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Murders involving knives and firearms never fail to grab the headlines, yet they are relatively rare. Gun crime, for example, represents only 0.4% of all recorded crime in England and Wales. The public are often sceptical, however, when they read figures such as this – and they have reason to be so. The evidence collected for this report suggests that chaotic, street- on Ballistic Going level firearms offences, often associated with young people, have risen.
The research team, led by former Assistant Chief Constable Dr Bob Golding, have built a report around primary research taken Going from interviews and surveys with police constables and sergeants, Youth Offending Team Managers, young offenders, public polling and case studies in Manchester and Birmingham. Ballistic The report shows that the nature of the threat from gangs, guns and knives is changing, and the Government must change its approach if communities are to stem the tide of youth violence. rBbGligadJnta clr dtdb ai Lockhart Gavin by Edited McClory Jonathan and Golding Bob Dr Dealing with guns, gangs and knives The research findings support four primary arguments: that official crime figures do not reflect the experiences of many communities in England and Wales; that information and intelligence sharing between agencies is lacking; that early intervention and prevention work needs to be targeted and expanded and that the relevant legislation governing gun and knife crime is a mess.
Dr Bob Golding and Jonathan McClory Edited by Gavin Lockhart
£10.00 ISBN: 978-1-906097-29-5 oiyExchange Policy Policy Exchange Clutha House 10 Storey’s Gate London SW1P 3AY www.policyexchange.org.uk Going Ballistic HDS 11/7/08 10:10 Page 1
Going Ballistic
Dealing with guns, gangs and knives
Dr Bob Golding and Jonathan McClory Edited by Gavin Lockhart
Policy Exchange is an independent think tank whose mission is to develop and promote new policy ideas which will foster a free society based on strong communities, personal freedom, limited government, national self-confidence and an enterprise culture. Registered charity no: 1096300.
Policy Exchange is committed to an evidence-based approach to policy development. We work in partnership with aca- demics and other experts and commission major studies involving thorough empirical research of alternative policy out- comes. We believe that the policy experience of other countries offers important lessons for government in the UK. We also believe that government has much to learn from business and the voluntary sector.
Trustees Charles Moore (Chairman of the Board), Theodore Agnew, Richard Briance, Camilla Cavendish, Richard Ehrman, Robin Edwards, George Robinson, Tim Steel, Alice Thomson, Rachel Whetstone, Virginia Fraiser, Andrew Sells. Going Ballistic HDS_amended 1 11/7/08 15:18 Page 2
About the authors
Dr Bob Golding crime. Jonathan graduated from the Associate lecturer in Criminal Justice Studies, University of Michigan with a dual degree University of Portsmouth; Consultant in economics and politics. In 2006 he Bob Golding was lately an Assistant Chief completed an MSc in Public Policy at Constable with Warwickshire Police until University College London. Jonathan has his retirement in 2006. Additionally he previously worked at the American held the Research and Development port- Consulate in Hamburg, Germany and for folio for the Association of Chief Police the BBC at Television Centre in London. Officers (ACPO). Since retirement, he has This is his fifth publication for Policy been both Programme Manager in setting Exchange. up the Home Office/ACPO National Ballistics Intelligence Programme; and Gavin Lockhart programme consultant on ACPO's Head of Crime and Justice Unit, Policy Criminal Use of Firearms Group, involv- Exchange ing a programme of projects relating to Gavin Lockhart has responsibility for crime gun crime based around intelligence, and justice research at Policy Exchange. enforcement and prevention. After graduating in 2002 with a first-class degree, Gavin worked as a management Jonathan McClory consultant before joining Policy Exchange Research Fellow for the Crime and Justice in August 2006. He has also edited seven Unit at Policy Exchange Policy Exchange reports including Measure Jonathan joined Policy Exchange in 2006 for Measure, Fitting the Bill and Unlocking and has specialised in policing and violent the Prison Estate.
© Policy Exchange 2008
Published by Policy Exchange, Clutha House, 10 Storey’s Gate, London SW1P 3AY www.policyexchange.org.uk
ISBN: 978-1-906097-29-5
Printed by Heron, Dawson and Sawyer Designed by John Schwartz, [email protected]
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Contents
Acknowledgements 4 Executive Summary 5
1 Introduction 7 2 Gun Crime: Theory and Legislation 13 3 Knife Crime: Theory and Legislation 19 4 Gangs, Violent Crime and Prevention 26 5 Police Federation Survey 31 6 Youth Justice System and Youth Offender Teams 40 7 Manchester case study 50 8 Birmingham case study 58 9 Conclusion 66
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Acknowledgements
Policy Exchange thanks the Hadley Trust, the Chris Downey, Xcalibre Taskforce Local Government Association, John Nash Andy Newsam, Youth Justice Board and George Robinson for their generous sup- Ralph Corrigan, Manchester Multi port of this project. The authors would also Agency Gangs Strategy like to thank those who contributed their Enver Solomon, Centre for Crime and time and expertise to this project including Justice Studies various YOTs, members of the Police Metin Enver, Police Federation Federation and the extremely helpful officers Derek Barnett, Police Superintendents at Greater Manchester and West Midlands Association Police forces. A special thanks should go to Erinma & Raymond Bell, those who helped organise our site visits and Manchester Police Independent case studies. Advisory Group Jim Dolan, Greater Manchester Police Sharon Naughton, West Midlands Shaun Donnellan, Xcalibre Taskforce Police Maureen Noble, Manchester CDRP Carl Foulkes, West Midlands Police Rob Hawksley, Greater Manchester Tom Coughlan, West Midlands Police Police Kirk Dawes, West Midlands Mediation Keith Bristow, Warwickshire Police Service John MacDonald, Association of Chief Paul Etchells, West Midlands Police Police Officers Dave Keller, Greater Manchester Police Darren Shenton, Greater Manchester Finally, the authors would like to thank Police Philippa Ingram, Richard Carter, Mike Jerrod Luck, Greater Manchester Police Morgan-Giles, Emily Dyer, Julian Chant, Marie O’Laughlin, Greater Manchester Natalie Evans, Ben Ullmann and all those Police who commented on drafts of this report.
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Executive Summary
Murders involving knives and firearms, taken from Youth Justice Board statistics, such as the cases of the headteacher Philip Home Office and British Crime Survey Lawrence, who was stabbed by a teenager statistics and police strategy documents while trying to protect a pupil, or seven- supplement this material. year-old Toni-Ann Byfield, shot in the The incomplete official picture of back by a drug dealer in a North London firearms crime and the timelag of up to bedsit, never fail to grab the headlines, yet two years in publishing crime figures make they are relatively rare. Gun crime, repre- it difficult for the Government to identify sents only 0.4% of all recorded crime in or respond promptly to emerging trends. England and Wales.1,2 The evidence collected for this report sug- The public are often sceptical, however, gests that chaotic, street-level firearm when they read figures such as this – and offences, often associated with young peo- they have reason to be so. Official police ple, have risen: statistics and the annual British Crime Survey do not offer a complete picture of Nearly three-quarters of police constables gun and knife crime because much of it – and sergeants believe that gang crime has especially violence between criminals and become worse over the past five years;3 offences by children under 16 – goes unre- More than half of young offenders feel ported. Organisations that could provide that the police are unable to protect extra data to fill out the picture, such as the them from violent crime in their area Ministry of Defence or hospital A&E and eight out of ten of people in departments, are often reluctant to do so. Britain think violent youth crime is And the Government sometimes uses worse now than it was five years ago;4 minor variations from one year to another More than half of young offenders have to present a misleading picture of an had a gun or knife used against them or improving situation. In other words, our been threatened with a gun or knife in crime figures do not reflect the experiences the past 12 months;5 of many communities in England and More than 1 in 4 of those surveyed Wales. This conflict between official statis- (27%) have either been the victim of a tics and public opinion forms the back- violent crime committed by children or drop to this report. young people, have had a gun or knife The authors, Dr Bob Golding, a former used against them, have been threat- assistant chief constable, and Jonathan ened with one or know a friend or rel- 1 Hales G, Lewis C and McClory – have worked from the point of ative who has had a gun or knife used Silverstone D, Gun Crime: the view of those closest to gun and knife against them or who has been threat- market in and use of illegal firearms, Home Ofice Research 6 crime – the public and frontline workers. ened with one in the past 12 months; Study 298, 2006 They review the latest research on gangs 1 in 5 people between the ages of 19 2 Coleman C, Hird C and Povey D, Violent Crime Overview, and the illegal use of firearms and also and 24 know a friend or family mem- homicide and gun crime 2004/5, draw on their own surveys of young ber who has had a gun or knife used Home Office RDS, 2006 offenders; police constables and sergeants; against them or been threatened with a 3 Policy Exchange polling two detailed case studies consisting of gun or knife in the past year.7 4 Policy Exchange polling interviews with senior police officers; 5 Policy Exchange polling 6 YouGov polling for Policy managers of youth offending teams This perceived rise in violence among Exchange
(YOTs); and specially commissioned pub- young people, frequently involving guns or 7 YouGov polling for Policy lic opinion polling. Secondary sources other weapons and not linked to financial Exchange
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Going Ballistic
motives, has drawn attention to changes in existing gun laws have not yet been put the culture of gangs. These once stable into place. groupings that existed to protect illegal Legislation is a mess. Laws governing commodities now seem to be more offensive weapons are derived from at least volatile; their members younger and high- six separate Acts, introduced piecemeal since ly territorial. There is anecdotal evidence 1968. There is no legal framework dealing from gang members themselves that young with knives and offensive weapons as a people in deprived areas deliberately join whole, while wider measures such as the criminal gangs for personal protection. Criminal Justice and the Anti-Social They want to be armed because they Behaviour Acts 2003 also contain provisions believe that others are armed. relating to firearms. Every new provision The authors agree with the Home inevitably increases the chance that the Office that the main threat from firearms police will make mistakes that result in a at gang and street level is presented by failed prosecution – arresting a suspect under legally purchased imitation and deactivat- the wrong section of an Act, for example. ed weapons that are then illegally convert- Golding and McClory make more than ed to fire live ammunition. Some of these 20 recommendations, divided into four firearms sell for as little as £50 and a sin- categories: information and funding; sup- gle firearm can circulate over many years ply; demand; and law reform. These will within and between criminal groups. be developed and fully costed for the sec- Although this trend has been apparent for ond book in this series, to be published in some time, the necessary amendments to the autumn.
