Taphonomy, Osteometry and Archaeozoology of the Pleistocene Herbivores from the Third Horizon of the Goyet Cave, Belgium

FACULTEIT WETENSCHAPPEN Opleiding Master in de Geologie

Taphonomy, osteometry and archaeozoology of the Pleistocene herbivores from the third horizon of the Goyet cave, Belgium

Alexander Comeyne

Academiejaar 2012–2013

Scriptie voorgelegd tot het behalen van de graad Van Master of Science in de geologie

Promotor: Prof. Dr. J. Verniers Co-promotor: Dr. M. Germonpré Leescommissie: Prof. Dr. Dominique Adriaens, Prof. Dr. Achilles Gautier

Acknowledgements

Prof. Dr. J. Verniers For proposing this M.Sc. thesis subject and introduction to the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences

Dr. M. Germonpré For reading and contructively criticising the manuscript and answering my questions, as well as support in the practical research .

Wilfried Miseur Fot taking photographs of selected specimens

RBINS For the opportunity to work with its Goyet collection

Summary

1 Introduction ...... 3 1.1 Localisation ...... 5 1.2 Stratigraphy and archaeology ...... 7 1.3 Spatial distribution of Chamber A, Horizon 3 ...... 10 1.4 Herbivore species ...... 11 1.4.1 Horse ...... 11 1.4.2 Auroch/bison ...... 13 1.4.3 Woolly mammoth ...... 13 1.4.4 Woolly rhinoceros ...... 13 1.4.5 Red deer ...... 14 1.5 The prey of prehistoric humans and carnivores ...... 14 1.6 Traces ...... 15 1.6.1 Cut marks ...... 15 1.6.2 Ochre traces ...... 16 1.7 Problem statement ...... 16 1.8 Goal ...... 17 2 Material en methods ...... 18 2.1 The Dupont collections ...... 18 2.2 Identification and frequency distribution ...... 19 2.3 Measurements ...... 19 2.4 Identification and ageing of the teeth ...... 20 2.4.1 Horse ...... 20 2.4.2 Woolly mammoth ...... 22 2.4.3 Woolly rhinoceros ...... 23 2.4.4 Red deer ...... 23 2.5 Age distributions ...... 24 2.5.1 Horse ...... 25 2.5.2 Woolly mammoth ...... 26 2.5.3 Woolly rhinoceros ...... 26 2.5.4 Red deer ...... 26

2.6 Sexual dimorphism ...... 26 2.6.1 Woolly mammoth ...... 26 2.6.2 Red deer ...... 27 2.7 Size reductions ...... 27 2.8 List of the used abbreviations and categories ...... 28 3 Results ...... 29 3.1 General ...... 29 3.1.1 Tables...... 30 3.1.2 Graphs ...... 37 3.2 Detailed results per species ...... 40 3.2.1 Equus ferus (Horse) ...... 40 3.2.2 Bos/Bison (Auroch/Bison)...... 77 3.2.3 Mammuthus primigenus (Woolly mammoth) ...... 88 3.2.4 Coelodonta antiquitatis (Woolly Rhinoceros) ...... 93 3.2.5 Cervus elaphus (Red deer) ...... 106 3.2.6 Ovibos moschatus (Muskox) ...... 111 3.2.7 Capra ibex (Ibex) ...... 111 3.3 Detailed representation of the different traces ...... 112 3.3.1 Ochre ...... 112 3.3.2 Cut marks ...... 115 3.3.3 Gnawing traces ...... 118 3.3.4 Impact traces ...... 120 3.3.5 Tools ...... 123 3.4 Age distributions ...... 124 3.4.1 Horse ...... 124 3.4.2 Woolly mammoth ...... 125 3.4.3 Woolly rhinoceros ...... 126 3.4.4 Red deer ...... 127 4 Discussion ...... 127 4.1 NISP and MNI in the top three horizons of the third cave from Goyet ...... 127 4.2 Taphonomy ...... 128 4.3 Ratios ...... 129 4.4 Osteometry and general interpretations ...... 130 4.4.1 Equus sp...... 130

4.4.2 Mammothus primigenius ...... 132 4.4.3 Bos/Bison ...... 133 4.4.4 Cervus elaphus ...... 133 4.4.5 Coelodonta antiquitatis ...... 133 4.4.6 Ovibos moschatus ...... 133 4.5 Age distributions ...... 134 4.5.1 Horse ...... 134 4.5.2 Woolly mammoth ...... 134 4.5.3 Woolly rhinoceros ...... 134 4.5.4 Red deer ...... 135 4.6 Archaeozoology ...... 135 4.6.1 Ochre ...... 135 4.6.2 Cut marks ...... 136 4.6.3 Gnawing traces ...... 136 4.6.4 Impact traces ...... 137 4.6.5 Tools ...... 138 4.6.6 Comparison with the spatial distribution established by Dupont (published by Germonpré, 2001) ...... 139 5 Conclusion ...... 141 6 Appendices ...... 143 6.1 Bibliography ...... 143 6.2 Abbreviations of the measurements ...... 151 6.3 List of photographs of selected specimens ...... 154 6.4 List of figures ...... 154 6.5 List of tables...... 157 6.6 Labels of Dupont with each tray ...... 161 6.7 Dutch resume ...... 168

1 Introduction

The Goyet cave is one of the richest Pleistocene sites in Belgium. It is located in the southern edge of the Namur Synclinorium, close to the Meuse valley and lies near the confluence of the Strouvia and the Samson, a small tributary of the Meuse. Edouard Dupont excavated this cave in the 1860s and unearthed ten thousands of bones. Most of these finds have a stratigraphic attribution (with five

3 horizons) but not a spatial provenance. The carnivores were studied in detail during the last two decades (Depestele, 2005; Germonpré , 2004 ; Germonpré et al., 2009; 2013; Germonpré & Hämälainen, 2007; Germonpré & Sablin, 2001). The herbivores from the first bone level (Germonpré, 1996, 1997; Dekeyzer, 2007), from the second bone level (Soenen, 2006) and the reindeer from the third bone level (Dekeyzer, 2007) were examined during this period. The fossil fauna from Goyet dates from the Pleniglacial and the Late Glacial (Table 1 and Figure 1). Not only faunal remains were recovered from the cave but also stone and bone artefacts, left behind by prehistoric people. The Palaeolithic industries at Goyet can be assigned to the Mousterian (Middle Palaeolithic), the Aurignacian, the Gravettian and the Magdalenian (Upper Palaeolithic). Furthermore, not only artefacts but also skeletal remains from neanderthals and anatomically modern humans (AMH) testify of the recurrent occupations of this cave by prehistoric people (Pirson et al., 2012; Rougier et al., 2012). The former industry is associated with neanderthals, the latter three with AMH. The chronological and palaeoenvironmental context in Europe during the time of the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition (MUPT), from 50 000 to 30 000 BP, is not accurately known and is currently being studied (Conard et al., 2006). This is also the period of the transition from Neanderthals to modern humans. Progress in the understanding of the MUPT can be achieved with the study of long sedimentary sequences providing a semi-continuous record and with situating archaeological remains in a reliable palaeoenvironmental and chronological framework (Pirson et al., 2012). The Spy Neanderthals have recently been directly dated by 14C to 36 000 BP. The earliest credible age for the Belgian Aurignacian is about 32 000-33 000 BP (Maisières-Canal and Spy) (Pirson et al., 2012; Semal et al., 2009).

In general, the climatic trend in the Upper Pleistocene indicates the cooling temperatures of the Weichselian glaciation. This period comprises the Marine Isotope Stages 5, 4, 3 and 2. The Saale glacial includes MIS 6 after which the temperatures rise in the Eemian interglacial (the lower boundary of the Upper Pleistocene). As shown in Figure 1, MIS 5(e) is warm (comparable with the Holocene), MIS 4 represents a cooling event while in MIS 3 the temperature rises again. MIS 2 exhibits the lowest temperatures of this period, culminating in the Last Glacial Maximum. This is followed by the Holocene interglacial.

MIS 5 (around 130 000 to 70 000 BP) displays climatic oscillations with a range of 8 000-14 000 years and has been subdivided accordingly.A trend towards lower temperatures is present.The MIS 3 stage, ranging from around 60,000 to 30,000 BP, is characterised by 15 high-frequency climatic oscillations (Greenland Interstadials, GIS). They have each a duration from 500 to 2500 years, consisting of abrupt warming followed by slower cooling as recorded in the Greenland ice cap (Andersen et al., 2007). These high-frequency variations are also present in the rest of the Upper Pleistocene.

The so-called mammoth steppe is a well-defined paleoecological unit covering middle and southern Europe, northern Asia and Alaska during the Upper Pleistocene cold phases. It was bordered to the north-west and to the east by icecaps, and was characterised by a rather homogeneous faunal assemblage dominated by Mammuthus, Bison and Equus (Guthrie 1982).

General ecological comparisons can be made between the extinct Pleistocene Mammoth steppe and the recent African savannah (Vereshchagin and Baryshnikov, 1992). Ecologically variable conditions

4 prevailed across the mammoth steppe during the Pleistocene, with substantial regional differences in precipitation and temperature (Szpak et al., 2010).

The village of Goyet (Namur province, Belgium, 50°26’44’’N, 5°00’48’’E) is situated at the confluence of two small rivers: the Samson (tributary of the Meuse river) and the Strouvia. The valley of the Samson has a length of about 15 km with a maximum width of around 500 m. After a sinuous course, through a plateau with a maximum height of 280 m, the Samson joins the river Meuse some 3 km north of Goyet (Germonpré, 1997). The limestone cliff at Goyet contains a series of caves on the right bank of the river Samson. These were excavated by Dupont in 1868 and 1869 (Dupont, 1869a, 1869b, 1872; Van den broeck et al, 1910). These caves are situated at an altitude of 130 m TAW in the Lower Carboniferous deposits. The third cave is the most important one in size and fossil content. Its entrance is located 15 m above the Samson.

The third cave runs very deep and is connected with the other caves by transverse galleries (Dupont, 1872; Ulrix-Closset, 1975). Dupont subdivides the cave in three parts: chamber A, B and C ( Figure 2 and Figure 3). Chamber A is about 26 m deep, 5 m wide and 3.8 m high with an entrance of 3.8 m wide. The twilight zone stretches to the back of the chamber. Chamber B is connected to A by two small galleries and has a length of circa 13 m. Chamber C is at a distance of 120 m from the cave entrance (Germonpré, 2001). An extensive historic overview of the research at the Goyet caves is given by Ulrix-Closset (1975), Otte (1979) and Dewez (1987). More recent excavations have been performed at the caves of Goyet, from 1997 onwards. One of the objectives was to improve the stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental knowledge of the sediments on the terrace and in the caves (Toussaint et al., 2004).

Figure 2 Map of chamber A, B and C from the third cave of Goyet (Germonpré and Sablin, 2001). III stands for the third cave.

Figure 3 Section of the third cave (Chamber A and B) from Dupont (1872). Although the figure seems to show more horizons, Chamber A contains four layers (horizons one to four) and Chamber B contains two ( horizons four and five). The scale mentioned by Dupont is three millimetres for one meter. 1.2 Stratigraphy and archaeology

In these chambers a large number of Middle and Upper Paleolithic artefacts were discovered along with numerous remains of Pleistocene mammals (Dupont,1873) ) and Palaeolithic humans (Rougier et al., 2009, 2012). Many of the fossil bones are broken, have cut marks, or display traces of ochre (Germonpré , 1996; 1997; Germonpré and Sablin, 2001; Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007). The Palaeolithic artefacts date from the Mousterian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, and Magdalenian (Otte, 1979), which indicates recurrent occupations of the cave. However, it is not always clear from which horizon the artefacts and bones originate (Dewez, 1987; Ulrix-Closset, 1975). Remains from both neanderthals and anatomically modern humans have been recovered (Rougier et al., 2012).

The bones occur in clayey-sandy loam which Dupont (1872) calls ‘limon fluvial’. The bone horizons are according to Dupont (1873) separated by sterile ‘alluvial’ sediments. No detailed information on the stratigraphy was published by Dupont. The total thickness of the excavated layers is more or less 1.2 to 2.5 m as deduced from the sediment remains on the walls of the cavern. Dupont (1873) distinguishes three types of bone accumulations inside the cave. The first category concerns carnivores like lion, bear and hyena which used the cave as den and all their skeletal remains are well represented in the dark parts of the cave, sometimes in anatomical connection. The second category is caused by hyenas, who introduced body parts of their prey, mostly herbivores, in the cave and the bones of these are often gnawed upon. Finally, a lot of broken bones are often associated with bone and stone artefacts and would belong to animals butchered elsewhere and partly brought to the

7 cave by prehistoric people. They are found in the lightened part of the cave. The bones carry often traces of artificial manipulation and marrow rich bones show regularly marks of impact to split the diaphysis (Germonpré, 2001; Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007).

Altogether, Dupont (1873) distinguishes five bone bearing horizons of which Chamber A holds four. Unlike the normal geological order, the upper horizon is the first and the lowest horizon is number five. The lower one is well developed only in the back of Chamber A and without Palaeolithic artefacts. The upper three bone horizons are concentrated near the entrance of Chamber A and contain bones from human refuse and Middle to Upper Palaeolithic artefacts. Aurignacian ivory beads were discovered in Horizon 3 (Otte, 1979) which is thought to be a palimpsest of multiple occupations (Miller, 2001). The sterile deposits separating the third from the second bone horizon, and the second from the first have a thickness of resp. 10 to 30 cm and 10 to 15 cm (Dupont, unpublished notes dating from 1906). Dupont mentioned in his unpublished notes the presence of a ‘colonne de stalagmite’, a speleothem, which covered the upper bone horizon and at its base engulfed bones of horse, reindeer and rodents. A number of bones from this horizon are indeed encrusted in calcite (Germonpré, 2001). The three upper horizons (1, 2 and 3) contain large quantities of unidentifiable and broken remains (hundreds each) (Germonpré, 2001).

The bear and hyena assemblages from these horizons were located more to the back of the chamber (Dupont, 1873) and have a different origin (Germonpré, 1996). It is not clear how the carnivore assemblages from these three horizons are interrelated, but it seems probable that they are not connected to the human refuse assemblages. Chamber A was used by a population of cave bear at 38 770 years BP ago; cave hyenas occupied Chamber A at least during two phases at 35 000 years BP and 27 230 years BP (Germonpré, 1997; Van Strydonck et al., 2001). A fossil canid skull found during Edouard Dupont’s excavations in the 1860s has an AMS age of around 32 000 BP. According to Dupont’s unpublished notes, the skull was found in a side gallery of the cave in Horizon 4 (Germonpré et al., 2009; 2013). Table 1 with the AMS dates for all levels from Goyet was compiled from the available literature and unpublished data. Different measurements done on the same sample are all included. A total of 35 AMS dates are represented here, spread out over the various horizons and chambers (except chamber C). The used abbreviations in the ‘Level’ section stand for Chamber and Horizon. For example: A1 stands for Chamber A, Horizon 1.

The CalPal Online (Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration & Palaeoclimate Research Package) was used for the calibration of the AMS dates,. This is a radiocarbon calibration program package which allows calendric age-conversion (”calibration”) of 14C-data. 14C-dating has a complicated history with various restrictions and corrections (Jöris et al., 2000; Jöris et al., unpublished). However the time range involved in this study is adequate (Weninger, 1986) and satisfactory results should be obtained. Weninger and Jöris are also two of the three authors of CalPal Online.

Most of the dates of the humanly modified bones of horse (Equus caballus arcelini) and muskox (Ovibos moschatus) from Goyet (horizon 1) agree very well with the Upper Magdalinian age of the human occupations of this level. This suggests that the occupations date from the beginning of the Late Glacial (Germonpre, 1997), although several dates on humanly modified bones can be placed in the Pleniglacial. The second bone level at Goyet contains artefacts which are also attributed to the Magdalenian (Dewez, 1987). This is however not reflected in the AMS dates. Twiesselmann (1951) assigns the artefacts from level 3 to the Mousterian and the Aurignacian, which is also reflected in

8 the age measurements. According to Otte (1979) mixing of the archaeological material of several horizons occurred and each horizon could contain material from several successive occupations, which could explain the older AMS dates of the second horizon.

AMS Goyet Level taxon Element Nr Dupont Lab. Code Age, 14C yr BP Age, cal yr BP human Reference marks A1 Equus caballus arcelini MC acc 2813-33 Utc-8957 12 560 ± 50 14 900 ± 290 cut & ochre Van Strydonck et al. (2001) A1 Ovibos moschatus Phalanx 2783-49 GrA – 3238 12 620 ± 90 14 980 ± 320 cut Germonpré (1997) A1 Equus caballus arcelini Vertebra 2380-6 GrA – 3237 12 770 ± 90 15 210 ± 300 cut & ochre Germonpré (1997) A1 Ovibos moschatus Phalanx 2783 OxA – 12121 12 775 ± 50 15 240 ± 260 cut Stevens et al, 2009 A1 Equus caballus arcelini Metatarsus 2832-3 OxA–V– 2223-48 12 775 ± 55 15 240 ± 260 Stevens et al., 2009 A1 large canid Femur 2812-10 KlA-25296 13 680 ± 60 16 800 ± 220 Germonpré et al. (2009) A1 Coelodonta antiquitatis Phalanx 2814 OxA-6592 16 320 ± 140 19 530 ± 330 cut Stevens et al, 2009 A1 Coelodonta antiquitatis Phalanx 2814-28 OxA-11291 23 560 ± 230 28 530 ± 430 cut Stuart and Lister, 2012 A1 Crocuta crocuta Calcaneum 2812 GrA – 3239 27 230 ± 260 31 910 ± 200 Germonpré (1997) A1 Coelodonta antiquitatis Upper M3 2814 OxA-12119 28 470 ± 140 32 860 ± 340 Stuart and Lister, 2012 A1 Coelodonta antiquitatis M3 2814 OxA-12120 29 330 ± 160 33 740 ± 310 Stuart and Lister, 2012 A1 Equus caballus arcelini Metatarsus 2832-2 OxA-V-2223-44 31 750 ± 200 35 690 ± 420 Stevens et al., 2009 A1 Crocuta crocuta P4 2812 UtC-8958 35 000 ± 400 40 030 ± 870 Peigné et al., 2009 A1 Ursus spelaeus Pisiforme 2811-43 GrA-9605 38 770 +1180-1030 43 110 ± 890 Germonpré (2001) A2 Alopex lagopus Humerus 2830-23 KlA-22275 12 380 ± 60 14 590 ± 340 Dalén et al. (2007) A2 Megaloceros giganteus M2 2769-31 OxA-11767 23 840 ± 260 28 750 ± 440 Hughes et al., 2006 A2 Equus caballus arcelini Femur 2809-14 OxA-V-2223-49 29 420 ± 170 33 800 ± 310 Stevens et al., 2009 A2 Ursus spelaeus Pisiforme 2758-3 GrA-45325 29 800 ± 150 34 130 ± 200 ochre Germonpré unpublished A2 Ursus spelaeus Pisiforme 2758 KIA-16289 34 920 ± 330-320 40 000 ± 850 Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007 A3 Ursus arctos Jaw 2763 KIA-13550 10 640 ± 50 12 650 ± 70 Germonpré (2001) A3 Ursus spelaeus Canine 2773-23 KlA-18986 27 440 ± 170 32 030 ± 190 Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007 A3 Rangifer tarandus Metatarsus 2211-1 KlA-22281 27 590 ± 170 32 160 ± 240 ochre Germonpré unpublished A3 Ursus spelaeus Skull 2785-14 GrA-44539 27 920 ± 160-150 32 430 ± 300 ochre Germonpré unpublished A3 Ursus arctos Tibia 2788-8 Goyet 1 -Uac Groningen 32 580 ± 250-230 37 120 ± 720 Germonpré unpublished A3 Ursus spelaeus Lower jaw 2763-4 GrA-38558 32 900 ± 240-220 37 390 ± 660 Germonpré unpublished A3 Rangifer tarandus Astragalus 2791-49 KlA-33600 34 670 + 900-810 39 740 ± 1040 cut Germonpré unpublished A4 large canid Lower jaw 2860-2 KlA-25297 24 780 ± 140 29 820 ± 320 Germonpré et al. (2009) A4 large canid: Palaeolithic dog Skull* 2860* Beta-239920 31 680 ± 250* 35 600 ± 470 Germonpré et al. (2009) A4 large canid: Palaeolithic dog Skull* 2860* GrA-44538 31 890 ± 240-220* 35 920 ± 390 Germonpré et al (2012) B4 Ursus arctos Tibia 2745-33 Goyet 2 -Uah Groningen 19 690 ± 100 23 540 ± 290 Germonpré unpublished B4 Ursus spelaeus Rib 2836-7 GrA-38560 33 470 ± 250-230 38 840 ± 1470 Germonpré unpublished B4 Ursus spelaeus Metacarpus 4 2742-4 GrA-9606 35 470 ± 750 40 280 ± 1060 Germonpré and Sablin, 2001 B4 Ursus spelaeus Metacarpus 3 2857-20 KlA-23121 36 500 ± 980 41 040 ± 1100 Germonpré and Hämäläinen, 2007 B5 Panthera leo Humerus 2704-3 KIA-22276 24 470 ± 210 29 240 ± 500 Germonpré unpublished B5 Ursus spelaeus Metacarpus 3 2741-23 KIA-23122 28 160 ± 365 32 650 ± 420 Germonpré unpublished

Table 1 Compilation of the available datations of the third cave of Goyet

Strauss and Otte (1995) consider Goyet to be a major residential site. According to Dewez (1987), the first (upper) bone horizon at Goyet contains in general archaeological material dating from the Late Upper Palaeolithic and represents Magdalenian occupations. A bone harpoon was discovered in this horizon (Dupont, 1872). Other finds include a necklace composed of 26 teeth and two horse fragments, ivory pendants and fragments of ochre (Van Wetter, 1920; Dewez, 1987).

Two bone layers were found in chamber B and are called (from top to bottom) bone horizon 4 and bone horizon 5. These two horizons are dominated by carnivore remains. Horizon 5 is only present in chamber B and holds remains of cave bear and cave lion. Somewhere in the range of 37 000-33 000 years ago the cave of Goyet (chamber B, horizon 4) was used as a den exclusively by cave bears for at least three and a half centuries (Germonpré and Sablin, 2001).

Dupont (1873) does not mention how and why he correlated bone horizon 4 with the layers in chamber B and C. In chamber C only one bone horizon occurred, assigned by Dupont (1873) to bone horizon 4.

Near the terrace at the entrance of the multilayered caves, a small rock shelter was excavated in 1952 by Éloy and Kayser. A bone associated with the Gravetian workshop gave an AMS date of 24 440 BP (Éloy and Otte, 1995).

It is clear that Goyet is an important Belgian Paleolithic site. The collections, carefully excavated by Dupont more than a century ago, are stored at the Royal Belgian Institute for Natural Sciences. These collections can add substantial information on the history of the region.

1.3 Spatial distribution of Chamber A, Horizon 3

The field notes of Dupont are since long lost but unpublished notes from 1895 of a collaborator of Dupont, Vincent, give us some indication on the spatial distribution of the excavations of this cave. These notes also contain lists per species and per tray of each horizon (Germonpré, 2001). Spatial distribution is an important tool to distinguish different zones in the studied area (Groenen, 2004), but this is only possible if the horizon is undisturbed.

In chamber A, Horizon 3 (A3), some 3700 identified bones and hundreds of unnumbered unidentified ones were excavated by Dupont (Germonpré, 2001). A small unpublished note from 1895 was found in the list of ‘cadres’ by Vincent. It groups the numbers of the trays from horizon 3. The layout forms a rectangular like the shape of the elongated chamber A. The numbers on top of the schema correspond with the numbers of the carnivores which were found at the back of the cave. The numbers on the bottom refer to the numbers of the bones from human refuse. Chamber A is depicted by Dupont (1873) also with its entrance at the bottom of the page and the back of the chamber at the top. The numbers of the bones from carnivores correlate with the back of the cave and those from human refuse with a position near the entrance of chamber A. Thus, the layout is here interpreted as a schematic representation of the spatial distribution of the fossil remains from horizon 3. Gnawing traces and cut marks are also indicated. Cut marks are an indication of human interference on skeletal elements, while carnivores can leave their tooth marks on bones as well related as unrelated to bone accumulation by humans. Cut marks occur on bones from the first half of the Chamber while gnawing traces are situated to the back. Many of the gnawing traces are from cave hyena, bones of this carnivore are also found at the back of the chamber. The positions of a typical Upper Palaeolithic prey animal (horse, Equus) are also given. Most of the horse bones are situated in the first part of the chamber and were accumulated by humans, with many cut marks and impact points on the bones, as noted by Dupont and Vincent. Hyenas were responsible for the concentration of some horse elements at the back of the chamber. The abundant horse remains were probably reshuffled over its spatial distribution according to type of skeletal element (Germonpré, 2001).

Figure 4 Figure of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet (adapted from Germonpré, 2001) 1.4 Herbivore species

1.4.1 Horse

There is evidence that grazing horses evolved a behavioural ecology and social organisation similar to those of modern equids by the Middle Miocene (MacFadden, 1992). Horses live in a wide range of habitats, with a preference for flatlands (Boyd and Keiper, 2005). They can survive in areas where food is poor in quality and can tolerate cold, dry weather, although they are less resistant to cold, wet weather and prolonged deep snow (Guthrie, 1982). Extant wild horses form breeding groups or harems composed of a single stallion and several mares with their young, generally 2 to 20 animals. Non-breeding males form smaller unstable bachelor groups. Bands migrate according to changing

11 environmental conditions or seasonality (Boyd and Keiper, 2005). The drier the environment, the greater the distances travelled, due to the dispersed nature of resources.

Some environmental factors have an influence on the morphology of Pleistocene horses (Van Asperen, 2010). Animals that survive on low-quality forage will have relatively large, wide molars. A high amount of browse in the diet will lead to a relative increase in size of the premolar row. The proportion of browse and grasses can also be derived from an isotopic study of the tooth enamel (Hoppe et al., 2004). Because horses need a high and relatively diverse food intake, the length of the growing season and the character of the vegetation may influence the size to which they can grow.

There were regional horse populations until the very end of the Pleistocene in Western Europe (Bridault and Chaix, 2002). Other taxa also show this distribution, for example the morphological studies on reindeer (Weinstock, 1997) reached the same conclusion: regional populations did exist through Western Europe. These observations appear to confirm the persistence of a fragmented structuration of animal communities, very likely in relation with continuation of the mosaic pattern of vegetal communities.

Late glacial horses possess larger (third) phalanges than extant equids. Two reasons can explain this: it can be an adaptation to heavy grounds or related to body size (Bignon et al., 2002). Bignon compared the width of the phalanges with the length of the metacarpals to account for body size. He concluded that the Late Glacial horse Equus caballus arcelini seems to have frequented heavy ground habitats. A possible explanation for this common adaptation in contrasted landscapes is the importance of two particularly developed habitats during this period: large river banks in valleys or lakes and occurrence of local marshy environments (Zielinski, 2007). Important Magdalenian butchery sites in Western Europe were located directly on river banks with extensive marshes in the vicinity (Bignon et al., 2002). These habitats appear to favour the annual maintenance of a varied vegetation suitable to horses (as in the Camargue, Duncan, 1992), which should be a crucial point in the unstable Late Glacial climate (Guthrie 1982, 1984b, 1990)

The evolutionary history of European Equidae is closely related with major climatic changes and substrates (Alberdi et al., 1995). The record shows that the first immigrant horses in Eurasia had the largest known body mass. Small body sized species are basically correlated with warm climates and biomas with an important wooded component (e.g. woodland-savannas) and hard substrates. By contrast, large sized species are correlated with cold climates and open biomas (c.g. mosaic steppes and grasslands) and soft substrates. Additionally, glacial horses have more robust limb bones to prevent heat loss, while temperate phases induce more slender material (Van Asperen, 2010). Due to this, Cope’s rule (large species evolve later in the phylogeny of a taxonomic group than small species) is not valid for horses (Forsten, 1993). This is part of a global evolution to smaller body size of many Late Pleistocene-Holocene mammals (Alberdi et al., 1995), such as Bison bison, Cervus elaphus, Rangifer tarandus, Mammuthus primigenius and Equus spp. (Guthrie, 1985; Forsten, 1993). There is no consensus in the literature whether this general decrease should be regarded as adaptation to environmental change.

1.4.2 Auroch/bison Aurochs (Bos primigenius) can be regarded as native to northwest Europe. They occurred here until historical times but persistent human hunting and deforestation have resulted in their extermination. The last auroch in Europe was killed in Poland in 1627 (Van Kolfschoten, 1995).

Bison and Bos indicate different palaeoenvironmental conditions (López González et al., 1999). Some of the earliest individuals identified as Bison were found in the Villafranchian from India and China (Kurtén, 1968). It is a non arctic steppe species, able of standing hard climates; it formed large groups moving towards better habitats. Recent work however indicates that at least some steppe bison did not migrate (Julien et al., 2012). Bos primigenius lived in great part of Eurasia, but it was not abundant during the Pleistocene: its presence increases from the Postglacial onwards. It inhabited meadow, steppe and open forest which results in a more stationary behaviour and more southern range than bisons preferred (Kurtén, 1968).

1.4.3 Woolly mammoth The biology and behaviour of the three modern elephant species are very similar, and their habits and reproductive cycle are likely to apply to the extinct woolly mammoth (Germonpré et al., in press). The recent elephant living on the African savannah can be compared ecologically with the Pleistocene woolly mammoth (Vereshchagin and Baryshnikov, 1992). Recent African and Asian elephants both have a maximum life span of about 60 years. The African elephant lives in family units of ten to 20 individuals (Laws, 1970) while adult males live solitary. African elephants reach sexual maturity at an age varying from 8 to 14 years. The distribution of the Late Pleistocene species Mammuthus primigenius seems to have been limited to the northern regions of the continent or near the glacial borders (Haynes, 1991). At the end of the Pleistocene, mammoths became extinct (Van Kolfschoten, 1995). The presence of Mammuthus primigenius indicates glacial conditions and is characteristic for the mammoth steppe.

1.4.4 Woolly rhinoceros Rhinoceros and horse belong both to the Perissodactyla although rhinoceroses retained more primitive features (Wood, 1949). Rhinoceroses during the Quaternary inhabited not only the temperate latitudes of Eurasia, but also high latitudes with a cold climate. One of those rhinoceroses adapted to a cold climate is the woolly rhinoceros (Boeskorov, 2012). The woolly rhinoceros was one of the most abundant species of the Eurasian mammoth fauna: its fossils have been found on the area spanning from the British Isles in the west to Chukotka and Kamchatka in the east. Together with Mammuthus primigenius is one of the indicator species of the mammoth steppe.

Boeskorov et al. (2012) states some morphological and ecological features of the woolly rhinoceros. It was a large animal, the second in size after the wooly mammoth among the North Eurasian mammoth fauna. In the general body parameters, the woolly rhinoceros is comparable to the extant rhinoceros species. The shortened protruding body parts (ears and tail) of the woolly rhinoceros as compared with the extant species is an adaptation to cold climate of the North Eurasian Ice Age. An analogous shortening in tail length and reduction in ear size as compared with the extant elephants was also noticed in Mammuthus primigenius (Vereshchagin and Tikhonov, 1999).

The specific landscape and climate features of the Pleistocene were rather adverse conditions: a sharply continental, mostly arid, climate; winters with little snow; solid soil surface; and

13 predominance of open landscapes with grass and shrub vegetation. The mammoth and other animals of the mammoth fauna, including the woolly rhinoceros, were adapted to such conditions. The woolly rhinoceros was well adapted to the cold and dry climate of the late Pleistocene, since it had a thick and long coat and very thick skin. On the other hand, it had a considerable body weight combined with short legs and a relatively small bearing surface area. Even a relatively thin snow layer (35–40 cm) and the presence of snow crust were doubtless limiting factors for Coelodonta antiquitatis (Boeskorov, 2012). At the end of the Pleistocene, Coelodonta antiquitatis became extinct (Van Kolfschoten, 1995).

