible origins of the mysteries, Burkert arrives at the following formulation: “Puberty initiation, agrarian magic, and sexuality may unite in the great experience of overcoming death”.19 I think what we have in Book 5 is a syncretic use of the aesthetics of the mysteries, and all three of Burkert’s ingredients have been observed in this episode. Leucothea’s kredemnon is reminiscent of the Samothra- cian sashes, but it has also been interpreted by Kardulias as an element of cross-dressing typical of puberty initiations, something that allows Odysseus to regain “fully adult masculinity”.20 Ann Bergren describes the cave of Calypso as a place of “everlasting nurture, a “maternal cave” from which Odysseus starts his psychological rebirth, a “birth in which the hero, as consort of the symbolic mother, would be also the figural father, gener- ating his own new self.”21 Bergren does not mention the fact that her formulation, based on her psychological interpretation of the Odyssean po-

16. For a discussion of the vase, see Davies 1978. 17. On this point, see Vazquez 2017:1-6. 18. Plutarch fr. 178 is a description of the experience. See Burkert 1987:101 on the “dynamic paradox” of death and life in the mysteries. The literature of on the mysteries is immense. I find Burkert 1987, Bremmer 2014, Graf and Iles Johnston 2013 especially useful. 19. Burkert 1985:277. 20. Kardulias 2001:49 21. Bergren 2008: 64. As Bergren points out (2008:73n.4) this interpretation is in contrast to the prevalent view of Calypso from antiquity through the Renaissance, that is the view of her as “the entrapping sexuality of the beautiful female.” There is, however, nothing incompatible between Calypso’s maternal role and her “entrapping sexuality.”

284 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey etics, is remarkably similar to the mechanics of solar death and rebirth as they can be reconstructed from Greek and especially Indic sources, where the dawn Uṣas, the agent of solar rebirth, is both the bride or wife (R.V. 1.115.1, 7.75.5, etc.) and also the mother of the sun-god Surya (R.V. 7.63.3, 7.78.3). In Nagy’s formulation, “In the logic of the myth, it appears that the setting sun mates with the goddess of regeneration so that the rising sun may be reborn. If the setting sun is the same as the rising sun, then the goddess of regeneration may be viewed as both mate and mother”.22 Sexuality, then, is implicit in Odysseus’ departure from Ogygia and in- tegral to his return to life, and it is followed by a sea crossing in which many have seen metaphorical references to physical human birth, or even a consistently pictured parturition, with the cave of Calypso as the womb, Ino’s veil as the umbilical cord, clothes given by Calypso and discarded by Odysseus as placenta, etc.23 Each of these correlations is open to question, but it would be hard to deny the overall metaphor of rebirth, especially considering the fact that at the end of his watery travails Odysseus is pictured crawling on the shore, helpless and, in La Fond’s words, “swollen and covered with scum, like a newborn”.24 Interestingly, agricultural magic is present too, even though the sea seemly hardly a place for that. Bergren points out a sequence of similes in which the raft of Odysseus is first compared to thistles and then scat- tered as chaff at winnowing. Protected by his raft, Odysseus is like a seed enclosed by a protective shell. When the raft is blown apart like a heap of chaff in the wind (Odyssey 5.328-330), the seed is left behind, able to ger- minate.25 When Odysseus finally emerges onto the shore and buries himself under a pile of leaves, he is compared to a “seed of fire,” σπέρμα πυρός (Odyssey 5.488-491). Finally, there is acquisition of special knowledge, a standard part of the

22. Nagy 1990: 246. 23. Holtsmark 1966:208-210, Newton 1984:12-13, Bergren 2008:67-69. 24. La Fond 2018:28 25. Bergren 2008:66-68, La Fond 2017:81-82.

285 Olga Levaniouk discourse of the mysteries in later periods. It is the knowledge, which is exclusively available to the initiates, that makes the distinction between mustai and bebeloi, for example in the formula that appears to represent the opening of an Orphic Theogony: ἀείσω ξυνετοῖσι· θύρας δ᾽ ἐπίθεσθε, βέβηλοι (“I will sing to those who understand: close the doors, uninitiat- ed”).26 In the Odyssey, Ino delivers a prophecy and mentions that Odys- seus is intelligent:

κάμμορε, τίπτε τοι ὧδε Ποσειδάων ἐνοσίχθων ὠδύσατ’ ἐκπάγλως, ὅτι τοι κακὰ πολλὰ φυτεύει; οὐ μὲν δή σε καταφθείσει, μάλα περ μενεαίνων. ἀλλὰ μάλ’ ὧδ’ ἕρξαι, δοκέεις δέ μοι οὐκ ἀπινύσσειν· Poor man, why does Poseidon the shaker of earth hate you so terri- bly and create much trouble for you? But he will not destroy you, rage though he might. Do as I say—you seem to be not unintelligent. (Odyssey 5.339-342)

It is Ino’s advice, the knowledge she imparts, as much as the magical and physical help from her veil, that leads to Odysseus’ salvation. There are also hints at blessed status. In Book 6, Odysseus is twice compared to a god by Nausikaa, first when she talks to her attendants and marvels at the stranger’s transformation after his bath in the river (νῦν δὲ θεοῖσιν ἔοικε, τοὶ οὐρανὸν εὐρὺν ἔχουσιν, “but now he is similar to the gods who hold the wide heaven” Odyssey 5.243) and later when she addressed Odysseus himself and imagines, no doubt strategically, what some of the Phaeacians might say about him should they see them together riding in her cart:

ἤ τις οἱ εὐξαμένῃ πολυάρητος θεὸς ἦλθεν οὐρανόθεν καταβάς, ἕξει δέ μιν ἤματα πάντα.

26. OF 1 F Bernabé. Cf. OF 3 F, 19 F, 74 F, 101 F, 377.1 F, 378.1 F Bernabé. On the formula, see Bernabé 1996. For a general discussion, see West 1983:82-48. For a detailed ex- amination of the formula’s echoes in Greek and Augustan poetry, see Vazquez 2017:6-41.