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1
Introduction
According to official figures gun crime is figures range from official statistics (the rare, accounting for just 0.4% of all record- British Crime Survey and police recorded ed crime in England and Wales.8 Indeed the crime), to less public sources (criminal number of offences involving firearms fell intelligence maintained by law enforce- by 13% in 2006-07 compared to the previ- ment agencies). Published statistics need ous year.9 The British Crime Survey reports to be interpreted with care: non-report- that knife crime is “stable”, though it adds ing and non-recording of incidents mean that “public perception is that incidents are that recorded crime figures do not and increasing”, and that “more young people cannot include all crimes committed.12 are now carrying knives due to fear of bully- Changes in police recording practices – ing or attack, because of a perception that notably to the counting rules in 1998 all their peers carry knives”.10,11 and the introduction of the national 8 Coleman C, Hird C and Povey It is against this backdrop of conflicting crime recording standard in 2002 – have D, op cit official statistics and public opinion that led to artificial shifts in violent crime sta- 9 Home Office, Crime and vic- 13,14 tims: gun crime, Home Office, this report has been developed. We need to tistics. 2008; see www.homeoffice.gov. set out three contextual issues before we The British Crime Survey (BCS) also uk/crime-victims/reducing-crime/ gun-crime/ discuss our research findings and policy has its limitations: it does not report vic- 10 Ibid recommendations. timisation for under-16s, and assessing 11 Home Office, “Memorandum criminality among young people is submitted to the Select intrinsically difficult. This has not Committee on Home Affairs – knife crime” House of Crime Statistics stopped the Home Office from using Commons: Hansard Archives The first is the challenge of quantifying BCS figures to argue that violent crime Research, 2007 15 12 Hayden C, Hales G, Lewis S gun and knife crime. Sources of crime has fallen. and Silverstone D, “Young men convicted of firearms offencs in England and Wales:an exploration of family and educational oppor- tunities for prevention", Policy More than 1 in 8 of those surveyed (13%) have been the victim of a violent crime committed by Studies, 29:2, 163 –178, 2008 children or young people, have had a gun or knife used against them, have been threatened with 13 Simmons J, Legg C and a gun or knife in or know a friend or relative who has had a gun or knife used against them or Hoskins R, National Crime
16 Recording Standard (NCRS): an who has been threatened with a gun or knife in the past 12 months; analysis of the impact on 1 in 5 people between the ages of 18 and 24 know a friend or family member who has had a gun recorded crime. Part One: the national picture, Home Office, 17 or knife used against them or been threatened with a gun or knife in the past year; online report 2003; see 83% of adults in the Great Britain feel that violent youth crime is a more serious problem now www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs 2/hors254.pdf than it was five years ago; 14 Coleman C, Hird C and 85% of adults living in London feel that violent youth crime is a more serious problem now than Povey D, op cit, p 12
it was five years ago; 15 Coleman C, Hird C and Povey D, op cit, p 7 88% of adults living in the northwest of England feel that violent youth crime is a more serious 16 You Gov Polling for Policy problem now than it was five years ago. Exchange Polling Source: YouGov polling commission by Policy Exchange, June 2008" 17 You Gov Polling for Policy Exchange Polling
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90% of adults over the age of 55 in Britain feel that violent youth crime is a more serious prob- lem now than it was five years ago;
86% of C2DE adults in Great Britain feel that violent youth crime is a more serious problem now than it was five years ago;
Nearly 1 in 5 adults aged 18 to 24 know a friend or relative who has had a gun or knife used against them or who has been threatened with a gun or knife in the past 12 months;
More than 1 in 7 (15%) adults living in London know a friend or relative who has had a gun or knife used against them or who has been threatened with a gun or knife in the past 12 months.
Source: YouGov polling commission by Policy Exchange, June 2008"
Conclusions based on recorded crime robbery with a firearm, appeared to have figures and the BCS should be treated increased.23 Possible explanations are that with a great deal of caution. The forth- either people were more inclined to coming research based on thousands of report incidents, or there was an increase interviews with young people by the in the use of “undischarged” firearms or Centre for Criminal Justice Studies at replicas.24 18 Centre for Criminal Justice Studies Youth Crime (forthcom- King’s College London demonstrates this Murders involving knives or other ing 2008) cited in Leppard D point in relation to the reality of youth sharp instruments increased from 202 in "Tougher laws and more cash 18 25 have no impact", Sunday Times, crime. 1997-08 to 258 in 2006-07, or 28%. 18th May 2008 The most recent statistics on firearms Anecdotal evidence provided in the 19 Kaiz P, "Homicides, recorded crimes involving firearms", in offending show a long-term upward trend Police Federation submission to the Povey D et al (eds), Homicides, over the past ten years with a fall over the Home Affairs Select Committee in 2007 Firearm Offences and Intimate Violence 2006/07 past two years. Firearms (excluding air backed this up: “The prevalence of knives (Supplementary Volume 2 to weapons) were reported to have been used on the streets has undoubtedly increased Crime in England and Wales 2006/07), 31 January 2008, in 9,650 recorded crimes in 2006-07. This over the years. Police officers not only Home Office online report 03/08; was a 13% decrease on the previous year, have to assist victims of knife crime but see www.homeoffice.gov.uk /rds/pdfs08/hosb0308.pdf following a slight increase of 0.2% in are all too often victims themselves: 28%
20 Ibid 2004. The total number of firearm of police officers have been threatened by 21 Hales G, Lewis C, Silverstone offences (including air weapons) fell from a knife on at least one occasion in the last D, Gun Crime: the market in and 26 use of illegal firearms, Home 21,527 in 2005-06 to 18,489 in 2006-07, two years.” Ofice Research Study 298, pp 3- or 14%.19 There were 2,517 offences Despite official pronouncements of 4, 2006 involving imitation weapons in 2006-07, a falling or stable gun and knife crime fig- 22 Kaiz P, op cit 23% reduction on the previous year, and ures based on official statistics, the long- 23 Povey D and Kaiz P, "Recorded Crimes Involving handgun offences decreased by 11% to term trend is upwards. There was a signifi- Firearms", Chapter 2 in Povey D 4,175.20 cant rise in recorded gun crime offences et al, op cit, p 39 Figures for gun-related homicides and between 1997-08 and 2001-02, followed 24 Interview with ACPO Criminal Use of Firearms working group attempted homicides are arguably more by a reduced rate of increase and then a representative, May 2008 reliably reported than other crimes. In slight fall in 2004-05.27 Overall, however, 25 Coleman C, Hird C and Povey D, op cit total, there were 750 in 1997-08 and recorded firearms offences nearly doubled 21 26 Police Federation, 1,456 in 2004-05. After peaking they from 1997-08 to 2006-07, from 4,903 to "Memorandum submitted to the fell but, at 818 for 2006-07, remain 9,650.28 The Metropolitan Police submis- Select Committee on Home 22 Affairs – knife crime", House of above their pre-1998 level. A 2005 sion to the Home Affairs Select Commons: Hansard Archives study found that the people interviewed Committee in 2007 reported that knife Research, 2007
27 Hales, G, Lewis C, thought that while the most serious gun crime represents 1% of total crime in Silverstone D, op cit, p 3 crime appeared to be falling in the short London, or 1,000 offences a month, and 28 Kaiz P, op cit term, less serious incidents, such as street nearly 70 a year end in murder.
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Introduction
The capture, collation and submission ing between agencies is essential for better of gun crime data are far from satisfactory. informed policies.33 In a report on guns, community and the Given all these reasons to doubt the police, HM Inspectorate of Constabulary accuracy, completeness and currency of the admitted that recommended procedures available data caution is needed before for collating and collecting up-to-date sta- concluding from official figures that knife tistics had not been put in place effective- or gun crime is stable or decreasing.34 The ly.29 Much data is collected at local police long-term trends indicate the reverse is force level but collated and published cen- true. trally by the Home Office, leading to duplication of work and long delays.30 Detailed crime statistics are available only “ A recommendation that deactivated firearms should be nine months after the end of the reporting classed as imitation firearms under the Violent Crime period and so the latest figures may be Reduction Act 2007 is unlikely to be addressed until 2009 two-and-a-half-years-old. Sound policy ” cannot be developed on the basis of out-of- date statistics and intelligence. Senior police officers interviewed for Performance Targets this study confirm that official statistics The second contextual issue relates to how do not corroborate the reality experienced gun and knife crime is reflected within the by communities and police forces in centralised police performance targets. England and Wales: many incidents go These changed in April this year, when unreported, especially gang crime and Assessments of Community Safety attacks by criminals on other criminals, (APACS) replaced the Police Performance 29 Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary, "Guns Community where witnesses fear retribution or intim- Assessment Framework. The new targets and Police. HMIC thematic idation.31 are intended to cover community safety inspection into the Criminal Use of Firearms", Home Office, 2004 Non-police agencies that collect infor- (including terrorism, violence and protec- 30 Interview with ACPO Criminal mation that could be relevant to curbing tive services) and shift the focus away from Use of Firearms working group violent crime often fail to share it. These reducing volume crime to tackling violent representative, May 2008 35 31 Interview with ACPO Criminal include other law enforcement agencies, crime and its causes. Use of Firearms working group schools and hospital accident & emergency Specific knife and gun crime reduction representative, May 2008 departments (if they treat patients with targets were conspicuously absent under 32 Interview with ACPO Criminal Use of Firearms working group 32 knife wounds, for example). There may the previous framework, there being only a representative, May 2008
be ethical or other reasons for this but, general target to reduce all crime by 15% 33 Squires P, Gun Crime: A given the limitations of recorded crime from 2005 to 2008.36 Under the new tar- review of evidence and policy, Centre for Crime and Justice data, improved data and intelligence shar- gets it would be possible for the Studies, London, 2008
34 Home Office, "Crime and vic- tims: gun crime", 2008; see www.homeoffice.gov.uk/crime- More than 1 in 10 Brits know a friend or relative who has had a gun or knife used against them victims/reducing-crime/gun- crime/ or who has been threatened with a gun or knife in the past 12 months; 35 Savage S and Golding R, Almost 6 in 10 adults in Britain believe that carrying a weapon makes you more likely to be a "Leadershipand Performance victim of violent crime; Management" in Newburn T (ed) Handbook of Policing (2nd edi- Only 2% of adults in Great Britain believe that carrying a weapon makes you less likely to be a tion) Willan Publishing, (forth- victim of violent crime; coming 2008) Only 32% of adults in Britain believe that carrying a weapon makes no difference on the likeli- 36 Home Office, "Memorandum submitted to the Select hood of being a victim of violent crime. Committee on Home Affairs – knife crime", House of Source: YouGov polling commission by Policy Exchange, June 2008" Commons: Hansard Archives Research, 2007
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Government to require local areas to take Gangs Action Programme (TGAP) action on pressing issues, such as knife and launched by the Prime Minister in 2007 gun crime, but this will depend upon the after a series of high-profile cases involving availability of reliable information. guns and gangs. It was applied in Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham and London until early this year (the Legislation and Government Initiatives Manchester programme, Operation The third contextual issue concerns the Xcalibre, is described later in this report). Government’s approach to gun and knife Since then the Government has developed crime – both through legislation and its a cross-departmental action plan for tack- strategy on violent crime. Chapters 2 and 3 ling violence until 2011.42 A number of provide an outline of legislative changes recommendations are reportedly based on introduced over the last 10 years in existing best practice and include both response to gun and knife crime. Despite government-run and not-for-profit proj- its many reforms, the legal framework still ects.43 attracts criticism. Laws dealing with offen- Pre-existing work streams, from 2006, sive weapons are covered in six different of the ACPO criminal use of firearms Acts.37 Criticisms of specific provisions group – the national ballistics intelligence include the unclear definition of an offen- system, and the national firearms intelli- sive weapon; the arbitrary legality of blades gence cell – are reflected as “actions” in the that are three inches or under in length; Home Office violent crime action plan. It the failure to restrict the sale of certain states: “We will work with the police to types tightly enough; and the failure to develop state of the art imaging technolo- keep pace with more sophisticated gy to provide information and intelligence weapons. The Police Federation believes on firearms used in crime”. But this is an that offensive weapons legislation needs initiative that had been developed over two modernisation. years before the publication of the strategy Gun crime legislation suffers from simi- and is due to go live in September 2008 lar anomalies. A recommendation that regardless of the Government’s Violent deactivated firearms should be classed as Crime Action Plan. imitation firearms under the Violent The strategy is managed by the Violent Crime Reduction Act 2007, or ownership Crime Unit based in the Home Office 37 Police Federation, prohibited without a firearms certificate, is and, although its detailed plans are still "Memorandum submitted to the Select Committee on Home unlikely to be addressed until 2009.38,39 being developed at the time of writing, Affairs – knife crime", House of Commons: Hansard Archives The laws have been built up piecemeal, some broad conclusions can be drawn. Research, 2007 with sections repealed and superseded. First, the Government intends to build on 38 Interview with ACPO Criminal Gaps remain in relation to deactivated, existing work or work that is under way, Use of Firearms working group representative, May 2008 imitation and replica weapons, and shot- for example the lessons learned from tack-
39 Savage S and Golding R, op cit gun importation. The difficulty of dissem- ling gangs in four cities. Secondly, there is 40 Interview with ACPO Criminal inating legal changes should not be under- an attempt to develop better co-ordina- Use of Firearms working group representative, May 2008 estimated either – 200 retailers were found tion between agencies, building on best
41 Home Office, "Crime and vic- to be unaware of the new requirements for practice, existing work programmes, poli- tims: gun crime", 2008; see imitation and replica firearms in the 2007 cies and research. Thirdly, the range of ini- www.homeoffice.gov.uk/crime- 40 victims/reducing-crime/gun- Act. tiatives is wider – from those supporting crime/ The Government’s strategy for dealing intelligence, enforcement and control 42 Ibid with gun and knife crime falls under the (including legislation), to prevention 43 Interview with ACPO Criminal umbrella of its violent crime action plan.41 through education, national communica- Use of Firearms working group representative, May 2008 A prime example is the brief Tackling tion campaigns, interventions to change
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Introduction