1.4.5 Red deer Cervus elaphus is a highly adaptable species and associated with many climatic (glacial and interglacial) and vegetational types (Van Kolfschoten, 1995). Red deer lived in the forest steppe and has been part of the European large mammal fauna since the Middle Pleistocene (Sommer et al., 2008). Large accumulations of faunal remains from European archaeological sites show that Cervus elaphus was hunted and used as a natural resource by hominins since this time (Sommer el al., 2008).

A relatively large number of radiocarbon records supports the presence of red deer in Europe before the LGM (i.e. 21.0 ka 14C BP). these records can not be assigned accurately to the rapidly alternating oscillations of the Stadials (GS) and Interstadials (GI) of the Greenland ice core archives.Goyet was at the northernmost edge of the area in which Cervus elephas occurred. During colder periods, numerous Southern European records of red deer, either directly or contextually dated by radiocarbon, indicate the restriction of Cervus elaphus to southern refugia (Sommer et al., 2008).

The distribution pattern of dated records of red deer indicates that the species was very widespread between ca 60.0–21.0 ka 14C BP. The absence of the species further to the North is very probably an artefact due to the later overriding of this region by the Fennoscandian ice-masses during the LGM. In Belgium the species is attested throughout the period by directly dated specimens from Trou Dubois (22 840 ± 420 BP) and Trou Walou (22 800 ± 400 BP) (Gautier et al., 1997; Sommer et al., 2008).

1.5 The prey of prehistoric humans and carnivores

Diets of prehistoric humans have been identified using various methods, including analyses of stable isotopes of bone and teeth (Bocherens et al., 2001) and analyses of faunal assemblages found at Palaeolithic sites. Diets of Pleistocene carnivores have also been studied on the basis of stable isotope analyses (Bocherens et al., 2011). These palaeodietary reconstructions are based on the principle that food sources contain different isotopic signatures, which are passed along the food chain to their consumers.

Prehistoric humans

Isotopic analysis on the diet of humans in Europe indicated that mammoth was a regular part of their diet (Bocherens et al.: 2001, 2005), in contrast with the diet of other predators which does not contain large quantities of mammoth (Bocherens et al., 2011; Germonpré et al., 2009). An increased diet range (and particularly the consumption of freshwater/anadromous fish) is observed for mid/late Upper Palaeolithic humans.

Carnivores

At Goyet, beside the bear, three large carnivores are present: the cave lion, the cave hyena and canids. These are the predators who could actively hunt large prey, in addition to human hunters. The following section will give the species on which they mainly preyed in relation to their occurrence in Goyet.

The first carnivore at Goyet is the cave hyena. A recent study (Bocherens et al., 2011) showed that cave hyenas in the Ardennes showed a isotopic range which could indicate that the hyenas had a more homogeneous prey choice than the cave lions. Their usual prey comprised woolly rhinoceros, bovids and horse (Bocherens, 2011; Diedrich, 2010)

Stable-isotope analyses of the diet of Pleistocene canids from the Ardennes indicate that these canids preyed mainly on horse and bovids (Germonpré et al., 2009). They did not consume mammoth, musk ox or reindeer on a regular basis.

Cave lions probably hunted horse, bison and smaller prey, but not full-grown mammoth and woolly rhinoceros (Bocherens et al., 2011). Stable-isotopes analyses of the diet of cave lions from the Ardennes suggest that these cave lions hunted alone: some hunted mainly reindeer, others preyed mainly on juvenile cave bears.

An analysis of the diet of the three large carnivores present at Goyet suggests that neither cave lions nor wolves preyed on mammoths. The picture is less clear with cave hyenas but it is unlikely that cave hyenas preyed regularly on woolly mammoths When considering large prey, humans (and animals) are not likely to move the entire animal to their camp site. Some parts of the kill are eaten on the site (Levine, 1979) and only selected parts such as the limbs are taken to the cave.

Herbivores

Some species have been recognised as essentially grazers in the mammoth steppe context, based on stomach content from frozen mummies and on tooth morphology (Guthrie 1990; Ukraintseva 1993). These are horse and woolly rhinoceros (Bocherens et al., 2003), bison and auroch (Guthrie, 1982) and woolly mammoth (Ukraintseva, 1993). Reindeer have a more varied diet of plants (Guthrie, 1982).

1.6 Traces

1.6.1 Cut marks

Cut marks are a clear indication of butchery activities by prehistoric humans. These marks are caused by the contact with edges of cutting tools with the bones. They can easily be distinguished from other traces as gnawing because of their straight characteristic traces. These marks occur in certain parts of the animal skeleton to suit a certain task. However, these traces are unintentional as they wear the tool down faster. The objective is to reach the desired animal part (meat, fat,…). Cut marks are not the only straces of these activities: bones can be broken to reach the marrow inside (Charles, 1995).

1.6.2 Ochre traces

Middle Palaeolithic sites occasionally contain pieces of manganese and iron oxides, interpreted as pigments, possibly for personal decoration (Roebroeks, 2012). From the Upper Palaeolithic record, red ochre (derived from hematite, Fe2O3) is well known for its use in cave paintings and in ritual burial contexts. Other uses of red ochre are known from the ethnographic record of modern hunter- gatherers, for instance, as (internal and external) medication, as a food preservative, in tanning of hides, and as insect repellent (Roebroeks, 2012). Archaeological studies have identified ochre powder as an ingredient in the production of compound adhesives (Lombard, 2007). For Europe, a recent review mentions more than 40 Middle Palaeolithic sites with possible pigments from the Marine Isotope Stage 6–3 range. These concern mostly manganese oxide finds and almost all sites date to the end of the Middle Palaeolithic, between 60 and 40 ka. Some of these late sites yielded considerable quantities of these materials. Solid evidence for the use of manganese and iron oxides by Late Pleistocene Neanderthals is recorded from at least 60 ka onward (Roebroeks, 2012).

Recent finds at Maastricht-Belvédère are identified as hematite and hence the use of red ochre by early Neanderthals can be pushed back in time to at least 200–250 ka (MIS 7) (Roebroeks, 2012). They probably entered the matrix of the Maastricht-Belvédère site as drops from an ochre-rich liquid substance during unknown application activities. The currently available evidence suggests a sporadic use of red ochre by early Neanderthals, minimally from MIS 7 onward.

Hematite is present (albeit very sporadically) in Palaeozoic rocks in the Ardennes-Rhine Massif, especially in quartz veins with hematite crystals. Neanderthal sites like Spy and Sclayn are amongst the many Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Ardennes source area in the Maas basin.

The occasional transport of stone artefacts over distances up to 100 km is well documented for the European Middle Palaeolithic (Meingen et al., 2009), and a hypothetical import of hematite over such a distance fits with data on Neanderthal movements through Pleistocene landscapes.

Several Belgian Upper Paleolithic cave sites including the caves of Goyet contain bear bones with ochre traces. At least some of this material is the result of intentional human manipulation and Germonpré and Hämämäinen (2007) relate these finds to a proto-bear ceremonialism. In Europe, red ochre is a traditional element of Gravettian and Magdalenian burials.

1.7 Problem statement

The herbivores of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet have never been studied since Dupont, who only identified them and gave a short general description, with the exception of the reindeer remains, which have been studied by Dekeyzer (2007). The results of the latter author are summarised when appropriate to give a complete overview of the herbivore fossil assemblage. Earlier studies have also been performed on the carnivore bones (Depestele, 2005). 917 bone fragments out of a total of more than 4000 reportedly found in this horizon (Germonpré, 2001) were studied in our analysis. The remaining bones are either studied by Dekeyzer (2007), carnivore bones or unidentified. Some parts of the collection which should have been present, appear to have been lost in the archives, for example the upper molars of all excavated horse teeth.

These remains contain information on the taphonomy, the archaeozoology and the palaeoenvironment during the period of the Mousterian and the Aurignacian, the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition. They can be compared with other sites and periods to study changes in the species present.

1.8 Goal

Using the taphonomical, osteometrical and archaeozoological methods, it is possible to analyse the macroscopic bones of the herbivores of the third horizon in the third cave of Goyet.

In general, the species and the location of the element in the skeleton, as well as the age and the sex of the individuals may be determined. Dupont identified the remains and gave a short general description. Where necessary, the species assignments by Dupont were corrected by us. Firstly, the remains were identified to the species level and the position of the element in the skeleton was classified.

The effects of the taphonomy have been studied here. Taking into account the taphonomical bias on macroscopic fossil assemblages, the presence of certain species gives environmental information. The distribution and quantity of the different elements can be interpreted and ratios can be calculated to assess the preservation of the material.

Osteometry refers to the measurement taken, if possible. These results have multiple applications: identification of the gender and the age of the specimens and comparison with other sites and periods. Age distributions could be constructed for various species which can indicate human influences on the fossil assemblage.

The study and analysis of animal bone assemblages, with the aim of deciphering the relationship between humans and animals, is the focus of archaeozoology. The main tool in this research is the study of human and animal traces on the fossil assemblage. These traces are: ochre traces, cut marks, gnawing traces, impact traces and transformation into tools. Goyet was, as many Pleistocene cave sites in Europe, used alternately by humans and carnivores. One of the objectives of this study was to determine whether prehistoric humans or large carnivores were responsible for the presence of large number of herbivore remains at the site. It is also possible to compose the spatial distribution of cut marks and gnawing traces in comparison with the distribution given in the literature.

Based on this, a reconstruction of the paleoenvironment around Goyet during this period can be carried out.

2 Material en methods

2.1 The Dupont collections

Germonpré (1997, 2001) summarized the history of this collection. The material from Goyet, stored since its excavation by Dupont in the Royal Belgian Institute for Natural Sciences, was subdivided in an archaeological-anthropological collection and a palaeontological collection, which were curated in the Section of Prehistory-Anthropology and the Section of Fossil Vertebrates respectively. The palaeontological collections were organised in museum trays in the beginning of the century and displayed in the then newly opened museum hall (the so-called Iguanodon hall). The accompanying texts are signed by Dupont. These unpublished notes contain more detailed information than his publications on the Goyet caves, which are more than thirty years older (Dupont, 1869a; 1869b). According to Rutot (1910), Dupont completely reviewed his excavations from the Belgian cave sites for the display in the new museum hall opened in 1905.

Each museum tray carries a different number, each bone in the tray has the same number written in red ink and a label with the identification of the bone as to species and skeletal element. Sometimes there is also a second label referring to the cave and horizon. The text of each tray (in appendix) gives the provenance (cave and horizon), notes on the material, the number labelled on the bones, the date and the initials of Dupont. The note details the material presented and points out the presence of butchering or carnivore traces. It is not clear if the numbering of the trays corresponds with a grouping by species, excavation date, distribution or is arbitrary, but in general, the trays are sorted by species. Duponts identifications are very accurate. At a later date, the display trays were removed to the store rooms of the Section of Fossil Vertebrates. Not all the material collected by Dupont was put on display. Unidentified fragments and what Dupont called ‘collections d’étude’ were preserved in boxes. These bones generally do not have a number, but a label indicating the cave and bone horizon (Germonpré, 2001). The adult horse teeth are not stored in display trays, but all are kept in a large wooden box with a glass lid in several carton trays.

Since the work of Dupont, the palaeontological collections from Goyet have not been studied until the last two decades. In the past years a number of M.Sc studies were performed on this collection of which this work is the most recent addition. The previous studies are Depestele (2005), Soenen (2006) and Dekeyzer (2007). M. Germonpré (et al.) has also studied this material of which the references are mentioned in the introduction. The palaeontological collections from Goyet are relatively complete: Dupont and his team not only gathered and curated well preserved complete bones, but the broken unidentified specimen as well. The palaeontological collections are homogeneous, apart from a small percentage of intrusive Holocene material. Contrary to the published opinion that ‘aucun enseignement valuable ne peut donc être tire de l’étude des restes osseux récoltés à Goyet’ (Ulrix-Closset, 1975) they deserved further study (Germonpré, 1997). The association of mammalian species as mentioned by Dupont (1872), which according to Dewez (1987) and Ulrix-Closset (1975) are abnormal, are perfectly compatible within a Pleistocene context, if we disregard the few intrusive elements.

The history of the archaeological collections is a very different one. Initially, the archaeological material was also put on exhibit. Later, the archaeological specimens were removed from the display trays and apparently reorganised. Most bone elements from this collection received numbers written in red or black ink; the ones in black ink are according to the technician P. Cornand working in Section of Prehistory-Anthropology, written by his predecessor P. Timperman. Some bones carry two different numbers, one in red ink and one in black. The numbers in red ink are the original ones also seen in the palaeontological collections. Hand-written attributions to bone level in black ink also are indicated on the worked bones; sometimes, the number of the level was later corrected. Some numbers are associated with two bone levels. All this gives the impression that the archaeological collections of Goyet have been partly mixed. The archaeological studies, undertaken so far are essentially typological analyses (Ulrix-Closset, 1975; Otte, 1979; Dewez, 1987).

Reexamination of the material has revealed additional Neanderthal bone remains (Semal et al., 2005). Following this discovery, an interdisciplinary research program centred on Goyet’s “Troisième caverne” collections started in 2008. Its aim is to reassess the palaeoanthropological collections from the cave and to sort out the faunal collections from Dupont’s excavations to check for the presence of human remains among them (Pirson et al., 2012).

2.2 Identification and frequency distribution

The identification of the remains was done with the reference material from the Royal Belgian Institute for Natural Sciences (RBINS) and drawings from Pales and Lambert (1971a, 1971b). The foetus remains of the horse were identified based on Prummel, 1987a, 1987b, 1988, 1989. These publications do not include foetus of the woolly rhinoceros and because there is no reference material present, these bones are classified as woolly rhinoceros only based on the identification by Dupont. The tarsalia and carpalia of the horse have primarily been studied in comparison with reference material. The terminology used here follows (Peters, 1987). Another reference work used for the visualisation of the horse remains is Budras et al. (2009).

The distinction between Bos and Bison is made using characteristics indicated by Balkwill and Cumbaa (1992), Schertz (1963) and Boessneck et al. (1963). Whenever possible, the distinction is made, but the characteristic locations of interest are sometimes missing or ambiguous. Because of their similarity, measurements often overlap and when considering small samples, it is often not possible to separate these two taxa (López González et al., 1999). The elements that are frequently used for distinguishing are the astragalus and the metapodials. This way, all but one of these elements of Goyet have been attributed to either Bos or Bison. A comparison with the Bos reference material at the RBINS was also possible.

The muskox was compared with Bos reference material to confirm the differences beween these taxa. Vanlerberghe (1979) is used to identify the remains of muskox.

2.3 Measurements

For the measurements, the method of Von den Driesch (1982) has been used. The relevant abbreviations mentioned in this publication are summarized in the appendices, as well as some other

19 abbreviations of the measurements. The abbreviations with a German explanation originate from Von den Driesch (1982).

2.4 Identification and ageing of the teeth

Some herbivore teeth could be identified and given an age at death. This could be done with the following species: horse, woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and red deer. Other species have no teeth present, or in the case of the bovids are not determinable to species level.

2.4.1 Horse

To identify the horse teeth, we used the reference skull present at the RBINS and Eisenmann et al, 1988. We used also the following sources to determine the age at death of the various horse teeth: Habermehl, 1961; Levine, 1982; Levine, 1983. The following explanation is mainly taken from Levine (1982, 1983).

Figure 5 indicates the position and classification of the horse teeth. The premolars and molars are sometimes grouped together under the term cheek teeth or jugal teeth. As these teeth vary little with those of the other herbivores (except woolly mammoth), the same classification is used for these teeth.

Figure 5 Dentition of the horse, adapted from Budras et al. (2009)

When the exact identity of a horse cheek tooth can be established, that tooth can be aged with some precision by means of the eruption and wear tables, until its occlusal face is worn flat. The age at which this occurs varies from tooth to tooth, but all cheek teeth are worn flat by approximately 6 years of age. Even when isolated, upper cheek teeth can usually be distinguished from lower cheek teeth. However, it is particularly difficult to separate P3 and P4 or M1 and M2, therefore, these teeth are grouped together for the measurements. With older individuals, it becomes hard to distinguish between the four of these type of teeth. Teeth can only be precisely given an age when they are identified, but rough estimates can always be made.

The incisors are useful for ageing because they have a infundibulum, a deep invagination which becomes partly filled up with cement. As the incisor wears down, the shape of the invagination and the central ring of enamel surrounding it changes characteristically (Figure 6). By comparing the different wear stages of the incisors within one jaw, that jaw can be aged quite accurately up to 8 years and for higher ages more unreliable up to 12 years. After this age the reliability deteriorates even more. When considering isolated incisors, ageing is more difficult because this method relies on relationships between different incisors. Moreover, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the different incisors: I1 and I2 are alike and also I2 and I3 are difficult to separate. Incisors are relatively small, fragile and loosely held in the jaw and therefore tend to be underrepresented in fossil assemblages.

Figure 6 illustration of incisor wear of horses ( Levine, 1982)

Cheek teeth and incisors do not show sexual dimorphism. And although only males have well- developed permanent canines, these teeth only begin to grow at the age of 2.5 years. Isolated canines contain no precise age information once in wear. Because of their odd shape and relative fragility canines will probably be under-represented in fossil deposits.

To age the incisors in our study, we used the eruption and wear patterns described in Habermehl, 1961. Illustrations of the incisors in a sequence from young to old are included (Figure 6) and are useful to compare with the isolated incisors of the collection. No measurements are taken of these teeth except for the general length. In contrast to this, measurements of the cheek teeth have been taken (Figure 7) and, where the crown height could be measured, have been compared with the crown height curves of Levine (1982). This is only possible in our material because the size of the teeth is comparable with these used by Levine (1982). This method may not give an accurate estimate of the age at death of the animal, but the general age distribution curve when all the data are assembled is more reliable. Of course, not all teeth could be aged: some teeth were not well enough preserved. For the incisors the preservation of the occlusal surface is essential, the main issue with the cheek teeth is the measurement of the crown height.

Figure 7 Illustration of cheek tooth measurements of horses (adapted from Levine, 1982)

2.4.2 Woolly mammoth

Woolly mammoths were predominantly grazers (adaptations for the processing of grass set mammoths apart from most other proboscideans) (Szpak et al., 2010). Their teeth are large blocky masses made up of multiple enamel-covered and dentine-cored laminae, which are held together with cementum. We performed the identification and ageing of these woolly mammoth teeth using a reference jaw from the RBINS and tables with mammoth teeth measurements from Germonpré (1993a).

Laws (1966) established 30 age classes for the African elephant, based on the progress of eruption and wear of the jugal teeth and assigned real ages to these groups. Laws’ (1966) wear classes are based on jugal teeth from the lower jaws. In a more recent study, all teeth (left, right and upper and lower jaw) were used to validate these categories (Lee et al., 2012). Thus, these wear classes have been used for all teeth. Woolly mammoths grow a total of twenty-four cheek teeth grow during their life: six successive molariform teeth develop in each quadrant of the jaws. Therefore, this research

22 uses the terminology that numbers the jugal teeth according to their appearance starting from M1 and finishing at M6. The molars were identified using the measurements and number of plates, following Germonpré (1993a). To obtain an age distribution for the mammoths, Laws’ (1966) technique as modified by Craig in Haynes (1991) was used, as has been done by Germonpré et al. (2008) and Bosch et al. (2012). Due to the low number of identified specimen (NISP), each molar was counted, although it is possible that some molars represent other teeth of a tooth row from one individual. We follow the same age assessment procedure which allows us to compare with more certainty the results of Goyet A3 and the results of these authors.

The measurements taken were essential for the age assignment. The different measurements are: crown height, length, and width, number of lamels and the lamellar factor (number of lamels per ten cm). Based on these measurements, the tooth was assigned to one of the six successive teeth (M1- M6). Most of the teeth could be assigned an age at death. This was however not possible where only a fragment of the tooth remained (broken lamellae, a root fragment,…).

2.4.3 Woolly rhinoceros

We used a reference skull provided by the RBINS for the identification of the teeth. With this information, it is possible to deduce the age of the animal at death using wear tables. Louguet- Lefebvre (2005) produced drawings of each teeth in different stages of wear, associated at different age.

We used the method proposed in Germonpré (1993) and Goddard (1970) to age the teeth and to construct an age distribution. This method is based on the stage of dental eruption and wear patterns of the mandibular dentition. With the additional information of Louguet-Lefebvre (2005), we could age all teeth. The total amount of teeth present in a woolly rhinoceros is 24, all of which are cheek teeth (Friant, 1963. They are given the same identification as the horse (P2-P4 and M1-M3).

2.4.4 Red deer

Again, we identified the material using a reference skull. The age of the animal at death was determined using eruption and wear patterns (Habermehl, 1961). Because most of the specimen are isolated teeth, eruption patterns as described by Azorit et al. (2002) could not be used. This method also allows to age young animals with an age up to 3.5 years. A consistent chronological eruption sequence is an essential condition if ageing from wear is to have any validity (Brown and Chapman, 1991). Once a tooth occludes against a tooth or teeth on the opposing jaw, wear commences and the age of the animal can be derived (Figure 8). As usual, the rate of wear may vary with the nature of the nutrition, but as all the specimens from this study originate from the same locality, this can be neglected for the age distribution.

Figure 8 Illustration of increasing wear with increasing age of red deer (Brown and Chapman, 1991). The first three jaws still have the deciduous premolars in place, while the fourth shows these teeth before shedding (above) and the permantent teeth (on the jaw). 2.5 Age distributions

One of the main tools to address animal exploitation by humans is the interpretation of mortality curves. These analyses precede the zooarchaeological approach, by evoking population dynamics, taphonomical conditions, and the effects of seasonality on the age structures of animal populations (Fernandez and Legendre, 2003). Archaeological age structures of fossil assemblages, generally constructed from dental material, are often associated to two main models (Fernandez et al., 2006). The attritional model takes the form of a ‘‘U’’-shaped profile because young and old individuals should be much more numerous in the fossil assemblage than mature adults. This is the result of the vulnerability of these age groups. Catastrophic or mass mortality differs from attritional mortality by being non-selective and representing the entire population during a very short time. With a

24 catastrophic mortality, the number of individuals in each successive age group decreases, forming an ‘‘L’’-shaped curve.

However, there are several complications to take into account. The first is the preservation of the teeth of young animals, which is generally poorer than that of the adults (Levine, 1983). This leads to an underrepresentation of these bones in the fossil assemblage and the disappearance of the peak of young animals in the age distribution. Another issue is that these two models do not account for some human hunting techniques. For example, the stalking model (Levine, 1983) leads to an overrepresentation of a certain age (bell-shaped curve) because these are preferentially hunted. Not only stalking but any method that allows to select the prey causes this distinctive pattern. Other hunting methods (coursing, trapping and driving ) are given by Levine (1979) but these produce signals similar to the attritional and catastrophic models. The combination of several models is also possible.

The main parameters used to estimate individual age and interpret mortality curves are the ages when the deciduous teeth are replaced by the permanent dentition, tooth crown height and the degree of tooth wear. There are many factors which may constitute significant bias in the construction of the mortality curves (Fernandez et al., 2006). For example, in the case of fossil species, the timing of tooth eruption and replacement can only be estimated by analogy with modern taxa. In addition, when using wear tables, large samples of known-age individuals encompassing all age groups are needed, which is hardly ever the case. Food abrasion, which affects the rate of dental wear, is assumed to be comparable between moderns and fossils species. It clearly appears that absolute age is less important than the general form of the mortality profile using standardized age classes when interpreting mortality in archaeological contexts. Ultimately, the two main attritional and catastrophic models are based exclusively on the frequency of individuals and provide limited information about population dynamics and biological factors that affect or regulate the age structure of a population (Fernandez et al., 2006).

In each of the profiles, only the number of identified specimens of the ageable teeth was used. If the range of the age estimation of the teeth was broader than the intervals of the distribution, the value was divided over the intervals. For example: a teeth with an age at death estimate of 2 to 4 years can be divided over two intervals (2 to 3 and 3 to 4 years). To each of these intervals, the value of 0.5 would be added.

2.5.1 Horse

Among the various equid species, there is a high degree of interspecific morphological and behavioural homogeneity (Levine, 1982). The relatively small differences between equid races and species relate mainly to size: a large horse has larger teeth than a small horse. However, despite some degree of heterogeneity in the data, equid homogeneity is such that the techniques of ageing by eruption and wear work as relative systems (Levine, 1982). These are particularly useful in demographic analyses for comparing the individuals within a single population to one another. The two groups of teeth present in Goyet (incisors and cheek teeth) are given in separate distributions (in the results section) as they might give a different curve.

2.5.2 Woolly mammoth

The age profile of the mammoth molars was studied to ascertain the origin of the mammoth assemblage at Goyet. Several authors have reconstructed the age distribution of mammoths by comparing the eruption sequence and wear of their jugal teeth with those of the two modern elephant species (Germonpré et al., 2012; Bosch et al., 2012).

The age profiles are compared with the four types of elephant age profiles described by Haynes (1991, p. 216-220). In the Type A age profile, young animals (0-12 a.e.y.) predominate and the older age classes are represented in decreasing proportions, which is to be expected in a stable or expanding population. In a Type B age profile, young animals (0-12 a.e.y.) are abundant, greatly outnumbering the mature animals that could have borne them. This could be explained according to Haynes by selectively killing the calves. In Type C age profiles, young animals are rare and prime-aged adults predominate and Type D corresponds to small assemblages containing the bones of few individuals. Because the study performed by Haynes described elephants, the age at death is given in African elephant years. A comparison with a similar study on the mammoths of Spy is made in the discussion.

2.5.3 Woolly rhinoceros

the age distribution of woolly rhinoceros is constructed following Goddard (1970). This method also uses the stage of dental eruption and dental wear. It was devised to classify black rhinoceros into 20 age classes and these are related to an age at death, given in black rhinoceros years.

2.5.4 Red deer

Following Habermehl (1961) to estimate the age at death, an age distribution could be established. Due to the low number of teeth, the boundaries of the age classes were important. If the boundaries are set too narrow (two year periods) no apparent trend is visible. Three year periods proved to be suitable to express a clear age distribution.

2.6 Sexual dimorphism

Due to two reasons, the assignment of a gender proved seldom possible. First of all, some species show very little sexual dimorphism (horse for example). Secondly, in species that have more expressed dimorphism, the characteristic bones where the difference is visible were not preserved.

2.6.1 Woolly mammoth

In the case of woolly mammoth, no gender could be assigned, in fact, except for the teeth, most of the bones could not be given an anatomical identification. Lee et al. (2012) mentions sexual difference in the lower jaw bone, but these measurements could not be made in our material.

2.6.2 Red deer

Only the male Cervus elaphus has antlers (Hyvärinen et al., 1977). This method to determine the gender of red deer is of course restricted by the number of antlers or antler-related elements found in the fossil assemblage.

2.7 Size reductions

Some species underwent size reduction as mentioned in the introduction. Some measurements could be compared with other sites and periods to study this trend.

Horse

These data are compared with several other data: Soenen (2006) on the herbivores of the second horizon of Goyet, Germonpré (1993a) on the site of Zemst IIB and Germonpré (unpublished) on the site of Spy. Goyet is already extensively presented in the introduction so only the association of the second horizon with the Magdalenian period will be recalled here. The site of Zemst IIB concerns a Early Weichselian site in the procince Vlaams-Brabant, Belgium (Germonpré, 1993b). It is an open air site consisting of fluvially deposited sandpits. Additionally, some Mousterian artefacts have been found. The site of Spy is a cave situated in the Namur province, Begium near the Meuse valley. The remains belongs to the period of the Mousterian, Aurignacian and Gravettian (Germonpré et al., in press). Where there was sufficient data to compare the third horizon with one or more of these sites, a graph was constructed to illustrate the results. In one case, data was present for modern horses provided by Bignon et al. (2002).

Following the method of Alberdi et al (1995), an estimation of the body mass can be made as a further indication of body size. Alberdi states that the metapodial elements are better predictors of body mass than cranial elements, and antero-posterior diameters of metapodial and first phalanx are better estimators of body mass than lengths and breadths. Some skeletal dimensions have a close relationship to body mass as a logical consequence of the fact that body mass is normally transmitted through limbs to the substrate. Also, the values of maximal depths, as opposed to lengths and breadths, of metacarpal and phalanx give better predictions, since the depths change in direct proportion with body mass and the lengths and breadths present some independent variation. The last variables are related to kind of substrate (Eisenmann and Guérin, 1984).

Other

There was fewer material and hence fewer measurements on the other species. This limited the options for comparison. Auroch/bison was also compared with the site of Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) mentioned above. The woolly rhinoceros is compared with two sites. The first is also Zemst IIB while the other data are provided by (Vercoutère et al., 2013). This publications gives data on material found in the riverbanks of the Tobol and Irtych rivers in the Tioumen region, Siberia with an age of around 14 000 cal BP. Musk ox measurements were compared with modern musk ox measurements provided by Vanlerberghe (1979).

2.8 List of the used abbreviations and categories

RBINS: Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences

Left, right and ?: These categories indicate a element belonging to the right or left side (if two opposite elements are present (for example the two humerus bones) or indicate that the fragment originates from the left or right part of a single, central element (for example a left part of the pelvis). ‘?’ signifies the position is unclear.

The columns ‘Adult’ and ‘Juvenile’ indicate the age of the animal at death. Juvenile includes all younger than adult: from foetus over young animals to almost adult.

‘Ochre’, ‘Cut marks’, ‘Impact’, ‘Tool’ and ‘Gnawing’ give the number of indicated traces of which the first two and ‘Tools’ are the result of human handling and gnawing results from animal activity.

The remains were counted in Number of Identified Specimens (NISP), Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI), which are measures of the relative frequency of species..

NISP stands for the number of remains that belong to a certain taxon or element.

%NISP relates to the amount of bones discovered in relation to the total amount found of that species, unless otherwise specified. This is also shown graphically after the general tables to visualize which elements of a species are abundantly present or absent.

The calculation of the MNI is described in Pawlowska (2010). In general, It gives the minimum number of individuals based on the number of elements present. Identification of the elements is needed as elements with a clearly different age, gender or deformation influence this number.

A list of the abbreviations for the measurements is also included in the appendices.

3 Results

3.1 General

Table 2 presents all species present with the NISP and MNI for the third bone level of the Goyet cave. In the subsequent tables, each species is given with the elements present (Table 3 to Table 9). The elements of all species are given in Table 10. The following section will contain the graphical representation of these tables (Figure 9 to Figure 14), to illustrate wich elements are most abundant. These graphs are expressed in %NISP. The reindeer data are not included here as they have been covered by Dekeyzer (2007). However, unpublished data collected by this study of red deer is included here to give a complete overview of this species in the third horizon of Goyet.