286 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey

Some god has come down from the sky to her, in answer to her prayers, and will have her forever. (Odyssey 6.289-281)

Such comparisons, moreover, persistently crop up in the second part of the poem, uttered, for example, by Alkinoos, Telemachus, and even the unwitting suitors (e.g. Odyssey 7.241-245, 16.183-187, 17.484-487).27 The idea that Odysseus is god-like in the Odyssey, just as Achilles is in the Ili- ad is, of course, not new,28 but what is striking about Odysseus’ reaching shore on Skheria is not the hero’s god-like splendor, but rather the transition from the depths of both the sea and human mortality to near-divinity in Book 6. Two of the gold tablets from Thurii provide most succinct statements regarding the initiates’ transition, in death, from mortality to immortality, statements that in their plainness emphasize all the more the binary opposition between life and death that seems to be the essential starting point for the mysteries : θεὸς ἐγένου ἐξ ἀνθρώπου “you turned into a god from a man” (OF 487.4), θεὸς δ’ ἔσηι ἀντὶ βροτοῖο “you are a god instead of a mortal” (OF 488.8). The tablets presumably refer to the transformation their bearers were thought to undergo in death, but the ritual of the mysteries enacted this transformation in some way, so that what happened to the initiate in death would in some sense repeat what had already happened to him or her during the initiation. The experience undergone by Odysseus in Odyssey 5 fits this pattern. Moreover, Bierl has argued that the return of Odysseus re-enacts a traditional scenario of “epiphany,” in which a god returns in disguise and is not recognized by the unworthy.29 If so, Odyssey 5 constitutes a fitting beginning of Odysseus’ epiphanic return. One element of the discourse of the mystery that is associated with

27. See Bierl 2004 on Odysseus’ return as a divine epiphany. 28. Both Achilles and Odysseus are god-like in their respective epics not only because they are compared to gods, but because the trajectory of their stories resemble the story pattern of absence and return, disappearance and resurrection of a god (Lord 1960:186-197). 29. Bierl 2004.

287 Olga Levaniouk blessedness of the initiates is makarismos, such as is present, for example in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter:

ὄλβιος, ὃς τάδ’ ὄπωπεν ἐπιχθονίων ἀνθρώπων· ὃς δ’ ἀτελὴς ἱερῶν ὅς τ’ ἄμμορος, οὔ ποθ’ ὁμοίων αἶσαν ἔχει φθίμενός περ ὑπὸ ζόφῳ εὐρώεντι.30

Blessed is he who has seen these things among the earth-bound mortals. But whoever has no part or share of the rites will never Have a portion of such things in death under the dank gloom. (Homeric Hymn to Demeter 480-482)

It is remarkable how many makarismoi there are in the Odyssey. Dova’s work on them suggests that the question of who deserves a makarismos in the Odyssey is one of the central themes.31 It is noteworthy, therefore, that there is a makarismos in Odyssey 5, spoken by Odysseus and addressed to those who have died at Troy:

τρὶς μάκαρες Δαναοὶ καὶ τετράκις, οἳ τότ’ ὄλοντο Τροίῃ ἐν εὐρείῃ, χάριν Ἀτρεΐδῃσι φέροντες. Thrice and four times blessed are the Danaans who died then in broad Troy on behalf of the sons of Atreus. (Odyssey 5.306-307)

As Poseidon’s storm gathers strength and Odysseus foresees his own death he imagines that those who died at Troy were blessed and that he is not. In the end, as Dova argues, it is Odysseus who emerges as the most blessed hero in the Odyssey, because he achieves nostos. Before this can happen, however, there is another makarismos in Odyssey 6: Odysseus praises Nausikaa and names her future husband as makartatos “the most blessed of all”:

30. On the formula, which occurs repeatedly in explicit references to the mysteries as well as many other contexts, see Gladigow 1967. 31. Dova 2001.

288 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey

τρὶς μάκαρες μὲν σοί γε πατὴρ καὶ πότνια μήτηρ, τρὶς μάκαρες δὲ κασίγνητοι· μάλα πού σφισι θυμὸς αἰὲν ἐϋφροσύνῃσιν ἰαίνεται εἵνεκα σεῖο, λευσσόντων τοιόνδε θάλος χορὸν εἰσοιχνεῦσαν. κεῖνος δ’ αὖ περὶ κῆρι μακάρτατος ἔξοχον ἄλλων, ὅς κέ σ’ ἐέδνοισι βρίσας οἶκόνδ’ ἀγάγηται. Thrice happy are your father and mother, thrice happy your siblings. Their heart must be always warm with delight on account of you, as they watch such a scion going into a dance. But he is the most blessed in his heart, beyond all others, who will lead you to his house in marriage, laden with gifts. (Odyssey 6.154-158)

Shortly afterwards Nausikaa compares Odysseus to the gods and wish- es that he could be her husband:

αἲ γὰρ ἐμοὶ τοιόσδε πόσις κεκλημένος εἴη ἐνθάδε ναιετάων, καί οἱ ἅδοι αὐτόθι μίμνειν. If only my future husband could be a man like this who lives here, or he himself would choose to stay. (Odyssey 6.244-245)

As Dova observes, “Odysseus’ μακαρισμός in the context of Nausikaa’s praise not only underlines the episode’s erotic potential but manipulates it so successfully that Nausikaa identifies her ideal husband as Odysseus, thus fulfilling both his μακαρισμός and her wish at the same time”.32 As Dova further points out, the casting of Odysseus in the role of the bride- groom in the Nausikaa episode, though it leads to no marriage, resonates with Odysseus eventual return to Penelope, which in turn earns him his final and definitive makarismos from the shade of Agamemnon:

32. Dova 2001:63

289 Wilamowitz-Moellendore, WILAMOWITZ-MOELLENDORF,

Olga Levaniouk

ὄλβιε Λαέρταο πάϊ, πολυμήχαν’ Ὀδυσσεῦ, ἦ ἄρα σὺν μεγάλῃ ἀρετῇ ἐκτήσω ἄκοιτιν. Blessed son of Laertes, Odysseus of many wiles, truly you got yourself a wife of great excellence. (Odyssey 24.192-193)

This final makarismos of Odysseus by Agamemnon neatly echoes Ag- amemnon’s earlier makarismos for Achilles, and the particular terms of these two makarismoi are representative of the two heroes, since Achilles is praised in words that very much echo Odysseus’ own despairing makarismos in Book 5, to those who died at Troy:

ὄλβιε Πηλέος υἱέ, θεοῖσ’ ἐπιείκελ’ Ἀχιλλεῦ, ὃς θάνες ἐν Τροίῃ ἑκὰς Ἄργεος· Blessed son of Peleus, godlike Achilles, you who died in Troy far away from Argos. (Odyssey 24.36-37)

From a purely inner-epic perspective, Dova analyzes these instances as representing the development of the concept of makar in the poem. Odys- seus is denied a kleos-granting death at Troy and must undergo the many risks and trials of his return to earn his own makarismos by achieving nostos, a return to light and life.33 In spite of the parallelism, the makarismoi to Achilles and Odysseus, then, underscore their distinctly different position with regard to death: Achilles is blessed because he dies, Odysseus because he escapes from death. He does so having gone through one death-like experience after another in the cave of the Cyclops, on the island of Calypso, in the underworld, and finally at sea in Odyssey 5. The fact that this initiation-like trajectory is marked by repeated makarismoi seems significant because the makarismos is a stable part of the discourse of mysteries, both in literary sources, such as the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, and on the