behaviour of offenders and specific inter- asked to participate but, citing time and ventions targeted at rape and domestic technological constraints, they declined). violence. It concludes that “it is worth The survey is a reflection of police experi- considering what is already known about ences of crime in forces with large metro- family and school based programmes that politan areas in England and Wales and focus on reducing violent and aggressive not a reflection of national crime levels behaviour as part of the response to the throughout England and Wales. growing problem”.44 Richard Garside, director of the Centre Structured YOT Interviews for Crime and Justice Studies, believes that Building on the experience of police on the success in tackling knife violence “will frontline and on their perception of gun require a concerted strategy to deal with and knife crime, we interviewed 23 YOTs the causes of violence, of which the social across England and Wales, with ten prede- antagonism caused by poverty and termined questions on perception of crime inequality are key.”45 It remains to be seen trends, the service provided by the YOT whether the Government’s new strategy and how it could be better delivered. will be sufficient to meet that test. Interviews were by telephone and each lasted approximately 30 minutes. Of the 23 that responded (15% of the Primary Research total), 13 were rural and 12 urban – a rep- We gathered evidence from structured resentative cross-section ranging from interviews with managers of youth offend- Islington to Bridge End. All were asked the ing teams (YOTs), a survey of young same questions, in the same manner; their offenders, a survey of police constables and replies provided insights into how crime sergeants, public polling and two case trends vary in different regions. studies built from interviews with senior police officers. These primary sources were Young Offenders’ Survey supplemented with secondary material At the end of each interview, the YOT from Youth Justice Board statistics, Home manager was asked if he or she would be Office and British Crime Survey statistics willing to distribute a questionnaire with and police strategy documents. 12 multiple choice questions to young offenders referred to his or her YOT. The Police Federation Survey questions were designed to find out how In collaboration with the Police often a young person may carry a weapon, Federation, the professional organisation come in contact with one and have one that represents constables, sergeants and used against him. The survey also inquired inspectors, we sent an online question- about young offenders’ attitudes towards naire to federation members in the the police, their perceptions of safety and Nottinghamshire, Greater Manchester, their thoughts on crime trends in their area. West Midlands, and Merseyside police The responses for some questions paint a forces. The survey had a total of 1,231 worrying picture, while others seem to responses between 7th March and 10th reveal that the situation is not all bad. The 44 Hayden C, Hales G, Lewis S, Silverstone D, "Young men con- April 2008. survey respondents had an average age of victed of firearms offences in The questionnaire was issued to all Basic 15 years 6 months, and the majority (60%) England and Wales:an explo- ration of family and educational Command Units in the above forces, not described themselves as white-British. The opportunities for prevention", only the division responsible for policing youngest was 9 years old and the oldest 18. Policy Studies, 29:2, 163-78 Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool or Public Polling 45 Leppard D, "Ministers cov- ered up gun crime", Sunday Nottingham (the Metropolitan Police were In order to understand the perceptions of Times, 26th August 2007
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those at the frontline of enforcement and on gun crime and the history of the legis- prevention of violent crime we commis- lation that regulates firearms. Chapter 3 sioned a YouGov poll of a representative discusses the existing research on knife sample of 2,000 British adults. It was car- crime and looks at how recent legislation ried out in June 2008. has approached the issue. The fourth chapter examines the effects of gangs on Case Studies youth violence. It also sets out the public During April and May 2008, we visited health approach to prevention, which police forces in Manchester and treats violence involving weapons as a dis- Birmingham and met police from senior ease, in line with the World Health officers to constables, representatives of Organisation’s classification of violence as crime and disorder reduction partnerships, a pandemic. community leaders, police independent The chapters on our primary research advisory group members, police mediators look at violent crime from the perspectives and people working with gangs. The case of police (chapter 5), YOT managers and studies were built around interviews, data young offenders (chapter 6). Two case and strategy documents given to us. studies from Manchester and Birmingham follow in chapters 7 and 8; these highlight best practice and the barriers to efficiency Report Layout that police still face. In the final chapter we This report consists of nine chapters. set out the recommendations that will be After the introductory first chapter, the developed further in the second of our second discusses the academic literature reports.
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2
Gun Crime: Theory and Legislation
Summary These types of studies have important limi- This chapter reviews the research on gun tations, evidenced in their conflicting find- crime and discusses how access to weapons ings. Studies that use time-series analyses, affects the nature of violent crime. We set employing annual national level data, are out the history of legislation governing limited because of the small number of access to weapons and argue that a handful observations they can use for estimating the of shocking events has had more influence relationship between gun ownership and on the laws passed than carefully collected crime.50 Similarly, studies looking at gun empirical evidence. ownership at local level and its effects on violent crime suffer from a critical lack of
local gun ownership data (gun ownership 46 Kleck G, “The relationship Theory data for the US is available only at the between Gun Ownership Levels and Rates of Violence in the More Guns, More Crime national level). Consequently, researchers United States”, in Kates D (ed) One must tread carefully when working are forced to use crude proxies to estimate Firearms and Violence: Issues of Public Policy, Ballinger, 1984
through the existing research literature on levels of gun ownership on a local level. 47 Magaddino J and Medoff M, guns. Many authors on both sides of the In 2001, taking the above flaws into “An Empirical Analysis of Federal and State Firearm argument over gun control have pre-estab- account, Mark Duggan produced the most Control Laws” in Kates D (ed) lished positions, and employ bespoke comprehensive illustration to date of Firearms and Violence: Issues of Public Policy, Ballinger, 1984 research designs in order to support their American gun ownership’s effect on violent 48 Cook P, “The Role of 51 ideological beliefs. Although research on crime levels. Duggan accurately measured Firearms in Violent Crime”, in the subject varies in scope and specificity, gun ownership on a state level using Wolfgang M et al (eds) Criminal Violence, Sage Publications, the ultimate question that students of the National Rifle Association membership 1982 gun control debate are seeking to answer is: data, sales of the magazine Guns & Ammo, 49 Keck G. and Patterson B, “The Impact of Gun Control and what effect does the availability of guns and the number of gun shows per capita. Gun Ownership Levels on have on levels of crime? Duggan’s research concludes that an Violence Rates”, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol 9, Empirical work attempting to answer increase in the number of guns leads to a no 3, 1993, pp 249-87
this question typically takes one of two substantial increase in the number of 50 Duggan M, “More Guns, approaches. In the first, researchers esti- homicides.52 His findings contradict the More Crime”, Journal of Political Economy, vol 109, no 5, 2001, mate the effect that changes in the total results of research by Lott and Mustard, pp 1086-1114 stock of guns have on national crime who argue that American legislation allow- 51 Ibid rates.46,47 A more advanced approach evalu- ing people to carry concealed weapons led 52 Ibid ates this relationship on different levels: to a significant decline in violent crime.53 53 Lott J and Mustard D, 48,49 “Crime, Deterrence, and Right- regional, state, county or city. Additional academic work has argued to-Carry Concealed Handguns”, Both approaches have produced mixed that a greater availability of firearms will Legal Studies, vol 26, January 1997, pp 1-68 results. The vast majority of studies report lead to more crime, either by increasing the 54 Zimring F, “The Medium is that higher gun ownership rates result in likelihood that any crime will result in a the Message: Firearm Calibre as higher levels of violent crime, while a small victim’s death,54 or by increasing the prob- Determinant of Death from Assault”, Legal Studies, vol 1, number of studies report the opposite effect. ability that a domestic dispute will result in January 1972, pp 97-123
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the death of one or more of the individu- The supply side approach to reducing gun als.55 In their work, Donohue and Levitt crime seems futile if one accepts the com- developed a model in which firearms may mon view that “guns are everywhere”.61 reduce the predictability of outcomes of However, England and Wales is uniquely fights and consequently increase the num- positioned with very strong gun control ber of violent confrontations that occur.56 laws to stamp out firearms crime almost completely. According to informal inter- views carried out at a London pupil referral According to informal interviews carried out at a unit, an illegal handgun can be purchased “ for as little as £250 if it has been implicat- London pupil referral unit, an illegal handgun can be ed in a previous homicide (ie is “dirty”).62 purchased for as little as £250 ” Efficient supply-side interventions would help to make illegal guns more expensive thereby increasing both the price The majority of academic research on and hassle of making a connection and firearms legislation is concerned with the buying an illegal firearm.63 Ultimately, they effect of gun availability on crime, but there is would reduce the number of guns available a lack of work on regulating the supply side of to criminals, and thus violent crime. firearms. For over ten years, firearms legisla- The bulk of research on gun crime con- tion in England and Wales has sought to cludes that more guns do indeed mean reduce the supply of firearms by banning mil- more crime, and that countries with high- itary-style weapons and handguns. However, er gun ownership rates have higher rates of 55 Kellerman A et al, “Suicide in as statistics show, the police have had difficul- homicide, injury and suicide involving the Home in Relation to Gun Ownership”, New England ty clamping down on illegal markets that sup- firearms. Previous work on the subject also Journal of Medicine, vol 327, ply criminals with banned handguns. points to the benefits of supply-side inter- August 1992, pp 467-472 As Cukier and Sidel point out in their vention and the promise of tighter firearm 56 Donohue J. and Leavitt S, “Guns, Violence, and the book, The Global Gun Epidemic, every ille- regulation. In terms of legislation alone, Efficiency of Illegal Markets”, gal handgun started out somewhere as England and Wales has been prolific in its A.E.R. Papers and Proc, 88, May 1998, pp 463-67 legal. Firearms commerce is composed of pursuit of curbing the availability of
57 Braga A et al, “The Illegal transactions made in the primary (legal) firearms, yet statistics from 1997 to 2007 Supply of Firearms”, Crime and firearms market and in the largely unregu- show that legislation alone is not enough. Justice, vol 29, 2002, pp 319-352 57 58 Wright J and Rossi P, Armed lated secondary firearms market. There is a strong appeal to supply-side and Considered Dangerous: A The importance of theft and the second- intervention, and police forces in several Survey of Felons and their Firearms, 2nd edition, Aldine de ary market in supplying youths and crimi- areas have proved that if implemented well, Guyter nals has been documented by three results are positive. However, gun crime in 59 Bureau of Justice Statistics, American surveys: Wright and Rossi’s survey Britain is too complicated a phenomenon to Survey of State Prison Inmates 58 1991, US Department of Justice, of prisoners, the survey of state prisoners be controlled simply by reducing the num- Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1993 reported by the Bureau of Justice Statistics,59 ber of available guns. In the past, firearms 60 Sheley J and Wright J, Gun Acquisition and Possession in and Sheley and Wright’s 1995 survey of crime traditionally occurred in private Selected Juvenile Samples, youths in juvenile correctional institutions.60 spaces, or in public spaces at times when Research in Brief, US Department of Justice, National Their broad findings reveal that offenders there were relatively few people out. They Institute of Justice, 1993 acquire firearms both legally and illegally; were confined to a small number of profes- 61 Braga A et al, “The Illegal the majority acquire guns through theft, sional criminals, usually having substantial Supply of Firearms”, Crime and Justice, vol 29, 2002, pp 319-352 family and friends or the black market. experience. These hired gunmen were a spe-
62 Personal communication with Regulating incoming illegal firearms to cialist breed seldom seen by the public. LBA Staff, September 2007 England and Wales is a time-consuming Contemporary shootings have shattered 63 Moore M, Buy and Bust: The Effective Regulation of an Illicit and labour-intensive task, and anecdotal the traditional “rules” of gun crime. market in Heroin, Heath, 1976 evidence shows it is simply not working. Increasingly firearms are discharged in
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public space in broad daylight when the volume is considerable and not always easy to general public are out of their homes. These decipher. For example, experts have difficul- shootings are often perpetrated by 16-24 ties in deciding which weapons are “readily year-old men in a reckless fashion; in some convertible” under 1982 legislation. Firearms instances there is little to no provocation or law is also contained within general legisla- motive.64 Rather than firearms being used to tion, such as the Criminal Justice and the facilitate a specific crime (eg robbery), Anti-Social Behaviour Acts 2003. While shootings are now acts of vengeance or the acknowledging the size of such a project, there end result of an incident of perceived “disre- seems to be a sound case for consolidating all spect”. The most recent shootings reflect tit- the existing firearms legislation into one all for-tat reprisals and retaliation at the slight- encompassing Act, in the same way that the est provocation.65 1968 Act was introduced as a measure As the brazenness of gang shootings has designed to consolidate previous legislation. escalated, they have attracted tabloid head- lines and pushed the issue into the centre of Early firearms legislation public attention. This has bred serious In the United States the right to carry a gun doubts about the ability of public authorities is secured by the Second Amendment of the to manage violent crime and has made curb- Constitution. No such right exists in ing the problem paramount to public safety. England and Wales: Britain has a long tradi- tion of arms regulation. As far back as the Game Act 1671 firearms have been regulat- Firearms Legislation in England ed. The 1671 Act restricted ownership of and Wales firearms and projectile weapons to owners Firearms legislation was first consolidated in of large tracts of land and remained in force the Firearms Act 1968. Although this remains until the beginning of the 19th century.The the principal law today, additional legislation Seizure of Arms Act 1820 empowered jus- has been introduced in piecemeal fashion at tices of the peace to confiscate arms from irregular intervals, either in response to citizens they considered “a danger to the emerging threats or mass killings like those Public Peace”; however, the law did allow occurring in Hungerford and Dunblane. Its for the use of firearms in self-defence.