Own research and Dekeyzer, 2007* Dupont, 1872 NISP %NISP MNI %MNI MNI %MNI Proboscidea Mammuthus primigenius 98 5,58 5 8,20 7 17,50 Perissodactyla Equus arcelini 592 33,73 22 36,07 18 45,00 Coelodonta antiquitatis 145 8,26 5 8,20 4 10,00 Artiodactyla Cervus elaphus* 32 1,82 3 4,92 2 5,00 Capreolus capreolus 1 2,50 Rangifer tarandus* 827 47,12 21 34,43 2 5,00 Bison priscus/Bos primigenius 59 3,36 3 4,92 2 5,00 Ovibos moschatus 1 0,06 1 1,64 Rupicapra rupicapra 1 2,50 Capra 2 5,00 Capra ibex 1 0,06 1 1,64 1 2,50 Total 1755 100 61 100,00 40 100 Table 2 General distribution of the herbivores in Goyet A3, the taxa partially or completely studied by Dekeyzer (2007) are marked with an *

3.1.1 Tables Element left right ? Adult Juvenile Ocre Cut marks Impact Tool Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI Cranium 0 5 0 1 2 5 0 1 5 0,84 2 Maxilla 2 6 2 10 0 5 4 10 0 0 10 1,69 6 P2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P3/P4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 M1/M2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Mandibula 7 12 10 31 2 17 12 33 0 3 33 5,57 14 P2 1 12 0 13 0 2 0 13 0 0 13 2,20 12 P3/P4 1 18 0 19 0 4 0 17 0 0 19 3,21 0 M1/M2 3 42 0 45 0 12 0 37 0 1 45 7,60 0 M3 2 22 0 24 0 6 0 21 0 0 24 4,05 22 Incisor 56 60 0 116 0 23 0 67 0 0 116 19,59 18 Canin 4 5 0 9 0 0 0 6 0 0 9 1,52 3 Milk tooth 3 7 0 0 10 3 0 9 0 0 10 1,69 3 Dentes indet, 0 3 21 24 0 2 0 24 0 0 24 4,05 0 Hyoid 0 0 2 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 0,34 1 Vertebrae 11 1,86 Atlas 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0,17 1 Axis 4 0 1 1 4 0 0 4 0,68 4 Cervical 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0,34 1 Dorsal 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0,17 1 Lumbar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sacrum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Caudal 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0,51 1 Sternum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Os costa 3 3 3 9 0 4 5 9 0 1 9 1,52 1 Scapula 6 4 0 7 3 2 1 10 0 7 10 1,69 8 Humerus 4 5 0 6 3 1 1 8 0 0 9 1,52 7 Radiocubitus 9 10 0 18 1 1 0 14 0 3 19 3,21 10 Carpus 3 7 0 10 0 3 2 5 0 2 10 1,69 3 Metacarpus 5 4 9 0 1 1 9 0 2 9 1,52 4 Pelvis 5 5 0 9 1 7 3 10 0 0 10 1,69 6 Femur 17 15 4 33 3 15 7 36 0 15 36 6,08 15 Patella 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 2 0,34 1 Tibia 10 13 1 23 1 11 9 23 0 9 24 4,05 8 Tarsus 17 2,87 Astragalus 1 3 1 5 0 3 2 5 0 3 5 0,84 3 Calcaneum 2 3 0 5 0 1 1 5 0 4 5 0,84 3 Other 3 4 0 7 0 2 3 0 0 2 7 1,18 3 Metatarsus 9 14 0 21 2 7 5 23 3 6 23 3,89 9 Phalanx 1 5 2 7 13 0 4 5 9 0 7 14 2,36 4 Phalanx 2 8 5 1 14 0 10 11 2 0 0 14 2,36 7 Phalanx 3 6 6 4 15 1 7 0 14 0 0 16 2,70 5 Sesamoid 0 0 6 6 0 1 0 3 0 2 6 1,01 1 Metapoda 0 0 11 11 0 0 4 11 1 4 11 1,86 0 2nd and 4th metapoda 10 19 1 29 1 3 10 24 0 10 30 5,07 9 Indeterminata 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 0,34 2 SUM 186 310 76 562 29 161 91 472 4 82 592 100 22 Table 3 Horse bones in A3

Element left right ? Adult Juvenile Ocre Cut marks Impact Tool Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI Cranium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1,69 1 P3/P4 5 2 0 7 0 3 0 5 0 0 7 11,86 0 M1/M2 5 3 0 8 0 0 0 5 0 0 8 13,56 0 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Mandibula 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1,69 1 P2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1,69 1 P3/P4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 M1/M2 3 5 0 8 0 1 0 4 0 0 8 13,56 0 M3 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 5,08 2 Incisor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Canin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Milk tooth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Dentes indet, 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1,69 0 Hyoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Vertebrae 4 6,78 Atlas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Axis 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1,69 1 Cervical 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 3,39 1 Dorsal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Lumbar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sacrum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Caudal 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1,69 1 Sternum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Os costa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Scapula 0 2 0 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 2 3,39 2 Humerus 1 2 0 3 0 1 1 3 0 1 3 5,08 1 Radiocubitus 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 3 0 1 3 5,08 2 Carpus 0 3 0 3 0 1 1 3 0 1 3 5,08 1 Metacarpus 0 3 0 3 0 0 3 3 0 1 3 5,08 3 Pelvis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Femur 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Patella 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Tibia 3 1 0 4 0 2 2 4 1 2 4 6,78 3 Tarsus 2 3,39 Astragalus 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1,69 1 Calcaneum 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1,69 1 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Metatarsus 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1,69 1 Phalanx 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Phalanx 2 3 0 0 3 0 0 1 2 0 1 3 5,08 1 Phalanx 3 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1,69 1 Sesamoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Metapoda 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Indeterminata 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 SUM 24 28 3 58 1 12 9 46 1 10 59 100 3

Table 4 Bones of auroch/bison in A3

Element left right ? Adult Juvenile Ocre Cut marks Impact Tool Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI Cranium 4 4 0 1 0 4 0 0 4 4,08 1 Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 M1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1,02 1 M2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1,02 1 M3 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1,02 1 M4 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2,04 1 M5 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1,02 1 Mandibula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 M2 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 2,04 1 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 M4 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2,04 1 M5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Incisor 0 0 58 58 0 46 0 58 0 0 58 59,18 1 Dentes indet, 0 0 8 8 0 0 0 8 0 0 8 8,16 0 Hyoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Vertebrae 0 0,00 Atlas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Axis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Cervical 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Dorsal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Lumbar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sacrum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Caudal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sternum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Os costa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Scapula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Humerus 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1,02 1 Radiocubitus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Carpus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Metacarpus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Pelvis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Femur 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Patella 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Tibia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Tarsus 0 0 0,00 Astragalus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Calcaneum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Metatarsus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Phalanx 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Phalanx 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Phalanx 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sesamoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Metapoda 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Indeterminata 0 0 17 17 0 7 1 17 1 5 17 17,35 0 SUM 5 5 88 97 1 54 1 96 1 5 98 100 5

Table 5 Woolly mammoth bones in A3

Element left right ? Adult Juvenile Ocre Cut marks Impact Tool Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI Cranium 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0,69 1 Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P3/P4 6 5 0 11 0 0 0 7 0 0 11 7,59 0 M1/M2 3 10 0 13 0 0 0 11 0 0 13 8,97 0 M3 1 5 0 6 0 0 0 4 0 0 6 4,14 5 Mandibula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0,69 1 P3/P4 3 6 0 9 0 2 0 4 0 0 9 6,21 0 M1/M2 3 5 0 8 0 0 0 8 0 0 8 5,52 0 M3 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0,69 1 Incisor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Canin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Milk tooth 6 2 2 0 10 0 0 7 0 0 10 6,90 2 Dentes indet, 1 5 29 35 0 3 0 35 0 0 35 24,14 0 Hyoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Vertebrae 0 0,00 Atlas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Axis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Cervical 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Dorsal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Lumbar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sacrum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Caudal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sternum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Os costa 0 0 6 6 0 2 3 6 0 0 6 4,14 1 Scapula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Humerus 2 3 1 3 3 1 1 6 0 1 6 4,14 Radiocubitus 0 3 0 2 1 1 3 3 1 2 3 2,07 3 Carpus 3 2 0 5 0 3 1 4 0 1 5 3,45 1 Metacarpus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Pelvis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Femur 0 2 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 0 2 1,38 1 Patella 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Tibia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Tarsus 1 0,69 Astragalus 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0,69 1 Calcaneum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Metatarsus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Phalanx 1 0 0 6 4 2 5 0 3 0 0 6 4,14 2 Phalanx 2 0 0 6 6 0 6 2 3 0 3 6 4,14 1 Phalanx 3 0 0 4 3 1 3 1 4 0 0 4 2,76 2 Sesamoid 0 0 6 6 0 6 0 3 0 3 6 4,14 1 Metapoda 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 2 1,38 0 2nd and 4th metapoda 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0,69 1 Indeterminata 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 1,38 1 SUM 31 49 65 128 17 37 13 119 1 12 145 100 5

Table 6 Woolly rhinoceros bones in A3

Element left right ? Adult Juvenile Ocre Cut marks Impact Tool Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI Cranium 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 3,13 1 Maxilla 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3,13 1 P2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P4 1 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 6,25 2 M1 1 2 0 3 0 1 0 3 0 0 3 9,38 2 M2 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 9,38 3 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Mandibula 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 6,25 1 P2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 P4 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 3,13 1 M1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 M2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Incisor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Canin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Milk tooth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Dentes indet, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Hyoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Vertebrae 0 0,00 0 Atlas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Axis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Cervical 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Dorsal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Lumbar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sacrum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Caudal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sternum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Os costa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Scapula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Humerus 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 3,13 1 Radiocubitus 2 0 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 0 2 6,25 2 Carpus 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3,13 1 Metacarpus 0 2 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 1 2 6,25 1 Pelvis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Femur 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Patella 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Tibia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Tarsus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3,13 Astragalus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Calcaneum 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3,13 1 Other 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3,13 1 Metatarsus 5 2 0 7 1 5 4 6 0 0 8 25,00 6 Phalanx 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Phalanx 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3,13 1 Phalanx 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Sesamoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Metapoda 0 0 2 2 0 2 1 1 0 1 2 6,25 0 2nd and 4th metapoda 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 Indeterminata 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00 0 SUM 17 11 3 31 1 11 8 26 0 5 32 100 6

Table 7 Bones of red deer in A3

Element left right ? Adult Juvenile Ocre Cut marks Impact Tool Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI Cranium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P3/P4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M1/M2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mandibula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P3/P4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M1/M2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Incisor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Canin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Milk tooth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dentes indet, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hyoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vertebrae 0 0 0 0 Atlas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Axis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cervical 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dorsal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lumbar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sacrum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Caudal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sternum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Os costa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Scapula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Humerus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Radiocubitus 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 100 1 Carpus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Metacarpus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pelvis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Femur 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Patella 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tibia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tarsus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Astragalus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Calcaneum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Metatarsus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Phalanx 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Phalanx 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Phalanx 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sesamoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Metapoda 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2nd and 4th metapoda 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Indeterminata 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SUM 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 100 1

Table 8 Bones of Ibex in A3

Element left right ? Adult Juvenile Ocre Cut marks Impact Tool Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI Cranium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Maxilla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P3/P4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M1/M2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mandibula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P3/P4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M1/M2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Incisor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Canin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Milk tooth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dentes indet, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hyoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vertebrae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Atlas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Axis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cervical 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dorsal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lumbar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sacrum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Caudal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sternum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Os costa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Scapula 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Humerus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Radiocubitus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carpus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Metacarpus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pelvis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Femur 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Patella 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tibia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tarsus 0 0 Astragalus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Calcaneum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Metatarsus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Phalanx 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Phalanx 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 100 1 Phalanx 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sesamoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Metapoda 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2nd and 4th metapoda 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Indeterminata 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SUM 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 100 1

Table 9 Bones of Muskox in A3

Horse Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Muskox Ibex Cervus Rangifer Sum (Post) Cranial Cranium 5 0 4 1 0 0 1 287 298 Maxilla 10 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 11 991 Mandibula 33 1 0 0 0 0 2 48 84 Dentes 260 29 76 94 0 0 9 130 598 Vertebrae 11 4 0 0 0 0 0 5 20 Ribs 9 0 0 6 0 0 0 7 22 Scapula 10 2 0 0 0 0 0 15 27 Humerus 9 3 1 6 0 0 1 12 32 Radiocubitus 19 3 0 3 0 1 2 30 58 Carpus 10 3 0 5 0 0 1 9 28 Metacarpus 9 3 0 0 0 0 2 26 40 Pelvis 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 14 Femur 36 0 0 2 0 0 0 11 49 738 Patella 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 7 Tibia 24 4 0 0 0 0 0 21 49 Tarsus 17 2 0 1 0 0 2 52 74 Metatarsus 23 1 0 0 0 0 8 102 134 Phalanges 44 4 0 16 1 0 1 42 108 Metapoda 11 0 0 2 0 0 2 5 20 2/4 metapoda 30 0 0 1 0 0 0 9 40 other 8 0 0 6 0 0 0 2 16 indeterminate 2 0 17 2 0 0 0 5 26 21 SUM 592 59 98 145 1 1 32 827 1755 917

Table 10 Sum and abundance of the different elements (NISP), part of the Cervus and all of the Rangifer are collected by Dekeyzer (2007).

3.1.2 Graphs

The elements in between brackets of Figure 9 to Figure 14 are not present in the assemblage.

30 % 20

Ribs

Tibia

other

Pelvis

Tarsus

Femur

Patella

Carpus

Dentes

Maxilla

Scapula

Cranium

Humerus

Vertebrae

Phalanges

Metapoda

Mandibula

Metatarsus

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus 2/4 metapoda 2/4 indeterminate Figure 9 %NISP of the horse

% 30

Tibia

(Ribs)

Tarsus

Carpus

(other)

Dentes

(Pelvis)

Scapula

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Cranium)

Vertebrae

Phalanges

Mandibula

Metatarsus

(Metapoda)

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate) Figure 10 %NISP of Bos/Bison

90 80 70 60 50 % 40 30 20 10

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

(other)

Dentes

(Pelvis)

(Tarsus)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Carpus)

Cranium

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

(Vertebrae)

(Phalanges)

(Metapoda)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

(Metacarpus)

indeterminate (Radiocubitus) (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 Figure 11 %NISP of the mammoth, all teeth combined

70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10

Tusks

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

(other)

(Pelvis)

(Tarsus)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Carpus)

Cranium

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

(Vertebrae)

(Phalanges)

Other teeth Other

(Metapoda)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

(Metacarpus)

indeterminate (Radiocubitus) (2/4 metapoda) (2/4

Figure 12 %NISP of the woolly mammoth, tusks and other teeth separate

70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10

Ribs

other

(Tibia)

Tarsus

Femur

Carpus

Dentes

(Pelvis)

(Patella)

Cranium

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

Phalanges

Metapoda

(Vertebrae)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

Radiocubitus

(Metacarpus) 2/4 metapoda 2/4 indeterminate Figure 13 %NISP of the woolly rhinoceros

% 15

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

Tarsus

Carpus

(other)

Dentes

(Pelvis)

Maxilla

(Femur)

(Patella)

Cranium

Humerus

(Scapula)

Phalanges

Metapoda

Mandibula

Metatarsus

(Vertebrae)

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 14 %NISP of red deer 3.2 Detailed results per species

The following section will discuss the various elements found in the third horizon of Goyet in detail. They are arranged by species and by order in the general tables.

3.2.1 Equus ferus (Horse)

Table 3 gives all bone material from this species.

Cranium

Five cranial elements have been found in this horizon: four occipital bones and one frontal bone. These are small fragments (the largest is 13 cm long) and all are broken. Traces of ochre, cut marks and gnawing traces have also been observed (Table 11). Four fragments have the same colour (light), one is rather dark brown. Due to this, there are minimum two individuals.

Ochre Cut marks Gnawing traces NISP %NISP MNI

1 2 1 5 0,84 2

Table 11 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse cranium

Maxilla

Inventory

Ten fragments of the upper jaw have been recovered (Table 12). Four of them had still teeth attached to the jaw and four had a fragment of the nasal bone (os nasale). Half of the upper jaws had ochre and four had cut marks and one had root traces(Table 13). All the fragments are broken, adult elements, so age is of no importance in the calculation of the MNI. With three right upper jaws with teeth, the MNI becomes three (Table 14).

L R both ?

Juvenile upper jaw (no teeth) 0 0 0 0

Juvenile upper jaw (with teeth) 0 0 0 0

Adult upper jaw (no teeth) 2 3 0 1

Adult upper jaw (with teeth) 2 x I2, 2 x I2, 2 x I3 0 0 1 0

I1 0 1 0 0

M1 0 1 0 0

M3 0 1 0 0

Table 12 Position of the upper jaw elements of the horse

Ochre Cut marks Impact Root traces

NISP 5 4 10 1

Percentage 50 40 100 10

Table 13 Traces found on the horse upper jaws

NISP %NISP MNI

10 1,69 3

Table 14 NISP and MNI of the horse upper jaws

Measurements

Table 15 gives the measurements taken from the horse upper jaw bone fragments.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Tooth CL CW CH LFd

Goyet A3 2217 26 R M1 24.86 28.38 - 12.70

Goyet A3 2217 35 R M3 29.71 25.20 46.69 13.49

Table 15 Measurements of the horse upper jaw fragments

Mandibula

Inventory

Most of the mandibles have no teeth attached, some of which lost their teeth, while most are from the part of the jaw that contains no teeth (vertical ramus) (Table 16). Of the 33 elements found, only five have teeth. All the fragments were broken with many bearing cut marks and ochre. A few have gnawing traces (Table 17). The computation of the MNI (Table 18) is explained in the table: two separate juveniles and eleven adult right jaws result in an MNI of 13. Many of the adult toothless jaw

41 are fragments near the temporomaxillary articulation. The word ‘both’ indicates that the fragment comprises the area where the right and the left side of the lower jaw join (=symphysis).

L R both ?

Juvenile lower jaw (no teeth) 1 0 0 0

Juvenile lower jaw (with teeth) C, P2, P3 1 0 0 0

Adult lower jaw (no teeth) 3 11 3 10

Adult lower jaw (with teeth) 2 x I1 0 0 1 0

P4 1 0 0 0

P2, P3, P4, M1 1 0 0 0

M3 0 1 0 0

Table 16 Position of the lower jaw elements of the horse

Ochre Cut marks Gnawing

NISP 17 12 3

Percentage 51 36 9

Table 17 Traces found on the horse lower jaws

NISP %NISP MNI

33 5,574324 14

Table 18 NISP and MNI of the horse lower jaws

Measurements

Following measurements (Table 19) on the in situ teeth were possible:

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Tooth CL CW CH LFd

Goyet A3 2218 1 L P2 32.86 13.08 - 15.13

P3 19.90 14.87 - -

Goyet A3 2218 6 R M3 31.80 15.61 - 13.80

Goyet A3 2218 7 L P2 30.25 18.09 - 13.98

P3 28.10 19.97 59.08 17.54

P4 27.24 18.80 - 15.02

M1 25.21 17.71 58.37 13.63

Goyet A3 2218 9 L P4 29.81 18.43 64.45 16.06

Table 19 Measurements of the horse upper jaw teeth fragments

Three photographs were taken of the horse upper jaw bone fragments (Photograph 1, Photograph 2 and Photograph 3). These fragments show ochre traces, cut marks and impact traces.

Photograph 1 Ochre and cut marks on a horse lower jaw fragment (2218-27)

Photograph 2 Detail of cut marks on a horse lower jaw fragment (2218-27)

Photograph 3 Lower jaw of the horse with premolars and one molar and an impact mark (2218-7)

Dentes

Incisors

A large number of isolated incisors was found (Table 20 and Table 21). Almost a quarter of them had ochre on them. One upper jaw right second incisor has a bended root. The MNI is 18 because of the presence of 18 upper right second incisors (Table 22).

L I1 L I2 L I3 R I1 R I2 R I3

10 13 4 11 18 5

Table 20 NISP of the six different horse upper jaw incisor teeth

L I1 L I2 L I3 R I1 R I2 R I3

8 12 9 5 8 13

Table 21 NISP of the six different horse lower jaw incisor teeth

NISP %NISP MNI

116 19,59 18

Table 22 NISP and MNI of all horse incisors

Canines

Nine canines were discovered of which five come from the upper jaw and four from the lower (Table 23). Because there are three right upper jaw canines, the MNI is also three (Table 24).

L upper jaw R upper jaw L lower jaw R lower jaw

2 3 2 2

Table 23 Position of the horse canines

NISP %NISP MNI

9 1,52 3

Table 24 NISP and MNI of the horse canines

Milk teeth

The ten milk teeth are mostly incisors from the upper jaw (Table 25) and only one from the lower . The MNI is set at three because there are three left second upper jaw incisors and three right third upper jaw incisors (Table 26). Three teeth have ochre traces on them. In the table the upper jaw teeth are classified, the lower jaw milk tooth is a right third incisor.

L I1 L I2 L I3 R I1 R I2 R I3

0 3 0 1 2 3

Table 25 NISP of the six different horse upper jaw incisor milk teeth

NISP %NISP MNI

10 1,69 3

Table 26 NISP and MNI of the horse incisor milk teeth

Molars and praemolars

Inventory

No upper teeth molars and premolars were found. The tray they are stored in probably went missing Therefore, in what follows, only lower premolars and molars are described.

13 second premolars have been retrieved of which 12 were right premolars (Table 27). Because there are no juveniles, the MNI is thus also 12. Ochre was found on a few specimens.

L R NISP %NISP MNI

1 12 13 2,195946 9

Table 27 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse P2 premolars

P3/P4

It is difficult to separate the 19 third and fourth premolars, so they were combined into one group (Table 28). Because of this, the MNI is not determinable.

L R NISP %NISP MNI

1 18 19 3,21 -

Table 28 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse P3 and P4 premolars

M1/M2

Because the 45 first and second molar are difficult to distinguish when isolated, they are grouped together (Table 29). This group contains a large number of specimens (7.60 %NISP) and is significantly larger than the one identified by Dupont. The group of P3/P4 is significantly smaller than those established by Dupont. The distinction between these two groups is rather difficult. Two of these teeth have a growth deformation of which one is shown in Photograph 4.

L R NISP %NISP MNI

3 42 45 7,60 -

Table 29 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse M1 and M2 molars

The third molars are the most abundant single cheek teeth present and indicate a MNI of 22 (Table 30). Some of these teeth have ochre on them. One of the right teeth displays a growth deformation.

L R NISP %NISP MNI

2 22 24 4,05 22

Table 30 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse M3 molars

Photograph 4 Growth deformation in a horse molar (2895-73)

Two of the horse cheek teeth have a growth deformation, one of which is shown here . This illustrates the possibility of the isolated teeth coming from one individual, as it is unlikely that two different horses have exactly the same defect.

Measurements

The measurements taken on all isolated horse cheek teeth are given in Table 31

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Tooth CL CW CH LFd

Goyet A3 2895 1 R P2 31.94 17.26 34.57 13.84

Goyet A3 2895 2 R P2 32.06 15.33 - 15.26

Goyet A3 2895 3 R P2 34.53 18.43 43.23 15.43

Goyet A3 2895 4 R P2 35.62 17.02 57.66 14.78

Goyet A3 2895 5 R P2 35.01 14.95 - 14.99

Goyet A3 2895 6 R P2 33.25 16.83 48.58 14.94

Goyet A3 2895 7 R P2 33.11 16.85 - 15.67

Goyet A3 2895 8 R P2 34.69 15.90 - 15.53

Goyet A3 2895 9 R P2 32.66 18.24 - 16.39

Goyet A3 2895 10 R P2 31.59 16.32 - 15.87

Goyet A3 2895 11 R P2 34.48 15.17 - 13.99

Goyet A3 2895 12 L P2 34.64 17.51 - 14.77

Goyet A3 2895 13 R P2 35.60 17.97 53.86 16.35

Goyet A3 2895 14 R P3/4 31.17 16.41 - 15.45

Goyet A3 2895 15 R P3/4 28.33 18.73 - 16.56

Goyet A3 2895 16 R P3/4 29.17 19.58 - 18.44

Goyet A3 2895 17 R P3/4 26.65 18.16 62.02 14.94

Goyet A3 2895 18 R P3/4 33.35 16.45 - 15.54

Goyet A3 2895 19 R P3/4 29.31 16.95 - 16.40

Goyet A3 2895 20 R P3/4 29.39 20.15 - 16.17

Goyet A3 2895 21 R P3/4 28.86 18.14 - 16.79

Goyet A3 2895 22 R P3/4 28.78 18.45 - 16.81

Goyet A3 2895 23 R P3/4 32.74 19.03 - 17.67

Goyet A3 2895 24 R P3/4 29.85 18.91 - 17.00

Goyet A3 2895 25 R P3/4 30.25 17.86 - 15.64

Goyet A3 2895 26 R P3/4 31.22 18.91 56.08 18.92

Goyet A3 2895 27 R P3/4 28.48 19.06 51.58 15.89

Goyet A3 2895 28 R P3/4 29.13 16.16 - -

Goyet A3 2895 29 R P3/4 28.14 19.03 - 16.33

Goyet A3 2895 30 R P3/4 29.84 18.38 - 18.18

Goyet A3 2895 31 R M1/2 28.93 17.33 - 17.51

Goyet A3 2895 32 R M1/2 28.59 20.09 - 15.76

Goyet A3 2895 33 R M1/2 28.81 18.03 - 15.80

Goyet A3 2895 34 R M1/2 32.43 19.39 - 15.99

Goyet A3 2895 35 L P3/4 29.62 19.74 72.39 17.48

Goyet A3 2895 36 R P3/4 30.32 19.91 75.06 17.29

Goyet A3 2895 37 R M1/2 27.09 18.42 71.00 16.71

Goyet A3 2895 38 R M1/2 28.96 15.91 - 17.61

Goyet A3 2895 39 R M1/2 28.41 19.03 72.56 15.84

Goyet A3 2895 40 R M1/2 28.46 17.21 68.94 -

Goyet A3 2895 41 R M1/2 25.57 16.65 46.55 13.58

Goyet A3 2895 42 R M1/2 26.26 16.67 62.52 15.98

Goyet A3 2895 43 R M1/2 27.34 16.47 - 15.34

Goyet A3 2895 44 R M3 32.38 15.53 - 16.68

Goyet A3 2895 45 R M1/2 27.19 20.20 - 15.39

Goyet A3 2895 46 R M3 30.63 15.19 - 15.23

Goyet A3 2895 47 R M1/2 26.42 17.72 26.32 15.72

Goyet A3 2895 48 R M1/2 27.17 17.75 - 14.92

Goyet A3 2895 49 R M1/2 26.68 16.61 56.41 15.42

Goyet A3 2895 50 R M1/2 24.17 14.70 - 12.74

Goyet A3 2895 51 R M1/2 27.73 17.64 47.70 15.57

Goyet A3 2895 52 R M1/2 28.59 17.37 - 15.44

Goyet A3 2895 53 R M1/2 28.56 15.61 - 18.00

Goyet A3 2895 54 L M1/2 27.01 18.29 61.89 13.16

Goyet A3 2895 55 R M1/2 26.14 17.44 - 14.40

Goyet A3 2895 56 R M1/2 26.41 16.77 53.93 14.16

Goyet A3 2895 57 R M1/2 26.28 16.95 - 14.72

Goyet A3 2895 58 R M1/2 26.19 15.99 - 15.10

Goyet A3 2895 59 R M1/2 23.39 17.88 32.92 12.64

Goyet A3 2895 60 R M1/2 24.86 16.39 - 15.28

Goyet A3 2895 61 R M1/2 28.99 19.77 - 15.22

Goyet A3 2895 62 R M1/2 30.16 16.85 - 16.84

Goyet A3 2895 63 R M1/2 27.11 16.29 71.32 16.82

Goyet A3 2895 64 R M1/2 28.16 17.20 70.27 15.32

Goyet A3 2895 65 L M1/2 25.85 16.30 - 13.66

Goyet A3 2895 66 R M1/2 25.58 17.15 - 15.14

Goyet A3 2895 67 R M1/2 27.23 17.30 - 16.55

Goyet A3 2895 68 R M1/2 27.12 16.79 - 14.46

Goyet A3 2895 69 R M1/2 27.13 17.16 72.61 15.16

Goyet A3 2895 70 L M1/2 26.68 17.46 - 15.50

Goyet A3 2895 71 R M1/2 26.11 18.12 - 14.75

Goyet A3 2895 72 R M1/2 26.98 16.16 - 14.10

Goyet A3 2895 73 R M1/2 26.65 16.32 - 15.71

Goyet A3 2895 74 R M1/2 26.91 18.12 - 16.01

Goyet A3 2895 75 R M1/2 26.31 16.05 - 14.55

Goyet A3 2895 76 R M1/2 23.51 15.05 33.66 15.18

Goyet A3 2895 77 R M1/2 24.55 16.45 24.62 14.63

Goyet A3 2895 78 R M1/2 25.82 15.81 62.68 14.07

Goyet A3 2895 79 R M1/2 27.08 15.51 - 16.05

Goyet A3 2895 80 R M3 30.16 14.82 - 14.64

Goyet A3 2895 81 R M3 34.92 14.51 59.33 15.98

Goyet A3 2895 82 R M3 31.45 15.66 - 14.69

Goyet A3 2895 83 L M3 31.96 15.15 - 13.75

Goyet A3 2895 84 R M3 33.63 15.42 - 13.56

Goyet A3 2895 85 R M3 31.16 14.00 - 13.12

Goyet A3 2895 86 R M3 32.08 14.58 - 14.51

Goyet A3 2895 87 R M3 32.75 15.32 - 14.95

Goyet A3 2895 88 R M3 30.95 13.79 - 14.19

Goyet A3 2895 89 R M3 31.84 16.02 - 14.21

Goyet A3 2895 90 R M3 31.22 14.67 - 14.74

Goyet A3 2895 91 R M3 31.34 14.92 - 13.48

Goyet A3 2895 92 R M3 35.69 14.62 - 14.42

Goyet A3 2895 93 R M3 31.25 13.43 - 13.43

Goyet A3 2895 94 R M3 33.89 14.11 - 14.22

Goyet A3 2895 95 R M3 31.35 12.30 - 12.37

Goyet A3 2895 96 R M3 32.97 14.11 - 14.14

Goyet A3 2895 97 R M3 33.68 13.00 - 14.08

Goyet A3 2895 98 R M3 31.22 12.38 - 12.53

Goyet A3 2895 99 L M3 32.06 13.31 - 13.38

Goyet A3 2895 100 R M3 32.24 11.79 13.62 12.94

Goyet A3 2895 101 R M3 34.27 15.43 33.09 13.93

Table 31 Measurements of all isolated horse teeth

Dentes indet,

24 broken fragments of indeterminate horse teeth were found (Table 32). Three of these could be allocated to the right lower jaw. Two of the fragments had ochre on them.

L lower jaw R lower jaw ? NISP %NISP MNI

0 3 21 24 4,05 -

Table 32 Position, NISP and MNI of the indeterminate horse teeth

Hyoid

Two broken fragments of the hyoid bone were discovered here. Both were broken and one had cut marks. These numbers result in an MNI of one.

Vertebrae

Atlas

One broken fragment was found with a length of 7.5 cm. No other traces could be observed.

Axis

Inventory

Four fragments were excavated, all were broken and one bears cut marks and ochre traces.

Measurements

Table 34 gives the measurements of the horse axis fragments.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. bone BPacd

Goyet A3 2766 15 82.14

Goyet A3 2766 16 80.82

Table 33 Measurements of the horse axis

Cervical

Inventory

Two cervical vertebrae were found of which one was broken and showed signs of abrasion.

Measurements

Measurements could be taken from the complete element (Table 34).

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone H GLPa BPacr BPacd

Goyet A3 2766 14 49.48 82.13 86.83 74.52

Table 34 Measurements of a horse cervical vertebral element

Dorsal

One dorsal vertebrae has been retrieved without markings.

Caudal

Inventory

Three unaltered caudal vertebrae have been found. Because each belongs to a different part of the vertebral column, only one MNI can be proven.

Measurements Measurements of the horse caudal vertebral elements are given in Table 35.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. bone H PL BFcr HFcr BFcd HFcd BPtr

Goyet A3 2766 1 23.17 29.39 23.11 18.78 20.65 18.78 41.25

Goyet A3 2766 2 21.78 31.40 20.05 17.94 17.41 17.88 34.59

Goyet A3 2766 3 08.39 20.46 08.54 08.35 07.96 07.39 -

Table 35 Measurements of the horse caudal vertebral elements

Os costa

Nine fragments of the ribs have been discovered. They were all broken, about half had ochre or cut marks, one had gnawing traces. Three had traces of roots, meaning that they were positioned at the entrance of the cave (near the light source) where plants could grow. There was also one rib with an impact structure. Because most ribs were not precisely identifiable, the MNI cannot be calculated..

Two photographs were taken of the horse ribs (Photograph 5 and Photograph 6) to illustrate the presence of root traces and impact structures.