33. Dova 2001:63-64.

290 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey

Orphic lamellae. On the tablets, the word is usually trisolbios though makar also occurs as, for example, in ὄλβιε καὶ μακαριστέ, θεὸς δ’ ἔσῃ ἀντὶ βροτοῖο “Fortunate and most blessed one, you will be a god instead of a mortal” (A1 Thurii, OF 488 Bernabé). The tablets from Pelinna, for example, begin the following words addressed to the deceased: νῦν ἔθανες καὶ νῦν ἐγένου, τρισόλβιε, ἄματι τῷδε· | εἰπεῖν Φερσεφόναι σ᾽ ὅτι Β<άκ>χιος αὐτὸς ἔλυσε “Now you died and now you were born, thrice blessed one, on this very day. Tell Persephone that Bakkhios himself released you” (D 1 Pelinna, OF 485 Bernabé). These echoes of the mysteries resonate in Book 5 in a context tinged with Dionysos. When Ino appears to Odysseus out of the sea the word used for sea is λίμνη. Limne for sea becomes common in later poetry, but it is not very common in Homer and, as Hainsworth notes in his commentary, this word is “not an obvious choice” for stormy water.34 But it is a significant choice. The word limne is regularly used to mean “sea” in contexts where what is important is depth and beings that live in it, as in Iliad 13, where Poseidon’s house is located in the depths of the limne:

Αἰγάς, ἔνθα δέ οἱ κλυτὰ δώματα βένθεσι λίμνης χρύσεα μαρμαίροντα τετεύχαται ἄφθιτα Aigai, where he has his glorious house, golden and glittering, in the depths of the limne. (Iliad 13.21-22)

Only a few lines later, the god leaves his horses in a cave between Tene- dos and Imbros, which is said to be “in the depths of the deep limne,” βαθείης βένθεσι λίμνης, Iliad 13.32. In Iliad 24, when Iris goes to summon Thetis from her underwater cave, she rushes into the depths vertically, like a leaden weight, and on this occasion again the sea is designated by limne:

34. Hainsworth 1988:282 (on Odyssey 5.337).

291 Olga Levaniouk

μεσσηγὺς δὲ Σάμου τε καὶ Ἴμβρου παιπαλοέσσης ἔνθορε μείλανι πόντῳ· ἐπεστονάχησε δὲ λίμνη. ἣ δὲ μολυβδαίνῃ ἰκέλη ἐς βυσσὸν ὄρουσεν. She rushed into the dark sea between Samos and rocky Imbros, and the limne resounded. And she sank into the depth like a leaden weight. (Iliad 24.78-80)

Similarly, when in Iliad 21.317 Skamandros calls on his brother Si- moeis to join forces in drowning Achilles, the river threatens to bury (the word for that is καλύψω) Achilles deep under water and mud at the very bottom of the limne – which here presumably refers to the river itself, but has the same connotation of deadly depth:

φημὶ γὰρ οὔτε βίην χραισμησέμεν οὔτέ τι εἶδος οὔτε τὰ τεύχεα καλά, τά που μάλα νειόθι λίμνης κείσεθ’ ὑπ’ ἰλύος κεκαλυμμένα· I say that his strength will be of no use to him, nor his looks, nor his beautiful armor, which indeed will lie at the bottom of the limne covered with mud. (Iliad 21.317-319).

Connors and Clendenon observe that in Classical and Hellenistic texts the word limne is frequently used in descriptions of karstic landscape where karst forms interact as a dynamic system of lakes, caves, under- ground passages, and flooded hollows. When Apollonius of Rhodes de- picts limnai as places of “spatial confusion and perplexing and menacing possibilities” he draws on a wealth of discourse associated with appearing and disappearing lakes, draining passages and sinkholes that can swallow people and animals.35 Connors and Clendenon argue further that the Ho- meric usage of the word limne shows awareness of its meaning “as a dynamic system or a portal between the sunlit earth and its hidden depths”

35. Connors and Clendenon 2016:155.

292 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey and, most importantly, that karstic landscapes inform Greek representations of Tartaros through a complex blend of belief-based and observation-based discourse.36 Ino emerges not, for example, from the pontos but from a limne in the Odyssey because the sea here is a way to the underworld, an up and down conduit into the depths. When Ino dives back into the sea, a black wave covers her and the word again is καλύπτω (Odyssey 5.353): no doubt it recalls not only Calypso, but more generally the nether world. Because it is designated as limne and because of Ino’s appearance, the sea in Odyssey 5 is similar to a lake at Epidauros Limera called Ino’s water and described by Pausanias as a lake that is small but immeasurably deep:

προελθόντι δὲ ἐν δεξιᾷ δύο που σταδίους, ἔστιν Ἰνοῦς καλούμενον ὕδωρ, μέγεθος μὲν κατὰ λίμνην μικράν, τῆς γῆς δὲ ἐν βάθει μᾶλλον· ἐς τοῦτο τὸ ὕδωρ ἐν τῇ ἑορτῇ τῆς Ἰνοῦς ἐμβάλλουσιν ἀλφίτων μάζας. ταύτας ἐπὶ μὲν αἰσίῳ τοῦ ἐμβαλόντος καταδεξάμενον ἔχει τὸ ὕδωρ· εἰ δὲ ἀναπέμψαιτο σφᾶς, πονηρὸν κέκριται σημεῖον. Approximately two stades to the right is what is called Ino’s water, like a small lake in size, but deeper into the earth. At the festival of Ino they throw barley cakes into this water. If the water receives them under the surface, this is good luck for the thrower; but if brings them back to the surface, this is judged to be a bad sign. (Pausanias 3.23.8)

Pausanias goes on to note a similar custom of throwing gold and silver offerings into the craters of Etna, which were presumably also taken as openings into the underworld. Ino’s nephew Dionysos is also no stranger to such watery conduits. Ac- cording to Pausanias, the Lernaian lake, rather reminiscent of Ino’s water, actually served as a way by which Dionysos brought his mother Semele up from the underworld. Like Ino’s water, this lake is small but exceedingly

36. Connors and Clendenon 2016:154-155.

293 Olga Levaniouk deep, so deep that it is impossible to find its bottom, and it draws down and swallows all those who attempt to swim across. Pausanias mentions that nocturnal rites for Dionysos, which he must not divulge, take place there.37 In Athens, of course, Dionysos was Limnaios, named for his sanc- tuary at Limnai,38 and possibly also Limnegenes “born from the Lake”,39 and it seems that he was also associated with a limne in Sparta and Sicy- on.40 Without archaeological data, it is difficult to know to what extent the actual marshiness of the Athenian Limnai was important for the Anthes- teria, but the connection of Dionysos with water and his emergence from it is in no doubt. Athenaeus even claims, on the authority of Phanodem- os, that Dionysos was called limnaios because wine was mixed with water, and added that Nymphs were called the nurses of Dionysos because of the same practice,41 while Plutarch etymologized Dionysos ὕης as κύριον τῆς ὑγρᾶς φύσεως “master of the liquid element”.42 In Iliad 6, the god himself plunges into the sea in a leap analogous to that of Ino. Surrounded by his nurses, who also seem to be the maenads, in other words, by Ino-like women,43 Dionysos runs in fear pursued by Lyk- ourgos, just as Ino herself runs from Athamas. Indeed, Ino, just like the