Figure 1: All firearms offences UK
30000 Anti-social behaviour Act 25000 Violent Crime Reduction Act 20000
15000
Firearms (Amdt2) Act 10000 Number of offences
5000
0 64 Moore M, Buy and Bust: The 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 20002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 Effective Regulation of an Illicit market in Heroin, Heath, 1976
Year 65 Squires P, Gun Crime: A review of evidence and policy, Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, London, 2008
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A modern legislative structure ber of new firearm offences and increased The Pistols Act 1903 was a response to the penalties for many existing offences. technological advances in firearms, creat- The Act was also an attempt to address a ing sensible gun control – the Act prohib- growing wave of concern that the impend- ited the sale of pistols to minors and to ing abolition of the death penalty would convicted felons. Additionally, the Act lead to an upsurge in violent crime.68 required that non-home owners seeking to It is in the nature of firearms crime that buy a pistol had to purchase a 10 shilling offenders will use what is most readily licence from the Post Office. In 1920 the available to them. The upsurge in firearms Firearms Control Act prohibited the carry- crime in the 1960s reflected the wide avail- ing of firearms for the express purpose of ability of shotguns, which were usually self-defence and the “right” of citizens to converted to the illegal sawn-off form. bear arms became a “privilege”.66 Strict After the shotgun murders of three police controls on handguns following the 1920 constables, Parliament passed the Firearms Act undoubtedly played a part in keeping Act 1967, which extended the licensing weapons out of the hands of those who system to incorporate shotgun sales. might have criminal intent, giving the The following year the Government Government adequate leeway to deny sought to consolidate all existing legisla- firearms ownership to high-risk people.67 tion in the Firearms Act 1968. This Further technological advances led to brought all existing gun legislation into the Firearms Act 1937, which effectively one single statute, which formed the legal banned fully automatic weapons from pri- basis for British firearms control policy for vate ownership. About the same time, sim- the next two decades.69 ilar legislation was upheld by the US In 1973 a progressive and intelligent Supreme Court, signalling that certain Green Paper, The Control of Firearms in Great types of firearms needed to be banned Britain, laid out policy to rein in gun crime from the public domain. further. It drew on empirical research show- The legal issue of firearms used in self- ing that the best way to reduce the availabili- defence was transformed in the first half of ty of guns to criminals is to reduce the total the 20th century. In 1920, Home Office number of guns in society, and argued that policy allowed citizens to keep firearms in society should make it as difficult as possible their home for self-defence. By 1937, this for criminals to acquire firearms. Despite its had begun to change unofficially, until forward-thinking, no legislation followed eventually it was no longer deemed accept- on from the consultative document. able for people to rely on firearms for the express purpose of self-defence. In 1954, the right to a gun for self-defence was ter- Event-driven legislation
66 The context of the Act has minated by a change in government policy. With the exception of the Firearms Act been debated; some revisionist From 1950 to the late 1960s gun crime 1982, which imposed greater control over historians regard this legislation as a reaction to the Bolshevik rose at an unprecedented rate: in the mid imitation and readily convertible imitation uprising in Russia. However the 1950s the proportion of robberies commit- firearms, legislation in Britain has been Firearms Control Act 1920 was less about controlling the prole- ted with firearms was about 14%; by 1969 it reactive, and driven by events. tariat and more about denying firearm licenses to anyone had doubled. Likewise, the number of deemed unfit to be trusted with firearms fatalities rose throughout the 1960s. Hungerford a gun In response to increasing firearms On 19th August 1987, Michael Ryan, a 67 Squires P, Gun Culture or Gun Control?, Routledge, 2000 offences, Parliament passed three Acts on 27-year-old “loner”, went on a rampage
68 Ibid gun control in relatively quick succession. near his home in Hungerford, shooting
69 Ibid The Firearms Act 1965 established a num- dead 14 people and injuring a further 16.
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He was dressed in combat fatigues and car- control. Meanwhile many of the bereaved ried an AK-47 assault rifle, a carbine and a parents of Dunblane formed the Snowdrop Beretta semi-automatic handgun.70 His Campaign, for a total ban on handguns, random massacre had a threefold effect: it and the media offered its full backing. precipitated government legislation; Seldom have the media and special interest changed public perception towards acted in concert so effectively. Because firearms and the gun lobby; and led to Major insisted on considering the full wider use of police weapon-carrying rapid results of Lord Cullen’s inquiry before pass- response vehicles (ARVs). ing any new law, he was constantly out- In the wake of Hungerford, the Govern- manoeuvred by the Opposition and the ment rushed through the ill-conceived groundswell of public opinion. In the end Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988, which he ignored Cullen’s recommendations and banned military-style weapons and pump- the Firearms Act 1997 banned all hand- action shotguns and restricted a shotgun’s guns over .22 calibre and prohibited small breech or magazine capacity to two shots.71 calibre handguns outside licensed pistol The media’s focus on Ryan’s high-powered clubs.72 The Snowdrop Campaign called assault rifle allowed the Government to this an “unacceptable compromise”. The ignore the fact that most of his victims were Government also introduced an amnesty killed or wounded by his semi-automatic on illegal weapons, which led to the sur- handgun. The police were already aware of render of 22,000 guns. the growing availability of shotguns and In 1997, the new Labour Government argued that all higher-powered weapons kept its manifesto promise and introduced should be reviewed for stricter controls. the Firearms (Amendment) Act 1997. The However, even though the Act drew heavily legislation delivered what the public had on the 1973 Green Paper, the most pressing demanded in the wake of Dunblane: “an issue – use of handguns – was glossed over. Act to extend the class of prohibited The pro-gun lobby in Britain never weapons under the Firearms Act 1968 to enjoyed the kind of support enjoyed by its include small calibre pistols”. At a stroke counterpart in the US, but it successfully “all firearms with a barrel less than 30 cen- weathered the storm of Hungerford: rifles timetres or less than 60 centimetres in total and handguns went unchecked. However, length” were prohibited. Nevertheless although the Firearms (Amendment) Act firearms offences rose steadily, though 1988 did not close the door on the pro- undramatically, in the next five years. The gun lobby, after Hungerford public opin- number of homicides caused by firearms ion shifted permanently against the “shoot- increased by 63% and offences involving ing and conservation” lobby in Britain. injuries from firearms rose from 864 to 1,877 from 1997 to 2002. Dunblane On 13th March 1996, lone gunman Letitia Shakespeare and Charlene Ellis shootings Thomas Hamilton went on a shooting On New Year’s Eve 2002 gun crime
spree in a primary school in Dunblane, in reclaimed the media spotlight when two 70 Josephs J, Hungerford: One Scotland, armed with four legally held teenage girls – Letitia Shakespeare and Man’s Massacre, Smith Gryphon guns: two semi-automatic pistols and two Charlene Ellis – died in the crossfire of a Publishers, 1993 71 Squires P, op cit Smith and Wesson revolvers and 743 shoot-out in Aston, in Birmingham. 72 Ibid rounds of ammunition. He left 15 children In the aftermath, media pressure for 73 Professor Anthony Downs 73 and two adults dead. John Major, the action to stem violent crime intensified. has referred to the phenomenon Prime Minister, ordered a full judicial As well as extra provisions to the Anti- of public opinion waxing and waning around specific issues as inquiry and began cross-party talks on gun Social Behaviour and Criminal Justice Acts the "issue attention cycle".
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2003, the Government organised another The creation of an offence for being in gun amnesty which netted more than possession of an imitation firearm or 45,000 illegal firearms – twice as many as air-gun in public;75 in 1996. The types of weapons surrendered The sale, manufacture and import of (the cache included rocket launchers, AK- guns containing gas cartridge systems 47s and hand grenades) revealed how seri- became illegal.76 ous and systemic the problem was. These measures were added to the two The 2003 legislation led to three important Acts as an afterthought; contrary to the innovations: Government’s claims, legislation against A mandatory five-year minimum sen- imitation firearms was weaker than in tence for the illegal possession of a pro- other countries such as the Netherlands, hibited firearm;74 Sweden, France and Australia.