Photograph 5 Root traces on a horse rib (2798-22)

Photograph 6 Horse rib fragment with impact (2798-17

Scapula

Inventory

Ten fragments of the scapula have been found (Table 36). They were all broken, many had gnawing traces, two have ochre traces, another one presents cut marks. Two fragments were from sub-adults and one from a foetus. The MNI is seven: five left adult scapula, one left of a sub-adult and the foetus bone..

L adult R adult L young R young NISP %NISP MNI

5 2 1 2 10 1,69 7

Table 36 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse scapula

Measurements

The measurements taken from the horse scapula fragments are presented in Table 37.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. bone L/R KLC GLP LG BG

Goyet A3 2221 5 P 50.47 - - -

Goyet A3 2221 6 L 58 78 86.85 55.10 47.41

Table 37 Measurements of the horse scapula

Three photographs were taken (Photograph 7, Photograph 8 and Photograph 9) which dispay one specimen with impact and gnawing traces.

Photograph 7 Impact and gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3)

Photograph 8 Detail of gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3)

Photograph 9 Detail of impact and gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3)

Humerus

Inventory

Nine fragments of the humerus have been excavated (Table 38). Virtually all have been broken, one fragment contains cut marks and one ochre. There is one sub-adult present (a right humerus fragment) and two complete foetal left elements so the minimum number of individuals is seven.

L R Ochre Cut marks Impact NISP %NISP MNI

4 5 1 1 8 9 1,52 7

Table 38 Position, marks, NISP and MNI of the horse humerus

Measurements

The measurements of the horse humerus are presented in Table 39.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. bone L/R Bd BT

Goyet A3 2222 1 L 79.89 80.08

Goyet A3 2222 3 R 88.84 80.67

Table 39 Measurements of the horse humerus

Radiocubitus

Inventory

There have been found 18 remains of the radiocubitus with adult left and right bones equally represented (nine each). One contains traces of ochre, three of gnawing by animals (Table 40). Most of the remains have been broken. There is also one right ulna from a foetus which brings the MNI to ten.

L R Ochre Gnawing Impact NISP %NISP MNI

9 10 1 3 14 19 3,21 10

Table 40 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse radiocubitus

Measurements

Table 41 gives the measurements of the horse radiocubitus bones.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Bp BFd Bd

Goyet A3 2222 8 R 76.26 - -

Goyet A3 2222 9 L - 65.67 77.37

Goyet A3 2222 10 L - 66.46 78.80

Table 41 Measurements of the horse radiocubitus

Carpus

Inventory

Ten carpal elements have been found: four os carpale tertium, one os carpale quartum, one os accessorium, three os carpi intermedium and one os carpi radiale (Table 42). Traces of ochre, gnawing and cut marks have been recognized as well as impact structures on half of the elements (Table 43). The MNI based on three right os carpale tertium is given in Table 44.

L R ?

Os carpale tertium 1 3 0

Os carpale quartum 1 0 0

Os accessorium 1 0 0

Os carpi intermedium 0 3 0

Os carpi radiale 0 1 0

Table 42 Position of the carpal bones from the horse

Ochre Cut marks Gnawing Impact

NISP 3 2 2 5

Percentage 30 20 20 50

Table 43 Traces on the horse carpal bones

NISP %NISP MNI

10 1,69 3

Table 44 NISP and MNI of the horse carpal bones

Measurements

The measurements taken from the horse carpal bones are presented in Table 45.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Element L/R GB

Goyet A3 2224 30 Os carpale tertium L 40.42

Goyet A3 2224 31 Os carpale tertium R 43.27

Goyet A3 2224 32 Os carpale tertium R 47.67

Goyet A3 2224 33 Os carpale tertium R 45.65

Goyet A3 2224 35 Os accessorium L 42.73

Goyet A3 2224 39 Os carpi radiale R 39.99

Table 45 Measurements taken from the horse carpal bones

A photograph was taken from a carpal element to illustrate its ochre traces (Photograph 10).

Photograph 10 Ochre traces on a horse carpal bone (2224-30)

Metacarpus

Inventory 9 metacarpal bones were found (Table 46). They were broken and belonged to adult horses. Cut marks, ochre and gnawing traces are present (Table 47). Only one distal element was found. The MNI is four.

L proximal R proximal L distal R distal NISP %NISP MNI

4 4 1 0 9 1,52 4

Table 46 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse metacarpal bones

Ochre Cut marks Impact Gnawing

1 1 9 2

Table 47 Traces on the horse metacarpal bones

Measurements

Table 48 gives the measurements taken from the horse metacarpal bones.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Bp Dp Bd Dd

Goyet A3 2794 10 R 57.05 37.22 - -

Goyet A3 2794 15 L 54.23 36.98 - -

Goyet A3 2794 16 L 48.39 31.42 - -

Goyet A3 2226 21 R - - 48.86 38.10

Goyet A3 2226 26 L - - 50.59 36.23

Table 48 Measurements taken from the horse metacarpel bones

50,00 48,00 46,00 44,00 42,00 Dp 40,00 Zemst IIB 38,00 Goyet A3 36,00 34,00 32,00 30,00 40,00 45,00 50,00 55,00 60,00 65,00 70,00 Bp

Figure 15 Comparison between the metacarpal bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)

As shown in Figure 15, the measurements on the Goyet bones fall in the lower range of the bones from Zemst, dating from the Early Glacial.

Goyet A3 60 Zemst IIB Bp Goyet A2 55 Spy

Figure 16 Comparison between the width of the proximal horse metacarpal bones of different Pleistocene sites. The measurements are derived from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2, Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB and Germonpré (unpublished data) for Spy.

Figure 16 displays measurements of the width of the proximal horse metacarpal bones. The data from the Zemst site displays the most variability as is also has the most measurements. The values originating from the other sites (Goyet and Spy) are located in the lower range of the Zemst data.

Pelvis

Ten fragments of the pelvis have been found (Table 49), with the ilium and acetabulum most present. They were all broken, most had traces of ochre and some had cut marks. One of them is considered a juvenile because of the thin bony profile. This brings the MNI to six: five left adult fragments and one juvenile on the right.

L R Ochre Cut marks Impact NISP %NISP MNI

5 5 7 3 10 10 1,69 6

Table 49 Position, marks, NISP and MNI of the horse pelvis

Femur

Inventory

36 elements of the femur were excavated (Table 50), all were broken, almost half were gnawed and/or bear ochre. Some have cut marks. Distal parts, proximal elements and fragments of the shaft were found. There are five foetal remains here (Table 51): three bones were mostly intact while two were only represented by the shaft (one left, one right). The juveniles remains consist of a left proximal part, a right proximal part and a indeterminate proximal element. The MNI is 15 because there are twelve adult left shaft fragments and three juvenile elements (Table 52).

L distal L shaft L proximal L Intact R distal R shaft R proximal Foetal ?

0 11 5 0 1 6 4 5 4

Table 50 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse femur bones

Foetal complete R Foetal complete L Foetal shaft R Foetal shaft L

3 0 1 1

Table 51 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse foetal femur bones

Ochre Cut marks Gnawing Impact NISP %NISP MNI

15 7 15 36 36 6,08 15

Table 52 Tracesn NISP and MNI of the horse femur bones

Measurements

Table 53 displays the measurements of the horse femur bones.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. bone L/R TC

Goyet A3 2799 15 L 55.41

Goyet A3 2799 17 L 58.25

Goyet A3 2799 19 L 55.36

Goyet A3 2799 20 L 53.51

Goyet A3 2799 24 R 57.99

Table 53 Measurements of the horse femur bones

70,00 68,00 66,00 64,00 62,00 Zemst IIB TC 60,00 Goyet A3 58,00 56,00 54,00 52,00 50,00

Figure 17 Comparison between the femur bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)

Figure 17 indicates that the measurements on the Goyet bones situate well below the range of the bones from Zemst, dating from the Early Glacial. Photograph 11 show the ochre and gnawing traces on a horse femur fragment.

Photograph 11 Ochre and gnawing traces on a horse femur fragment (2799-22)

Patella

Two fragments were discovered, one right, one left. The first was broken, the other one had cut marks and ochre traces. The MNI is one.

Tibia

Inventory

24 fragments of the tibia were preserved (Table 54). Most were parts of the shaft or the distal end, only one was from the proximal end of the bone. Nearly all were broken and ochre, cut marks and gnawing traces were observed (Table 55). There was one fragment belonging to a juvenile (diaphysis and epiphysis were not yet fully connected), a left distal part. This brings the MNI to 8 (seven adult right distal elements and the juvenile)

L distal L shaft L proximal R distal R shaft R proximal

4 6 0 7 4 1

Table 54 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse tibie bones

Ochre Cut marks Gnawing Impact NISP %NISP MNI

11 9 9 23 24 4,05 8

Table 55 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse tibia bones

Measurements

The measurements taken from the horse tibia bones are given in Table 56.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Bd Dd

Goyet A3 2223 8 R - 49.93

Goyet A3 2223 9 L - 42.25

Goyet A3 2223 10 R 77.74 50.84

Goyet A3 2223 11 R 73.05 46.48

Table 56 Measurements taken from the horse tibia bones

One photograph was taken to show the ochre traces and gnawing traces on a horse tibia fragment (Photograph 12).

Photograph 12 Ochre and gnawing traces on e distal horse tibia fragment (2223-15)

Tarsus

Astragalus

Inventory

Five astragalus or talus bones were found (Table 57), all of them broken. There were traces of ochre, gnawing and cut marks. The MNI is three due to the three right fragments.

L R ? Ochre Cut marks Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI

1 3 1 3 2 3 5 0,84 3

Table 57 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse astragalus bones

Measurements

Table 58 displays the measurements from the horse astragalus.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R GB GH BFd LmT

Goyet A3 2224 43 R 65.93 63.78 60.03 63.23

Goyet A3 2224 44 R - 60.12 - 60.90

Goyet A3 2224 45 R - 56.66 - 56.70

Goyet A3 2223 4 L - 57.94 - -

Table 58 Measurements of the horse astragalus bones

65 Goyet A3 GH Goyet A2 60 Zemst IIB

Figure 18 Comparison of the astragalus height of the horses from different Pleistocene sites. The measurements are taken from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2 and Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB.

The measurements of Goyet occupy the lower range of the distribution of the height values, while the material from Zemst indicate higher astragalus bones (Figure 18).

Calcaneum

Five broken fragments of the calcaneum were found (Table 59). Most were gnawed and two had either cut marks or ochre. The MNI is three because there are three right fragments present.

L R Ochre Cuts Gnawing NISP %NISP MNI

2 3 1 1 4 5 0,84 3

Table 59 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse calcaneum bones

Other

Seven elements from the other tarsal bones were recovered, all intact (Table 60). Some bear traces of ochre, gnawing or cut traces (Table 61). Three different tarsal bones are present: four os tarsale tertium, one os tarsale quartum and two os tarsi central. Three of the os tarsale tertium bones have a hole where a sample was taken before this analysis. Due to the three right os tarsale tertium, the MNI is also three (Table 62).

L R ?

Os tarsale tertium 1 3 0

Os tarsale quartum 1 0 0

Os tarsi central 1 1 0

Table 60 Position of the element in the skeleton of the other horse tarsal bones

Ochre Cut marks Gnawing Impact

NISP 2 3 2 0

Percentage 29 43 29 0

Table 61 Marks found on the other horse tarsal bones

NISP %NISP MNI

7 1,18 3

Table 62 NISP and MNI of the other horse tarsal bones

Metatarsus

Inventory

23 Metatarsal bones have been retrieved from this horizon (Table 63 and Table 64). They were all broken, ochre, cut marks and gnawing traces are present (Table 65). Some of the bones have been used as tools. Cut marks have been observed next to the ligaments, indicating disarticulation. The proximal and distal fragments have been found. The MNI is 9 (8 MNI adult and one sub-adult). The ‘tools’ in the last table indicate wear coming from handing a bone, one of these has a pointy end.

L distal R distal L proximal P proximal MNI adult

5 8 3 5 8

Table 63 Position and adult MNI of the horse metatarsal bones

L adult R adult L sub-adult R sub-adult NISP %NISP MNI

8 13 1 1 23 3,89 9

Table 64 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of all horse metatarsal bones

Ochre Cut marks Gnawing Impact Tool

7 5 6 23 3

Table 65 Traces found on the horse metatarsal bones

Measurements

Table 66 shows the measurements taken from the horse metatarsal bones.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Bp Dp Bd Dd

Goyet A3 2794 1 L - - - 36.03

Goyet A3 2794 2 R - - - 40.24

Goyet A3 2794 3 L - - 49.85 37.64

Goyet A3 2794 4 R - - 48.90 36.99

Goyet A3 2794 5 R - - - 39.71

Goyet A3 2794 21 L 53.40 44.62 - -

Goyet A3 2794 26 R 54.80 48.77 - -

Goyet A3 2226 19 R - - - 39.37

Goyet A3 2226 20 L - - 47.72 37.44

Goyet A3 2226 22 R - - 51.29 41.36

Goyet A3 2226 23 L - - 48.34 36.48

Goyet A3 2226 24 R - - - 39.77

Goyet A3 2226 25 R - - - 40.96

Goyet A3 2226 27 R - - 51.12 38.93

Table 66 Measurements taken from the horse metatarsal bones

50,00 48,00 46,00 44,00 42,00 Dd 40,00 Zemst IIB 38,00 Goyet A3 36,00 34,00 32,00 30,00 40,00 45,00 50,00 55,00 60,00 65,00 70,00 Bd

Figure 19 Comparison between the metatarsal bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)

As shown in Figure 19, the measurements on the Goyet bones fall in the lower range of the bones from Zemst, dating from the Early Glacial.

57 Goyet A3 Goyet A2 Bd 55 Zemst IIB 53 Spy

Figure 20 Comparison of the distal metatarsal width of the horses from three different Pleistocene sites. The measurements are derived from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2, Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB and Germonpré (unpublished data) for Spy.

The distribution of the distal horse metacarpus measurements can be devided in two ranges (Figure 20). The upper range is occupied by the Zemst data with overlap of the Spy measurements, while the lower values are provided by the site of Goyet.

Two photographs showing signs of impact traces and transformation into tools are shown here (Photograph 13 and Photograph 14)

Photograph 13 Horse metataral bone (2794-4) which probably was used as a tool

Photograph 14 distal horse metatarsus with impact traces and possibly a tool (2226-22)

Phalanx 1

Inventory

14 fragments of the first phalanx (closest to the metapoda) were found (Table 67). One bears a lot of short cut marks. Others contains traces of ochre, gnawing or (fewer) cur marks. Sometimes it is not possible to determine which limb the phalanx belongs to. One element was from a very young individual (foetus or new-born). The MNI was set at five using the three left posterior phalanges, the young individual and the indeterminate remains.

L ante L post R ante R post ? NISP %NISP MNI

2 3 0 2 7 14 2,36 5

Table 67 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse first phalanges

Measurements

Table 68 presents the measurements from the horse first phalanges.

Site Horizon Nr. Nr. L/R GL BFp Bp Dp BFd Bd KD Dupont bone

Goyet A3 2226 1 L 79.44 45.89 50.31 33.96 43.22 43.33 33.31

Goyet A3 2226 2 L 81.27 51.53 56.21 38.11 45.54 48.18 38.14

Goyet A3 2226 3 L 81.66 49.55 54.95 37.59 44.15 45.66 34.71

Goyet A3 2226 6 L 84.68 54.58 61.30 42.05 50.39 54.21 41.00

Goyet A3 2226 7 R 81.26 51.03 57.87 38.09 - - 39.47

Goyet A3 2226 8 L 78.91 46.04 54.82 34.25 45.92 48.19 36.51

Goyet A3 2226 9 ? - - - - 45.48 - -

Goyet A3 2226 10 R 81.71 48.50 57.45 37.30 45.60 48.34 36.25

Goyet A3 2817 20 ? 66.84 41.89 27.76 40.02 31.75

Table 68 Measurements of the horse first phalanges

50 48 46 44 42 Dp 40 Zemst IIB 38 Goyet A3 36 Goyet A2 34 32 30 45 50 55 60 65 70 Bp

Figure 21 Comparison between the first posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)

Figure 21 shows that the measurements on the Goyet bones overlap with the lower range of the bones from Zemst, dating from the Early Glacial. Goyet A3 displays the lowest Dp values.

Two photographs were taken to display the cut marks on the phirst phalanges, both of the same specimen (Photograph 15 and Photograph 16)

Photograph 15 Cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse (2226-1)

Photograph 16 Detail of cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse (2226-1)

Phalanx 2

Inventory

Fourteen fragments were found of which most had cut marks and ochre (Table 69). Only two were broken. The MNI is seven because there are seven left posterior phalanges.

L ante L post R ante R post ? NISP %NISP MNI

1 7 1 4 1 14 2,36 7

Table 69 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse second phalanges

Measurements

Table 70 shows the measurements taken from the hore second phalanges.

Site Horizon Nr. Nr. L/R GL BFp Bp Dp Bd KD Dupont bone

Goyet A3 2226 4 R 50.76 50.00 57.14 35.08 53.31 50.49

Goyet A3 2226 5 ? - - - 34.39 - -

Goyet A3 2817 21 L 42.59 46.21 54.09 32.39 50.14 45.54

Goyet A3 2817 22 R 44.56 46.67 58.54 34.38 51.25 47.81

Goyet A3 2817 23 L 40.01 46.94 54.27 33.26 52.71 49.01

Goyet A3 2817 24 L 41.18 46.29 53.14 32.39 49.98 44.75

Goyet A3 2817 25 R 44.01 50.77 58.78 35.21 54.89 51.61

Goyet A3 2817 26 L 42.89 45.97 53.59 31.88 52.29 47.34

Goyet A3 2817 27 L 42.18 49.57 56.03 33.52 54.48 49.59

Goyet A3 2817 28 L 44.26 47.56 57.18 34.43 50.32 47.78

Goyet A3 2817 29 L 44.28 46.89 60.05 35.06 53.37 49.81

Goyet A3 2817 30 R 43.47 47.71 57.48 35.42 52.62 48.72

Goyet A3 2817 31 L 43.70 46.16 58.55 36.19 53.04 50.03

Goyet A3 2817 32 R 45.99 47.18 55.34 35.06 50.51 46.01

Table 70 Measurements of the horse second phalanges

40 39 38 37 36 Dp 35 Zemst IIB 34 Goyet A3 33 Goyet A2 32 31 30 45 50 55 60 65 70 Bp

Figure 22 Comparison between the second posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)

Figure 22 indicates that the measurements taken from Goyet coincide with the lower range of Zemst and less. Of the two horizons in Goyet, the second displays the lowest values.

Phalanx 3

Inventory

16 hooves were found in this horizon (Table 71) of which one was small and likely belonged to a juvenile. Most were broken and about half had ochre on them. The MNI is five by either the five left anterior elements or the right posterior phalanges.

L ante L post R ante R post ? NISP %NISP MNI

5 1 1 5 4 16 2,70 5

Table 71 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse third phalanges

Measurements

The measurements of the horse third phalanges are presented in Table 72.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. bone L/R GL GB LF BF Ld HP

Goyet A3 2817 1 R 66.21 83.23 24.91 59.52 53.58 42.67

Goyet A3 2817 2 R 67.62 - 29.11 52.61 62.72 39.18

Goyet A3 2817 3 ? - - 27.17 54.76 - 34.98

Goyet A3 2817 4 R 70.94 84.39 28.54 57.27 54.99 38.38

Goyet A3 2817 5 R 60.55 77.71 24.74 45.34 54.61 39.39

Goyet A3 2817 6 ? - - 29.64 - - -

Goyet A3 2817 7 R 68.10 82.66 28.19 50.95 56.69 43.45

Goyet A3 2817 8 L 59.61 82.78 29.38 54.96 57.33 42.55

Goyet A3 2817 9 ? 69.05 - - - - -

Goyet A3 2817 10 L 61.19 92.63 25.83 58.57 51.91 40.52

Goyet A3 2817 11 L 77.67 - 28.16 60.85 61.21 44.23

Goyet A3 2817 12 L 60.21 81.14 28.53 59.08 52.56 41.77

Goyet A3 2817 13 L 65.09 - 30.24 58.04 57.94 40.92

Goyet A3 2817 14 R - - 27.61 - - -

Goyet A3 2817 15 L - - 26.79 60.32 - 40.04

Goyet A3 2817 16 ? 59.81 82.95 25.55 58.38 - -

Table 72 Measurements taken from the horse third phalanges

70 65 60 55 Goyet, horizon 3 BF (mm) 50 Equus Przewalskii 45 Late Glacial Horse 40 Zemst IIB 35 30 55 65 75 85 95 GB (mm)

Figure 23 Comparison between third phalanges of extant equids and Late Glacial horses: maximal width (GB) and articular surface width (BF). The measurements of Equss przewalskii and Late Glacial Horse were taken from Bignon et al, 2002 and those from Zemst IIB are data of Germonpré (1993a).

Figure 23 indicates a clear difference between the measurements taken from extant equids and Pleistocene horses. The measurements from Goyet A3 and Zemst are situated on the top range, although the measurements from seem a little higher.

60 58 56 54 52 BF 50 Zemst IIB 48 Goyet A3 46 Goyet A2 44 42 40 20 25 30 35 LF

Figure 24 Comparison between the third posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)

As shown by the measurements given in Figure 24, the hooves from Goyet are clearly shorter (LF is less) than the material from Zemst. The LF values of Goyet A2 are also less than those of the third horizon.

Sesamoid Inventory

Six sesamoids were found (Table 73), three large – and three small (proximal and distal sesamoids). Half was broken, some were gnawed and one bears ochre. It was not possible to assign a precise location for these bones.

Proximal Distal Gnawed Ochre impact NISP %NISP MNI

3 3 0 1 3 6 1,01 1

Table 73 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse sesamoid bones

Measurements

Table 74 shows the measurements of the horse sesamoid bones.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. bone GB

Goyet A3 2817 17 52.99

Goyet A3 2817 19 45.15

Table 74 Measurements taken from the horse sesamoid bones

Metapoda

Inventory

Some metacarpal and metatarsal bones were not well enough preserved (and broken) to distinguish between them (Table 75). Only one proximal fragment was noted, the remainder was distal. It also was difficult to determine which side (left or right) they belonged to. One of them was used as a tool, some have gnawing traces and bear cut marks.

? Cut marks Gnawing Tool impact NISP %NISP MNI

11 4 4 1 11 11 1,86 -

Table 75 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse metapodal bones

Measurements

The difficulties mentioned in the inventory mean also that taking measurements is not easy, only one could be made with certainty (Table 76).

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Td

Goyet A3 2794 8 37.77

Table 76 Measurements of the horse metapodal bones

One fragment of a longitudinally broken horse metapodal bone was photographed (Photograph 17).

Photograph 17 Longitudinally fractured horse metapode (2226-31)

2nd and 4th metapoda

The splint bones or the reduced 2nd and 4th metacarpals/metatarsals of the horse amount to 30 elements in this horizon (Table 77). It is difficult to distinguish the eight different positions: medial – lateral, posterior – anterior, left – right limb. Most fragments were broken, a lot were gnawed or have cut marks and three have ochre on them (Table 78). There was also one young or foetal bone present of the right medial anterior. Together with eight right lateral posterior elements, the MNI becomes nine.

Posterior Anterior

L lateral L medial R lateral R medial L lateral L medial R lateral R medial ?

3 3 8 6 0 4 0 5 1

Table 77 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse second and fourth metapoda

Ochre Cut marks Gnawing Impact NISP %NISP MNI

3 10 10 24 30 5,07 9

Table 78 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse second and fourth metapoda

Indeterminata

There were two fragments which could not be precisely determined. The first was a fragment of one of the long bones of a juvenile, the second had a lot of ochre and a porous texture, but seemed to be of an adult. The label of the second element mentions 3 g(auche), so it could be a fragment of a rib (it was also positioned in the tray with other ribs.

Foetus

Inventory

Eleven foetal bones have been recovered. They already have been mentioned in the previous sections but they deserve special attention here because there are only a few foetal fragments in the collection. Three foetal hore bones are presented in Photograph 24, 25 and 26.

Measurements

The measurements show the minimal length as some of the bones were broken (Table 79). The more complete bones, of which these measurements give a good indication of the total length are marked with an *. One foetal element is too fragmented for a length measurement to be usefull as only the proximal part is present. However, its total length would be larger than most of the other foetal bones.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. bone Element L/R Min. Length

Goyet A3 2217 10 Scapula R 62.21

Goyet A3 2217 12 Humerus* L 50.17

Goyet A3 2217 13 Humerus* L 82.48

Goyet A3 2217 14 Ulna R 60.52

Goyet A3 2217 15 Femur* R 69.05

Goyet A3 2217 16 Femur* R 53.14

Goyet A3 2217 17 Femur* R 74.15

Goyet A3 2217 18 Femur R 58.59

Goyet A3 2217 19 Femur* L 57.16

Goyet A3 2217 20 Splint bone R 49.20

Goyet A3 2217 21 1st phalanx* ? 46.04

Table 79 Measurements of the horse foetal bones

Fot these remains, an age extimation can be given.

Bone nr. Element Length (mm) Age estimation (weeks)

12 Humerus 50.17 23-25

13 Humerus 82.48 29-33

15 Femur 69.05 25-29

16 Femur 53.14 20-23

17 Femur 74.15 25-29

19 Femur 57.16 20-23

Table 80 Age estimation in weeks after gestation based on measured element length, following the correlation of Prummel (1989)

These measurements indicate that all of the horse foetus remains that could be given an age died between the age of 20 and 33 weeks (Table 80). A distinction may be made between the periods 20 to 25 weeks and 25 to 33 weeks which could be separated.

Three of the foetal remain were photographed (Photograph 18, Photograph 19 and Photograph 20)

Photograph 18 Foetal horse humerus (2217-13)

Photograph 19 Foetal horse femur with cut marks (2217-15)

Photograph 20 foetal horse humerus (2217-12)

3.2.2 Bos/Bison (Auroch/Bison)

The distinction between the genera Bos and Bison (both part of the Bovinae) cannot always be made as they are very similar (López González et al., 1999). Where characteristic features are present, they are assigned to either Bos or Bison. Without these features the bones are placed in the category Bos/Bison. Table 4 gives an overview of all Bos/Bison bones.

Mandibula

Inventory

One lower jaw bone with an attached third molar is present. This fragment has been broken and gnawed and belongs to Bison. The MNI is one and the length of the fragment is 6.5 cm. It is possible to take measurements on the third molar.

Measurements

Table 81 shows the measurements taken from the lower jaw bone of Bos/Bison

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category tooth U/L L/R CL CW CH

Goyet A3 2819 30 Bison M3 L R 44.89 18.12 -

Table 81 Measurements of the lower jaw bone of Bos/Bison

Photograph 21 shows a broken bison lower jaw fragment with gnawing traces.

Photograph 21 Impact and gnawing traces on a bison lower jaw fragment (2819-30)

Dentes

Inventory

Upper jaw

One tooth belonging to Bos/Bison, no additional marks.

P3/P4

Seven third and fourth premolars were found (Table 82). Probably one P3 and 4 P4 left and one of each on the right. Three teeth had ochre on them and five were broken.

L P3 L P4 R P3 R P4

1 4 1 -

Table 82 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars from Bos/Bison

M1/M2

Eight upper jaw molars were recovered, five left, three right. Five bear impact traces. The MNI is not calculated as the teeth can not be identified exactly.

Lower jaw

One right second premolar of the lower jaw was found. No traces except impact and a length of 2.5 cm. This results in a MNI of one.

M1/M2

Eight lower jaw first and second molars were discovered. Half had traces of impacts and one of ochre. The MNI is not calculated as the teeth can not be anatomically identified.

Three third molars were found from the lower jaw. These molars have a characteristic distinction between Bos and Bison (López González et al., 1999). Two of them could be allocated to the right part of the jaw and belong to Bison, of the third one the side was not determinable; it originates from Bos. This brings the MNI to three. The only traces were impact (broken) on two of the teeth.

Dentes indet,

One inderterminate tooth was excavated. It belongs to the upper jaw but it is not possible to be more specific. The only marks were those of an impact.

Measurements

Table 83 shows the measurements taken from all Bos/Bison teeth

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category tooth U/L L/R CL CW CH

Goyet A3 2819 1 Bison/Bos ? U ? - 15.5 -

Goyet A3 2819 2 Bison/Bos P2 U L 18.10 11.97 13.76

Goyet A3 2819 3 Bison/Bos P3 U L 19.44 17.85 27.10

Goyet A3 2819 4 Bison/Bos P4 U L 19.40 18.99 30.79

Goyet A3 2819 5 Bison/Bos P4 U L 17.52 23.55 25.32

Goyet A3 2819 6 Bison/Bos P4 U L 21.25 20.09 31.55

Goyet A3 2819 7 Bison/Bos P4 U L 22.38 24.62 34.07

Goyet A3 2819 8 Bison/Bos P3 U R 19.51 16.07 38.04

Goyet A3 2819 9 Bison/Bos P4 U R 22.18 18.70 29.55

Goyet A3 2819 10 Bison/Bos M U L 27.62 23.50 -

Goyet A3 2819 11 Bison/Bos M U L 27.43 22.34 28.72

Goyet A3 2819 12 Bison/Bos M U L 31.82 20.09 31.58

Goyet A3 2819 13 Bison/Bos M U L 33.68 24.75 32.65

Goyet A3 2819 14 Bison/Bos M U L 31.74 21.71 38.69

Goyet A3 2819 15 Bison/Bos M U R - 20.71 -

Goyet A3 2819 16 Bison/Bos M U R 36.04 25.16 39.86

Goyet A3 2819 17 Bison/Bos M U R 33.51 19.94 -

Goyet A3 2819 18 Bos M3 L ? - - -

Goyet A3 2819 19 Bison/Bos M L L 30.53 19.60 29.21

Goyet A3 2819 20 Bison/Bos M L L 28.94 19.53

Goyet A3 2819 21 Bison/Bos M L L 31.73 15.08 45.13

Goyet A3 2819 22 Bison/Bos P2 L R 18.77 10.52 23.08

Goyet A3 2819 23 Bison/Bos M L R 26.40 19.73 22.30

Goyet A3 2819 24 Bison/Bos M L R 35.22 17.58 69.83

Goyet A3 2819 25 Bison/Bos M L R 30.17 - -

Goyet A3 2819 26 Bison/Bos M L R 33.35 13.85 -

Goyet A3 2819 27 Bison/Bos M L R 26.69 17.19 35.25

Goyet A3 2819 28 Bison M3 L R 40.63 15.78 24.98

Goyet A3 2819 29 Bison M3 L R 35.82 15.81 20.11

Table 83 Measurements taken from all teeth of Bos/Bison

Vertebrae

Axis

One axis bone was found belonging to an adult Bos/Bison. It received an impact and ochre. Its length is about 12 cm.

Cervical

Inventory

Two cervical vertebrae were excavated, only belonging to Bison, the other to Bos/Bison. One of the fragments had gnawing traces, both received impacts. The two bones could not be determined to a specific vertebrae, therefore, the MNI is one.

Measurements

The measurements of the cervical vertebral bone from Bos/Bison is shown in Table 84

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category PL BFcr HFcr BPacr

Goyet A3 2819 31 Bison 48.91 42.36 >40.17 95.26

Table 84 Measurements taken from the cervical vertebrae of Bos/Bison

Caudal

Inventory

One caudal vertebrae of an adult Bos/Bison was found. The only traces remaining are those of an impact. The length of the fragment is five cm.

Measurements

Table 85 shows the measurements taken from the caudal vertebral bone of Bos/Bison.

Site Horizon Nr. Nr. Category PL BFcr HFcr BFcd HFcd BPacd BPtr Dupont Bone

Goyet A3 2819 34 Bison/Bos 42.49 20.63 21.16 23.06 18.08 51.74 42.94

Table 85 Measurements taken from the caudal vertebrae of Bos/Bison

Scapula

Two fragments of the scapula were found (Table 86), one of a adult Bos and the other one of a juvenile Bison. The scapula fragment of Bison bears ochre and cut marks, the Bos bone has a hole. The MNI is two.