37. Pausanias 2.37.5-6. Sourvinou-Inwood (2005:204–205) argues that the recurrence of bou- elements in the mythological nexuses of Boutas, Lycurgus (bouplex), and Lerna (Di- onysos bougenes) “provides some confirmation for the notion that the Homeric Lykourgos and the Lerna nexus were indeed transformations (as was the Boutas myth) of earlier mythicoritual material that had involved a mortal’s attack on Dionysos and Dionysos plunging in water.” 38. Aristophanes, Frogs 218, Athenaeus 2.465. See Roberston 1993 for a thorough discussion of the Anthesteria. 39. Hesychius s.v. 40. Strabo 8.363, Pausanias 2.7.6. 41. Athenaeus 10.49.437 (Phanodemos FGrH 325 F 11), 11.13.465 (Phanodemos FGrH 325 F 12). 42. Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris 364d. See Daraki 1985:34-41 for a discussion of this aspect of Dionysos, including the role of the “liquid” element as a conduit connecting the world of the living and the underworld. 43. On this point see Tsagalis 2008:6 with reference to Eumelos, who told the myth in his Europia and mentioned that the women were celebrating orgia (PEG 1, fr. 11 = EGF fr. 1).

294 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey nurses of Dionysos, is running with a child in her arms, the only structural difference between the two scenes being the fact that the nurses in the Iliad apparently stay on the shore, while the god alone dives into the waves and Thetis’ lap (Iliad 6.132-136). As Tsagalis observes, the expression δύσεθ᾿ ἁλὸς κατὰ κῦμα “dove beneath the wave of the sea” at Iliad 6.136, echoed later in the book by Andromache’s χθόνα δύμεναι “dive into the earth” (411), “points to a well-known Dionysiac metaphor, according to which the god is linked with both the watery and chthonic realms”.44 There are indeed multiple variations on this theme in various local stories about Dionysos. Diodorus Siculus, for example, relates a story in which Lykourgos’ younger brother Boutes plays a part analogous to that of Lykourgos himself. Boutes and his followers land in Thessaly and chance upon “the nurses of Dionysos” (ταῖς Διονύσου τροφοῖς) holding orgia (ὀργιαζούσας) for the god; as Boutes and his companions attack, the women throw away “the sacred things” and flee, some to the sea and some to a nearby mountain. In the end, Boutes, in thoroughly Dionysiac fashion, gets a taste of his own medicine: maddened by the god, he throws himself into a well and to his death.45 The well, the lake, and the sea in different multiforms of the myth are mor- phologically equivalent and invariably connected to depths and vertical plunges into them. In fact, there are verbal echoes that link the Boutes myth, the lake near Lerna, and Dionysos in Iliad 6, most notably the recurrence of the bou-element pointed out by Sourvinou-Inwood. This is the root of the name Boutes ‘herdsman’, which is also present in Lykour- gos’s episode in Homer, where the Thracian king attacks Dionysos with a bouplex ‘ox-goad’, and at Lerna, where, as Sourvinou-Inwood shows, the epithet bougenes ‘ox-born’ is associated with the invocation rite of Dio- nysos. Sourvinou-Inwood argues that the Homeric Lykourgos and the Le- rna nexus were “transformations of earlier mythicoritual material that had

44. Tsagalis 2008:8-10. 45. Diodorus Siculus 5.50.

295 Olga Levaniouk involved a mortal’s attack on Dionysos and Dionysos plunging in water”.46 This plunging in water is doubtless a kind of death. Indeed, a scholion to the Iliad states bluntly that Perseus killed Dionysos by throwing him into the Lernaean lake.47 Dionysos, then, dies in this lake but also returns from Hades, leading Semele through the same waters. In Sourvinou-Inwood’s interpretation, Dionysos’ katabasis through the Lernaean lake to fetch Se- mele is in fact a transformation of the ‘reversible death’ katabasis into a form “more clearly appropriate” to the immortal,48 a thinly veiled transformation of the schema whereby a mortal attacks Dionysos and Dionysos plunges into water and dies, to emerge again later. The examples of flight and pursuit in Dionysiac myth and ritual can be multiplied further, and, conversely, the leap into the sea often has Diony- siac associations. The speaker of Anacreon 31, for example, leaps off the White Rock in search of rebirth while “drunk with love”:

ἀρθεὶς δηὖτ’ ἀπὸ Λευκάδας πέτρης ἐς πολιὸν κῦμα κολυμβῶ μεθύων ἔρωτι49 Rising again from the White rock I dive into the clear wave, drunk with love. (Anacreon PMG 370)

Ιn Menander’s Leucadia (Strabo 10.2.9), Sappho takes the same plunge “goaded by desire” (οἰστρῶντι πόθῳ). Sappho’s madness is erotic, but the mention of goading brings to mind both Lykourgos’ actual bouplex and the familiar metaphor of the goad or gadfly of madness in Dionysiac contexts.50 I think Odysseus’ final dive into the sea in Odyssey 5 is similar to all these Dionysiac dives. When Ino plunges into the sea like a bird, she seems

46. Sourvinou-Inwood 2005:205. 47. Scholia on Iliad 14.319. 48. Sourvinou-Inwood 2005:203-204. 49. See Nagy 1990:228 for discussion. 50. See Levaniouk 2007:186, 190-191 on this metaphor.

296 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey to show Odysseus the way. The storm scene in Odyssey 5 is the only time in the poem when Odysseus is not clinging to any wood nor even wearing any clothes apart from Leucothea’s veil, but rather lets go and falls into the sea like a diver: …αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεὺς ἀμφ’ ἑνὶ δούρατι βαῖνε, κέληθ’ ὡς ἵππον ἐλαύνων, εἵματα δ’ ἐξαπέδυνε, τά οἱ πόρε δῖα Καλυψώ. αὐτίκα δὲ κρήδεμνον ὑπὸ στέρνοιο τάνυσσεν, αὐτὸς δὲ πρηνὴς ἁλὶ κάππεσε, χεῖρε πετάσσας, νηχέμεναι μεμαώς. But Odysseus sat astride a plank as if he were on horseback and took off the clothes which divine Calypso gave him, and at once tied the veil around his chest and fell into the sea head first, arms outstretched, in- tending to swim. (Odyssey 5.370-375)