Changes to gun laws since Dunblane Massacre, 1996
Firearms Act (Amendment) 1997 (pre-election) Banned most handguns: all handguns larger than .22 calibre banned (possession, carrying, buy- ing, transferring); Exemptions: (i) slaughtering instruments, (ii) firearms used for human killing of animals, (iii) shot pistols used for shooting vermin, (iv) Races at athletic meetings, i.e. starters pistols, (v) tro- phies of war, (vi) firearms of historic interest. (Some airguns are exempt. Replicas and deactiva- tions are not considered firearms and are not therefore covered by the legislation); National registry: required a central computer database of all certificate holders and all applicants; Increased police powers: granted police the power to revoke firearm or shotguns certificate if the holder is a danger to public safety; and revoke or partially revoke a firearm certificate if the hold- er is unfit to be entrusted with firearm (a shotgun certificate cannot be partially revoked);
Firearms Act (Amendment) 1997 (post election) Banned all handguns regardless of calibre, with exemptions as above;
Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003 Banned certain airguns: added some airguns that use self-contained gas cartridge system to the list of prohibited weapons, specifically targeting the Brocock model; Restrictions on carrying: extended the ban on carrying firearms in a public place without reason- able excuse to cover imitation firearms; Age limits: increased minimum age for acquiring or possessing air weapons unsupervised from 14 to 17;
Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 Banned imitations: banned the manufacture and sale of realistic imitation firearms, with limited exemptions for theatre, historical re-enactment, etc; 74 Criminal Justice Act 2003, Restrictions on air weapons: made it an offence for a person other than a registered dealer to sell sections 287-293 air weapons and required the transfer to be on a face-to-face basis; 75 Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003, section 37 Age limits: raised minimum age for buying or hiring an airgun from 17 to 18 years;
76 Anti-Social Behaviour Act Further restrictions on firing airguns beyond premises, ammunition and generally stricter penalties. 2003, section 5 (1)
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3
Knife Crime: Theory and Legislation
Summary higher than the number of deaths caused Both knife-related homicide and overall by firearms. The total number of deaths knife crime have been rising for the past ten slightly increased from 200 in 1997 to 212 years. Our interviews with members of the in 2006 with a peak of 266 in 2002-03. Police Federation, YOTs and young offend- Last year, deaths linked to knife crime rose ers point to a trend of increased knife carry- by 18%, from 219 to 258. ing out of fear and/or the need for personal protection. This chapter reviews existing research that has explored the extent of the So far Government measures including tougher laws, problem, and the legislation introduced to “ education, amnesties and increased stop-and-search pow- deal with it. As in the case of firearms, the ers for police have had little effect on the propensity of legislation is too complex and would bene- fit from a single framework Act. So far young people to carry knives ” Government measures including tougher laws, education, amnesties and increased stop-and-search powers for police have had The Home Office Offending, Crime little effect on the propensity of young peo- and Justice Survey of 2007 estimates that ple to carry knives; it has not addressed the at worst 60,000 young people aged 10 to underlying social roots of the problem. 25 years, mostly male, may be stabbed and injured in England and Wales a year, or more than 160 victims a day.79 At best, Definitions the figure may be as low as 22,000 each Knife crime is a term that is tossed around year.80 in new policy initiatives and the media Policymakers simply do not know how almost daily. But it is not always clear what prevalent knife crime really is. A series of actually constitutes knife crime or what is surveys by MORI for the Youth Justice 77 Eades C, Grimshaw R, Silvestri A, Solomon E, Knife meant when the term is mentioned. The Board reveal a steady rise in the propor- Crime: a review of evidence and production of a knife during the course of tion of youths carrying knives: in 2002, policy, Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, London, 2nd a crime, such as assault, robbery, sexual 20% of schoolchildren interviewed said edition, 2007 assault, or homicide is indisputably knife they had carried a knife at some point dur- 78 Ibid crime.77 However, there are instances when ing the previous 12 months; in 2005, it 79 Steele J, “The vagaries of UK 81 knife crime statistics”, The Daily a criminal act is committed while in pos- was 32%. Telegraph, 20th March 2007 78 session of a knife that is never produced. Children who are excluded from school 80 Estimates taken from the are more likely to carry a weapon than Government’s Offending, Crime and Justice Survey those who are not. In 2004 MORI found 81 Phillips A and Chaberlain C, Measures of knife crime that 9% of children in school and 30% of "MORI Five-Year Report: An analysis of Youth Survey Data", The number of homicides caused by a excluded children said they had carried a London: Youth Justice Board, blade or sharp instrument is considerably flick knife; 5% of children in school and 2006
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Figure 2: Homicides by sharp instrument
40%
35% s e d i c
i 30% m o
h 25% l a t o t 20% f o e
g 15% a t n
e 10% c r e
P 5%
0% 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07
Year
Source: Home Office/BCS
16% of excluded children had carried a true scale of the problem is difficult to assess kitchen knife; 25% of school children and at the time of writing. Moreover, the Youth 46% of excluded children had carried a Justice Board and youth offender teams do penknife.82 not record knife offences separately. Another study carried out by the Office Data from the British Crime Survey, of Criminal Justice Statistics in the Home based on the experiences of 40,000 people Office researched the scale of knife carry- each year, suggests that 8% of all violent ing in England and Wales through inter- incidents involve knives, a rate that has views with 5,000 people aged 10 to 25 liv- remained fixed for a decade or more, ing in private households. The interviews while the percentage of homicides involv- explored the level of involvement people ing knives has fallen from a peak of 37% had with different aspects of criminal in 1995. Of the 820 homicides in behaviour. The survey found that 4% of all England and Wales in 2005, 236, or 29%, respondents had carried a knife in the pre- were with a knife or other sharp instru- vious 12 months, and that carrying knives ment. was most common among 16 to 17 year However, knife crimes are four times olds.83 An overwhelming majority (85%) more common than gun crimes; and the risk of respondents who admitted to carrying a of serious injury is more than double that for knife cited their reason for doing so as gun crime. The probability of serious injury “protection”. This is a very common is 4.5 times more likely when a knife is used theme, especially among young offenders to assist a crime. The risk of serious injury
82 Phillips A and Chaberlain C, who have been charged with a knife from knife-enabled crimes is more than "MORI Five-Year Report: An offence. However, policy aimed at curbing twice that for gun-enabled crimes. analysis of Youth Survey Data", London: Youth Justice Board, knife crime has yet to take this fact into Attacks in which a knife was used in a 2006 account. successful mugging have risen from 25,500 83 Wilson D, Sharp C, Patterson in 2005 to 64,000 in the year to April 2007. A, Young People and Crime: Findings from the 2005 The figures mean that last year there were, Offending, Crime and Justice Scale of the problem Survey, Home Office, 2006 on average, 175 robberies at knifepoint in
84 The study, by the CCJS, is The Home Office only began recording England and Wales a day – up from 110 the based on Home Office statistics. knife crime separately from July 2008, so the year before and from 69 in 2004-05.84
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Knife crime: theory and legislation
Perceptions that knife carrying has police and 45% do not even tell their par- increased are corroborated by at least two sta- ents.86 This is supported by other organisa- tistical sources. One is a Home Office study tions: Merseyside Ambulance Service esti- published in 2004. It reported the findings of mates, for example, that 50% of stabbings interviews with adult arrestees, including self- never get reported to the police.87 reported gang membership, and some of the questions related to their use of weapons. The Knife crime and young people proportion of past and present gang members In London, youths particularly between 17 who reported carrying guns was similar. and 20, are the most likely to be victims of However, current gang members were much knife crime; 4% of 10 to 25 year-olds more likely to report carrying weapons more admitted to carrying knives in 2005 and generally and it is safe to assume that part 1,226 under-18s were found guilty in (and possibly a large part) of this increase 2007 of carrying a blade. will have been accounted for by knives. Also notable is the increase in violent Usage, injuries and deaths from knives far crimes committed by 15 and 16 year-olds. outstrip those from firearms, not least According to a survey compiled by the Youth because they are easier to acquire and, unlike Justice Board (YJB), violent offences com- some firearms, do not require a licence. mitted by 16 year-olds rose from 17% in The trends for knife crime seemed to run 2004 to 25% in 2005, while those perpetrat- in parallel with those for gun crime, suggest- ed by 15 year-olds climbed from 20% to ing that they may in some way be linked. 26%. One in five of those convicted for pos- Although many more individuals are sessing a knife were aged between 10 and 17 involved in knife crime than in gun crime, in 2006, according to Home Office statistics. some of them will be the same individuals; Related to this is the increased number and those who are involved in gun crime do of young people arming themselves with not start out carrying guns but other, more knives. The YJB survey reported a 12% readily available weapons, including knives.85 increase in the number of teenagers carry- There is also a wide lack of reporting of ing knives since 2002; the proportion of incidents of knife crime, as 51% of young girls carrying knives rose sharply from 15% victims do not report the crime to the in 2004 to 21% in 2005.88
Figure 3: Weapon carrying among gang members
Ever possessed a weapon during an offence
Ever possessed a gun during an offence 70 s r
e 60 85 FitzGerald M, “Memorandum b
m submitted to the Select s e 50 n
m Committee on Home Affairs – o p g a n knife crime”, House of e
a 40 g
w Commons: Hansard Archives t f g o
n Research, 2007
i 30 y e r g r a a 86 Youth Survey 2002, t
c 20 n
e Crimestoppers, 2002 c r
e 10
P 87 Channel 4, Street Weapons Commission, 2008 0 % of current % of past gang % of all gang 88 Phillips A and Chaberlain C, "MORI Five-Year Report: An ‘Type’ of gang members analysis of Youth Survey Data", London: Youth Justice Board, 2006
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Over the past decade, the number of at which young people commit crimes. The convictions for carrying a knife has risen uncomfortable reality is that the Govern- from 3,360 in 1997 to 6,314 in 2006. Of ment does not know how social or econom- those convicted in 1997, 482 were ic policy can be used to stop youngsters teenagers, in 200689 the figure nearly tre- committing crimes.92 bled at 1,256.90 Worse, in surveys about one in five teenagers admits to carrying a Strategies that have been used to tackle knife. knife crime include: David Wilson, professor of criminology at Birmingham City University, believes tougher legislation; there are two reasons for youths carrying reducing demand; knives. One is that it makes them “feel education; grown up” or “manly”; the other is that they amnesties; are “scared”. Wilson says young people have supply restrictions; reacted to a world in which adults demonise stop and search by police. young people outside their own families – “they are all chavs and hoodies” – and no Given the rapid development of a teenage longer trust adults to protect them.91 culture in which carrying a knife is seen as normal, not to say essential, for self- defence, it is understandable that there Strategies designed to reduce have been calls to toughen the law. The knife crime maximum jail sentence for knife carrying is Since 1997 it has been one of New Labour’s two years, or four years if the knife is taken most urgent priorities to cut “youth crime”, to school. But in 2006, only nine of the but an audit of Labour’s youth justice poli- 6,314 people convicted of carrying a knife cies, published by the Centre for Crime and were given the maximum sentence.93 (Of Justice Studies (CCJS) at King’s College course, the impact of tougher sentences London in May 2008, concluded that they needs to be clearly communicated; knife have had “no measurable effect” on the rate crime is most common among children 89 Nicholas S, Kershaw C and Walker A, Crime in England and Wales 2006/07, Home Office, London, pp.33, 71, 2007 Table 1: Proportion of young people claiming to have carried weapons in the 90 Eades C, Grimshaw R, Silvestri A, Solomon E, Knife past year Crime: a review of evidence and policy, Centre for Crime and Young people in school Excluded Justice Studies, London, 2nd young people edition, 2007
91 Siddique H, "Knife Crime: desperately seeking solutions", Base: all young people (4,715) (2,460) (2,225) (687) (502) (174) The Guardian, 28th May 2008; %%%%%% see http://www.guardian.co.uk /uk/2008/may/28/knifecrime
92 Palmer A, “Jail is a blunt I have carried a weapon but never used it 21 31 11 47 52 31 instrument to tackle knife crime I have used a weapon against another person 35114 17 9 but it works”, The Daily Telegraph, 25th May 2008; see I have threatened another person with a 35221 24 12 www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/ma in.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2008/05/2 I have taken a weapon to school to 23110 12 7 5/do2509.xml defend myself