NISP %NISP MNI

2 3,39 2

Table 86 NISP and MNI of the scapula bone from Bos/Bison

Photograph 22 shows cut marks and ochre on a bison scapula fragment.

Photograph 22 Detail of cut marks and ochre on a bison scapula fragment (2230-1a)

Humerus

Inventory

Three fragments of the humerus have been recovered (Table 87). One of these could be attributed to Bison, a right distal fragment. Of the other two, the left fragment is also distal and the right one is a fragment of the shaft. Due to these three elements, the MNI is set at one. Ochre, cut marks, gnawing and impact indications are present (Table 88).

L R NISP %NISP MNI

1 2 3 5,08 1

Table 87 Position, NISP and MNI of the humerus bones from Bos/Bison

Ochre Cut marks Impact Gnawing

NISP 1 1 3 1

Percentage 33 33 100 33

Table 88 Traces found on the humerus bones from Bos/Bison

Measurements

Measurements of the Bos/Bison humerus are presented in Table 89.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category L/R Bd BT

Goyet A3 2231 6 Bison R 83.44 81.58

Table 89 Measurements taken from the humerus bones of Bos/Bison

Radiocubitus

Inventory

Three elements have been found of the radiocubitus (Table 90): two are only a radius but the third consists of a radius and the cubitus attached. Ochre, gnawing traces and the results of several impacts were noted (Table 91). Two of these bones have been attributed to Bos and because they both are right elements, the MNI is two.

L R NISP %NISP MNI

0 3 3 5,08 2

Table 90 Position, NISP and MNI of the radiocubitus bones from Bos/Bison

Ochre Impact Gnawing

NISP 1 3 1

Percentage 33 100 33

Table 91 Traces found on the radiocubitus bones from Bos/Bison

Measurements

Table 92 gives the measurements of the radiocubitus bones of Bos/Bison

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category L/R Bp Bd

Goyet A3 2231 5 Bison/Bos R - 90.27

Goyet A3 2236 4 Bos R 68.46 -

Table 92 Measurements taken from the radiocubitus bones of Bos/Bison

Carpus

Three fragments are present (Table 93): one os carpi radiale, one os carpale quartum and the last is probably os carpi ulnare. All three are right limb elements and bear ochre, cut marks, gnawing traces and impacts. The MNI is one.

Ochre Cut marks Impact Gnawing

NISP 1 1 3 1

Percentage 33 33 100 33

Table 93 Traces on the carpal bones of Bos/Bison

Ochre and gnawing traces on a bovid carpal bone are illustrated by Photograph 23.

Photograph 23 Ochre and gnawing traces on a bovid carpal bone (2231-8)

Metacarpus

Inventory

Three of metacarpal bones were discovered (Table 94): two fragments and one complete element. A proximal fragment belongs to Bos, a distal element to Bos/Bison and the complete bone comes from Bison. They are all right metacarpal bones so the MNI is three. The all have cut marks and impact traces and one shows signs of gnawing.

L R NISP %NISP MNI

0 3 3 5,08 3

Table 94 Position, NISP and MNI of the metacarpal bones from Bos/Bison

Measurements

Measurements taken from the metacarpal bones of Bos/Bison are presented in Table 95.

Site Ho Nr. Nr. L/R GL GLl Ll Bp Dp Bd Dd KD TD Dupont bone

Goyet A3 2231 2 R - - - - 48.94 - - - -

Goyet A3 2231 10 R - - - - - 81.32 40.05 - -

Goyet A3 2231 11 R 230 225 217 87.74 48.00 84.13 38.42 53.26 26.81

Table 95 Measurements taken from the metacarpal bones of Bos/Bison

49,00

47,00

45,00

43,00 Zemst IIB Bison Dd Zemst IIB Bos 41,00 Goyet A3 Bison 39,00 Goyet A3 Bos/Bison 37,00

35,00 70,00 75,00 80,00 85,00 90,00 95,00 Bd

Figure 25 Comparison between the metacarpal bone data of Bos/Bison from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a)

The measurements from Zemst IIB occupy a large range, with Bison at the top (Figure 25). The data from Goyet A3 are smaller in general, but they are wider than Bos from Zemst. One of these measurements is a Bison and the second is Bos/Bison although it is likely also Bison based on this figure.

Tibia

Inventory

Four tibia bones have been discovered (Table 96) of which three were identified as Bison, the remaining one was put into the Bos/Bison category. All the Bison bones were left distal tibias while the other one concerned the right shaft. The broken fragments showed signs of ochre, cut marks and gnawing and one of the Bison tibias was used as a tool (Table 97). The MNI is three due to the three left Bison bones.

L R NISP %NISP MNI

3 1 4 6,78 3

Table 96 Position, NISP and MNI of the tibia of Bos/Bison

Ochre Cut marks Impact Gnawing Tools

NISP 2 2 4 2 1

Percentage 50 50 100 50 25

Table 97 Traces found on the tibia bones from Bos/Bison

Measurements

Table 98 shows the measurements of the tibia bone from Bos/Bison.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category L/R Bd

Goyet A3 2230 1 Bison L 50.00

Table 98 Measurements of the tibia from Bos/Bison

Tarsus

Astragalus

Inventory One left astragalus is present, attributed to Bison, with gnawing and impact traces.

Measurements

Measurements of the astragalus bone from Bison are presented in Table 99.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category L/R GLl Bd GLm Tl Tm

Goyet A3 2230 5 Bison L 84.22 48.32 89.47 52.57 49.84

Table 99 Measurements of the astragalus bone from Bison

Calcaneum

Also one left calcaneum present of the Bison, only with impact traces and a length of 7.5 cm..

Metatarsus

Only one fragment of a left metatarsal bone was found, attributed to Bos. It has ochre traces and is broken as only the shaft remains. The MNI is obviously one.

Phalanx 2

Inventory

Three second phalanges were discovered here (Table 100). Two are attributed to Bos and the remaining one to Bos/Bison. Cut marks, impacts and gnawing traces are present. The MNI is one.

Cut marks Impact Gnawing

NISP 1 2 1

Percentage 33 66 33

Table 100 Traces found on the second phalanges of Bos/Bison

Measurements

Table 101 presents the measurements taken from the second phalanges of Bos/Bison

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category L/R GL Bp Bd KD

Goyet A3 2230 7 Bison/Bos L 36.81 18.99 19.64 18.22

Goyet A3 2236 5 Bos L 55.58 29.79 28.22 25.47

Goyet A3 2236 6 Bos L 36.72 29.29 - 20.67

Table 101 Measurements taken from the second phalanges of Bos/Bison

Photograph 24 shows cut marks on a posterior second phalanx of auroch

Photograph 24 Cut marks on a posterior second phalanx of auroch (2236-5)

Phalanx 3

Inventory

One third phalanx of a Bison was excavated but could not be determinated more precisely.

Measurements

Measurements taken of the third phalanx of Bos/Bison are presented in Table 102.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone Category L/R DLS Ld MBS

Goyet A3 2230 8 Bison ? 63.45 54.28 22.19

Table 102 Measurements taken of the third phalanx of Bos/Bison

3.2.3 Mammuthus primigenus (Woolly mammoth)

Table 5 gives the complete inventory of the woolly mammoth remains from Horizon 3 of Goyet.

Cranium

Four fragments of these bones were found with identifying criteria size and air holes (to increase volume needed for the muscles of the proboscis and reduce weight). One of the fragments bears ochre and all are broken.

Dentes

Inventory

Three types of dentition are present: incisors (tusks), milk teeth (M1-M3) and molars (M4 to M5). There are also a number of fragmented teeth that could not be identified further.

Incisor

A lot of tusks (modified incisor) fragments were discovered with most of them bearing ochre (Photograph 25 and Photograph 26). These 58 fragments are most likely the remains of the production of ivory beads so all these fragments could come from a very limited number of tusks or only one.

Photograph 25 Ochre traces on a woolly mammoth tusk fragment (2802-36)

Photograph 26 Ochre traces on a woolly mammoth tusk fragment (2802-11)

Molars

One milk tooth (M1) was found (Photograph 27 and Photograph 28). This element is in a good condition and has a length of two cm.

Photograph 27 M1 woolly mammoth tooth (2777-6)

Photograph 28 M1 woolly mammoth tooth (2777-6)

M2-M5

Nine larger molars were found in total of which Table 103 shows their distribution. They were all broken but no other traces were observed. Because of the similarity of the molariform teeth, the measurements taken are used to identify the teeth. The measurements were compared with those from Germonpré (1993a) and assigned the most likely class (M1-M6). Two of the M4 teeth (nr. 11 and 14) were very fragmentend and could mostly be given minimum values for the measurements. They could also not be assigned to a upper/lower jaw or left/right position and are thus not included in Table 99.

L R

Upper jaw M2 1 0

M3 0 1

M4 1 0

M5 0 1

Lower jaw M2 1 1

M3 0 0

M4 1 0

M5 0 0

Table 103 Position of the mammoth molars

Dentes indet.

Eight indeterminate fragments were found, seven of them consist out of one or two lamellae together and the last was a fragment of the root. These elements were all broken and without additional traces. The MNI was not determined.

Measurements

The measurements of the mammoth teeth are shown in Table 104.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Tooth CL CW CH # lamellae LF

Goyet A3 2777 6 L M1 17.95 15.32 13.16 5 30

Goyet A3 2777 7 L M2 50.48 18.43 25.88 7 14

Goyet A3 2777 8 R M2 61.57 33.71 39.13 7 14

Goyet A3 2777 9 L M2 54.98 34.58 31.79 8 16

Goyet A3 2777 10 R M3 >60.99 46.89 72.69 5 10

Goyet A3 2777 11 ? M4 >103.89 >58.91 98.37 10 10

Goyet A3 2777 12 L M4 92.71 51.27 43.59 10 10

Goyet A3 2777 13 L M4 68.95 61.29 30.79 8 12

Goyet A3 2777 14 ? M4 - >43.35 >65.31 3 10

Goyet A3 2777 21 R M5 122.09 77.67 99.37 11 9

Goyet A3 2777 22 ? M5 - 67.01 >98.34 - -

Goyet A3 2777 23 ? M5 - 67.00 >98.10 - -

Table 104 Measurements of the mammoth teeth

Due to the number of molars with an age at death attribution (Table 105), the MNI can be higher. To account for all five different age classes, an MNI of 5 is needed.

Nr, Dupont Nr, Bone Element Jaw Age (a.e.y.)

2777 6 M1 Upper 0,1 - 0,5

2777 7 M2 Upper 0,5 - 2

2777 8 M2 Lower 0,5 - 3

2777 9 M2 Lower 0,5 - 4

2777 10 M3 Upper 4 – 6

2777 11 M4 - 8 - 12

2777 12 M4 Lower 12 - 16

2777 13 M4 Upper 12 - 16

2777 14 M4 - 8 - 12

2777 21 M5 Upper 14 - 22

2777 22 M5 - 14 - 22

2777 23 M5 - 14 - 22

Table 105 List of all woolly mammoth molars which could be given an age at death (expressed in African elephant years)

Humerus

One distal fragment of a Mammoth humerus was found, with no other marks than the fact it was broken. The fragment has a length of 30 cm.

Indeterminata - 17 fragments of indeterminate mammoth bones have been retrieved (Table 106). The main criteria to assign these bones to mammoths is the size of them, which also caused them to be identified as adults. All the bones are broken, one is heavily gnawed, probably by a hyena, and there is one tool (Table 107 and Photograph 29). Seven of the fragments were marked by ochre and there was one with cut marks. Because the fragments cannot be identified precisely, the MNI is not calculated.

? NISP %NISP MNI

17 17 17,35 -

Table 106 Position, NISP and MNI of the indeterminate mammoth bones

Ochre Cut marks Impact Gnawing Tool

NISP 7 1 17 5 1

Percentage 41 6 100 29 6

Table 107 Traces found on the indeterminate mammoth bones

Photograph 29 Possible tool from an indeterminate mammoth bone (2216-3)

3.2.4 Coelodonta antiquitatis (Woolly Rhinoceros)

Table 6 gives the complete inventory of the woolly rhinoceros remains from Horizon 3 of Goyet.

Cranium

One distal fragment of the right-hand side of the skull was found. It is broken and bears ochre traces and has a length of 12 cm.

Dentes

Inventory

Upper jaw teeth

P3/P4

Eleven premolars from the upper jaw were discovered (Table 108). Most of the teeth could not be allocated to either the third or the fourth premolar. The MNI is not calculated due to this uncertainty (Table 109). Seven of the teeth were broken.

L R

P3 1 1

P4 0 0

P3/P4 5 4

Table 108 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth upper jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros

NISP %NISP MNI

11 7,59 -

Table 109 NISP and MNI of the third and fourth upper jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros

M1/M2

13 first and second molars were found (Table 110) of which eleven showed traces of an impact. The MNI is not given because the teeth could not exactly be identified (Table 111). Most of the teeth are broken.

L R

M1 0 0

M2 0 3

M1/M2 3 7

Table 110 Position of the element in the skeleton of the first and second upper jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros

NISP %NISP MNI

13 8,97 -

Table 111 NISP and MNI of the first and second upper jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros

Six upper jaw third molars were discovered (Table 112), almost all right-hand side teeth. Due to the presence of five right third molars, the MNI is also five. Four of the teeth have been broken.

L R NISP %NISP MNI

1 5 6 4,14 5

Table 112 Position, NISP and MNI of the third upper jaw molar of woolly rhinoceros

Lower jaw teeth

One right second premolar was found.

P3/P4

Nine third or fourth premolars were discovered (Table 113). It was possible to allocate most of the teeth to either P3 or P4, sometimes that was not possible. The MNI is incalculable due to the uncertainty in the anatonomical position of the teeth (Table 114). Ochre and traces of breaking are visible on these teeth (Table 115).

L R

P3 2 4

P4 1 0

P3/P4 0 2

Table 113 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros

NISP %NISP MNI

9 6,21 -

Table 114 NISP and MNI of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros

Ochre Impact

NISP 2 4

Percentage 22 44

Table 115 Traces of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros

M1/M2

Eight first and second molars were found (Table 116) of which all bear traces of an impact. It was more difficult to distinguish between these two teeth, so the category M1/M2 is large. The MNI is not calculated because of the uncertain position in the skeleton (Table 117).

L R

M1 1 0

M2 0 2

M1/M2 2 3

Table 116 Position of the element in the skeleton of the first and second lower jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros

NISP %NISP MNI

8 5,52 -

Table 117 NISP and MNI of the first and second lower jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros

Only one third molar was recovered with traces of an impact and a length of eight cm.

Milk tooth

Ten deciduous teeth have been found (Table 118). These teeth are numbered D1 to D4 (Garutt, 1994). In our material, it is only possible to determine one deciduous tooth accurately (a D1 tooth from the upper jaw). Seven other teeth are assigned to upper or lower jaw and right- or left-hand side and two are indeterminate. The tables illustrate the calculation of the MNI, set at two (Table 119).

L R ?

D1 upper jaw 1 0 0

Upper jaw 4 2 0

Lower jaw 1 0 0

Indeterminate 0 0 2

Table 118 Position of the element in the skeleton of the woolly rhinoceros milk teeth

NISP %NISP MNI

10 6,90 2

Table 119 NISP and MNI of the woolly rhinoceros milk teeth

Dentes indet,

35 more or less indeterminate teeth are present (Table 120). All were broken and three had ochre on them. One of the upper right teeth is a molar. The MNI is difficult to determine (due to possible fragments belonging to one tooth). Most of the teeth seem to be cheek teeth. This means the MNI can not be calculated.

L R ?

Upper jaw 1 5 5

Lower jaw 0 0 5

Indeterminate 0 0 19

Table 120 Position of the element in the skeleton of the intederminated woolly rhinoceros teeth

Measurements

Table 121 gives the measurements of all woolly rhinoceros teeth

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Tooth CL CW CH

Goyet A3 2795 4 R P2 25.97 14.37 19.83

Goyet A3 2795 5 L P3 26.33 21.21 27.31

Goyet A3 2795 6 R P3 25.07 18.04 26.61

Goyet A3 2795 7 R M1/2 46.41 23.72 44.66

Goyet A3 2795 8 L M1/2 46.27 25.63 34.81

Goyet A3 2795 9 L M1/2 45.16 26.31 42.87

Goyet A3 2795 10 R M1/2 42.46 28.45 26.15

Goyet A3 2795 11 L P4 37.61 16.15 26.68

Goyet A3 2795 12 L M3 51.98 23.15 52.81

Goyet A3 2795 13 R P3 35.54 20.45 45.86

Goyet A3 2795 14 R P3 36.78 22.19 50.95

Goyet A3 2795 15 L P3 38.20 22.19 52.15

Goyet A3 2795 16 R M2 51.49 22.61 -

Goyet A3 2795 17 R P3 32.19 19.23 46.42

Goyet A3 2795 18 R M2 53.88 24.68 46.78

Goyet A3 2795 19 L M1 47.82 25.13 39.80

Goyet A3 2795 21 R Milk 29.21 25.98 -

Goyet A3 2795 23 R M2 48.10 36.08 -

Goyet A3 2795 24 R M2 41.97 36.03 17.84

Goyet A3 2795 25 R M1/2 36.43 32.63 59.73

Goyet A3 2795 26 R M3 48.19 35.24 -

Goyet A3 2795 28 L P3 30.46 29.43 41.12

Goyet A3 2795 29 R P3 23.49 34.25 24.48

Goyet A3 2795 30 R Indet. 55.62 - -

Goyet A3 2795 34 R M3 55.11 45.73 59.48

Goyet A3 2795 35 R M3 48.40 43.36 66.27

Goyet A3 2795 36 R M2 - - 57.02

Goyet A3 2232 2 L M1/2 28.59 29.16 17.44

Goyet A3 2232 3 L P3/4 31.71 41.99 36.33

Goyet A3 2232 4 L P3/4 35.94 47.54 34.78

Goyet A3 2232 5 L P3/4 37.82 48.08 38.54

Goyet A3 2232 6 R P3/4 32.20 35.93 39.59

Goyet A3 2232 8 L P3/4 37.82 47.48 57.94

Goyet A3 2232 9 L P3/4 32.80 40.57 57.00

Goyet A3 2232 10 L M1/2 42.23 45.05 -

Goyet A3 2232 11 R M3 57.30 46.76 64.08

Goyet A3 2232 12 L M1/2 46.63 56.36 48.39

Goyet A3 2232 13 R M3 59.34 - 41.11

Goyet A3 2232 14 R M1/2 - - 51.14

Goyet A3 2232 15 R M1/2 - - 44.28

Goyet A3 2232 18 L Indet. - - 43.72

Goyet A3 2232 19 R M1/2 - - 42.94

Goyet A3 2232 22 R Indet. - - 49.47

Goyet A3 2232 27 R M1/2 33.92 29.35 -

Goyet A3 2232 28 R P3/4 - - 24.53

Goyet A3 2232 31 ? Indet. 25.12 - 18.39

Goyet A3 2232 35 L M 26.34 19.57 13.27

Table 121 Measurements of all woolly rhinoceros teeth

Photograph 30 and Photograph 31 show a woolly rhinoceros cheek tooth.

Photograph 30 Woolly rhinoceroa cheek tooth (2232-47)

Photograph 31 Woolly rhinoceroa cheek tooth (2232-47)

Os costa

Six broken fragments were found with one having a circular mark (Photograph 32). It is possible this mark is caused by the tooth of a large carnivore. This mark consists out of a central impact with cracks along the length of the bone. Ochre and cut marks were also observed (Table 122). The MNI is one.

Ochre Cut marks Impact

NISP 2 3 6

Percentage 33 50 100

Table 122 Traces found on the ribs of woolly rhinoceros

Photograph 32 Woolly rhinoceros rib fragment with mark (2801-12)

Humerus

Six fragments of the humerus were found (Table 123), half of them from very small foetal bones. The calculation of the MNI is illustrated by the table: two adults and two juvenile make at least four individuals. Several different traces were also found: ochre traces, cut marks, impact traces and gnawing traces (Table 124).

L adult R adult L juvenile R juvenile ?

1 1 1 2 1

Table 123 Position of the element in the skeleton of the humerus bones of woolly rhinoceros

Ochre Cut marks Impact Gnawing

NISP 1 1 6 1

Percentage 17 17 100 17

Table 124 Traces found on the humerus bones of woolly rhinoceros

Radiocubitus

Of these bones, three radius fragments were recovered.One of these belongs to a very young to foetal individual. All the bones are right radius elements, the two adult bones a fragment of the distal end and the young fragment of the shaft. Different markings were found including ochre traces, cut marks, impact traces, tool marks and gnawing traces (Table 125). The MNI is three: two right adult distal fragments and a young fragment.

Ochre Cut marks Impact Tool Gnawing

NISP 1 3 3 1 2

Percentage 33 100 100 33 67

Table 125 Traces found on the radiocubitus bones of woolly rhinoceros

Carpus

Five pieces of carpal bones were found(Table 126): two os carpale quartum, one os carpi radiale, one os carpale tertium and one os accessorium. The table illustrates the calculation of the MNI resulting in a minimum number of indeviduals of one (Table 127). Several traces are present: ochre traces, cut marks, impact traces and gnawing traces (Table 128).

Carpal element L R

os carpale quartum 1 1

os carpi radiale 0 1

os carpale tertium 1 0

os accessorium 1 0

Table 126 Position of the element in the skeleton of the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros

NISP %NISP MNI

5 3,45 1

Table 127 NISP and MNI of the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros

100

Ochre Cut marks Impact Gnawing

NISP 3 1 4 1

Percentage 60 20 80 20

Table 128 Traces found on the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros

Femur

Two fragments belonging to the femur were discovered (Table 129), one part of the shaft and one part of the distal end. Ochre and cut marks were noted and the MNI is set at one.

Ochre Cut marks Impact

NISP 1 1 2

Percentage 50 50 100

Table 129 Traces found on the femur bones of woolly rhinoceros

Tarsus

Of the tarsal bones, only the astragalus was present.

Astragalus

Inventory

Only one fragment of the astragalus bone was discovered. It received an impact but is almost complete.

Measurements

Due to a near complete astragalus bone, some measurements could be made (Table 130).

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R GLl GLm Tm Gb

Goyet A3 2801 5 L 91.94 78.29 65.31 108.76

Table 130 Measurements of the astragalus from woolly rhinoceros

Phalanx 1

Inventory

Six first phalanges have been excavated (Table 131). One of them had no proximal epiphysis and is thought to be juvenile (the epiphysis was not completely ossified and part of it is missing), with another one, the boundary between epi-and diaphysis is clearly visible. With these observations, at least two MNI are identified. Almost all phalanges bear ochre and half received an impact (Table 132).

101

Adult Juvenile NISP %NISP MNI

4 2 6 4,14 2

Table 131 Age, NISP and MNI of the first phananges from woolly rhinoceros

Ochre Impact

NISP 5 3

Percentage 83 50

Table 132 Traces found on the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros

Measurements

Table 133 shows the measurements taken from the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R GL Bp Bd KD

Goyet A3 2792 2 ? 28.13 30.36 27.32 26.43

Goyet A3 2792 3 ? 21.41 29.99 27.31 27.17

Goyet A3 2792 4 ? 20.92 - 32.33 29.82

Goyet A3 2792 5 ? 24.15 33.29 29.43 32.13

Goyet A3 2792 6 ? 29.14 33.33 30.56 31.96

Table 133 Measurements taken from the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros

Phalanx 2

Inventory

Six second phalanges were retrieved (Table 134) with a lot of different traces: ochre traces, cut marks, impact traces and gnawing traces. The MNI is one.

Ochre Cut marks Impacts Gnawing

NISP 6 2 3 3

Percentage 100 33 50 50

Table 134 Traces found on the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros

102

Measurements

The measurements taken from the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros are displayed in Table 135.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R GL Bp Bd KD

Goyet A3 2792 11 ? 28.35 - - 52.72

Goyet A3 2792 12 ? 32.89 - - 61.71

Goyet A3 2792 13 ? 26.63 - - 56.01

Goyet A3 2792 14 ? 28.87 - - 63.94

Goyet A3 2792 15 ? 40.37 50.77 46.79 45.39

Goyet A3 2792 16 ? 41.13 59.87 55.67 54.99

Table 135 Measurements taken from the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros

Phalanx 3

Inventory

Four fragments of the third phalanx were found (Table 136). One of them belongs to a young adult because the boundary between epi- and diaphysis is clearly visible. All of the elements bear traces of impact, one has cut marks and most have ochre on them (Table 137).

Adult Juvenile NISP %NISP MNI

3 1 4 2,76 2

Table 136 Age,NISP and MNI of the third phalanges from woolly rhinoceros

Ochre Cut marks Impact

NISP 3 1 4

Percentage 75 25 100

Table 137 Traces found on the third phalanges of woolly rhinoceros

Measurements

Table 138 shows the measurements taken from the woolly rhinoceros third phalanges.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R GL Bp Bd KD

Goyet A3 2792 7 ? 29.41 40.63 40.00 40.70

Goyet A3 2792 8 ? 40.47 - - 46.03

103

Goyet A3 2792 9 ? 33.83 42.62 39.75 40.48

Goyet A3 2792 10 ? 40.72 46.79 41.58 46.34

Table 138 Measurements taken of the third phalanges from woolly rhinoceros

Sesamoid

Of the sesamoid bones, six elements were found (Table 139) and could not be allocated to the left- or right-hand side. Various traces were observed: a lot of ochre traces, impact traces and gnawing traces (Table 140). Because of the imprecise determination, the MNI is one.

NISP %NISP MNI

6 4,14 1

Table 139 NISP and MNI of the sesamoid bones from woolly rhinoceros

Ochre Impact Gnawing

NISP 6 3 3

Percentage 100 50 50

Table 140 Traces found on the sesamoid bones of woolly rhinoceros

Metapoda

Inventory

Two metapodal elements were discovered, one distal and one proximal fragment. Ochre traces, impact traces and gnawing traces are present (Table 141). The MNI is not determined due to the uncertain anatonomical position of the remains.

Ochre Impact Gnawing

NISP 2 2 1

Percentage 100 100 50

Table 141 Traces found on the metapoda of woolly rhinoceros

Measurements

The measurements taken from the woolly rhinoceros metapoda are given in Table 142

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Bd

Goyet A3 2792 17 ? 54.28

Table 142 Measurements taken from the metapoda of woolly rhinoceros

104

2nd and 4th metapoda

One left second proximal metatarsal bone was found. It bears ochre, cur marks, traces of impacts and gnawing and has a length of ten cm.

Indeterminata

Two fragments of jaw bones were recovered. It was not possible to allocate them to upper or lower jaw. The fragments were broken and had a length of 4 and 5 cm. No additional traces were observed.

Foetus

Three foetal rhinoceros bones were found (Photograph 33, Photograph 34 and Photograph 35) and have been mentioned in the previous sections. All three of them are a humerus. They are shown in Photograph 21, 22 and 23.

Photograph 33 Proximal foetal woolly rhinoceros humerus (2801-3)

Photograph 34 Foetal humerus of woolly rhinoceros (2801-2)

105

Photograph 35 Foetal proximal woolly rhinoceros humerus (2801-4)

3.2.5 Cervus elaphus (Red deer)

To give a complete overview of the remains of red deer in the third horizon, the unpublished data of Stefanie Dekeyzer is included here. These sections are marked with an * to indicate the partial or complete addition of these data. Table 7 gives the complete inventory of the red deer remains from Horizon 3 of Goyet.

Cranium

Only one cranial fragment was found belonging to the base of the antler. It is broken and bears gnawing traces. Its length is 10 cm. Because only the male red deer have antlers, the presence of one male individual can be proven.

Maxilla

Inventory

One fragment of the upper jaw with teeth attached was discovered. This broken right upper jaw with third and fourth premolars shows no other traces than impact and has a length of six cm.

Measurements

Table 143 provides the measurements taken from the attached teeth of the upper jaw from red deer.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Tooth CL CW CH

Goyet A3 2236 8 R P3 17.95 13.44 15.12

P4 17.78 15.22 15.09

Table 143 Measurements taken from the attached teeth of the upper jaw from red deer

106

Mandibula

Inventory

Two lower jaw fragments were discovered with some teeth still attached to the jaw (Table 144). The jaw and teeth fragments are shown in the table. Because the fragments belong to opposite sides of the jaw, the MNI is one (Table 145). The left element is gnawed and both are broken.

L R P2 P3 P4 M1 M2 M3

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

Table 144 Position of the lower jaw and presence of the teeth from red deer

NISP %NISP MNI

2 6,25 1

Table 145 NISP and MNI of the lower jaw fragments of red deer

Measurements

Table 146 gives the measurements taken from the attached teeth of the lower jaw from red deer

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R tooth CL CW CH

Goyet A3 2236 11 R M1 32.48 23.72 22.98

M2 38.15 27.37 25.53

M3 45.46 25.63 30.50

Goyet A3 2236 12 L P2 24.83 18.24 22.85

P3 32.01 22.67 24.60

P4 33.58 24.02 27.10

M1 36.67 27.02 24.66

Table 146 Measurements taken on the attached teeth of the lower jaw from red deer

107

Dentes

Inventory

Upper jaw

Two fourth premolars were found, one on the left- and one on the right-hand side. One bears ochre, the other traces of an impact. Because of a difference in wear the MNI is two.

Three of these first molars were excavated, all of them with impact traces and one with ochre. Two teeth are from the right-hand side and one from the left which brings the MNI to two.

Also three of these teeth were found, all of them belonging to the left-hand side and bearing traces of an impact. This also brings the MNI to three.

Lower jaw

One fourth premolar was found, presenting ochre traces.

Measurements

The measurements of all isolated teeth from red deer are presented in Table 147.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone U/L L/R Tooth CL CW CH

Goyet A3 2236 9 U R P4 17.98 16.90 22.86

Goyet A3 2236 10 U L P4 20.07 24.91 24.36

Goyet A3 2236 13 U L M2 - - 19.27

Goyet A3 2236 14 U L M2 26.73 24.86 25.65

Goyet A3 2236 15 U R M1 22.48 25.25 10.27

Goyet A3 2236 16 U R M1 24.47 21.21 18.63

Goyet A3 2236 17 U L M2 29.86 18.56 17.24

Goyet A3 2236 18 U L M1 19.95 20.56 10.48

Goyet A3 2236 19 L L P4 19.87 11.87 22.41

Table 147 Measurements of all isolated teeth from red deer

108

Humerus*

One left humerus bone containing cut marks and impact traces was discovered.

Radiocubitus*

Inventory

Two fragments of the radiocubitus bones were found, the first consists of both the cubitus and tha radius, the second concers only the radius. Both are left elements and received impacts. The first specimen exhibits also cut marks.

Measurements

Table 148 displays the measurements of the radiocubitus bone from red deer.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Bd

Goyet A3 2775 37 L 46.86

Table 148 Measurements of the radiocubitus bone from red deer

Carpus

One adult right os carpale quartum with no observable traces was found. The element has a length of three cm.

Metacarpus*

Inventory

Two metacarpal fragments were excavated. One is a proximal fragment, the second a shaft fragment described by S. Dekeyzer. The first fragment bears traces of impact and gnawing and has a length of 20 cm. The second contains cut marks and impact traces and has a length of 8.5 cm. Due to the different location of the elements, the MNI is one.

Measurements

Table 149 gives the measurements taken from the metacarpal bone of red deer.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Bp Tp

Goyet A3 2236 20 R 44.82 32.39

Table 149 Measurements taken from the metacarpus of red deer

109

Tarsus

Calcaneus*

Inventory

One left calcaneus bone containing gnawing traces was recovered.