Odysseus’ gesture of spreading his arms is reminiscent of the diving stars on a red-figure krater in British Museum, where Helios is depicted driving his quadriga up into the sky, while the stars, depicted as two boys or youths, dive into the water, one of them shown in the air, in mid- dive, his hands spread wide.51 Since Odysseus’ long swim seems to start in a Dionsysiac context it is worth noting that the only swimming contests known in Ancient Greece were held in honor of Dionysus μελάναιγις at Hermione in the Argolid, that is to say in the area around the Lernaian lake where Dionysos himself dives into the water that leads to the underworld.52 Of course, the plunge, submergence, and katabasis are followed in the Dionysiac myth by a re-emergence, which is also a transition to another state: Semele ascends from the underworld, and Ino emerges from the depths, as a goddess rather than a mortal. In fact, a hint of that theme is

51. BM1867,0508.1133 (red-figure calyx-krater, ca. 430 BCE). 52. Pausanias 2.35.1. See Daraki 1985:35.

297 Olga Levaniouk present in the name of the Argolid lake: it is called Alkuonia limne – the Halcyon lake, a name that connects it with the quintessential diving bird, the halcyon. Bird-transformations often go together with leaps into the sea, and it is especially true of the halcyon, which is repeatedly associated with mythological women reminiscent of Ino. The Suda, for example, pre- serves a myth in which the seven daughters of the giant Alkyoneus throw themselves into the sea off a headland in grief over their father’s death and are transformed into birds by Amphitrite,53 while Alkyone the wife of Keyx leaps into the sea after her dead husband.54 The halcyon is a mythic creature, but it seems to have been early identified with the kingfisher, a bird distinguished by its habit of near-vertical dives, and this habit was recognized as essential to the halcyon: in Antoninus Liberalis, the first desire of a women transformed into a halcyon is to dive into the sea.55 The halcyon is also associated with solar mythology, with the notion of going down into the waters of Okeanos like the setting sun and coming up like the rising sun, which is so important and prominent in the Odyssey. The fact that the “halcyon days” of winter, the magic days of stillness when the halcyon builds its nest, frame the winter solstice, and the fact that Alkyone was the principal star in the constellation of Pleiades, whose rising was connected to the increase of daylight in the spring, point to a solar connection. Moreover, the halcyon’s peculiar mating habits (in myth) were analyzed by Gresseth as “a story of rebirth rather than one of death and birth” and in particular as “the story of the birth and rebirth of the sun, symbolized as a bird”.56

53. Suda, s.v. Ἀλκυονίδες ἡμέραι. 54. Hesiod fr.10a 94-96MW, 10d MW. The story of Alkyone and Keyx was told in the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, but the papyrus is extremely fragmentary. A poem titled Wedding of Keyx is also ascribed to Hesiod, but again the fragments are too meager even to determine whether the same Keyx is meant. For a full account one has to turn to Ovid (Metamorphoses 11.410-748) or Apollodorus (1.7.4). See Levaniouk 2011:287-318 for a detailed discussion. 55. Antoninus Liberalis 11. 56. Gresseth 1964:91, Levaniouk 2011:302-305.

298 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey

Returning to the Alkuonia limne in the Argolid, the name of the lake and myth of Dionysos’ katabasis through its waters appear to be connected, since both partake in the analogous, though also distinct, myths about death and rebirth, and specifically, about descent through water into depth and death and subsequent emergence from water into life. The same com- bination of elements occurs in the Odyssey, and just like the Halcyon lake, the Odyssean sea-limne features a diving bird, namely Ino in the shape of aithuia (Odyssey 5.337-338). Aquatic birds often appear in funerary contexts and may represent a connection between this world and the afterlife, and diving birds such as the halcyon have a more specific association with death and rebirth, pictured as submergence under the water and emergence from it.57 Generally speaking, then, Ino’s appearance in bird form is not particularly surprising. Still, it is worth noting that bird metamorphoses can have more specifically Dionysiac connotations. For example, the messenger in the Bacchae reports that maenads are running madly through the plain and compares them to birds. Further, bird transformations are not unusual in Diony- siac contexts. The Minyads, for instance, resist Dionysos, are struck with madness, and finally metamorphose into bats and two different species of owl.58 The wide-spread and multiform myth of the nightingale and the swallow is replete with Dionysiac features, such as a mother killing her own child (just as one of the Minyads, Leukippe, dismembers her son), and a frenzied chase culminating in a bird transformation.59 In Ovid’s narrative

57. Beaulieu 2015:157-160. 58. Antoninus Liberalis 10, with reference to Nicander and Corinna. The story is also told by Aelian (Varia Historia 3.42). Aeschylus’ lost Xantriai was probably about the Min- yads, although Proitids are another possibility. 59. The earliest telling of the myth is Odyssey 19.518-523, and the swallow is named as a daughter of Pandion in accordance with the myth both in Hesiod (Works and Days 568) and in Sappho (135 LP). The crime of the nightingale and the swallow is mentioned in Hes- iod fr. 312 MW; the name Prokne instead of Aedon crops up for the first time in Sophocles Tereus (fr. 585 R), which also seems to be the basis of the accounts in Ovid’s Metamorphoses (6.424-674) and Apollodorus (3.14.8). For a full discussion of the myth and its Dionysiac features, see Burkert 1983:179-185.

299 Olga Levaniouk the decisive part of the plot unfolds during a festival of Dionysos, and, given the many Dionysiac elements of this myth, the setting seems to be a reflection of the myth’s fundamental context, not just of Ovid’s artistry. As Burkert observes, “the myth is rooted in the Dionysian realm”.60 In the myth of Rhoio and her sisters, Dionysos turns Rhoio’s granddaughters, the, Oinotrophoi into doves, while Rhoio’s sisters, Parthenos and Molpadia, run in terror from their angered father and throw themselves into the sea.61 The name of the Ino-bird, αἴθυια, moreover, has further connotations. The formation is unclear and it could well be a re-interpreted pre-Greek word.62 There is little doubt, however, that synchronically within Greek, this word could have only been connected to the family of words that derive from the verbal root of αἴθω ’burn, blaze’. As Nagy pointed out, aithuia is reminiscent of the name Odysseus gives himself when he talks to Penelope in book 19 – Αἴθων, the name that Theognis (1209) also takes on when he foresees coming back from exile and, Nagy argues, from the dead.63 Another character with a related name is Aithalides, the Lemnian herald who negotiates with the Argonauts in Apollonius and who was known to Pherekydes.64 This Aithalides has gifts from his father Hermes: unfailing memory and partial escape from death— his soul will alternate between being in Hades and being among the living. In my earlier work, I concluded from all this that the root aith- appears when fire and burning are associated with return from the dead and argued that this meaning of Aithon, “burning” rather than “tawny” or the like, is significant in the Odyssey.65 It is likely that αἴθυια in Odyssey 5 has similar connotations, especially considering that the book concludes with a simile in which Odys-

60. Burkert 1983:181. 61. Diodorus Siculus 6.62-63. 62. Szemerenyi 1964:207, Beekes 1998:25. 63. Nagy 1985:77-80. 64. Apollonius Rhodius 1.641–651, Pherekydes FGrH 3 F 109 = Scholia to Apollonius Rhodius 1.641. 65. Levaniouk 2011:131-132 on Aithalides and the root aith-, Levaniouk 2011:36-49 on the significance of Aithon.