93 Pollard S, "A suggestion for I have taken a weapon to school to use 11 -461 fighting knife crime", The Times, I have never used a weapon 62 47 78 24 17 46 26th May 2008; seehttp://www.ti against another pupil mesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/ columnists/guest_contributors/a rticle4003792.ece
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and young people who are less likely to Enver Solomon, deputy director of the foresee the consequences of their actions CCJS, says: “Since it’s extremely difficult if than adults and less likely to appreciate not impossible to limit the availability of cause and effect.) knives, and knives are merely a tool used in The law governing offensive weapons is violent crime, success in fighting knife derived from a number of Acts: the crime will only come with success in deal- Prevention of Crime Act 1953; the ing with the underlying causes of violence, Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act fear and insecurity.”96 1959; the Criminal Justice Act 1988; the The Government has spent more than Offensive Weapons Act 1996; the Knives £5 billion on its New Deal, which was Act 1997; and most recently, in May 2004, designed to reduce crime by reducing the amendments to the Criminal Justice Act number of 16 to 19 year-olds “not in 1988. Each was a response to a specific employment, education or training”, or problem rather than an attempt to con- NEETs. But the number of NEETs has struct a legal framework that looked at the actually increased over the decade since the threat posed by knives and offensive New Deal was introduced. weapons as a whole.94 The role of the family and good parent- The complexity of the law is a very ing cannot be overstated in the drive for real difficulty for police officers. With prevention. Early engagement and support every new law the chance of mistakes for vulnerable families and individuals, being made – for instance arresting a sus- and information sharing between police pect under the wrong section – protective services and other agencies are inevitably increases. In common with crucial to success. Faith-based and local the Police Federation we have concerns support networks provide a rich vein of regarding:95 skilled people willing and able to help. Police forces should identify local faith the unclear definition of offensive weap- leaders willing to assist and should encour- ons (the Prevention of Crime Act 1953); age their support and involvement in the arbitrary legality of three inch (or diversionary and preventive activity.97 less) knives and implements; the narrow definition of weapons for Education which marketing is outlawed (the A Home Office report that considered pos- Knives Act 1997); sible approaches to reducing homicide the law’s failure to keep pace with the rates concluded that the most promising development of new, more sophisticat- weapons-related strategies were “educa- ed weapons such as gravity, lock, but- tional campaigns regarding the dangers 94 Police Federation, terfly and disguised knives. and penalties in relation to the illegal car- "Memorandum submitted to the rying of knives and other weapons”.98 Select Committee on Home Affairs – knife crime" House of While the educational approach may Commons: Hansard Archives Reducing demand well be useful, few of the programmes Research, 2007 In response to a number of high-profile have been evaluated for their effectiveness. 95 Ibid 96 Leppard D “Knife crime dou- stabbings, ministers have resorted primari- The Be Safe project, which “goes into bles in two years”, The Times, ly to criminal justice responses – in partic- schools to educate young people on the 19th August 2007; see www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/ ular the various measures in the Violent harsh realities of what can happen when uk/crime/article2284258.ece
Crime Reduction Act 2006 – rather than they carry a knife”, states that it has been 97 Brookman F and Maguire M, developing prevention strategies to address evaluated by the Newham youth offend- "Reducing Homicide: A Review of the Possibilities", Home Office the underlying social and economic roots ing team and claims some impressive Online Report 01/03, p.36, 2003 of violence. results. The messenger is as important as 98 Ibid
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the message. The “Respect your Life, not a In London, Operation Blunt 2, Knife” pledge wall campaign, backed by launched on 14th May this year at a cost of the footballer Rio Ferdinand, understood £0.5 million a week has targeted ten this. But more systematic assessment and London boroughs, using controversial evaluation of educational projects are powers under Section 60 of the Public needed.99 Order Act to designate areas where anyone can be stopped and searched. This “stop- Amnesties and-search blitz operation” led to more A national knife amnesty ran for five weeks than 200 arrests and 130 weapons seized in in 2006. Although a national knife only two weeks. amnesty is a relatively rare event, there is often a local amnesty running somewhere in Britain.100 Legislation governing knife crime What little research there is suggests that Laws regulating the sale, purchase, carry- knife amnesties have a very limited impact ing and production of knives were first on crime levels. One retrospective study of introduced in the early 1950s. The records in Strathclyde found that Prevention of Crime Act 1953 defined an Operation Blade, which ran for four weeks offensive weapon as “any article made or in 1993, had no long-term beneficial adapted for use for causing injury to the effect.101 person, or intended by the person having Ian Johnston, who speaks on knife it with him for such use by him or by crime for the Association of Chief Police some other person”. As the law stands Officers, says of the latest amnesty: “It isn’t now, it is an offence to have an article really aimed at the hardened gangster, with a blade or a point in a public place who’s not going to be affected by the without good reason or lawful excuse, advertising, but at people who could drift with the exception of some knives that into knife crime because of peer pressure or are banned outright, such as a gravity because of some misguided feeling.” blade. Unsurprisingly, six weeks after the end of Giving teachers the right to search the amnesty, knife offence levels have pupils – previously they had to call in the returned to pre-amnesty levels. police if they suspected that a pupil was carrying a sharp instrument – was an Supply important step in prevention at schools. 99 Eades C, Grimshaw R, Simply clamping down on the supply of There is some argument about the effec- Silvestri A, Solomon E, Knife Crime: A Review of Evidence knives – such as the installation of metal tiveness of stiffer sentences, which are and Policy, 2nd Edition, Centre detectors at schools or equipping police found in the 2006 Act. David Wilson has for Crime and Justice Studies, London, 2007 with mobile metal detectors – is not suffi- argued that “instead of dreaming up new
100 Ibid cient to address the problem. penalties for carrying knives, communities
101 Bleetman A, Perry C, that want to be safe from them – or indeed Crawford R, Swann I, "Effect of Focused policing: stop and search guns for that matter – we would be far bet- Strathclyde police initiative ‘Operation Blade’ on accident A 2003 Home Office report noted that out ter off investing in good schools, with well- and emergency attendances due to assault", Journal of Accident of 18,900 people stopped and searched in paid and qualified teachers, and in ensur- Emergency Medicine, 14, 2001-02 under Section 60 of the Public ing that young people, especially young pp153–156, 1997 Order Act 1994 (ie in “anticipation of vio- men, feel valued and included and have 102 Brookman F and Maguire M, "Reducing Homicide: A Review lence”), 1,367 (7%) were found to be car- jobs and training when they leave of the Possibilities", Home Office rying an offensive or dangerous instrument school.”103 Online Report 01/03, p.36, 2003 and, of these, 203 (14%) were arrested for Although the Government has toyed with 103 see www.lhds.bcu.ac.uk/ 102 news/75 possession. the idea of on-the-spot fines of £80 for any-
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Knife crime: theory and legislation
one caught with a knife, nothing has come of symptoms not the disease. It is also convolut- this proposal.104 The history of knife crime ed, confusing and reactive. The Government legislation has failed to address the underly- would do well to follow the pattern of the ing causes that encourage young people to Firearms Act 1997 and create an all encom- carry knives for protection and treats the passing Act focused solely on knife crime.
Main legal provisions:
Prevention of Crime Act 1953 makes possession of an offensive weapon in a public place an arrestable offence (Section 24); Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 creates an offence of trading in flick or gravity knives; Criminal Justice Act 1988 makes possession of a bladed or pointed article in a public place an arrestable offence (Section139) and school premises (Section 139a); provides power to stop and search persons (Section 140); Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (as amended by Knives Act 1997 and Crime and Disorder Act 1998) allows senior police officers to authorise constables to stop and search per- sons in a specific area, either where a serious public order problem is likely to arise, or for offensive weapons or dangerous instruments. Failing to submit to a search is an arrestable offence; The Knives Act 1997 introduces a range of anti-knife measures including unlawful marketing of combat knives, publishing adverts for combat knives, and creates powers for entry, seizure, reten- tion and forfeiture.
The Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 was meant to consolidate existing legislation and alter knife regulations by:
Increasing the penalty for possession of a knife in a public place (Section 42); Prohibiting sale of knives and other weapons (Section 43); Raising the minimum age at which a young person can buy a knife, from 16 to 18 (Section 46); Reducing the threshold for a police constable to enter a school and search the premises and/or people from “reasonable grounds for believing” to “reasonable grounds for suspecting” that weapons are held (Section 45 and 48); Giving powers for members of further education staff to search students and staff in attendance centres to search persons (Section 45 and 46); Creating a new offence of using another person to keep a weapon and including an aggravating fac- tor in sentencing if the person involved is a child (Section 28). 104 ‘"Instant Fines urged for Knife Crime", The Observer, 11th June 2006
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4
Gangs, Violent Crime and Prevention
Summary or claiming control over territory in the There is no shortage of literature on street community, and engaging either individu- gangs in criminology, but the vast majority ally or collectively in violent or other forms of research is based on the American expe- of illegal behaviour.”109 rience; there are many gaps in our knowl- While the definition of gangs is more edge about street gang numbers and their established in the American case, gang distribution in England and Wales. research in England and Wales is still in a However, the impact of gang activity on developing stage. In their work, levels of violent crime and youth offending Shropshire and McFarquhar make a dis- is inescapable. Gang members are more tinction between two different types of likely than non-members to be involved in gang found in Britain. The first type, violent crimes, carrying illegal weapons, “crime firms”, are distinguishable by the drugs, acts of criminal damage and general fact that they are well organised and tied disorder.105 Legislation is not sufficient to together by common economic interests control this surge in youth crime. and involved in illegal money making Prevention requires attention to sociologi- opportunities. The second type, “street cal and psychological factors as well as legal gangs”, are marked by their disorganisa- controls. tion and a lack of clear hierarchy. These gangs are not usually formed for econom- Theory ic benefit and are distributed along territo- The first large-scale work on gangs was rial or ethnic lines. 105 Bullock K and Tilley N, “Shootings, Gangs and Violent conducted by Robert Park and Frederick In their 2004 research, Hallsworth and Incidents in Manchester: Thrasher in Chicago.106,107 Because they Young suggested a typology of urban col- Developing a Crime Reduction 110 Strategy”, Crime Reduction were primarily concerned with the impact lectives. Research Series, Paper 13, of migration on the ecology of the city and Home Office, 2002 the social disorganisation of migrant fami- Peer Group: a small, unorganised, tran- 106 Park R, "Sociology", in Gee W, (ed) Research in the Social lies, they looked at gangs formed along sient grouping occupying the same Sciences, Macmillan, 1929 ethnic lines. Following these seminal stud- space with a common history. Crime is 107 Thrasher F, The Gang, ies, attention turned to the social and eco- not integral to its image; University of Chicago Press, 1963 nomic conditions and criminal, political Gang: a relatively durable, predomi- 108 Cloward R and Ohlin L, and administrative structures that foster nantly street-based group of young Deliquency and Opportunity, 108 Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960 the emergence of gangs. people for whom crime and violence is
109 Miller W, Crime by Youth The standard academic definition of an essential part of its identity; Gangs and Groups in the United gangs was established by the American Organised Criminal Group: members States, US Department of Justice, 1982 anthropologist, Walter Miller in the early are professionally involved in crime for
110 Hallsworth S and Young T, 1980s: “A group of recurrently associating personal gain operating almost exclu- “Getting Real about Gangs”, individuals with identifiable leadership sively in the “grey” or illegal market- Criminal Justice Matters, vol 55, 2004 and internal organisation, identifying with place.