Measurements

The measurements of the calcaneus bone are displayed by Table 150.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R GL GB

Goyet A3 2810 1 L 98.12 32.93

Table 150 Measurements taken from the calcaneus bone of red deer

Other

One adult complete os centroquartale was identified with a length of 5.5 cm and some minor impact traces.

Metatarsus*

Inventory

Eight fragments of metatarsal bones were discovered (Table 151) of which five were described by S. Dekeyzer. Seven specimens are adults and one is a juvenile. Two adult bones are distal fragments, five are proximal and the juvenile elements is a shaft fragment, small and narrow and could possibly belong to another species. If we assume this bone is a juvenile Cervus, the MNI is six. All the bones are broken, five of them bear ochre and four cut marks are present.

L adult R adult Juvenile NISP %NISP MNI

5 2 1 8 25,00 6

Table 151 Position, age, NISP and MNI of the metatarsal bones from red deer

Measurements

Table 152 shows the measurements taken of the metatarsal bones from red deer.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R Bp Dp Bd Dd

Goyet A3 2236 21 L - - 49.84 26.31

Goyet A3 2236 22 R - - 49.56 30.87

Goyet A3 2211 20 L 33.30 - - -

Goyet A3 2211 29 L 27.54 - - -

110

Goyet A3 2211 54 L - 35.50 - -

Goyet A3 2790 31 L 39.59 - - -

Table 152 Measurements taken of the metatarsal bones from red deer

Phalanx 2

One element of a left posterior second phalanx is observed with traces of an impact and a length of 4.5 cm.

Metapoda*

One metapodal elements could not be determined to either metacarpus or metaparsus, one of which is a distal fragment. This element exhibits ochre remains and traces of an impact and has a length of six cm. The other one is described by S. Dekeyzer and bears cut marks, ochre and gnawing traces. Due to the uncertain position of the elements, the MNI is not calculated.

3.2.6 Ovibos moschatus (Muskox)

Phalanx 2

Inventory

Only a second phalanx was found, belonging to muskox (Table 9). The element bears traces of gnawing.

Measurements

Table 153 provides the measurements of the muskox second phalanx.

Site Horizon Nr. Dupont Nr. Bone L/R GL Bp Bd KD

Goyet A3 2230 2a L 62.85 31.59 33.50 29.18

Table 153 Measurements taken of the second phalanx from muskox

3.2.7 Capra ibex (Ibex)

Radiocubitus

Inventory

One fragment of the radius and cubitus of 25 cm long was discovered (Photograph 36 and Table 8). It has a hole caused by an impact, probably originating from its excavation. Root traces are also present (lighted part of the cave) and the fact that the epiphysis and the diaphysis are not completely fused (boundary still visible) points to a young individual.

111

Measurements

Table 154 displays the measurements of the ibex radiocubitus.

Site Horizon Nr. Nr. L/R GL Ll PL BFp Bp BFd Bd KD Dupont Bone

Goyet A3 2230 3 L 210 191 206 45.05 48.53 38.00 47.41 30.37

Table 154 Measurements taken of the radiocubitus from ibex

Photograph 36 Radiocubitus bone of ibex with mark (2230-3) 3.3 Detailed representation of the different traces

In total, 329 cut marks, 413 ochre traces, 229 gnawing traces, 1032 impact and fragmentation traces and 11 bone tools were found. In percentages relative to the total amount of identified herbivore specimen this gives: 18% cut marks, 23% ochre traces, 13% gnawing traces, 58% impact and fragmentation traces and 1% bone tools.

The results given below are expressed in relative frequencies (number of specimens with traces in relation to the total NISP). This eliminates the effect of a large NISP on the distribution of the traces that can obscure certain information. The species of muskox and ibex are not included as their presence In the fossil assemblage is too low for a significant result.

3.3.1 Ochre

The graph showing the percentage of specimens containing ochre per species (Figure 26 Ochre traces observed per species) indicates that woolly mammoth has the most ochre traces in respect to its total amount of identified specimens. The second most abundant ochre bearer is red deer, followed by horse and woolly rhinoceros. Bos/Bison and reindeer are both below 20 % and muskox has no ochre traces. The fact that Ibex has 100% is due to the fact that there is only one element present and it bears ochre.

112

%NISP 30

0 horse Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer Reindeer

Figure 26 Ochre traces observed per species

The percentage of ochre on the different elements per species is also given. The main observations from these graphs are stated here. With horse (Figure 21) and auroch/bison (Figure 22), the element with most ochre coverage are the cranial fragments and teeth, more than 30 %. The high percentage of ochre on the woolly mammoth remains (Figure 23) is almost completely caused by the ochre on the tusks. This differs from the elements of wooly rhinoceros (Figure 24) and red deer (Figure 25) where respectively the metatarsal and phalangial bones give the highest percentage.

% 20

Ribs

Tibia

other

Pelvis

Tarsus

Femur

Patella

Carpus

Dentes

Maxilla

Scapula

Cranium

Humerus

Vertebrae

Phalanges

Mandibula

Metatarsus

(Metapoda)

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus 2/4 metapoda 2/4 indeterminate

Figure 27 Ochre traces on the various elements of the horse

113

35 30 25 20 % 15 10 5

Tibia

(Ribs)

Carpus

(other)

Dentes

(Pelvis)

Scapula

(Tarsus)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Cranium)

Vertebrae

Metatarsus

(Phalanges)

(Metapoda)

(Mandibula)

Radiocubitus

(Metacarpus) (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 28 Ochre traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison

90 80 70 60 50 % 40 30 20 10

Tusks

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

(other)

(Pelvis)

(Tarsus)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Carpus)

Cranium

(Maxilla)

(Scapula)

(Humerus)

(Vertebrae)

(Phalanges)

(Metapoda)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

(Other teeth) (Other

(Metacarpus)

indeterminate (Radiocubitus) (2/4 metapoda) (2/4

Figure 29 Ochre traces on the various elements of woolly mammoth

114

40 35 30 25 % 20 15 10 5

Ribs

other

(Tibia)

Tarsus

Femur

Carpus

Dentes

(Pelvis)

(Patella)

Cranium

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

Phalanges

Metapoda

(Vertebrae)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

Radiocubitus

(Metacarpus) 2/4 metapoda 2/4 indeterminate

Figure 30 Ochre traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros

50 45 40 35 30 % 25 20 15 10 5

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

(other)

Dentes

(Pelvis)

(Tarsus)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Carpus)

(Maxilla)

(Scapula)

(Cranium)

Metapoda

(Humerus)

Metatarsus

(Vertebrae)

(Phalanges)

(Mandibula)

Radiocubitus

(Metacarpus) (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 31 Ochre traces on the various elements of red deer

3.3.2 Cut marks

Figure 32 Percentage of specimens with cut marks per species indicates that red deer and reindeer carry the highest number of cut marks in relation to their total NISP. These are followed by horse and Bos/Bison (around 15 %), woolly rhinoceros (almost 9 %) and woolly mammoth (1 %). Muskox and Ibex have no cut marks.

115

%NISP 15

0 horse Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer Reindeer

Figure 32 Percentage of specimens with cut marks per species

Of the marks on woolly mammoth no graph Is made as there is only one cut mark present. The following observations can be made on the other species (Figure 27-30): in all the species, except for woolly rhinoceros, the metacarpal or metatarsal bones bear the most cut marks. Another element which exhibits a large amount of traces is the mandibula of the horse (Figure 27). Of woolly rhinoceros (Figure 29), the ribs, the radiocubitus and the phalanges present an equal amount of traces (23 %).

% 10

Ribs

Tibia

other

Pelvis

Tarsus

Femur

Patella

Carpus

Maxilla

Scapula

Cranium

(Dentes)

Humerus

Vertebrae

Phalanges

Metapoda

Mandibula

Metatarsus

Metacarpus

2/4 metapoda 2/4 (Radiocubitus) (indeterminate)

Figure 33 Cut marks on the various elements of the horse

116

35 30 25 20 % 15 10 5

Tibia

(Ribs)

Carpus

(other)

(Pelvis)

Scapula

(Tarsus)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Dentes)

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Cranium)

Phalanges

(Vertebrae)

(Metapoda)

Metacarpus

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

(Radiocubitus) (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 34 Cut marks of the various elements of Bos/Bison

15 % 10

Ribs

(Tibia)

Femur

Carpus

(other)

(Pelvis)

(Tarsus)

(Patella)

(Dentes)

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

(Cranium)

Phalanges

(Vertebrae)

(Metapoda)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

Radiocubitus

(Metacarpus) 2/4 metapoda 2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 35 Cut marks on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros

117

% 30

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

Tarsus

(other)

(Pelvis)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Carpus)

(Dentes)

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

(Cranium)

Metapoda

Metatarsus

(Vertebrae)

(Phalanges)

Metacarpus

(Mandibula)

Radiocubitus (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 36 Cut marks on the various elements of red deer

3.3.3 Gnawing traces

The amount of gnawing traces is rather equally distributed by species (Figure 37 Percentage of specimens with gnawing traces per species). The smaller species (horse, Bos/Bison, red deer and reindeer) have more than five percent gnawing traces. The larger species (woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros) have less than five percent. The muskox bone is also gnawed and the ibex specimen has no gnawing traces.

20 18 16 14 12 %NISP 10 8 6 4 2 0 horse Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer Reindeer

Figure 37 Percentage of specimens with gnawing traces per species

In general, the postcranial elements bear the vast majority of the gnawing traces. The gnawing traces on bones of horse (Figure 38) are concentrated on the limb bones (femur, tibia, tarsus and metapoda). The traces on Bos/Bison (Figure 39) and woolly rhinoceros (Figure 40) are also concentrated on the limb bones. All woolly mammoth gnawing traces (five) were found on the

118 indeterminate bones an thus no graph was constructed. The five gnawing traces found on red deer (Figure 41) were found on five different bones, three of them limb bones.

% 10

Ribs

Tibia

other

Tarsus

Femur

Carpus

Dentes

(Pelvis)

Scapula

(Patella)

Cranium

(Maxilla)

Phalanges

Metapoda

(Humerus)

Mandibula

Metatarsus

(Vertebrae)

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus 2/4 metapoda 2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 38 Gnawing traces of the various elements of horse

15 % 10

Tibia

(Ribs)

Tarsus

Carpus

(other)

Dentes

(Pelvis)

Scapula

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Cranium)

Vertebrae

Phalanges

Mandibula

Metatarsus

(Metapoda)

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 39 Gnawing traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison

119

% 15

other

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

Carpus

(Pelvis)

(Tarsus)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Dentes)

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

(Cranium)

Phalanges

Metapoda

(Vertebrae)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

Radiocubitus

(Metacarpus) 2/4 metapoda 2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 40 Gnawing traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros

15 % 10

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

Tarsus

(other)

(Pelvis)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Carpus)

Cranium

(Dentes)

(Maxilla)

(Scapula)

Metapoda

(Humerus)

Mandibula

(Vertebrae)

(Phalanges)

Metacarpus

(Metatarsus)

(Radiocubitus) (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 41 Gnawing traces on the various elements of red deer

3.3.4 Impact traces The amount of impact traces (here also used for broken and fragmented material) is very high for the different species (Figure 42). The species with the highest numbers is the woolly mammoth (apart from the one bone species Ibex and Muskox). Horse, woolly rhinoceros and red deer have 80 %, while the numbers of Bos/Bison drop to 70 %. Reindeer has the lowest number of traces, almost 30 %.

120

100 90 80 70 60 %NISP 50 40 30 20 10 0 horse Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer Reindeer

Figure 42 Percentage of specimens with impact traces per species

Almost every element of the species present has impact traces and fragments (Figure 43 - Figure 47). The teeth are mostly fragmented and did not receive intentional impacts.

30 % 20

Ribs

Tibia

other

Pelvis

Tarsus

Femur

Patella

Carpus

Dentes

Maxilla

Scapula

Cranium

Humerus

Vertebrae

Phalanges

Metapoda

Mandibula

Metatarsus

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus 2/4 metapoda 2/4 indeterminate

Figure 43 Impact traces on the various elements of horse

121

45 40 35 30 25 % 20 15 10 5

Tibia

(Ribs)

Tarsus

Carpus

(other)

Dentes

(Pelvis)

Scapula

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Cranium)

Vertebrae

Phalanges

Mandibula

Metatarsus

(Metapoda)

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 44 Impact traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison

70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10

Tusks

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

(other)

(Pelvis)

(Tarsus)

(Femur)

(Patella)

(Carpus)

Cranium

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

(Vertebrae)

(Phalanges)

Other teeth Other

(Metapoda)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

(Metacarpus)

indeterminate (Radiocubitus) (2/4 metapoda) (2/4

Figure 45 Impact traces on the various elements of woolly mammoth

122

70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10

Ribs

other

(Tibia)

Tarsus

Femur

Carpus

Dentes

(Pelvis)

(Patella)

Cranium

(Maxilla)

Humerus

(Scapula)

Phalanges

Metapoda

(Vertebrae)

(Mandibula)

(Metatarsus)

Radiocubitus

(Metacarpus) 2/4 metapoda 2/4 indeterminate

Figure 46 Impact traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros

35 30 25 20 % 15 10 5

(Ribs)

(Tibia)

Tarsus

Carpus

(other)

Dentes

(Pelvis)

Maxilla

(Femur)

(Patella)

Cranium

Humerus

(Scapula)

Phalanges

Metapoda

Mandibula

Metatarsus

(Vertebrae)

Metacarpus

Radiocubitus (2/4 metapoda) (2/4 (indeterminate)

Figure 47 Impact traces on the various elements of red deer

3.3.5 Tools

Tools are not frequent in our material, accounting for no more than 1,6 % of the material per species (Figure 48). They are most abundant in the Bos/Bison specimes, followed by the woolly mammoth material. Reindeer, horse and woolly rhinoceros share a low number of tools, although they are the most abundant species in the fossil assemblage. Due to the low number of specimens, no separate graphs per species are made.

123

1,8

1,6

1,4

1,2

1 %NISP 0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0 horse Bos/Bison Mammoth Rhinoceros Red deer Reindeer

Figure 48 Percentage of specimens of which bone tools were made per species 3.4 Age distributions

3.4.1 Horse

The general shape of both distributions, incisor (Figure 49) and cheek teeth(Figure 50) is the same, with the exception of very young animals as there were no young cheek teeth present. With the combined distribution (Figure 51), the age categories ranging between four and ten years are the only ones above ten percent of the specimens in all three the distributions. This indicates that adults are most abundantly represented in the assemblage.

15 % 10

0 0 - 2 2 - 4 4 - 6 6 - 8 8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14 14 - 16 16 - 18 18 - 20 year year year year year year year year year year Age

Figure 49 The age distribution of the horse incisors

124

20 % 15

0 0 - 2 2 - 4 4 - 6 6 - 8 8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14 14 - 16 16 - 18 18 - 20 year year year year year year year year year year Age

Figure 50 The age distribution for the horse cheek teeth

15 % 10

0 0 - 2 2 - 4 4 - 6 6 - 8 8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14 14 - 16 16 - 18 18 - 20 year year year year year year year year year year Age

Figure 51 The age distribution for all horse teeth

3.4.2 Woolly mammoth

The woolly mammoth age distribution is divided into broad age categories. This is necessary as there are very few teeth present in the fossil assemblage. The distribution shows that young animals are more abundant than older woolly mammoths. No individuals were estimated older than 24 African elephant years.

125

Age distribution mammoth 70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 0 to 12 12 to 24 24 to 36 36 to 48 48 to 60 African elephant years

Figure 52 The age distribution of the woolly mammoth, the ages are expressed in African elephant years

3.4.3 Woolly rhinoceros 30

% 15

0 0 to 2 2 to 4 4 to 6 6 to 8 8 to 10 10 to 12 older than 12 years

Figure 53 The age distribution of the woolly rhinoceros, the ages assigned are expressed in black rhinoceros years.

The adult woolly rhinoceros (aged 4 to 10 b.r.y.) are most abundant in this age distribution. There is also a relative high number of younger animals, but the older ones are less well represented.

126

3.4.4 Red deer 45 40 35 30 25 % 20 15 10 5 0 0 to 3 3 to 6 6 to 9 9 to 12 years

Figure 54 The age distribution of red deer

Due to a relative low number of teeth, the age categories are set to 3 years. There is a clear dominance of adult red deer (aged 3 to 9 years) over the younger and older animals.

4 Discussion

4.1 NISP and MNI in the top three horizons of the third cave from Goyet

All herbivores of the third horizon to the third cave of Goyet have now been completely studied. Now the number of identified specimens (NISP) of all the herbivore species can be shown and the %NISP with respect to the total number of remains. This can be integrated into a new review of the fossil assemblage of the first three horizons of the third cave of Goyet and compared with those of Dupont (1872) as shown in Table 155 NISP and MNI of the first three horizons of the third cave of Goyet. The light blue columns are the results from Dupont (1872)..

In addition to my own results, the M.Sc research of Dekeyzer (2007) accounts for 11 fragments of Cervus elaphus and 827 fragments of Rangifer tarandus. This brings the total herbivore remains from the third horizon to 1755 fragments. The results of Depestele (2005) indicate the number of cave lions (Panthera spelaea) in horizon 2 and 3, while the M.Sc study of Soenen (2006) produced the data of the herbivores in the second horizon. The results for the first horizon are published by Germonpré (2006). Mostly, the %NISP was already calculated, but the %MNI was not previously mentioned in the literature and thus has been calculated here. These relative frequencies are calculated with respect to the total assemblage in that horizon.

In terms of the number of identified specimens, the third horizon is the most numerous. However, this layer also has the lowest MNI of the three horizons, in contrast with the results of Dupont (1872). This author also indicated species that were not identified in our study.

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Horizon 1 Horizon 2 Horizon 3 NISP %NISP MNI %MNI MNI %MNI NISP %NISP MNI %MNI MNI %MNI NISP %NISP MNI %MNI MNI %MNI Lagomorpha Lepus timidus/L, capensis 3 0,24 1 0,97 2 3,28 12 1,24 2 1,60 2 2,27 2 2,04 Rodentia Marmota 1 1,02 Carnivora Canis lupus 18 1,42 2 1,94 2 3,28 3 3,41 3 3,06 Canis lupus familiaris 1 1,02 Alopex lagopus 9 0,71 3 2,91 2 3,28 3 3,41 4 4,08 Vulpes vulpes 11 0,87 3 2,91 3 4,92 6 6,82 3 3,06 Alopex / Vulpes 28 2,22 4 3,88 Ursus arctos 5 0,40 1 0,97 1 1,64 1 1,02 Ursus spelaeus 193 15,27 14 13,59 9 14,75 20 22,73 26 26,53 Mustela 1 0,08 1 0,97 1 1,64 1 1,02 Meles meles 7 0,55 2 1,94 2 3,28 3 3,41 3 3,06 Crocuta crocuta spelaea 42 3,32 5 4,85 5 8,20 7 7,95 12 12,24 Panthera spelaea. 8 0,83 1 0,80 1 1,14 1 0,06 1 1,61 1 1,02 Proboscidea Mammuthus primigenius 40 3,16 2 1,94 3 4,92 27 2,80 1 0,80 2 2,27 98 5,58 5 8,06 7 7,14 Perissodactyla Equus arcelini 533 42,17 13 12,62 14 22,95 520 53,89 42 33,60 25 28,41 592 33,71 22 35,48 18 18,37 Equus hydruntinus 2 0,21 2 1,60 Coelodonta antiquitatis 43 3,40 3 2,91 2 3,28 46 4,77 8 6,40 2 2,27 145 8,26 5 8,06 4 4,08 Artiodactyla Cervus elaphus 13 1,03 2 1,94 1 1,64 19 1,97 3 2,40 2 2,27 32 1,82 3 4,84 2 2,04 Capreolus capreolus 6 0,47 2 1,94 1 1,02 Rangifer tarandus 250 19,78 39 37,86 11 18,03 302 31,30 58 46,40 4 4,55 827 47,10 21 33,87 2 2,04 Bison priscus/Bos primigenius 33 2,61 2 1,94 2 3,28 7 0,73 2 1,60 3 3,41 59 3,36 3 4,84 2 2,04 Megaloceros giganteus 3 0,31 1 0,80 Ovibos moschatus 4 0,32 1 0,97 3 0,31 1 0,80 1 0,06 1 1,61 Rupicapra rupicapra 3 0,24 1 0,97 1 1,64 4 0,41 1 0,80 1 1,14 1 1,02 Capra 11 1,14 2 1,60 2 2,27 2 2,04 Capra ibex 9 0,71 2 1,94 1 0,06 1 1,61 1 1,02 Bovidae 13 1,03 Sus scrofa 1 0,10 1 0,80 2 2,27 Total 1264 100 103 100 61 100 965 100 125 100 88 100 1756 100 62 100 98 100

Table 155 NISP and MNI of the first three horizons of the third cave of Goyet. The light blue columns are the results from Dupont (1872). The data per horizon come from: Horizon 1 (Germonpré, 1996); Horizon 2 (Depestele, 2005; Soenen, 2006), Horizon 3: (this study; Dekeyzer,2007; Depestele, 2005). 4.2 Taphonomy

Taphonomy affects the paleontological record, because it evaluates the processes which lead to the preservation or destruction of a fossil. Bones and teeth are the most common objects of research into Pleistocene mammals (Pawlowska, 2010). Of these two, teeth have the highest preservation potential, as evidenced by the material from the third horizon of Goyet (Figure 9 - Figure 14) and Table 10. Teeth are for each species in Goyet the most abundant elements (except for the species where only one element was found and also for reindeer where antlers are more abundant (Dekeyzer, 2007). This results in the dominance of cranial elements (991) over postcranial elements (738) as shown in Table 10. The latter elements can be divided in two separate categories based on size: fragments originating from large bones and those from smaller one. The larger ones (ribs, scapula, humerus, radiocubitus, pelvis, femur, tibia and the metapoda) amount to 485 fragments. The smaller ones (vertebrae, carpus, tarsus, patella, phalanges and other) number 253 elements. This illustrates the improved preservation and recovery of larger bones. Also, a large amount of metapoda were found (234 elements). This could be partly explained by the abundance of horse in the assemblage and this element (canon bone) is very resistant for this species. Soft body parts and more of less complete body skeletons are not present here and are rare in general.

When interpreting a fossil assemblage, taphonomic biases should be taken into consideration. The fossil record is very often not a reflection of the original fauna of the region (Van Kolfschoten, 1995). The fauna of a palaeolithic site, particularly the larger mammal fauna of interest here, is affected by the activities of humans. Hyenas are also known to accumulate bones and their selection results in an abnormal composition of the mammal fauna. Furthermore, phenomena such as the hibernation of bears act on the composition of the fossil faunal assemblage. The taphonomic aspects mentioned

128 above restrict the applicability of fossil mammals to the reconstruction of climate and environment. The proportional representation of a species is less important than its actual presence and should therefore be handled with care (Van Kolfschoten, 1995).The applicability of fossil mammals to the reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment is also hampered by the fact that mammals have the capacity to adapt to various environments and to tolerate other circumstances than those under which they live today.

4.3 Ratios

The ratio of teeth-to-bone is an indication of the degree of preservation as there is a fixed ratio to start from when an animal dies. The lower the ratio (less teeth in comparison with the other bones) the better the preservation conditions are as other bones are less resistant. The following table gives this ratio for the various species from the third horizon. This is useful to compare results from other sites. Levine (1983) gives two values for horse remains for the sites Gönnersdorf (0.8) and Jaurens (0.6). The value for Goyet falls in between these but is not much lower than the value of Gönnersdorf. This seems to indicate that the preservation of the horse remains in Goyet is relatively good. Some care needs to be taken as the specimen from Goyet are associated with prehistoric human handling so the initial ratio could be influenced.

Horse Auroch/ Woolly Woolly Muskox Ibex Red deer Reindeer mammoth rhinoceros Bison

0,78 0,97 3,45 1,84 - - 0,39 0,19

Table156: The teeth to bone ratios fot the different species from the third horizon of Goyet.

Another useful ratio to indicate a differential rate of preservation is the ratio of right to left tooth elements (Fernandez et al., 2006). This author also explains the calculation of this parameter with a value of 100 indicating an equal amount of right and left teeth. As the number of teeth on each side is equal at the start, any major deviation may indicate a disturbance of the material. Only isolated teeth are considered here. The deviation for horse is most extreme but this is influenced by the missing tray which probably contains left teeth elements. The value of red deer is slightly higher and can be explained by the low number of specimens present. Only one tooth more or less has a large impact on the ratio. Woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros have higher values but are still far from an equal amount of left and right teeth. The values for auroch/bison and red deer approach equality and indicate no significant disturbance. The general conclusion is that, based on these values, differential preservation and disturbance are present in the studied material. The values are also significantly lower than those mentioned by Fernadez et al. (2006) who range from 89 to 96 for horse remains at three different sites.

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Horse Bos/Bison Woolly Woolly Muskox Ibex Red deer Reindeer mammoth rhinoceros right 169 13 3 39 0 0 3 96

Left 70 14 5 24 0 0 6 94 total 338 28 10 78 0 0 12 192 expected

Ratio 70,71 96,43 80,00 80,77 - - 75,00 98,96

Table 157 Right to left ratio for the teeth of the different species from the third horizon 4.4 Osteometry and general interpretations

4.4.1 Equus sp.

To examine the trend of an increasing width of the third phalanx, as shown in Bignon et al. (2002), we compared our results with those presented by this author (Figure 23). In addition to our results, the data from Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) are plotted. The measurements taken from the Pleistocene material fit well in the trend of increasing width. Most of the samples have a slightly wider articular surface and are situated at the far end of the trend, indicating an excellent adaption to heavy grounds. As there are rivers nearby in Goyet, this is a plausible hypothesis. The results from Zemst indicate also a wide third phalanx, but as these are much older than the Late glacial context of the study performed by Bignon et al. (2002), this may be attributed to a general size increase.

To illustrate the trend in size reduction throughout the Late Pleistocene, several measurements of horse elements from different sites and periods have been plotted to observe the differences. These other data are provided by Germonpré (1993a) for Zemst IIB, Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2 and Germonpré (unpublished) for Spy. Various elements are plotted: metacarpus (Figure 15 and Figure 16), femur (Figure 17), astragalus (Figure 18), metatarsus (Figure 19 and Figure 20), first (Figure 21), second (Figure 22) and third (Figure 24) posterior phalanges. The general conclusion is that the elements from the horses in Zemst are generally larger than younger material. This confirms the trend in size reduction in the Pleistocene horses. The relation between the two horizons from Goyet is more complicated: sometimes the specimens from the third horizon are larger than those from the second as expected, sometimes the opposite is observed. This could be due to a more limited time span separating these remains or due to the fact that these horizons are thought to be a palimpsest. The measurement of Spy appear to be in between the size range of Goyet and Zemst.

A more indirect approach to the size decrease is the estimation of a body mass. The measurements taken allow to plot the data of the first phalanx and the third metacarpal bone on a reference line provided by Alberdi et al. (1995) (Figure 55).This allows to estimate the body mass of the horses and to compare with the general body mass reduction trend. The graphs are shown here as the body mass is not a measurement, but an estimation based on the correlation stated by Alberdi et al. (1995).

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Figure 55 Body mass calculation. (a) Distal width of the third metacarpal bone, (b) distal width of the first phalanx. The reference line (with the blue points) consists out of E. caballus pony (lower), E. przewalskii (middle) and E. caballus heavy horse (upper) (adapted from Alberdi et al., 1995). The results from Goyet are presented in red.

The body mass estimation is obtained by plotting the measurements on the reference line given by Alberdi et al. (1995). The function of this relation is lnBM = -5,00 + 2,82 * lnBd for the metacarpal figure and lnBM = - 5.67 + 3.23 * ln Bd for the first phalanx figure. The estimation given by the third metacarpal bone measurements lies in the range of 390-425 kg. This is in agreement with the general body mass reduction as shown in Figure 57. However, the range for the first phalanx measurements is 675-960 kg (outlier of 1390 kg omitted). This gives a much larger range than the metacarpal bone measurements and does not fit with the body mass reduction trend. Due to the large variation, the estimation based on the first phalanx seems less reliable.

We used the same approach to estimate the body mass for the second horizon of Goyet and for Spy (Figure 56). The results for the body mass derived from the metacarpus are nearly identical to those from the third horizon of Goyet and fits with our expectations. However, the values for the estimations based on the first phalanx lie also much higher for the second horizon of Goyet.

Metacarpus first phalanx

Goyet A2 Goyet A2

BM 395-415 780-1320

Spy

BM 390-415

Figure 56 Body mass estimation of the sites Spy and Goyet A2

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Figure 57 The Equini fossils, from Europe, and the correlation between body mass and the major climatic environmental changes. The body mass, in kilograms, is included in brackets under each pecies name (Alberdi et al., 1995).

4.4.2 Mammothus primigenius

The frequency distribution of the mammoth in Goyet A3 is dominated by molariform teeth. Tusks also have a high NISP but this is due to the large number of small fragments from a probably limited number of tusks. The general distribution corresponds with the mammoth remains from the Belgian site Spy (Germonpré et al., in press), the Austrian site Grub-Kranawetberg (Bosch et al., 2012), Yudinovo (Germonpré et al., 2008) and Hofstade (Germonpré, 1993b).

Only the teeth could be measured, the remaining mammoth material was too fragmented and could not be identified accurately. The molariform teeth have been used in the construction of an age distribution. The tusks are very fragmented and are probably remains from the production of the ivory beads discovered in this horizon.

In analogy with the nearby site of Spy (Germonpré et al., 2012), certain observations can be made. In Goyet, the frequency distribution is also dominated by molariform teeth and cranial elements. This and the age distribution (below) suggests that the mammoth heads have been transported into the cave.

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4.4.3 Bos/Bison

We compared the distal metacarpal bone measurements from Goyet A3 with Zemst IIB (Figure 25. To differentiate between Bos and Bison in the Goyet specimen, the measurements of both species from Zemst IIB are plotted. Three different groups are visible: Early Weichselian bison (Zemst), auroch (Zemst) and Goyet bison.The resulting pattern indicates that both specimen of Goyet are Bison, as they are larger than the aurochs from Zemst IIB, especially the distal diameter. The specimen are smaller than the bison measurements from Zemst IIB, which fits in the trend of size reduction. However, some care needs to be taken as there are very few specimen and these species are very similar.

4.4.4 Cervus elaphus

In Goyet, this species is present in all top three horizons (1, 2 and 3), although not very abundant. It is the only species in the third horizon which provided suitable for a gender determination. Due to the presence of a antler base fragment, a male red deer in the fossil assemblage could be proven.

4.4.5 Coelodonta antiquitatis )

This species is the third most abundant herbivore in the third horoizon of Goyet, in NISP as well as in MNI. Although there is only one measurement of the astragalus, it can be compared with other sites. The measurement of Tm (Greatest depth on the medial side) gives the following results. The difference with Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) is slight as the value for this parameter in Goyet is 65.31 mm and the mean value in Zemst is 62.5. The difference with other data from remains stored in the Institute of human palaeontology (Paris) is larger. These results have a mean Tm of 57,5 for the astragalus (Vercoutère et al., 2013). The age of the specimen is around14 000 cal BP and it was found in the riverbands of the Tobol and Irtych rivers in the Tioumen region, Siberia.

Care needs to be taken due to the low number of measurements of the Goyet material, but both the Goyet and Zemst measurements are larger than the younger material from Siberia. This could indicate the same pattern of reducing size, although for Goyet, this could be due to a large specimen as there is only one measurement, where the other values are the mean of multiple specimen.

4.4.6 Ovibos moschatus

The remains from the European Pleistocene muskox represent a single species, indistinguishable from recent Ovibos moschatus, although of slightly larger size (Raufuss and Von Koenigswald, 1999). This is evidenced by the measurements from Goyet: the length of the modern muskox second phalanges is below five cm (Vanlerberghe, 1979). The measurements performed on the remains from Goyet A3 indicate a length above six cm. This is another illustration of the trend in size reduction during the Late Pleistocene.