300 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey seus’ barely smoldering life is compared to a buried σπέρμα πυρὸς “seed of fire” (Odyssey 5.490) Just as with Aithon-Odysseus, Aithon-Theognis, and Aithalides the herald, the αἴθυια in the Odyssey appears in a setting where the theme of death and rebirth is dominant. The aith-names, including this mysterious bird name, seem to constitute a kind of signal, a signature, of the rebirth theme. Notably, the herald Aithalides also has distinctly Di- onysiac associations: in Apollonius, he plays a role in the restoring normal life on Lemnos after its women murder every male on the island except for King Thoas, son of Dionysos. This myth is linked to the festival of Hep- haistia during which, according to Philostratos at least, all fire on the island was extinguished until new fire was brought from Delos.66 Aithalides, then, appears in a context that, though very, different, of course, from Od- yssey 5, has point of contact with it: namely, it involves both Dionysos and also fire in connection with renewal. In the Odyssey, aithuia appears in a setting where both of these elements are also present. Another word derived from the same root is aithaloeis, the epithet of lightning in Hesiod (the expression αἰθαλόεντα κέραυνον occurs five time in the Theogony).67 Odysseus’ boat is shattered by lightning and this event is mentioned in Book 5, when Calypso tells Hermes how she saved Odys- seus:

τὸν μὲν ἐγὼν ἐσάωσα περὶ τρόπιος βεβαῶτα οἶον, ἐπεί οἱ νῆα θοὴν ἀργῆτι κεραυνῷ Ζεὺς ἐλάσας ἐκέασσε μέσῳ ἐνὶ οἴνοπι πόντῳ.

I saved him when he was alone, sitting astride the keel since his Zeus struck his swift ship with blazing lighting and shattered it in the middle of the wine-like sea. (Odyssey 5.130-132)

66. Philostratos Heroikos 740, FGrH 477 F1 = Scholia to Apollonius Rhodius 1.615. See Burkert 1983:190-195 for a discussion of the festival, Levaniouk 2011:126-134 on its rele- vance to the Odyssey. 67. Theogony 72, 504, 707, 854; the same expression in the dative is found in Hesiod fr.30.18 MW.

301 Olga Levaniouk

In the same breath, Calypso compares her union with Odysseus with another union of a mortal man with a goddess, that of Demeter and Ia- sion. If Odysseus’ intercourse with a goddess begins with lightning, Ia- sion’s ends with it, when Zeus kills him βαλὼν ἀργῆτι κεραυνῷ “having struck with blazing lightning” (Odyssey 5.128). Lightning is very important in the discourse of the mysteries, both as a divine punishment (as it is for Odysseus and his men) and as an instrument of apotheosis. Iles John- ston summarizes her research into lightning in the eschatology behind the Orphic tablets as follows: “Being struck by lightning often combines the idea that the individual has committed a transgression egregious enough to merit death… with the promise that this particular way of paying for the transgression will purify and refine the transgressor, thereby qualify- ing his or her soul for inclusion in the divine or heroic realm”.68 This very much describes Odysseus’ situation as he sails from Trinacia having committed a grave transgression against Helios and knowing that vengeance is at hand. For other men, the result is simply death. For Odysseus, however, the result, after a period of occlusion on Calypso’ island, seems to be the same as in Orphic eschatology: a transformation that leads to “inclusion into a divine or heroic realm.” In Homer, the standard epithet of lightning is not αἰθαλόεις, but ψολόεις “sooty” (Odyssey 23.330, 24.539). The latter is rare and used almost exclusively of lightning, but, according to Plutarch, Ψολόεις was also the name given to the husbands of the Minyads, ostensibly because of their grief after their wives were driven to frenzy and infanticide by Dionysos.69 The descendants of the Minyads, Plutarch goes on to say, participate in a ritual chase, fleeing from a sword-wielding priest of Dionysos just as Ino fled from Athamas. Burkert points out the divisions of the community in this myth: “The opposition of the sexes, of women and men, is emphasized by the men being called “sooty,” pointing beyond the mourning custom

68. Iles Johnston 2013: 126, in Graf and Iles Johnston 2013. 69. Plutarch, Greek Questions 299e-f.

302 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey to a ritual masquerade, whereas the leader of the women is named Leu- kippe, meaning “the white mare.” In just this way, Melampous, the “black foot,” pursued the daughters of Proitos, who had covered themselves with white meal—a mummery of black soot versus one of white meal”.70 Com- menting on the similarities between the Dionysos myths of the Minyads, the Proitids, and Ino-Leucothea, Burkert pointed out that her whiteness may be related to theirs. In addition to becoming the “white goddess”, in Megara there was a “white plain” through which Athamas pursued Ino.71 Burkert thought that this contrast marks social division enacted in Di- onysiac rituals. I think the evidence is too complex to be certain, and at the moment, at least, I can come to no decisive conclusion on what these contrasts mean. For one, black and white contrast crops up in Dionysiac myths with no connection to divisions between the sexes: in one of her myths, Ino dresses her children in white and her rival Themisto’s in black in order to trick Themisto into killing her own children.72 Whatever its meaning, the same black-and-white pattern is observable in the Odyssey: αἴθυια is the name of the shearwater, a dark bird, whose color is indeed “sooty.” Hesychius’ gloss κορῶναι εἰνάλιαι “sea-crows” indicates a dark color and a contrast to the white in Leucothea’s name. When lighting strikes the boat of Odysseus, this event is always said to take place ἐνὶ οἴνοπι πόντῳ (Odyssey 5.132). This formula is used four times altogether about the same shipwreck (Odyssey 5.132, 7.520, 12.389, 19.274) and it is also used repeatedly in Book 5. When Odysseus expresses to Calypso his determination to sail, he says that he is ready to face shipwreck:

εἰ δ’ αὖ τις ῥαίῃσι θεῶν ἐνὶ οἴνοπι πόντῳ, τλήσομαι ἐν στήθεσσιν ἔχων ταλαπενθέα θυμόν.