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Robert Gordon’s research into the Criminologists in Britain are beginning to Canadian experience of gangs and youth study the experience of gangs in England offenders added to the typology taking and Wales, but research is still relatively into account the nature of social interac- limited. A 2002 report commissioned by tion among young people:111 Manchester City Council found that there are approximately 1,000 young people in Youth movements: social movements gangs within Greater Manchester.112 One characterised by a distinctive mode of nationwide estimate puts the number of dress or other bodily adornments, a young people involved in a gang at leisure-time preference and other dis- 30,000.113 As the number of youths tinguishing features (eg punk rockers); involved in gangs has grown so has the Youth groups: small clusters who hang prevalence of weapons and firearms on the out together in public places such as streets. In 2002, the National Criminal shopping centres; Intelligence Service (now the Serious and Criminal groups: small clusters of Organised Crime Agency), reported an friends who band together, usually increase in gun possession among gangs.114 briefly, to commit crime primarily for Bullock and Tilley researched gang financial gain, and may contain young involvement in Manchester using police
and not-so-young adults as well; databases. They interviewed 23 males 111 Gordon R, “Criminal Wannabe groups: loosely structured identified by Manchester police as known Business Organisations, Street gangs and ‘Wanna Be’ Groups: groups engaging in spontaneous social gang members. Their study found that the A Vancouver Perspective”, activity and impulsive criminal activi- large majority of gang members were Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, vol 42, no ty including collective violence against young, black and male; all were heavily 1, 2000 other groups of youths. Wannabees involved in criminal behaviour, each aver- 112 Shropshire S and McFarquhar M, Developing will often claim territory and adopt aging 12 arrests and 2.1 previous convic- Multi-Agency Strategies to gang-style identifying markers of some tions.115 They also noted the increasing use Address the Street Gang Culture and Reduce Gun Violence kind; of weapons among gang members. It is among Young People, Briefing Street gangs: semi-structured organisa- important to note that Bullock and Tilley’s No.p 4, Manchester, 2002 tions involved in planned and prof- observations are specific to Manchester. 113 Thompson T, "Gang mem- bership Spirals Among under itable criminal behaviour or organised Although gangs are a growing national 16s", The Observer, 8th violence against rival street gangs. They phenomenon, their ethnic make-up varies; September, 2002 114 UK Threat Assessment tend to be less visible but more perma- each local gang is unique. 2002: The Threat from Serious nent than other groups; In his ethnographic study of gang mem- and Organised Crime, National Criminal Intelligence Service, Criminal business organisations: groups bers in Manchester from 1997 to 1998, London, 2002
with a formal structure and a high Dennis Mares captured the developmental 115 Bullock K and Tilley N degree of sophistication composed stages of two gangs discussed in Bullock “Shootings, Gangs and Violent Incidents in Manchester: mainly of adults who engage in crimi- and Tilley’s research. Both gangs were Developing a Crime Reduction nal activity primarily for economic rea- heavily involved in dealing class A drugs Strategy”, Crime Reduction Research Series, Paper 13, sons and almost invariably maintain a within a very loosely organised hierarchy Home Office, 2002 low profile. Thus while they may have without formal leaders.116 Further studies 116 Mares D, “Gangstas or Lager Louts? Working-Class a name, they are rarely visible. confirm that this is typical: one study Street Gangs in Manchester”, in found that three-quarters of gangs were Klein M et al (eds), The Eurogang Paradox: Street Research in the US, Canada and England involved in some form of drug dealing and Gangs and Youth Groups in the and Wales on classifying gangs reveals how that 60% allegedly possessed firearms.117 US and Europe, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001 varied the phenomenon is. Any effective In 2004, Bennett and Holloway looked 117 Stelfox P, “Policing Lower policy aimed at curbing gang violence and at gang membership among offenders Levels of Organised Crime in England and Wales”, The activity needs to take into account the using data from a programme that moni- Howard Journal, vol 37, no 4, spectrum of gang organisation. tors drug abuse among arrestees in 1998, pp 393-406
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England and Wales.118 They concluded the risks of harm to themselves or their that gang members tend to be young family if they did not; to oppose other (under 25 years), male, criminally active, gangs; to get access to education/ recre- often involved in robbery and drug supply ational resources in gang territory; to com- offences and have a tendency to carry pensate for lack of legitimate employment weapons and firearms.119 Comparisons or education opportunities. They did not between gang members and non-gang leave the gang because of the dangers members were statistically significant and inherent in doing so. This is a bleak picture showed that roughly two-thirds of current for youths living in areas with active gangs. gang members had taken a weapon to If Pitts’s findings are more widely applica- commit an offence; more than half had ble then the Government needs to take possessed a gun; and three-quarters said them into account when tackling the they had mixed with people who possessed firearms and knife offences that are inextri- guns.120 The majority of gang members in cably linked with gangs in our large urban England and Wales are white and the dom- centres. Instances of violent offending with inant ethnic minority groups are firearms and knives are inextricably linked Caribbean and Bangladeshi; in America, with gang culture in major urban centres gang members are mostly African- throughout Britain, and any attempt to Americans. Although gang membership is curb gun and knife crime must be integrat- typically seen as being no longer than a ed with policies that target gangs and gang year or two, some believe that, as gang cul- crime. ture develops further, the number of older gang members will grow.121,122 From his research into gangs in Prevention and the Public Waltham Forest, in northeast London, Health Approach Professor John Pitts has produced one of Between 1985 and 1992 youth violence in the most interesting and insightful of the US surged to unprecedented levels. recent papers on gangs. He breaks down Judging by the ten-year rise in gun and individual members of gangs into six cate- knife crime, England and Wales could be gories:123 at the beginning of a similar surge. The question is – what would successful pre- 118 Bennett T and Holloway K, “Gang Membership, Drugs and core members/elders; vention look like? Crime in the UK”, British Journal of Criminology, vol 44, no. 3, soldiers/youngers; Over the past 30 years the academic 2004, pp 305-323 shooters/street-level drug dealers; community has expressed growing uncer- 119 Ibid wannabees/girlfriends; tainty about the role of legal sanctions in 120 Ibid occasional (ambivalent) affiliates; the prevention of violence. In simple eco- 121 Thornberry T, "Membership reluctant gang members. nomic terms, the effectiveness of criminal in Youth Gangs and Involvement in Serious and violent deterrence is a function of the severity of Offending", in Loeber Rand What is so striking about Pitts’s findings is the penalty for a given offence and the like- Farrington D (eds), Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk the concept of the “reluctant gangsters”, lihood of being punished for that offence. Factors and Successful Interventions, Sage, 1998 which can be understood as youths living Thus incredibly high penalties for crimes
122 Curry D and Decker S, in the territory of a gang who are effective- could theoretically be meaningless if their Confronting Gangs: Crime and ly forced into participation through social enforcement does not bring an adequate Community, Roxbury Publishing Company, pressure or even physical intimidation. rate of successful prosecution. But even
123 Pitts J, Reluctant Gangsters: Pitts argues that the gang involvement of when the criminal justice system strikes an Youth Gangs in Waltham Forest, about one third of young people in appropriate balance between penalty and University of Bedfordshire, 124 February 2007 Waltham Forest is not wholly voluntary. risk of punishment, deterrence alone is not 124 Ibid These reluctant members joined because of enough to curb violent offending.
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During the 1970s, academics realised In one study, legislation requiring gun that criminal deterrence could not be man- owners to keep firearms locked away was aged solely by the criminal justice system, associated with reductions in accidental a sentiment shared by senior police officers deaths of children.128 Similarly, evaluations today. Since young people are most likely of American laws at the state level that to commit violent offences the focus of restrict handgun purchases have been fol- prevention has shifted to the institutions lowed by reductions in violent offences.129 that wield influence over them: families, schools, neighbourhoods and peer 125 groups. This thinking was the catalyst “ Incredibly high penalties for crimes could theoretically for the public health approach to violence be meaningless if their enforcement does not bring an prevention in the early 1990s. It is adequate rate of successful prosecution summed up in the idea that “it is surely ” better to prevent violence through the pos- itive aim of promoting health than through the negative aims of conviction In studies that control for income and punishment”.126 However, there has inequality and social/educational exclu- been disagreement as to whether such an sion, the most important factor in deter- approach is better than the straightforward mining a person’s resistance to violent criminal justice system. behaviour is early childhood development. James Gilligan has argued that the “crim- Farrington has identified the risk factors inal justice and penal systems have been associated with the subsequent develop- 125 Shepherd J, “Criminal deter- rence as a public health strategy”, based on one huge mistake: namely, the ment of juvenile delinquency and violence. The Lancet, vol 358, 17th belief that punishment deters, inhibits, or These factors include: early childbearing, November 2001 prevents violence”. According to Gilligan, low intelligence/poor educational achieve- 126 Shepherd J and Farrington D, “Violence as a Public Health emotion – namely overwhelming shame ment, erratic or harsh parental discipline, Problem”, Review of Social and humiliation – is the primary factor parental conflict or separation, low socio- Medicine, vol 86, 1993, 89-92 influencing violent behaviour. Factors that economic status, delinquent or violent 127 Gilligan J, “Violence in public health and preventive medicine”, 130 influence a person’s ability to mitigate the peers and disorganised neighbourhoods. The Lancet, vol 355, 2000 pp “pathogens” of shame, humiliation or lack Essentially, the public health approach 1802-04 128 Cummings P et al, “State gun of self esteem include: education, positive identifies the above risk factors and their safe storage laws and childhood emotional development, external sources of subsequent effect on violent behaviour. Now mortality due to firearms”, Journal of the American Medical esteem from others (supportive fami- the field of study moves toward the discus- Association, vol 278, 1997, pp ly/friends), wealth, and social status. sion of prevention: given the risk factors, can 1084-86 However, he has also admitted that it is the Government prevent violent crime? 129 Wright M, Wintemute G and Rivara F, “Effectiveness of denial of “likely that tough law-and-order measures Howell and Hawkins argue that there handgun purchase to persons for crimes including guns have had a big are two distinguishable groups of young believed to be at high risk for firearm violence”, American 127 impact in reducing gun deaths”. Arguing offenders who commit crime. The first Journal of Public Health, vol 89, that one approach is better than the other is group, persistent offenders, encompasses 1999, pp 88-90. 130 Farrington D, Understanding counterproductive because any successful those who show violent and oppositional and Preventing Youth Crime, York effort to reduce violent crime will need to behaviour in childhood which persists into Public Services, 1996 extract the best from both. adulthood.131 The second group engages in 131 Howell J and Hawkins J, “Prevention of Youth Violence”, 132 Public health studies have consistently violent acts only during adolescence. Crime and Justice, vol 24, Youth reported that laws that regulate safer stor- While many in the first group will be Violence, 1998, pp 263-315 age of firearms are linked to fewer deaths impervious to prevention and intervention 132 Moffitt T, “Adolescence- Limited and Life-Course-Persistent and injuries from firearms. Preventive leg- programmes, the second group, and a Antisocial Behaviour: A Developmental Taxonomy”, islation can be effective, but enforcement is limited number in the first, could benefit Psychological Review, vol 100, crucial if its full benefits are to be realised. immensely from prevention work. 1993, pp 674-701
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Kellermann evaluated a number of community level programmes must have schemes designed to prevent violent long-term focus, as short, piecemeal efforts offending. They fell into three broad cate- will not lead to sustainable results.138 gories: family and early childhood inter- At present, the Government’s best ventions, youth and adolescent interven- approach to early childhood intervention tions and community level interventions. among disadvantaged children is Sure Start, Of the three, the most promising was fam- a programme aimed at raising the physical, ily and early childhood interventions. social, emotional and intellectual well-being Community level interventions showed of children under four through joined-up some promise, while youth and adolescent public services. It is part of the interventions produced mixed results. Government’s policy to prevent social exclu- He concludes that there is little evidence sion, and is designed to improve the “equal- that intervention strategies targeted at ity of opportunities” for younger children juvenile offenders reduce violent offend- through better access to early education, ing, while incarcerating them is both health services for children and parents, 133 Kellermann A et al, “Evaluating expensive and yields only temporary bene- family support and advice on nurturing.139 Violence Prevention Programs: What 133 Works?” Annual Review of Public fits. The older they are the less effective Unfortunately it has lost some of its original Health, vol 19, 1998, pp 271-292 intervention is. By the time an adolescent focus as the Government has expanded and 134 Hawkins J and Weis J, "The social offender is referred to an intervention pro- shifted the goals of the programme. development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention", gramme by a court, he is likely to have a The public health and prevention Journal of Primary Preventions, vol 6, no 2, 1985 pp 73-97 long history of antisocial interaction with approaches have much to teach policymak-
135 Wilson J and Howell J, A parents, schools, and community that is ers, especially at the local level. Councils, Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, not easily reversed.134 Other research has police forces, crime and disorder reduction Violent and Chronic Juvenile Offenders, US Department of Justice, echoed this, arguing that only early child- partnerships, schools, primary care trusts, Office of Juvenile Justice and hood intervention can yield maximum and and youth services must work in concert Delinquency Prevention, 1993 sustained impact.135 within the framework of prevention 136 Howell J and Hawkins J “Prevention of Youth Violence”, “Quick fix” approaches are unlikely to research. Dave Keller, Chief Super intendent Crime and Justice, vol. 24, Youth Violence, 1998, pp 263-315 have enduring effects in preventing vio- of Metropolitan BCU in Manchester, said: 136 137 Ibid lence. Unfortunately, expedient legislation “the police are only 10-15% of the solution 140 138 Catalano, et al, “Developmental has been a mainstay of the Government’s to reducing violent crime.” Violent crime risk factors for youth violence”, approach to knife crime. Effective preven- involves many agencies other than the Adolescent Health, vol. 26, no. 3, 2000, pp 176-86 tion programmes that aim to change com- police. The supply of, and demand for, guns
139 Glass N, “Sure Start” Children & munities for the better must be guided by and knives can only be reduced if the deep- Society, vol. 13, 1999, pp 257-264 analyses of both the most noxious risk fac- er social and psychological factors are 140 Interview with Chief Superintendent Dave Keller, tors and the existing strengths of the com- addressed alongside legal controls and tradi- Manchester, April 2008 munity.137 Both early childhood and tional deterrence.