The number of Pleistocene muskox finds in Europe decreases towards the Atlantic Ocean, which may be due to the fact that Ovibos was restricted to continental climates with little snow fall (Raufuss and

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Von Koenigswald, 1999). This decrease in abundance is supported by the fact only one element was found in the third horizon in Goyet and only eight in the first three horizons.

4.5 Age distributions

4.5.1 Horse

The general shape of the age profiles obtained by the teeth resembles that of the stalking model (Levine, 1999). The pattern is also similar to the one from Dereivka (Ukraine) which is a site associated with the stalking model (possibly in combination with others). The site of Botai (associated with herd driving) gives a central peak which is too low in comparison with the results from Goyet. These two sites and their relation to the models are discussed in Levine (1999).

Some of the horse foetus remains could be aged if their total length could be measured. These results indicate that the foetuses had been killed between the ages of 20 to 29 weeks after gestation. This is not the only site where foetal horse remains have been found, Diedrich (2010) mentions several Pleistocene hyena dens in Central Europe containing these remains. However, as one of these foetal bones in Goyet bears cut traces, human handling of at least some of these bones is evident. There are on gnawing marks present so other carnivores killing these foetuses can not be proven.

For modern horses, the peak of the breeding season is in May, June and July (Conlon et al., 2009) with an average pregnancy period of 340 days. If the age of the foetus remains is added to this, these individuals were killed in the winter months (October, November and December) in the middle of the pregnancy period. Thus, possibly prehistoric humans have hunted horse in Goyet during the winter months, although other predators (cave hyena) could have done the same as is proven in other sites (Diedrich, 2010).

4.5.2 Woolly mammoth

The age distributions of the molars of the woolly mammoth can be compared with the distribution of the nearby site of Spy (Germonpré et al., in press). The age distribution of the second level from Spy is very similar. The distribution from Spy was also obtained with a limited number of teeth (14), slightly larger than the 12 teeth used in this analysis. The group of young animals is smaller in Goyet, only one third of the material consists of M1 of M2 teeth while in Spy 60% of the material are M2. A point of similarity is that there are also no teeth older than the age of 24 a.e.y. The profile in Goyet A3 corresponds most with Type A of Haynes. Type B (which is more illustrated by the result from Spy) is less likely here but a selective killing of young animals is is still possible. Maybe the scavenging component is larger here or older mammoth were more hunted here than in Spy. Another possible explanation for the larger adult component in the woolly mammoth assemblage is that some of these skull were specifically transported to the cave for the production of the ivory beads. As tusks never stop growing, older individuals seem more beneficial for this purpose than the young animals.

4.5.3 Woolly rhinoceros

The shape of the age distribution for woolly rhinoceros is a bell shape with a relatively large young age group. This could be due to the fact that this species was also hunted by humans and thus the

134 bell shape could be caused by selective hunting methods. Around 75% of the aged teeth indicate an individual of 4 to 10 b.r.y. This means that most of the remains are adults which is not a natural situation. Another explanation would be a catastrophe, but the deposition of the remains inside the cave would probably involve human interaction or carnivores such as cave hyenas.

4.5.4 Red deer

The age distribution of red deer resembles a bell shape. In contrast with the large herbivores however, this species was almost certainly also hunted by other predators like cave lion. However, the shape of the curve indicates that mostly adult red deer were targeted to account for the fossil assemblage in the third horizon, which is most probably caused by a human, selective hunting method. 4.6 Archaeozoology

It is evident that both human influence and natural agents can be observed on the material. Traces of human activities are represented by cut marks, ochre and impact traces and the transformation of some bones into tools. One of the natural influences are the gnawing traces left on the bones.

It is also possible to distinguish the activity by either prehistoric humans or by large carnivores, based upon the frequency distribution of the skeletal elements and the age distribution of teeth (Germonpré et al., 2012). Studies have been conducted on what animals could have formed the regular prey of the Neanderthals and carnivores found in nearby sites, on the basis of the results of the stable isotope analyses of their skeletal remains.

The horses found at the third horizon of Goyet have been hunted by humans. The human handling is evidenced by the cut marks, most of which are found on the lower jaw, the metapoda and phalanges. All the jaws were broken, probably to reach the fat inside.

Root traces occur on some of the material from Goyet A3. This indicates the fragments location is near the entrance as plants need light te grow. Photograph 5 illustrates these traces on a horse rib.

4.6.1 Ochre

In the third horizon of Goyet, the most ochre traces are found on woolly mammoth remains. If the distribution of the ochre traces on its various elements is made, it is clear that these ochre traces are dominantly present on the tusks. This reinforces the evidence of the human handling of these tusks that were used to make ivory beads. The horse cranial elements, especially the teeth, are most covered with ochre, as are the bovid elements. In woolly rhinoceros and red deer however, the postcranial elements of metatarsus and phalanges bear most ochre traces. The bovids and reindeer have a low amount of ochre traces, below 20 %, while the other species are situated above that percentage. Muskox and ibex are not considered here due to there low abundance in Goyet.

Photographs have been taken to illustrate the appearance of the ochre traces in the fossil assemblage of the third horizon. Photograph 1 shows a lower horse jaw with ochre traces, Photograph 12 presents a horse tibia with ochre while Photograph 11 displays a horse femur.

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Photograph 22 shows a bison scapula and Photograph 10 a horse carpal bone. Mammoth tusks also contain ochre (Photograph 25 and Photograph 26).

4.6.2 Cut marks

The cut marks are unevenly distributed across the different herbivore species in the third horizon of Goyet. The species with the most cut marks are reindeer and red deer followed by horse, bovids and woolly rhinoceros, woolly mammoth shows almost no cut marks. In all these species, save woolly rhinoceros and woolly mammoth, the metacarpal or metatarsal bones bear the most cut marks. Another element which exhibits a large amount of traces is the mandibula of the horse. With woolly rhinoceros, the ribs, the radiocubitus and the phalanges have an equal amount of traces (23 %). The marks point to disarticulation and is is possible that, as Levine (1979) stated, some of the animal was eaten on the kill site and selected parts such as the limbs were transported back to the cave.

A number of photographs have been taken to illustrate tha appearance of cut marks in the fossil assemblage of the third horizon. Photograph 1 and Photograph 2 show the lower jaw of a horse with cut marks, indicating handling by humans. Photograph 22 presents a bison scapula while Photograph 15 and Photograph 16 contain cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse. Photograph 24 displays marks on a posterior second phalanx of an auroch.

4.6.3 Gnawing traces

These traces have certainly been made by animals, either with or without earlier human handling of the bones. In section 3.3.3, the gnawing marks per species have been presented, which shows that the largest herbivores (woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros) have been least gnawed. This is in agreement with the hypothesis that of the predators present in Goyet, only humans frequently hunted these species. This was indicated by the stable isotope analysis studies given in the introduction. The smaller species have more gnawing marks as they would have been hunted by the other predators (cave lion, cave hyena, brown bear and canids). The species of which only one bone was discovered are difficult to interpret due to the lack of material. The horse remains give the most complete view as most of the different skeletal elements are present. In most of the species, the elements who bear gnawing marks are dominated by the postcranial elements. This is no surprise as these regions are generally more gnawed.

Gnawing traces are shown on Photograph 7, Photograph 8 and Photograph 9 on a horse scapula. Other traces can be found on a horse tibia (Photograph 12), a bovid carpal bone (Photograph 23) and a horse femur (Photograph 11).

Several large gnawing marks have been observed and are thought to originate from the cave hyena. Cave hyenas did interact with mammoth material due to the gnawing marks found on the mammoth bones. It is not possible, based solely on an analysis of diet, to eliminate the activity of cave hyenas as a possible factor accounting for the accumulation of mammoth bones. Some parts of the remains are accredited solely to human interaction with mammoths, for example the tusk fragments of which many were covered in ochre and the associated beads.

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4.6.4 Impact traces

There are a lot of impact traces and broken fragments in the material from Goyet which reflect the fragmented nature of the fossil assemblage: very few bones are undamaged. The designation Impact in this study is any natural or human influende that broke or damaged the remains. The significant lower impact traces on the reindeer bones is probably the result of Dekeyzer (2007) who only indicated traces with a human origin with this term. The species with the highest numbers is the woolly mammoth (apart from the one bone species Ibex and Muskox). Horse, woolly rhinoceros and red deer have 80 %, while the numbers of Bos/Bison drop to 70 %. Reindeer has the lowest number of traces, almost 30 %.

It is difficult to distinguish between natural and human-induced impacts. Nevertheless, some structures are characteristic of human interference. Two of them are present here: impacts of weapons and longitudinal fractures of bones.

Impact traces, indicated with the red mark by Dupont, are visible on the horse scapula in Photograph 7 and Photograph 9. They occur also on a horse metatarsus (Photograph 14) and a horse lower jaw (Photograph 3).

4.6.4.1 Weapons

There is no clear distinction between impact traces left by the bow or the spearthrower (Pétillon and Letourneux, 2008). The aim of these weapons is to kill the target and any impacts to the bone are unintentional. However, when hunting is frequently occurs the skeleton receives damage. Most of these traces will occur at the scapula and the thoracal and lumbar vertebrae, near the vital zones of the animal. One impact trace in this study seems to have been caused by a weapon (Figure 58). It concerns a large impact hole in the centre with multiple cracks originating from it. This trace seems similar to those mentioned in Pétillon and Letourneux (2008). The fragment coming from horse originates from the region which is most targeted by hunters as mentioned above. Due to the very specific setting of these traces, they are rare, only one bone provides direct evidence of human hunting practices. The impact trace on the ibex bone is different and was probably made during the excavations. The crack originating from the center are not well defined and the central impact is very irregular. Also the trace on the woolly rhinoceros bone is most likely caused by the teeth of a carnivore (cave lion or cave hyena).

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4.7.3.2 Longitudinal fractures

There are longitudinal fractures present in the material of Goyet. Photograph 17shows a clear example, with additional impact structures marked in red by Dupont. It is unlikely that animals can cuase these kinds of fractures so they could be attributed to prehistoric humans.

4.6.5 Tools

Tools are identified based on wear patterns originating from human handling. This is not always easily distinguished from charriage-à-sec, wear patterns coming from interaction with animals in the cave (pushing around and wearing down of the bones).

One of the metatarsal horse bones discovered in the third horizon has a pointy end, with signs of wear (Photograph 13). This could indicate a tool used to pierce. On the other hand, this could also be generated by the charriage-à-sec effect.

Photograph 29 shows an indeterminate mammoth bone with a triangular shape. This could also be induced by humans or by charriage-à-sec. This specimens is more likely to be caused by charriage-à- sec than the first because most of the planes are straight (in contrast with the metatarsus), a feature that could originate from wear by animal interaction.

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Photograph 14 of a horse metatarsus contains another possible tool. The tip indicated in red by Dupont shows signs of wear.

4.6.6 Comparison with the spatial distribution established by Dupont (published by Germonpré, 2001)

Now that all the herbivore material of this layer has been studied in detail, a new scheme of the spatial distribution with the appropriate indications for different marks on the bones can be made. As a comparison, both the old distribution and the new one are shown here.

Figure 59 Scheme of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet (adapted from Germonpré, 2001)

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Figure 60 Scheme of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet using data from De keyzer and this study.

A first difference is the increase of the presence of both cut marks and gnawing traces in the studied trays. In the old distribution, only one tray is indicated as such, now there are 24 trays with both traces. Also the number of trays with only gnawing traces has increased, from zero to three. The category with solely cut marks is the only one which has decreased, from 12 to 6. One of the trays with the old indications for cut marks has remained, in all the rest also gnawing traces are present. That the new results show much more marks in comparison with the old results that were based on the unpublished data of E. Dupont is no surprise as the remains were until now not studied in detail.

The observation that cut marks are generally more found to the front of the cave and gnawing traces more to the back is still valid. However, the trays at the back of the cave with the old indications of the presence of horses are not studied here. Tray 2891 contains a total of 56 gnawed bones from mammoth, rhino, large bovids and horse (Dupont, unpublished notes). Trays 2833 and 2194 contain only remains from cave bears and not from horses, as initially thought. Trays 2789 and 2240 held

140 some caudal vertebrae of horse but these were moved from these trays to the trays where these bones now can found.

5 Conclusion

This M.Sc study is part of the re-examination of the material excavated by Dupont in the third cave of Goyet. The goal is to analyse the herbivores of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet in regard to taphonomy, osteometry and archaeozoology. Most of the material was studied during this research, but some species (Rangifer tarandus and part of Cervus elaphus) have already been studied before. These earlier data were included to complete the overview of the faunal assemblage of the third horizon.

The following species occur in the third horizon: Equus sp., Bos, Bison, Mammuthus primigenius, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Cervus elephus, Rangifer tarandus, Ovibos moschatus, Capra ibex. Of these, Rangifer and Equus are most abundant. The other species are (in order of decreasing abundance): Coelodonta antiquitatis, Mammuthus primigenius, Bos/Bison spp., Cervus elephus, Ovibos moschatus, Capra ibex.

A comparison of the fossil assemblages of the top three horizon of the third cave of Goyet indicates that the herbivores are most abundant in the third horizon. However, less different species are observed and the minimum number of individuals is also lower.

Although certain taphonomic biases are present, some observations can be made. Teeth are the best preserved elements in the material, leading to a dominance of cranial fragments over postcranial elements. Of the postcranial elements, the larger bone fragments are more represented, indicating a better preservation and recovery of these elements. A well represented element are the metapodal fragments, indicating a good preservation potential for these bones.

Two different ratios could be calculated to assess the preservation of the material in the third horizon of Goyet. The first is the teeth-to-bone ratio and its value is comparable to the sites of Gönnersdorf and Jaurens, indicating a decent preservation. This number could be influenced by prehistoric human interaction however. The second ratio is that of the right to left tooth elements. These values are rather low for most of the species, indicating disturbance of the remains since death.

The measurements taken on the horse material yield several results. Late glacial horses possess larger (third) phalanges than extant equids. This also has been evidenced by the measurements taken in Goyet and points to an adaptation to heavy grounds, associated with rivers in the vicinity. Measurements from the second horizon of Goyet and Zemst IIB indicate the same trend, although the data from Zemst are on older material and could be related to a general larger size.

Several measurements also provide evidence for the trend in size reduction of the horse during the Pleistocene. The measurements from Goyet are compared with the second horizon of Goyet (Soenen, 2006), the early Weichselian site of Zemst IIB studied by Germonpré (1993a) and Spy (Germonpré, unpublished). On all material with sufficient measurements to compare the various

141 sites, the older remains indicate larger horses. The measurement of Zemst are invariably the largest, while the other measurements can be more varied relative to each other. In addition, a body mass estimation was made using the method provided by Alberdi et al. (1995). This gives a contrasted result: one of the graphs correlates well with the expected body mass of Late Pleistocene horses, the other gives a far greater body mass but seems less reliable. Other measurement of Spy and the second horizon are also included and give the same conclusion.

The woolly mammoth frequency distribution indicates dominantly cranial elements, especially teeth. This is in agreement with other sites and could be explained by the introduction of these skulls by prehistoric humans. Some of these skulls were brought inside the cave for ivory bead production.

Based on measurements on auroch/bison, a size reduction during the Upper Pleistocene of these species is likely and one auroch/bison element was classified as bison. Woolly rhinoceros could also show this trend in size reduction during this time period. Care needs to be taken however as these interpretations are made based on a very limited number of measurements. Another species that exhibits this trend towards smaller size is the muskox. There is only one second phalanx present in Goyet A3, but it is larger than the same element of modern muskox. The low abundance of muskox elements in Goyet seems to support the theory of a reduced presence of this species during the Pleistocene in Belgium due to the humid, Atlantic climate.

It is difficult to determine the gender of the different species due to the lack of sexual dimorphism on one hand and the absence of characteristic elements on the other. It is possible to confirm a male red deer due to the presence of the base of an antler.

The age distributions derived from the age estimations from teeth give the following results. Because of their bell-shaped distribution, horse, woolly rhinoceros and red deer were hunted using a selective method by humans. The distribution of woolly mammoth indicates a dominance of younger individuals. This distribution is compared with the second level of Spy, where the component of very young animals is larger. The younger remains from Goyet are associated with hunting, the older animals with ivory bead production.

Some of the horse foetus remains could also be used to estimate the age at death. The results indicate that the foetuses had been killed between the ages of 20 to 33 weeks after gestation. The breeding season Is in summer and added with the foetus ages, they have been killed in winter. Some of these are proven to be hunted by prehistoric humans, although other predators could not be excluded.

It is evident that both human influence and animals interaction can be observed on the material. Traces of human activities are represented by cut marks, ochre and impact traces and the transformation of some bones into tools. One of the animal interactions are the gnawing traces left on the bones. This information is used for a archaeozoological study.

Ochre is abundantly present in the assemblage, 23% of all specimen bear ochre traces. The species most covered is the woolly mammoth due to the large amount of tusk fragments with ochre, associated with the ivory beads.

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Cut marks on 18% of the herbivore assemblage provide further proof of prehistoric human interaction. Cut marks are not the only traces associated with these humans and their prey. The jaw bones of horse have been fragmented to extract fat. Other impact traces have also been recognized such as a weapon impact and bone cracking to reach the marrow. The difference between intentional human impact traces and general fragmentation is not always clear. Some bones could be transformed into tools, although the effect of charriage-à-sec is also possible.

Gnawing traces are less present, 13% of the herbivores have been gnawed upon and retain traces of this carnivore interaction. The largest herbivores (woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros) have been least gnawed. This is in agreement with the hypothesis that of the predators present in Goyet, only prehistoric humans frequently hunted these species. The smaller species have more gnawing marks as they would have been hunted by the other predators (cave lion, cave hyena, brown bear and canids).

The spatial distribution is not well documented, but a general tendency of cut marks in the front of the cave and more gnawing traces in the back is distinguished.

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Ulrix-Closset M., 1975. Le paléolithique moyen dans le bassin mosan en Belgique, Wetteren, 221 pp.

Van Asperen E., 2010. Ecomorphological adaptations to climate and substrate in late Middle Pleistocene caballoid horses. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 297, pp.584–596

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Van den Broeck E., Martel E., Rahir E., 1910. Les cavernes et les rivières souterraines de la Belgique, Bruxelles, 2 volumes, 1751 pp.

Van Kolfschoten T., 1995. On the application of fossil mammals to the reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment of northwestern Europe. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 38(1): pp. 73-84

Vanlerberghe L., 1979. Bijdrage tot de kennis van de recente en Pleistocene muskusos. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Universiteit Gent, Belgium.

Van Strydonck M., Landrie M., Maes A., Van der Borg K., De Jong A. F. M., Alderliesten K., Keppens E., 2001. Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage Radiocarbon dates XVII. Brussels: Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage.

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6.2 Abbreviations of the measurements

Abbreviation Von den Driesch (1982)

151

Bd (mm) Größte Breite distal Greatest distal width

BF Breite der Facies articularis Width of the facies articularis

BFcr/BFcd Größte Breite der Facies terminalis Greatest width of the cranial/caudal facies cranialis/caudalis terminalis

BFd Größte Breite der Facies articularis Greatest width of the distal facies articularis distalis

BFp Größte Breite der Facies articularis Greatest width of the proximal facies proximalis articularis

BG Breite der Gelenkfläche Width of the articular surface

Bp Größte Breite proximal Greatest proximal width

BPacd Größte Breite über die Processus Greatest width across the caudal processus articulares articularis caudales

BPacr Größte Breite über die Processus Greatest width across the cranial processus articulares articularis craniales

BPtr Größte Breite über die Processus Greatest width across the processus transverse transverses

BT Größte Breite der Trochlea Greatest width of the trochlea

CH Crown height

CL Crown length

CW Crown width

Dd (Td) Größte Tiefe distal Greatest distal depth

Dp (Tp) Größte Tiefe proximal Greatest proximal depth

GB Größte Breite Greatest width

GH Größte Höhe Greatest height

GL Größte Länge Greatest length

GLl Größte Länge der lateralen Hälfte . Greatest length of the lateral half Only with Nur bei Equus Equus

GLm Größte Länge der medialen Hälfte Greatest length of the medial half

152

GLP Größte Länge des Processus Greatest length of the processus articularis articularis

GLPa Größte Länge von den Processus Greatest length from the cranial processus articulares craniales zu den Processus articularis to the caudal processus articularis articulares caudales

H Größte Höhe Greatest height

HFcr/HFcd Größte Höhe der Facies terminalis Greatest height of the cranial/caudal facies cranialis/caudalis terminalis

HP Höhe im Bereich des Processus Height in the reach of the processus extensorius extensorius

KD Kleinste Breite der Diaphyse Smalest width of the diaphysis

KLC Kleinste Länge am Collum Smallest length of the collum

Ld Länge dorsal Doral length

LG Länge der Gelenkfläche Length of the articular surface

LF Länge der Facies articularis Length of the facies articularis

LF Lamellar factor (with mammoth teeth)

LFd L fold length with Equus

Ll Außenlänge lateral Lateral exterior length

LmT Länge des medialen Rollkamms der Length of the medial ridge of the trochlea Trochlea

MBS “Mittlere” Breite der Sohle = Breite in Width of the sole in the middle der Mitte der Sohle

PL Physiologische Länge des Körpers, Physiological length of the body, central zentral

TC (Größte) Tiefe des Caput femoris (Greatest) depth of the caput femoris

TD Kleinste Tiefe der Diaphyse Smallest depth of the diaphysis

Tl Größte Tiefe der lateralen Hälfte Greatest depth of the lateral half

Tm Größte Tiefe der medialen Hälfte Greatest depth of the medial half

153

Dd and Dp are adapted from Td and Tp of Von den Driesch (1982).

6.3 List of photographs of selected specimens

Photograph 1 Ochre and cut marks on a horse lower jaw fragment (2218-27) ...... 43 Photograph 2 Detail of cut marks on a horse lower jaw fragment (2218-27) ...... 43 Photograph 3 Lower jaw of the horse with premolars and one molar and an impact mark (2218-7) . 44 Photograph 4 Growth deformation in a horse molar (2895-73) ...... 46 Photograph 5 Root traces on a horse rib (2798-22) ...... 53 Photograph 6 Horse rib fragment with impact (2798-17 ...... 53 Photograph 7 Impact and gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3) ...... 54 Photograph 8 Detail of gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3) ...... 54 Photograph 9 Detail of impact and gnawing traces on a horse scapula (2221-3) ...... 55 Photograph 10 Ochre traces on a horse carpal bone (2224-30) ...... 57 Photograph 11 Ochre and gnawing traces on a horse femur fragment (2799-22) ...... 61 Photograph 12 Ochre and gnawing traces on e distal horse tibia fragment (2223-15) ...... 62 Photograph 13 Horse metataral bone (2794-4) which probably was used as a tool ...... 67 Photograph 14 distal horse metatarsus with impact traces and possibly a tool (2226-22) ...... 67 Photograph 15 Cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse (2226-1) ...... 69 Photograph 16 Detail of cut marks on an anterior first phalanx of the horse (2226-1) ...... 69 Photograph 17 Longitudinally fractured horse metapode (2226-31) ...... 74 Photograph 18 Foetal horse humerus (2217-13) ...... 76 Photograph 19 Foetal horse femur with cut marks (2217-15) ...... 77 Photograph 20 foetal horse humerus (2217-12)...... 77 Photograph 21 Impact and gnawing traces on a bison lower jaw fragment (2819-30) ...... 78 Photograph 22 Detail of cut marks and ochre on a bison scapula fragment (2230-1a) ...... 82 Photograph 23 Ochre and gnawing traces on a bovid carpal bone (2231-8) ...... 84 Photograph 24 Cut marks on a posterior second phalanx of auroch (2236-5) ...... 87 Photograph 25 Ochre traces on a woolly mammoth tusk fragment (2802-36) ...... 88 Photograph 26 Ochre traces on a woolly mammoth tusk fragment (2802-11) ...... 89 Photograph 27 M1 woolly mammoth tooth (2777-6)...... 89 Photograph 28 M1 woolly mammoth tooth (2777-6)...... 90 Photograph 29 Possible tool from an indeterminate mammoth bone (2216-3) ...... 92 Photograph 30 Woolly rhinoceroa cheek tooth (2232-47) ...... 98 Photograph 31 Woolly rhinoceroa cheek tooth (2232-47) ...... 99 Photograph 32 Woolly rhinoceros rib fragment with mark (2801-12) ...... 99 Photograph 33 Proximal foetal woolly rhinoceros humerus (2801-3) ...... 105 Photograph 34 Foetal humerus of woolly rhinoceros (2801-2) ...... 105 Photograph 35 Foetal proximal woolly rhinoceros humerus (2801-4) ...... 106 Photograph 36 Radiocubitus bone of ibex with mark (2230-3) ...... 112

6.4 List of figures

154

Figure 1 Northwest European chronostratigraphical subdivision and correlation with the marine isotope record, and archaeological units of this study.Adapted from Hijma, 2012. Note the break of scale at 135 ka...... 5 Figure 2 Map of chamber A, B and C from the third cave of Goyet (Germonpré and Sablin, 2001). III stands for the third cave...... 6 Figure 3 Section of the third cave (Chamber A and B) from Dupont (1872). Although the figure seems to show more horizons, Chamber A contains four layers (horizons one to four) and Chamber B contains two ( horizons four and five). The scale mentioned by Dupont is three millimetres for one meter...... 7 Figure 4 Figure of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet (adapted from Germonpré, 2001) ...... 11 Figure 5 Dentition of the horse, adapted from Budras et al. (2009) ...... 20 Figure 6 illustration of incisor wear of horses ( Levine, 1982) ...... 21 Figure 7 Illustration of cheek tooth measurements of horses (adapted from Levine, 1982) ...... 22 Figure 8 Illustration of increasing wear with increasing age of red deer (Brown and Chapman, 1991). The first three jaws still have the deciduous premolars in place, while the fourth shows these teeth before shedding (above) and the permantent teeth (on the jaw)...... 24 Figure 9 %NISP of the horse ...... 37 Figure 10 %NISP of Bos/Bison ...... 38 Figure 11 %NISP of the mammoth, all teeth combined ...... 38 Figure 12 %NISP of the woolly mammoth, tusks and other teeth separate ...... 39 Figure 13 %NISP of the woolly rhinoceros ...... 39 Figure 14 %NISP of red deer ...... 40 Figure 15 Comparison between the metacarpal bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ...... 59 Figure 16 Comparison between the width of the proximal horse metacarpal bones of different Pleistocene sites. The measurements are derived from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2, Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB and Germonpré (unpublished data) for Spy...... 59 Figure 17 Comparison between the femur bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ...... 61 Figure 18 Comparison of the astragalus height of the horses from different Pleistocene sites. The measurements are taken from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2 and Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB. . 63 Figure 19 Comparison between the metatarsal bone data of horse from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ...... 66 Figure 20 Comparison of the distal metatarsal width of the horses from three different Pleistocene sites. The measurements are derived from Soenen (2006) for Goyet A2, Germonpré (2003a) for Zemst IIB and Germonpré (unpublished data) for Spy...... 66 Figure 21 Comparison between the first posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ...... 68 Figure 22 Comparison between the second posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ...... 71 Figure 23 Comparison between third phalanges of extant equids and Late Glacial horses: maximal width (GB) and articular surface width (BF). The measurements of Equss przewalskii and Late Glacial Horse were taken from Bignon et al, 2002 and those from Zemst IIB are data of Germonpré (1993a)...... 72

155

Figure 24 Comparison between the third posterior phalanx bone data of horse from Goyet A3, Goyet A2 (Soenen, 2006) and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ...... 73 Figure 25 Comparison between the metacarpal bone data of Bos/Bison from Goyet A3 and Zemst IIB (Germonpré, 1993a) ...... 85 Figure 26 Ochre traces observed per species...... 113 Figure 27 Ochre traces on the various elements of the horse ...... 113 Figure 28 Ochre traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison ...... 114 Figure 29 Ochre traces on the various elements of woolly mammoth ...... 114 Figure 30 Ochre traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros ...... 115 Figure 31 Ochre traces on the various elements of red deer...... 115 Figure 32 Percentage of specimens with cut marks per species ...... 116 Figure 33 Cut marks on the various elements of the horse ...... 116 Figure 34 Cut marks of the various elements of Bos/Bison ...... 117 Figure 35 Cut marks on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros ...... 117 Figure 36 Cut marks on the various elements of red deer ...... 118 Figure 37 Percentage of specimens with gnawing traces per species ...... 118 Figure 38 Gnawing traces of the various elements of horse ...... 119 Figure 39 Gnawing traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison ...... 119 Figure 40 Gnawing traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros ...... 120 Figure 41 Gnawing traces on the various elements of red deer ...... 120 Figure 42 Percentage of specimens with impact traces per species ...... 121 Figure 43 Impact traces on the various elements of horse ...... 121 Figure 44 Impact traces on the various elements of Bos/Bison ...... 122 Figure 45 Impact traces on the various elements of woolly mammoth ...... 122 Figure 46 Impact traces on the various elements of woolly rhinoceros ...... 123 Figure 47 Impact traces on the various elements of red deer ...... 123 Figure 48 Percentage of specimens of which bone tools were made per species ...... 124 Figure 49 The age distribution of the horse incisors ...... 124 Figure 50 The age distribution for the horse cheek teeth...... 125 Figure 51 The age distribution for all horse teeth ...... 125 Figure 52 The age distribution of the woolly mammoth, the ages are expressed in African elephant years ...... 126 Figure 53 The age distribution of the woolly rhinoceros, the ages assigned are expressed in black rhinoceros years...... 126 Figure 54 The age distribution of red deer ...... 127 Figure 55 Body mass calculation. (a) Distal width of the third metacarpal bone, (b) distal width of the first phalanx. The reference line (with the blue points) consists out of E. caballus pony (lower), E. przewalskii (middle) and E. caballus heavy horse (upper) (adapted from Alberdi et al., 1995). The results from Goyet are presented in red...... 131 Figure 56 Body mass estimation of the sites Spy and Goyet A2 ...... 131 Figure 57 The Equini fossils, from Europe, and the correlation between body mass and the major climatic environmental changes. The body mass, in kilograms, is included in brackets under each pecies name (Alberdi et al., 1995)...... 132

156

Figure 58 Comparison of weapon impact traces and a similar traces: (a) photographs from Pétillon and Letourneux, 2008; (b) horse rib fragment (2798-17); (c) radiocubitus bone of ibex (2230-3); (d) woolly rhinoceros rib fragment (2801-12) ...... 138 Figure 59 Scheme of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet (adapted from Germonpré, 2001) ...... 139 Figure 60 Scheme of the spatial distribution of the third horizon of the third cave of Goyet using data from De keyzer and this study...... 140

6.5 List of tables

Table 1 Compilation of the available datations of the third cave of Goyet ...... 9 Table 2 General distribution of the herbivores in Goyet A3, the taxa partially or completely studied by Dekeyzer (2007) are marked with an * ...... 29 Table 3 Horse bones in A3 ...... 30 Table 4 Bones of auroch/bison in A3 ...... 31 Table 5 Woolly mammoth bones in A3 ...... 32 Table 6 Woolly rhinoceros bones in A3 ...... 33 Table 7 Bones of red deer in A3 ...... 34 Table 8 Bones of Ibex in A3 ...... 35 Table 9 Bones of Muskox in A3 ...... 36 Table 10 Sum and abundance of the different elements (NISP), part of the Cervus and all of the Rangifer are collected by Dekeyzer (2007)...... 37 Table 11 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse cranium ...... 40 Table 12 Position of the upper jaw elements of the horse ...... 41 Table 13 Traces found on the horse upper jaws ...... 41 Table 14 NISP and MNI of the horse upper jaws ...... 41 Table 15 Measurements of the horse upper jaw fragments...... 41 Table 16 Position of the lower jaw elements of the horse ...... 42 Table 17 Traces found on the horse lower jaws ...... 42 Table 18 NISP and MNI of the horse lower jaws ...... 42 Table 19 Measurements of the horse upper jaw teeth fragments ...... 43 Table 20 NISP of the six different horse upper jaw incisor teeth ...... 44 Table 21 NISP of the six different horse lower jaw incisor teeth ...... 44 Table 22 NISP and MNI of all horse incisors ...... 44 Table 23 Position of the horse canines ...... 44 Table 24 NISP and MNI of the horse canines ...... 45 Table 25 NISP of the six different horse upper jaw incisor milk teeth ...... 45 Table 26 NISP and MNI of the horse incisor milk teeth ...... 45 Table 27 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse P2 premolars ...... 45 Table 28 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse P3 and P4 premolars ...... 45 Table 29 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse M1 and M2 molars ...... 46 Table 30 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse M3 molars ...... 46 Table 31 Measurements of all isolated horse teeth ...... 50 Table 32 Position, NISP and MNI of the indeterminate horse teeth ...... 51