70. Burkert 1983:175 71. Scholion on Odyssey 5.334, Eustathius 1543.26. 72. For more on this story, see below.

303 Olga Levaniouk

If some god wrecks my boat on the wine-like sea I will bear it. I have a grief-enduring heart in my breast. (Odyssey 5.220-221)

At the end of her instructions, Ino tells Odysseus to throw her veil back into the sea, and the sea is again called oinops:

αὐτὰρ ἐπὴν χείρεσσιν ἐφάψεαι ἠπείροιο, ἂψ ἀπολυσάμενος βαλέειν εἰς οἴνοπα πόντον πολλὸν ἀπ’ ἠπείρου, αὐτὸς δ’ ἀπονόσφι τραπέσθαι. But when you touch the shore with your hands, take it off and throw it back into the wine-like sea, far from the land, and turn away. (Odyssey 5.349-351)

Needless to say, this adjective is used in passages that do not have anything explicitly Dionysiac about them. And yet the epithet does seem significant in Book 5. The formula in the dative occurs twice in this book: first, when Calypso recalls the storm that drove Odysseus to her island, and again when Odysseus imagines how Zeus may shatter his raft at sea as he sails from the island (5.132, 5.220). Maria Daraki has suggested that oinops connotes a Dionysiac aspect of the sea, its changeable, unpredictable, and dangerous nature, and that would fit all three of the instances in Book 5.73 It seems that Odysseus both reaches Calypso’s island and departs from it by sailing and swimming in the Dionysiac sea. A more easily defined Dionysiac note is struck by Ino’s gesture of taking off her kredemnon (Odyssey 5.351) When Ino hands over her veil to Odysseus, she presumably undoes her hair. Undoing of a maenad’s hair is a traditional Dionysiac theme, a sign of losing control and surrendering to Dionysos, something that Nagy describes as the “Dionysiac effect”.74 In the

73. Daraki 1982, 1985:41-44. 74. Nagy 2007:252-256. Nagy observes the same effect in the Iliad, where Andromache, compared to a maenads, casts off her headdress as she faints (22.468-479). For more on An- dromache as a maenad see Tsagalis 2008:1-29.

304 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey

Odyssey, as soon as she loosens her hair, Ino, yet again, takes the plunge, back into the seething sea, soon to be followed by Odysseus himself. The Dionysiac tone in Odyssey 5 is echoed by Dionysiac elements else- where in the Odyssey. One such echo is the very next episode, Odysseus meeting with Nausikaa. I cannot do justice to the evidence here, but Alden has argued that there are enough Dionysos-related elements in that scene to amount to a marked Dionysiac tone. For example, Nausikaa and her attendants throw off their veils, just as Ino does, and then the attendants run in a panic from a threatening figure with a leafy bough, resembling the maenads fleeing from Lykourgos in myth or women pursued by Dio- nysos’ priest at the festival of Agrionia. 75 Alden further compared Odys- seus’ conveyance from the seashore into the city in a cart and his prospect of marriage to Nausikaa with the Athenian festival of Athestheria, which featured the arrival of Dionysos by sea to a marshy place (Alden compares this to the river’s mouth where Nausikaa encounters Odysseus) and his escort in a ship cart into the city to celebrate his marriage with the wife of the arkhon basileus.76 The Dionsyiac coloring of Odyssey 5, then, is neither isolated nor unique, but continues into Book 6. It also resonates with the second part of the poem. There are many correlations between books 5 and 6 and the second part of the Odyssey and they have not gone unnoticed. I have already mentioned the aithuia-Ai- thon echo, to give just one example.77 Another link is established by the repetition of the craftsman simile, in which Odysseus, beautified and reju- venated by Athena (Odyssey 6.229-235 and 23.156-162). Being saved from drowning at sea is also present at the end of the Odyssey in the form of the simile which marks the moment when Odysseus and Penelope finally em- brace and cry in each other’s arms (Odyssey 23.231-239). On Ithaca, as on Scheria, there are signs of Dionysos: the suitor’s un- controlled feasting is described as madness and the gadfly, oistros, appears

75. Alden 1995: 345-346. 76. Alden 1995: 347. 77. See Nagy 1985:76-81.

305 Olga Levaniouk in a simile when suitors run in panic from Odysseus:

οἱ δ’ ἐφέβοντο κατὰ μέγαρον βόες ὣς ἀγελαῖαι· τὰς μέν τ’ αἰόλος οἶστρος ἐφορμηθεὶς ἐδόνησεν ὥρῃ ἐν εἰαρινῇ, ὅτε τ’ ἤματα μακρὰ πέλονται· 78

They fled all through the hall like a herd of cattle. The whirring gadfly sends them running madly in the season of spring, when the days are long. (Odyssey 22.297–301)

Odysseus himself, wearing a deer skin, is almost torn apart by Eumae- us’ dogs (Odyssey 13.434–437, 14.29–38).79 Telemachus says that the suitors want to tear him to pieces (Odyssey 1.251 =16.128). Penelope compares herself to Aedon, another mother who, like Ino, kills her offspring and turns into a bird (Odyssey 19.518-523). Apart from their eschatological meaning, such metamorphoses also have a social side to them: they signify denial or dissolution of the marriage and household, whether the transformed woman is a virgin who refuses to accept marriage or a mother who has destroyed her family. Some versions of Ino’s myth are very similar to that of Aedon. In a multiform of Aedon’s myth given by the scholia on Odyssey 19 and Eustathius with reference to Pherekydes, Aedon is married to Zethos, the fortifier of Thebes, and they have only one son, Itylos (and also a daughter Neis). Zethos’ twin, Amphion, is married to Niobe and they have many children. Aedon becomes jealous of this and plots to kill Niobe’s eldest son Amaleus, who sleeps in the same room as Itylos. She tells her son where to lie down to be out of the way, but he disregards her instructions and so Ino comes in at night and, in the darkness of the children’s bedroom, kills Itylos by mistake.80 Ino is also jealous of another woman’s children in several multiforms of her story. In one of them, Ino

78. Levaniouk 2011:129. 79. See Levaniouk 2011:142-148 for further discussion. 80. Scholia to the Odyssey (V1, V2, B2) 19.518, Eustathius on Odyssey 19.518, Pher- ekydes FGrH 3 F 124. See Levaniouk 2011:213-228 for discussion.

306 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey is the second wife of Athamas and plots against his children by his first marriage, probably to Nephele. This story, of course, features two falls into the sea. First, Ino orchestrates a sacrifice of Phrixos and Helle, the children flee on a golden ram, and Helle falls into the sea. And then Athamas finds out about Ino’s treachery and threatens to kill both her and her son Melikertes. Ino runs off with Athamas in pursuit and leaps into the sea to become Leucothea.81 In another tale, Ino is the first wife of Athamas but she leaves to take part in Dionysiac revels. Athamas mysteriously takes her to be dead and marries Themisto. Ino returns and Athamas takes her back into the house as a servant. Themisto plots to murder her stepchildren and unwittingly enlists the supposed maidservant to help her by dressing Ino’s children in black and her own in white. Ino, of course, reverses the clothes so that Themisto kills her own children and then commits suicide in her grief.82 All the multiforms of the Aedon and Ino myth have a conspicuous- ly Dionysiac coloring, visible in such elements as Athamas’ pursuit of Ino and her leap into the sea and the revels in which Ino takes part. The same coloring is also present in Ovid’s widely-known version of the Procne and Philomela tale, which features dismemberment of Itys and the meeting of Procne and Philomela during maenadic celebrations of Dionysos in the mountains.83 It is interesting that the story of Ino and Themisto involves the same contrast between black and white that Burkert discusses in connection with the Minyads and Proitids. Like Aedon, Ino is a child-murderer who flees from her husband and becomes transformed, a woman whose motherhood is horribly over- turned, and a woman through whose madness Dionysus destroys the household, to paraphrase Seaford.84 She is, in other words, just what Pe-

81. The story is told with a variety of details in a variety of sources, including Scholia A on Iliad 7.86, scholia vetera on Pindar, Pythian 4.162, pseudo-Eratosthenes 19, Apollodorus 1.9.1 See Farnell 1948: 128 for discussion and further references. 82. Hyginus, Fabulae 1 and 4 (based on Euripides’ Ino), Nonnus Dionysiaca 9.302-321. 83. Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.421-674, Apollodorus 3.14.8. This was probably the version of the story in Sophocles Tereus (fr. 581-593 Radt). 84. Seaford 1993.

307 Olga Levaniouk nelope fears, or threatens, she will become in the Odyssey when she compares herself to Aedon. That social turmoil can be figured as a storm at sea is no news (e.g. Sophocles, Antigone 582-592) and this connection may have special rele- vance in Dionysiac context. Social disaster is sometimes described as blasts of wind, and specifically of Boreas, the wind that drives Odysseus through the storm in Book 5.85 For example, the panic of the Achaeans is described as a storm at sea in the Iliad:

Ὣς οἳ μὲν Τρῶες φυλακὰς ἔχον· αὐτὰρ Ἀχαιοὺς θεσπεσίη ἔχε φύζα φόβου κρυόεντος ἑταίρη, πένθεϊ δ’ ἀτλήτῳ βεβολήατο πάντες ἄριστοι. ὡς δ’ ἄνεμοι δύο πόντον ὀρίνετον ἰχθυόεντα Βορέης καὶ Ζέφυρος, τώ τε Θρῄκηθεν ἄητον ἐλθόντ’ ἐξαπίνης· ἄμυδις δέ τε κῦμα κελαινὸν κορθύεται, πολλὸν δὲ παρὲξ ἅλα φῦκος ἔχευεν· ὣς ἐδαΐζετο θυμὸς ἐνὶ στήθεσσιν Ἀχαιῶν. So the Trojans kept guard. But immense panic, comrade of bloody rout, took hold of the Achaeans, and all the best of them were struck with un- bearable grief. Just as when two winds that blow from Thrace, Boreas and Zephyros, arrive all of a sudden and rouse up the fishy sea, and all at once the dark waves crest and throw much sea-wrack beside the sea, just so the hearts of the Acheans were in turmoil. (Iliad 9.1-8)

In the second stasimon of the Antigone the winds from Thrace are compared to the disaster overtaking the royal house in a pointed contrast to a blessed state, which is marked by makarismos:

εὐδαίμονες οἷσι κακῶν ἄγευστος αἰών. οἷς γὰρ ἂν σεισθῇ θεόθεν δόμος, ἄτας

85. Boreas is mentioned specifically as the wind most damaging to Odysseus (Odyssey 5.296, 328, 331, 385).

308 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey

οὐδὲν ἐλλείπει γενεᾶς ἐπὶ πλῆθος ἕρπον· ὥστε ποντίας ἁλὸς οἶδμα δυσπνόοις ὅταν Θρῄσσησιν ἔρεβος ὕφαλον ἐπιδράμῃ πνοαῖς, κυλίνδει βυσσόθεν κελαινὰν θῖνα καὶ δυσάνεμοι στόνῳ βρέμουσιν ἀντιπλῆγες ἀκταί Blessed are those who have no taste of evil in their lives. But for those whose house is shaken by the gods, the disaster never lets up, creeping through the multitude of generations. Just as the swell of the salty sea, when it is driven over the dark sea-depths by the Thracian blasts, rolls up dark sand from the depths and the headlands, lashed by the winds, echo with a groan. (Sophocles, Antigone 582-592)

This contrast is reminiscent of what we have in Odyssey 5. In Antigone, there is also a contrast between the two sides of Dionysos: the chorus in the fifth stasimon calls upon this god with mentions of Eleusis and Italy, suggesting the Dionysos of mystery cult. Henrichs has argued that this aspect of Dionysos is indeed predominant in the ode, that it is the “Eleusin- ian glimmer of hope” that “shines through the darkness of the Antigone” in the ode to Dionysos.86 But Dionysos in the Antigone is also the punisher of Lykourgos, instigator of madness, who, as Cullyer has argued, is linked by analogy to the storm winds and their ultimate manifestation, the Thra- cian Boreas.87 In the Odyssey, it seems, the same opposition is at work, and the storm in Book 5 represents in cosmic terms what is represented in social terms on Ithaca. As for Ino, before she becomes Leucothea, she has been through more than death: she has been through social catastrophy linked to Dionysos, of the kind Penelope fears and only barely avoids. The dangers that haunt Penelope on Ithaca are implicit in the figure of Ino in Book 5 at the point

86. Henrichs 1990:266 87. Cullyer 2005.

309 Olga Levaniouk of Odysseus’ “salvation.” She herself failed to survive these dangers, just as she failed to survive her leap into the sea. Now that she is Leucothea, she helps Odysseus not just at sea, but in a Dionysiac storm which corresponds to the Dionysiac storminess in Odysseus’ own household. If the social storminess on Ithaca is tinged with Dionysiac madness, the cosmic storm in Odyssey 5 is tinged with the discourse and aesthetics of the mysteries, complete with lighting, makarismos, Ino’s veil in place of an initiate’s ribbon, an encounter with death, and symbolic rebirth that combines the elements of “puberty initiation, agrarian magic, and sexuality.” Ino-Leucothea comes to Odysseus’ rescue in an episode that echoes the mysteries and confers on Odysseus a degree of blessedness, something similar to the special status of the initiates. As the chorus sings in Euripid- es’ Bacchae: 902-3: εὐδαίμων μὲν ὃς ἐκ θαλάσσας | ἔφυγε χεῖμα, λιμένα δ᾽ ἔκιχεν “Happy is he who escaped the storm from the sea and reached har- bor.” Dionysos is present implicitly in Odyssey 5, at the point of Odysseus watery transition from a kind of death back to life, just as he is present on one of the earliest Orphic tablets we have, a bone tablet from Olbia (SEG 28 659), which in a sense mirrors Odyssey 5 and appears to be a statement about rebirth or overcoming death: βιος θάνατος βίος αληθεια Διον(υσος).

Olga Levaniouk University of Washington

310 The Waters of the Underworld and Ino in the Odyssey

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