157

Table 33 Measurements of the horse axis ...... 51 Table 34 Measurements of a horse cervical vertebral element ...... 52 Table 35 Measurements of the horse caudal vertebral elements ...... 52 Table 36 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse scapula ...... 53 Table 37 Measurements of the horse scapula ...... 53 Table 38 Position, marks, NISP and MNI of the horse humerus ...... 55 Table 39 Measurements of the horse humerus ...... 55 Table 40 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse radiocubitus ...... 56 Table 41 Measurements of the horse radiocubitus ...... 56 Table 42 Position of the carpal bones from the horse ...... 56 Table 43 Traces on the horse carpal bones ...... 57 Table 44 NISP and MNI of the horse carpal bones ...... 57 Table 45 Measurements taken from the horse carpal bones ...... 57 Table 46 Position, NISP and MNI of the horse metacarpal bones ...... 58 Table 47 Traces on the horse metacarpal bones ...... 58 Table 48 Measurements taken from the horse metacarpel bones...... 58 Table 49 Position, marks, NISP and MNI of the horse pelvis ...... 60 Table 50 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse femur bones ...... 60 Table 51 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse foetal femur bones ...... 60 Table 52 Tracesn NISP and MNI of the horse femur bones ...... 60 Table 53 Measurements of the horse femur bones ...... 60 Table 54 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse tibie bones ...... 62 Table 55 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse tibia bones ...... 62 Table 56 Measurements taken from the horse tibia bones ...... 62 Table 57 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse astragalus bones ...... 63 Table 58 Measurements of the horse astragalus bones ...... 63 Table 59 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse calcaneum bones ...... 64 Table 60 Position of the element in the skeleton of the other horse tarsal bones ...... 64 Table 61 Marks found on the other horse tarsal bones ...... 64 Table 62 NISP and MNI of the other horse tarsal bones ...... 64 Table 63 Position and adult MNI of the horse metatarsal bones ...... 65 Table 64 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of all horse metatarsal bones ...... 65 Table 65 Traces found on the horse metatarsal bones ...... 65 Table 66 Measurements taken from the horse metatarsal bones ...... 65 Table 67 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse first phalanges ...... 68 Table 68 Measurements of the horse first phalanges ...... 68 Table 69 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse second phalanges ...... 69 Table 70 Measurements of the horse second phalanges ...... 70 Table 71 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse third phalanges ...... 71 Table 72 Measurements taken from the horse third phalanges ...... 72 Table 73 Position of the element in the skeleton, NISP and MNI of the horse sesamoid bones...... 73 Table 74 Measurements taken from the horse sesamoid bones ...... 73 Table 75 Position, traces, NISP and MNI of the horse metapodal bones ...... 74 Table 76 Measurements of the horse metapodal bones ...... 74 Table 77 Position of the element in the skeleton of the horse second and fourth metapoda ...... 75

158

Table 78 Traces, NISP and MNI of the horse second and fourth metapoda ...... 75 Table 79 Measurements of the horse foetal bones ...... 76 Table 80 Age estimation in weeks after gestation based on measured element length, following the correlation of Prummel (1989) ...... 76 Table 81 Measurements of the lower jaw bone of Bos/Bison ...... 78 Table 82 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars from Bos/Bison ...... 78 Table 83 Measurements taken from all teeth of Bos/Bison ...... 80 Table 84 Measurements taken from the cervical vertebrae of Bos/Bison ...... 81 Table 85 Measurements taken from the caudal vertebrae of Bos/Bison ...... 81 Table 86 NISP and MNI of the scapula bone from Bos/Bison ...... 81 Table 87 Position, NISP and MNI of the humerus bones from Bos/Bison ...... 82 Table 88 Traces found on the humerus bones from Bos/Bison ...... 82 Table 89 Measurements taken from the humerus bones of Bos/Bison ...... 83 Table 90 Position, NISP and MNI of the radiocubitus bones from Bos/Bison ...... 83 Table 91 Traces found on the radiocubitus bones from Bos/Bison ...... 83 Table 92 Measurements taken from the radiocubitus bones of Bos/Bison ...... 83 Table 93 Traces on the carpal bones of Bos/Bison ...... 84 Table 94 Position, NISP and MNI of the metacarpal bones from Bos/Bison ...... 84 Table 95 Measurements taken from the metacarpal bones of Bos/Bison ...... 85 Table 96 Position, NISP and MNI of the tibia of Bos/Bison ...... 86 Table 97 Traces found on the tibia bones from Bos/Bison ...... 86 Table 98 Measurements of the tibia from Bos/Bison ...... 86 Table 99 Measurements of the astragalus bone from Bison ...... 86 Table 100 Traces found on the second phalanges of Bos/Bison ...... 87 Table 101 Measurements taken from the second phalanges of Bos/Bison ...... 87 Table 102 Measurements taken of the third phalanx of Bos/Bison ...... 88 Table 103 Position of the mammoth molars ...... 90 Table 104 Measurements of the mammoth teeth ...... 91 Table 105 List of all woolly mammoth molars which could be given an age at death (expressed in African elephant years) ...... 92 Table 106 Position, NISP and MNI of the indeterminate mammoth bones ...... 92 Table 107 Traces found on the indeterminate mammoth bones ...... 92 Table 108 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth upper jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 93 Table 109 NISP and MNI of the third and fourth upper jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 93 Table 110 Position of the element in the skeleton of the first and second upper jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 93 Table 111 NISP and MNI of the first and second upper jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 94 Table 112 Position, NISP and MNI of the third upper jaw molar of woolly rhinoceros ...... 94 Table 113 Position of the element in the skeleton of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 94 Table 114 NISP and MNI of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 94 Table 115 Traces of the third and fourth lower jaw premolars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 95

159

Table 116 Position of the element in the skeleton of the first and second lower jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 95 Table 117 NISP and MNI of the first and second lower jaw molars of woolly rhinoceros ...... 95 Table 118 Position of the element in the skeleton of the woolly rhinoceros milk teeth ...... 96 Table 119 NISP and MNI of the woolly rhinoceros milk teeth ...... 96 Table 120 Position of the element in the skeleton of the intederminated woolly rhinoceros teeth ... 96 Table 121 Measurements of all woolly rhinoceros teeth ...... 98 Table 122 Traces found on the ribs of woolly rhinoceros ...... 99 Table 123 Position of the element in the skeleton of the humerus bones of woolly rhinoceros ...... 100 Table 124 Traces found on the humerus bones of woolly rhinoceros ...... 100 Table 125 Traces found on the radiocubitus bones of woolly rhinoceros ...... 100 Table 126 Position of the element in the skeleton of the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros ...... 100 Table 127 NISP and MNI of the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros ...... 100 Table 128 Traces found on the carpal bones of woolly rhinoceros ...... 101 Table 129 Traces found on the femur bones of woolly rhinoceros ...... 101 Table 130 Measurements of the astragalus from woolly rhinoceros ...... 101 Table 131 Age, NISP and MNI of the first phananges from woolly rhinoceros ...... 102 Table 132 Traces found on the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ...... 102 Table 133 Measurements taken from the first phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ...... 102 Table 134 Traces found on the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ...... 102 Table 135 Measurements taken from the second phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ...... 103 Table 136 Age,NISP and MNI of the third phalanges from woolly rhinoceros ...... 103 Table 137 Traces found on the third phalanges of woolly rhinoceros ...... 103 Table 138 Measurements taken of the third phalanges from woolly rhinoceros ...... 104 Table 139 NISP and MNI of the sesamoid bones from woolly rhinoceros ...... 104 Table 140 Traces found on the sesamoid bones of woolly rhinoceros ...... 104 Table 141 Traces found on the metapoda of woolly rhinoceros ...... 104 Table 142 Measurements taken from the metapoda of woolly rhinoceros ...... 104 Table 143 Measurements taken from the attached teeth of the upper jaw from red deer ...... 106 Table 144 Position of the lower jaw and presence of the teeth from red deer ...... 107 Table 145 NISP and MNI of the lower jaw fragments of red deer ...... 107 Table 146 Measurements taken on the attached teeth of the lower jaw from red deer ...... 107 Table 147 Measurements of all isolated teeth from red deer ...... 108 Table 148 Measurements of the radiocubitus bone from red deer ...... 109 Table 149 Measurements taken from the metacarpus of red deer...... 109 Table 150 Measurements taken from the calcaneus bone of red deer ...... 110 Table 151 Position, age, NISP and MNI of the metatarsal bones from red deer ...... 110 Table 152 Measurements taken of the metatarsal bones from red deer...... 111 Table 153 Measurements taken of the second phalanx from muskox ...... 111 Table 154 Measurements taken of the radiocubitus from ibex ...... 112 Table 155 NISP and MNI of the first three horizons of the third cave of Goyet. The light blue columns are the results from Dupont (1872). The data per horizon come from: Horizon 1 (Germonpré, 1996); Horizon 2 (Depestele, 2005; Soenen, 2006), Horizon 3: (this study; Dekeyzer,2007; Depestele, 2005)...... 128 Table156: The teeth to bone ratios fot the different species from the third horizon of Goyet...... 129

160

Table 157 Right to left ratio for the teeth of the different species from the third horizon ...... 130

6.6 Labels of Dupont with each tray

General label:

3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH – repaire d’hyènes, puis habitation de troglodytes

L’Hyène semble alors avoir repris possession de la Caverne: on trouve dans ce niveau des restes du fauve et des os rongés. Or, par contraste saillant avec les deux niveaux inférieurs, ici ce n’est plus l’Ours, mais l’homme lui-même qui l’expulsa. Ce Troisième niveau a en effet fourni une grande quantité d’ossements non plus des diverses parties de squelette pour les grands animaux, mais sutout les restes du crane et des os des membres; les os à moelle sont brisés non plus tranversalement, mais en longs éclats; il y avait aussi beaucoup de Silex taillés, des os travaillés, des objets de parure, des os carbonises; le tout particulièrement vers l’entrée, c’est-à-dire dans la partie élairée du souterrain. Les 24 espèces rencontrées, outré des ossements humains:

Caractéristiques de l’Age du Mammouth Felix leo Ursus ferox

Hyaena spelea Elephas primigenius

Ursus spelaeus Rhinoceros tichorhinus

En commun avec l’Age du Mammouth Canis lagopus Antilope rupicapro

Arctomys marmotta Capra ibex?

Ovibos mosquatus Cervus tarandus

En commun avec les Ages du Renne et Canis lupus Bison europaeus du Mammouth Canis vulpes Bos ......

Mustela ermine Capra ......

Lepus timidus Cervus elaphus

Equus caballus Cervus capreolus

Sus scrofa

É.Dupont Juillet 1905

The hyena appears to have taken back control of the cave: remains of big felids and bones with gnawing traces have been found in this level. Or, with a conspicuous contrast with the two underlying layers, bears are no longer present because they are expelled by humans. The third horizon provides a large number of bones, either diverse parts of the skeleton, but mainly remains of the skull and limbs; the marrowbones are broken either transversally but in long peals. There are also a lot of worked silex stones and bones, ornaments, charred bones; all this especially near the entrance of the cave, in the illuminated part. The 24 species present besides human bones are:

161

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Humérus, radius, cubitus de Chevaux. Ce sont les seuls restes de ces catégories. Un fragment d'humérus porte une petite entaille.

Equus caballus. Humerus, radius, ulna of horses. These are the only remains of this category. One fragment of a humerus bears a small cut mark.

2222 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Vertèbres et os du bassin de Chevaux. Ce sont les seuls os de cette sorte. Un os du bassin a servi de Lissoir et trois autres ont reçu des entailles.

Equus caballus. Vertebrae and bones of the pelvis of horses. These are the only bones from this category. One bone of the pelvis has been used as a tool and three bear cut marks.

2766 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Omoplates et fémurs de Chevaux. Ce sont les seuls débris d'omoplates retrouvés. Un de ceux-ci a été utilisé comme Lissoir; un autre porte des entailles; un autre et deux parties de fémurs ont reçu des coups de Percuteurs.

Equus caballus. Scapulas and femurs of horses. These are the only parts of shoulder blades found. One of them has been used as a tool, another bears sut marks, yet another and two fragments of a femur have received impacts.

2221 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Métacarpiens et métatarsiens de Chevaux, dont 1 a servi de Lissoir, 1 autre de Perçoir; 2 autres portent des entailles, 5 autres des coups de Percuteurs.

Equus caballus. Metacarpals and metatarsals of horses, of which one has been used as a tool, another has been used as a piercing tool, two other bear cut marks, five others received impacts.

2794 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

162

Equus caballus. Métacarpiens, métatarsiens, phalanges et sésamoïdes de Chevaux. L'un a été un Lissoir et porte de plus la marque d'un des coups qui l'a brisé et deux ont été des Perçoirs.

Equus caballus. Metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges and sesamoids of horses. One of these was used as a tool and bears traces of the impact by which it was broken. Two have been piercing tools.

2226 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Stylets et os du carpe et du tarse de Chevaux.

Equus caballus. Styli and wrist- and anklebones of horses.

2224 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Tibias et autres os de Chevaux. L'un a été un Lissoir et a reçu un coup de Percuteur, un autre et un calcaneum portent de fines entailles.

Equus caballus. Tibias and other bones of horses. One tibia has been a tool and received an impact, another one and a calcaneum bear fine cut marks.

2223 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Fémurs de Chevaux. Un fragment de diaphyse a été un Lissour; quatre autres ont reçu des coups de Percuteurs et l'un d’eux a été aussi un Lissoir.

Equus caballus. Femurs of horses. A fragment of the diaphyse (shaft) has been used as a tool, four other received impacts and one of these was also used as a tool.

2799 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Côtes, tibias et autres os de Chevaux. Quatre fragments de tibias ont été des Lissoirs dont un porte en outre la marque d'un coup de Percuteur; cinq autres portent la même marque.

Equus caballus. Ribs, tibias and other bones of horses. Four fragments of tibias have been used as tools of which one also bears traces of an impact. Five others bear the same traces.

163

2798 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Bison europaeus. Os des membres de Bisons. Ils appartiennent à deux spécimens au moins. Un fragment de métacarpiens à reçu un coup de Percuteur.

Bison europaeus. Bones of the limbs of bison. The belong to at least two individuals. One fragment of a metacarpal received an impact.

2231 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Bison europaeus. Os divers du Bison. Il y a deux moitiés inférieures de tibias gauches d'adultes dont une a été transformée en un beau Lissoir-Perçoir, et un fragment d'omoplate de jeune avec entailles. Ces ossements se rapportent donc à au moins trois individus. Capra ibex. Radius et cubitus de Bouquetin. Ovibus mosquatus. Phalange de Boeuf musqué.

Bison europaeus. Diverse bones of bison. There are two parts of a lower left tibia of which one has been shaped into a tool and a fragment of a shoulder blade of a young individual bears cut marks. These bones indicate at least three individuals. Capra ibex. Radius and ulna of an ibex. Ovibus mosquatus. Phalanx of a muskox.

2230 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Bison europaeus. Molaires et vertèbres de Bisons. Il y a une molaire inférieure de veau et 4 troisièmes supérieures gauches adultes, ce qui implique cinq individus au moins.

Bison europaeus. Molars and vertebrae of bison. There is a lower molar of a calf and four adult third upper left molars which indicates at least five individuals.

2819 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Fragments de maxillaires inférieurs de Chevaux. Deux ont reçu des entailles fines et trois des coups de Percuteurs.

Equus caballus. Fragments of the lower jaw of horses. Two received fine cut marks and three have traces of an impact.

164

2218 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Bos... Ossements divers d'un Boeuf plus petit que le Bos primigenius ou Urus, mais n'en différant par aucun caractère anatomique. Le fait se renouvelle plusieurs fois. Cervus elaphus. Os divers de notre Cerf. La base d'un bois serait, vu ses dimensions, du C. canadensis et a été rongée. Cervus capreolus. ou Chevreuil.

Bos... Diverse bones of a bovine smaller than Bos primigenius or Urus but the same in regard to anatomical characteristics. This occurs several times. Cervus elaphus. Diverse bones of our deer. The base of an antler belongs (based on its dimensions) to C. Canadensis and has been gnawed. Cervus capreolus or roe.

2236 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Os du cräne et de la langue de Chevaux adultes, dont un avec entailles. Humérus, cubitus, fémurs, incisives, etc., de jeunes, mëme de foetus; ils se rapportent à 3 individus.

Equus caballus. Bones of the skull and throat of adult horses, of which one with cut marks. Humerus, ulna, femur, incisors, etc. of young, maybe even foetus; they belong to three individuals.

2217 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Elephas primigenius. Morceaux de défences de Mammouths dont 3 ont été travaillés.

Elephas primigenius. Pieces of tusks of mammoths of which three are worked.

2802 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Elephas primigenius. Ossements de Mammouth dont trois fragments de crâne.

Elephas primigenius. Bones of mammoths of which three are fragments of the skull.

2215 É.D. Avril 1906

165

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Elephas primigenius. Fragments d'humérus, de fémur, de cötes et autres de Mammouth, dont 3 ont servi de Lissoirs.

Elephas primigenius. Fragments of humerus, femur, ribs and other bones of mammoths of which three have been used as tools.

2216 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Elephas primigenius. Molaires, fragments de molaires et de défences de Mammouths jeunes et adultes.

Elephas primigenius. Molars, fragments of molars and tusks of young mammoths and adults.

2777 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Molaires supérieures et inférieures de Rhinocéros, jeunes et adultes. D'après les 5es supérieures et 6es inférieures gauches de ce cadre et de son voisin, ces restes se rapporteraient à cinq individus adultes. Il y a plusieurs dents de lait. Quoique les Troglodytes vécussent dans de véritables charniers, on voit qu'ils rejetaient au dehors une grande partie de leurs restes.

Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Upper and lower molars of rhinoceros, young and adults. Following the left upper 5th and lower 6th molars of this tray and its neighbour, these remains correspond with five adult individuals. There are multiple milk teeth. Although the troglodytes live in a charnel house, a large part of the remains are deposited outside.

2795 & 2232 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Os des membres de Rhinocéros. Un fragment de radius a sevi de Lissoir.

Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Bones of the limbs of rhinoceros. One fragment of a radius has been used as a tool.

2792 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

166

Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Os des membres et cötes de Rhinocéros. Un humérus a été rongé par l'Hyène. Deux fragments d'humérus et une côte d’adultes ont reçu des coups de Percuteurs; un radius de jeune porte des entailles.

Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Bones of the limbs and ribs of rhinoceros. A humerus has been gnawed by a hyena. Two fragments of a humerus and an adult rib received impacts; a radius of a young individual bears cut marks.

2801 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. 116 incisives et 27 fragments, 9 canines, 230 molaires inférieures et 39 fragments. Dénombrement des molaires:

1e gauche, 10 4e gauche, 12 1e droite, 14 4e droite, 13.

2e gauche, 30 5e gauche, 22 2e droite, 25 5e droite, 11

3e gauche, 31 6e gauche, 16 3e droite, 26 6e droite, 23

Aucun de ces nombres n’atteint le chiffre de 38 fourni par la 3e molaire supérieure droite. Leurs écarts sont du reste en rapport avec les autres parties presents du squelette toujours fort incomplete, et ils prouvent que beaucoup de debris étaient rejetés hors de la Caverne.

None of these numbers reach the amount of 38 right upper third molars. This difference and also the absence of most other parts of the skeleton prove that a lot of waste has been deposited outside the cave.

2895 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Il y a ici 133 molaires supérieures gauches et 143 droites, plus 102 fragments non determinable.

1e gauche, 16 4e gauche, 20 1e droite, 18 4e droite, 21.

2e gauche, 22 5e gauche, 22 2e droite, 18 5e droite, 27

3e gauche, 31 6e gauche, 22 3e droite, 38 6e droite, 20

Les plus nombreuses, étant la 3e droite, dénotent que 38 Chevaux furent tués et apportés ici. Mais ce nombre fut vraisemblablement plus élevé, attendu que, d’une part, parmi les 102 fragments, doivent s’en trouver de la molaire en question, et, d’autre part, le classement des os établit qu’une faible partie des restes de gibier était conserve dans l’habitation.

The most numerous (the right third molar) indicate at least 38 killed and traNISPorted horses. This number lies most likely higher because, among the 102 fragments, there have to be more of this molar. The second reason is that this classification relies on the small part of the remains of the prey who were kept in the cave.

167

2896 É.D. Avril 1906

GOYET. 3e CAVERNE. – 3e NIVEAU OSSIFÈRE. – AGE DU MAMMOUTH

Equus caballus. Phalanges, sabot et sésamoides du sabot de Chevaux.

Equus caballus. Phalenges, hooves and sesamoids of the hoof of horses.

2817 É.D. Avril 1906

6.7 Dutch resume

De (derde) grot van Goyet is een belangrijke archeologische en paleontologische Pleistocene site van België. Deze grot is gesitueerd in de zuidelijke rand van het Synclinorium van Namen, nabij de vallei van de Maas. De site ligt bij de samenvloeiing van de Strouvia met de Samson, een kleine zijrivier van de Maas. E. Dupont heeft tijdens de jaren 1860 deze grot uitgegraven en ontdekte en verzamelde er duizenden beenderen. Hij nam deze vondsten op in een stratigrafie met vijf horizonten, maar de ruimtelijke verdeling is slecht gekend.

Het doel van deze thesis is een analyse van de herbivoren (tafononomisch, osteometrisch en archeozoologisch) uit de derde horizon van de derde grot van Goyet, België. Dit kadert in een reeks onderzoeken om het paleontologisch materiaal nader te bestuderen. De carnivoren werden het laatste decennium onderzocht (Depestele, 2005; Germonpré, 2004; Germonpré et al., 2009; 2013: Germonpré en Hämälainen, 2007; Germonpré en Sablin, 2001). De herbivoren van de eerste horizon werden bestudeerd door Germonpré (1996, 1997) en Dekeyzer (2007). Soenen (2006) heeft de herbivoren van de tweede horizon onderzocht en Dekeyzer (2007) analyseerde ook de rendieren van de derde horizon. De resultaten van Dekeyzer (2007) over de rendieren en over een deel van de edelherten (ongepubliceerde data) werden opgenomen in deze analyse om een compleet overzicht te geven van alle herbivoren.

De fossielen van Goyet dateren uit het Pleniglaciaal en het Laat-Glaciaal. Er werden niet enkel overblijfselen van de fauna ondekt maar ook stenen en benen artefacten van prehistorische mensen. De industrieën uit het Paleolithicum worden toegeschreven aan het Mousteriaan, het Aurignaciaan, het Gravettiaan en het Magdaleniaan. Er zijn niet alleen artefacten, maar ook menselijke skeletresten. Deze resten behoren tot Neanderthalers en anatomisch moderne mensen en getuigen van verschillende fasen in de bewoning van deze grot.

De volgende soorten komen voor in de derde horizon van de derde grot van Goyet: Equus sp., Bos, Bison, Mammuthus primigenius, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Cervus elephus, Rangifer tarandus, Ovibos moschatus en Capra ibex. Rangifer en Equus komen het meest voor. De andere species zijn (in volgorde van grootste abundantie): Coelodonta antiquitatis, Mammuthus primigenius, Bos/Bison spp., Cervus elephus, Ovibos moschatus en Capra ibex.

Een vergelijking van de resultaten uit de bovenste drie horizons van de derde grot van Goyet levert de volgende resultaten op. De derde horizon heft het meeste aantal specimen.

168

Daarentegen bezit deze laag het minste aantal verschillende herbivore soorten and de laagste MNI (minimum aantal individuen).

Al zijn er een aantal tafonomische effecten aanwezig zoals een selectie van het materiaal in de grot door prehistorische mensen en roofdieren, toch blijken een aantal zaken uit de fossiele assemblage. Tanden zijn de best bewaarde elementen in de assemblage wat resulteert in een dominantie van de craniale over de postcraniale elementen. Wanneer we de postcraniale elementen nader bekijken blijkt dat de fragmenten afkomstig van grotere botten beter vertegenwoordigd zijn. Dit wijst op een betere bewaring van dit materiaal. Een groep botten waar ook veel fragmenten van gevonden zijn, wordt gevormd door de metapodale botten.

Twee ratios konden ook berekend worden aan de hand van de aan- en afwezigheid van bepaalde elementen om de kwaliteit van bewaring in Goyet in te schatten. De eerste ratio is de verhouding van tanden ten opzichte van de beenderen. Deze waarde (voor paarden) is vergelijkbaar met andere sites en lijkt relatief goed. Dit getal kan wel beïnvloed zijn door de invloed van prehistorische mensen op de initiële waarde. De tweede ratio die berekend werd is de verhouding van linker- en rechtertanden. Voor de meeste soorten indiceren de waarden een onevenwicht wat op een verstoring van de resten sinds de dood van de individuen wijst.

De metingen verricht op de paardenbeenderen kunnen op verschillende manieren gebruikt worden. Paarden uit the Laat Glaciaal bezitten grotere derde falanxen dan modern paarden. Dit kan aangetoond worden met de metingen uit de derde horizon van Goyet en wijst op een aanpassing aan zware gronden in de buurt van rivieren. Extra metingen van de tweede horizon van Goyet en van Zemst IIB bevestigen deze trend. De metingen uit Zemst stammen uit een oudere periode en kunnen te wijten zijn aan een algemene vergroting. Andere metingen geven informative over de reductie in lichaamsgrootte van de paarden tijdens het Pleistoceen. Hiervoor worden de resultaten uit Goyet A3 vergeleken met metingen uitgevoerd door Gemonpré (1993a) van Zemst IIB, door Soenen (2006) van Goyet A2 en Germonpré (niet gepubliceerd) van Spy. Alle beenderen met voldoende metingen worden vergeleken en indiceren dat de paarden van Zemst IIB groter zijn. Aangezien deze resten de grootste ouderdom hebben sluit dit aan bij de reductie in lichaamsgrootte tijdens het Pleistoceen. De resultaten van de andere gegevens zijn meer variabel ten opzichte van elkaar. Vervolgens wordt een schatting van de massa van de paarden gemaakt via de methode van Alberdi et al. (1995). Deze resultaten zijn minder duidelijk: de eerste metingen geven een massa die in overeenstemming is met de verwachtingen voor Laat Glaciale paarden. De tweede metingen echter geven een te zware waarde en lijken minder betrouwbaar. De massa van de paarden uit Spy en de tweede horizon werd ook bepaald met vergelijkbare resultaten.

De frequentieverdeling van de wolharige mammoet wijst op een duidelijke dominantie van de cranial elementen, vooral de tanden zijn sterk vertegenwoordigd. Dit komt overeen met andere sites en kan verklaard worden door de introductie van deze schedels in de grot door prehistorische mensen. Sommige van deze schedels (en vooral de slagtanden) zijn binnengebracht voor de vervaardiging van ivoren parels.

169

Op basis van de metingen verricht op de resten van oeros/bison kon ook een reductie van de lichaamsgrootte vastgesteld worden. Een element dat initieel tot beide soorten kon behoren werd op basis van vergelijkingsmateriaal geclassificeerd als bison. De wolharige neushoorn lijkt ook deze trend van een kleinere grootte te ondersteunen. De muskusos vertoont ook deze trend naar een kleinere lichaamsgrootte. Er is slechts één tweede falanx aanwezig in Goyet A3, maar deze is groter dan deze van de moderne muskusossen. Deze interpretaties zijn wel gebaseerd op een zeer beperkt aantal metingen. De lage abundatie in Goyet van deze soort lijkt ook de minder geschikte klimaatsomstandigheden (nabijheid van de Atlantische oceaan en dus vochtiger) voor de muskusos in België te bevestigen.

Het toewijzen van een geslacht aan de verschillende species is moeilijk: aan de ene kant is er weinig sexueel dimorfisme en aan de andere kant ontbreken de karakteristieke elementen door de beperkte fossiele assemblage. Een mannelijk edelhert kon wel bevestigd worden door de aanwezigheid van de basis van het gewei.

De leeftijdsverdelingen op basis van de tanden geven de volgende resultaten. Drie soorten hebben een gelijkaardige belvormige leeftijdsverdeling: paard, wolharige neushoorn en edelhert. Dit wijst op een selectieve jachtmethode, geassocieerd met prehistorische mensen. De verdeling van de wolharige mammoet wordt gedomineerd door jongere dieren. In vergelijking met dezelfde soort in Spy is het aandeel zeer jonge dieren hier minder. De jongere dieren werden hier toegewezen aan de jacht en het groter aandeel oudere dieren werd toegeschreven aan de productie van ivoren parels.

Een aantal foetussen van het paard kunnen ook gebruikt worden om een leeftijd bij overlijden te bepalen. De resultaten hiervan geven aan dat deze individuen gedood werden tussen de 20 en de 33 weken na de bevruchting. Aangezien de paartijd van paarden in de zomer valt, volgt hieruit dat deze dieren gedood werden tijdens de winter. Een snijspoor op één van de resten wijst op menselijk handelen maar andere carnivoren kunnen niet uitgesloten worden.

De invloed van enerzijds prehistorische mensen en anderzijds carnivoren kan geobserveerd worden bij de derde horizont. Menselijke sporen zijn vertegenwoordigd door snijsporen, oker, sommige impacten en de vervaardiging van benen werktuigen. Dierlijke sporen zijn de knaagsporen. Deze informatie wordt gebruikt in het archeozoologisch onderzoek.

Oker is abundant aanwezig in de derde horizont: 23 % van de fossiele herbivore assemblage draagt sporen van deze kleurstof. De soort die het meest bedekt is met oker is de wolharige mammoet. Dit wordt veroorzaakt door het grote aantal slagtandfragmenten met oker, geassocieerd met de productie van ivoren parels.

De herbivoren van de derde horizont vertonen ook snijsporen, 18 % van de totale assemblage. Deze sporen bevestigen de aanwezigheid van en slachtactiviteiten van de prehistorische mensen. Dit zijn niet de enige spore die hiermee geassocieerd zijn, ook het openbreken van botten voor merg is mogelijk. In Goyet hebben wij onderkaken van paarden geobserveerd die met dit doel gebroken zijn. Een ander spoor is waarschijnlijk afkomstig van een impact door een wapen. Het verschil tussen toevallige breuken en degene die toegebracht zijn met een bedoeling is niet altijd

170 duidelijk. Sommige botten zijn aan de hand van slijtagepatronen geclassificeerd als werktuigen, maar ook het charriage-à-sec effect is een mogelijke verklaring hiervoor.

Er zijn minder knaagsporen aanwezig, 13 % van de herbivore assemblage vertonen sporen van beknaging. De grootste herbivoren (wolharige mammoet en wolharige neushoorn) vertonen minder knaagsporen dan de overige soorten. Dit bevestigd de stelling dat prehistorische mensen als enige van de aanwezige predatoren in Goyet actief op deze soorten jaagden. De kleinere soorten dragen meer knaagsporen want deze soorten werden ook bejaagd door de overige carnivoren (holenhyena, holenleeuw, caniden, beer).

De ruimtelijke verdeling van de resten is minder goed gedocumenteerd maar een algemene trend in meer snijsporen nabij de ingang van de grot en meer knaagsporen dieper in de grot kan waargenomen worden.

171