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5
Police Federation Survey
Summary In his study of municipal policies in Successful delivery depends on the people American cities, Lipsky concluded that closest to the consumer, in the case of the policy implementation depends on the police service these are the men and women people who actually deliver it at the level in local BCUs. Our survey of Police closest to consumers. He termed them Federation members revealed that those in “street-level bureaucrats”.144 Although this metropolitan areas felt that knife crime has has been accepted in America and other become worse. Moreover, the majority felt countries,145 the British debate has tended that gang offending has increased in their to overlook this crucial aspect of delivery.146 area. They also reported failure to enforce To redress the balance, this chapter analy- mandatory sentences, and to disseminate ses the perspectives of police constables information and training when new legisla- and sergeants – the street-level bureaucrats tion is introduced. Their most popular solu- – on violent crime. tions were increasing police stop-and-search Because perceptions of those at the powers and the number of officers armed frontline of service delivery matter, the with non-lethal weapons. findings in this chapter should be duly noted by policymakers. All policy formula- tion should be based on objective knowl- Professional Perceptions edge and in the true spirit of the term, evi- Despite some of the most restrictive dence-based. Any assessment of crime – firearms laws in the world, firearms crime and its reduction – must take the street- 141 Squires P, Gun culture or has been increasing in England and Wales, level bureaucrat as its point of departure. gun control: firearms, violence most of it committed with an illegal or and society, Routledge, 2000, p 180 stolen firearm.141 There is more violent gun 142 Banton M, The Policeman in and knife crime in generally poorer areas Levels of Crime: The True Picture? the Community, Tavistock, 1964
than in wealthier ones. The BCS and official police recorded sta- 143 Nicholas S, Kershaw C and The constables and sergeants who run tistics do not offer a complete picture of Walker A, Crime in England and Wales 2006/07, Home Office, neighbourhood police teams are the most violent crime, because much of it goes London, pp.33, 71, 2007 knowledgeable about the state of public unreported – especially violence between 144 Lipsky M, Street-Level safety on their beat. Despite the unique criminals. Given those limitations, our sur- Bureaucracy, Sage, 1980 145 Maynard-Moody S and insights they can offer, criminological vey draws on the experience of those clos- Musheno M, Cops, Teachers, research tends to rely on aggregate crime est to violent crime in the police forces Counselors: Stories from the Front Lines of Public Service, figures such as the BCS and official record- where it is most prevalent. Current Home University of Michigan Press, ed crime statistics. Although the pioneers Office figures report that gun crime is 2003 of British criminology focused on the decreasing from a peak reached in 2002-03. 146 The exception is Evans T and Harris J, "Street-Level 142 policeman in the community, more However, this official trend is at odds with Bureaucracy, Social Work and the (Exaggerated) Death of recent research has focused on the top-tiers police perceptions in those areas most Discretion", British Journal of of the Home Office.143 affected by gun crime. When presented Social Work, vol 34, no 6,
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Figure 4: “Gun crime is more of a problem in my BCU than it was five years ago”
45% 40% s t
n 35% a d
n 30% o p s
e 20% r
f o 25% e g a t 15% n e c r 10% e P 5% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Don’t Know
Response
with the statement: “Gun crime is more of agreed strongly. Only 7% disagreed and less a problem in my BCU than it was five than 1% (0.8) strongly disagreed. years ago”, 70% agreed or strongly agreed Regardless of what official statistics may with the assessment. report, more than 80% of frontline officers The BCS reports that knife-enabled in four forces felt that knife crime is getting crime was stable from 2005/06 to worse. 2006/07.147 However, these statistics are at The survey asked about the frequency odds with the perceptions of those at the with which officers are called to the scene of frontline of delivery. Presented with the crime where an offensive weapon is believed statement: “Knife crime is more of a prob- to be present. 42% of officers were called to lem in my BCU than it was five years ago”, a knife incident at least once a week and 9% 44% of respondents agreed, and 39% once a day. Only 14% of officers – mostly
Figure 5: “Knife crime is more of a problem in my BCU than it was five years ago”
50% s t
n 40% a d n o p
s 30% e r
f o
e
g 20% a t n e c r
e 10% P
0% Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Don’t Know
147 Nicholas S, Kershaw C and Response Walker A, Crime in England and Wales 2006/07, Home Office, London, pp.33, 71, 2007
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Figure 6: How often are you called to an incident understood to involve a knife?
45% 40% s t n
a 35% d n
o 30% p s e
r 25%
f o 20% e g a
t 15% n e c
r 10% e
P 5% 0% At least once At least once At least once At least once Never per day per week per month per year
Response
those serving in rural BCUs – had never were called out at least once a week to a been called out to an incident “understood firearms incident. While lower than that to involve a knife”. The table shows that for knife incidents, this figure still indicates more than half of the officers responding to that gun crime is experienced with some the survey are called to a knife incident at frequency by the average police officer. least once a week. Asked if “gang related crime is more of As one would expect, the figures are a problem in their BCU than it was five somewhat lower for gun than for knife years ago”, the vast majority of officers incidents. The survey found that 64% of reported that it was: 74% of police con- officers were called out to a firearms inci- stables and sergeants agreed that it was dent at least once a month, compared to and 33% strongly agreed. This is more 77% for knife incidents; nevertheless 28% than double the number of officers who
Figure 7: How often are you called to an incident understood to involve a firearm?
40%
s 35% t n a
d 30% n o
p 25% s e r
f 20% o
e
g 15% a t n
e 10% c r e
P 5% 0% At least once At least once At least once At least once Never per day per week per month per year
Response
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Figure 8: “Gang related crime is more of a problem in my BCU than it was five years ago”
50% 45% s t
n 40% a d
n 35% o
p 30% s e r
f 25% o
e 20% g a t
n 15% e c
r 10% e P 5% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Don’t Know
Response
disagree or strongly disagree with the decision making is without consequence. statement. Among the forces that have Combining the results of this survey with metropolitan areas, there is no doubt anecdotal evidence, new legislation is just among frontline officers that gang crime is that – hollow as a result of failure to getting worse. deliver. What research on the subject has been conducted has concluded over- whelmingly that implementing policies Enforcement: Talk is Cheap from the top down is often problematic.148 Without implementation and delivery all This was the rationale for investigating public policy making is void. If the the perceptions and experience of the Government cannot deliver public servic- “street-level bureaucrats” of crime and es and enforce the law as it is written, its justice.
Figure 9: Have you received sufficient information and training on the enforcement of recent legislation?
90% 80% s t n
a 70% d n
o 60% p s e
r 50%
f o 40% e g a t 30% n e c
r 20% e 148 Pressman J and Wildavsky P 10% A, Implementation: how great 0% expectations in Washington are dashed in Oakland; Or, why it's Yes No Don’t know amazing that federal programs work at all, University of Response California Press, 3rd edition, 1984
34 Going Ballistic HDS 11/7/08 10:10 Page 35
Police Federation survey
Figure 10: Do you think mandatory sentences are being enforced as they should be?
90% 80% s t n
a 70% d n
o 60% p s e
r 50%
f o
e 40% g a t 30% n e c r 20% e P 10% 0% Yes No Don’t know
Response
To implement policy those at the street- When asked, “Have you received suffi- level must be fully informed of new legisla- cient information and training in enforce- tion and initiatives and the full impact ment of recent legislation (eg banning imi- they have on service delivery. Without tation weapons)?” survey respondents detailed instructions it is impossible for overwhelmingly replied no. Only 12% of police constables (PCs) to carry out the officers in the four police forces said that tasks expected of them. Based on our sur- they had received adequate information vey findings, there is reason to believe that and training about new policies. The vast PCs are not receiving adequate instruc- majority, 83%, felt that they had not. tions and the training on how to deliver Where the blame rests for the above and enforce newly established government results is unclear. It would be easy to blame policies on gun and knife crime. senior officers for this failure to communi-
Figure 11: Do you think enough is known about the drivers behind gun crime to implement policy against it?
70% s
t 60% n a d
n 50% o p s
e 40% r
f o
e 30% g a t n
e 20% c r e
P 10%
0% Yes No Don’t know
Response
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Figure 12: Do you think enough is known about the drivers behind knife crime to implement policy against it?
70%
s 60% t n a
d 50% n o p s
e 40% r
f o
e 30% g a t n
e 20% c r e
P 10%
0% Yes No Don’t know
Response
cate instructions to the frontline staff, but instructions as to how the Anti-Social this might be rash condemnation of senior Behaviour Act 2003 should be implement- police officers. One could point to police ed – indeed, there is only one reference to authorities for not outlining local priorities guns in an explanatory companion docu- and suggesting changes to legislation. ment to an Act that was billed as a major However, police authorities comprise local initiative against gun crime.149 Moreover, council members, independent appointees there are a number of lines of communica- and magistrates and are not responsible for tion that could have failed, leaving frontline policy at the parliamentary level. The Home officers without adequate guidance on how Office must bear some of the blame, as cen- new policy should affect their day-to-day tral policy should disseminate downwards work. This is an issue that requires urgent from it. For example, it issued very few attention.
Figure 13: Do you think more police officers should be armed?
70%
s 60% t n a
d 50% n o p s
e 40% r
f o
e 30% g a t n
e 20% c r e
P 10%
0% Yes No Don’t know
149 see http://drugs.homeoffice. gov.uk/publication-search/ reduc- Response ing-supply/anti-social-behaviour- guidance
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Police Federation survey
Police officers also felt that mandatory dents felt that new laws such as the Violent sentences for gun and knife crime are not Crime Reduction Act 2006 have had no being enforced as they should be. In fact, impact on lowering gun crime. There could less than 3% of respondents felt that sen- be a number of reasons for police percep- tences are being enforced as they should be. tion regarding new legislation. Because of And an overwhelming 85% of responding the event driven and reactive nature of officers felt that mandatory sentences are much recent legislation, police officers may, simply not carried out the way they should perhaps, have grown cynical. be. According to interviews with senior “Tough on crime and tough on the police officers, the current average sentence causes of crime” was Tony Blair’s mantra as served for an illegal firearms possession is leader of the Opposition. It followed from approximately two years.150 this that new Labour should have a long- There are arguments against the term strategy that fights inequality and the enforcement of mandatory sentences, root causes of violent crime and is based on above all the importance of maintaining the best available evidence. judicial independence. Mandatory sen- However, the apparent lack of knowl- tencing is believed to have affected the edge surrounding knife crime and the behaviour of senior gang members. A upward trend in firearms crime suggest that defence attorney turned local councillor in Government has not delivered on its core a London borough has said that they will promise. To gauge police perception on the pressure younger members into looking causes of violent crime, the survey asked: after their firearms in an effort to avoid “Do you think enough is known about the mandatory sentencing. As a result, the age causes behind gun crime to implement of offenders prosecuted for carrying effective policy against it?” The response firearms has dropped.151 was disappointing: less than 15% of police As with the failure to enforce mandatory officers answered yes; 65% felt that not sentencing, there is a strong perception that enough was known about the causes other recent legislative measures are not behind gun crime and 20% did not know having an impact on gun or knife crime. if enough was known about the causes of An overwhelming 92% of survey respon- gun crime to implement effective policy.
Figure 14: What policy solution would be most effective in curbing gun and knife crime?
80%
s 70% t n a
d 60% n o
p 50% s e r
f
o 40%
e g
a 30% t n e
c 20% r e P 10% 0% None of these Knife/Gun Identification and More police Greater Increased stop amnesty intervention in schools cooperation and search 150 Interview with senior GMP of at risk youths from CDRPs power police officer, Manchester, April 2008
Response 151 Interview with London local councillor, London, May 2008
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A similar question was asked about knife When taken together with other find- crime. Only 16% said “yes” to the question ings – especially the perception that knife “Do you think enough is known about the and gun crime has risen in a majority of causes behind knife crime to implement BCUs – the support for more armed police effective policy against it?”. The remaining officers is a clear sign that PCs are frustrat- 84% felt that there was either not enough ed with the current situation and that they known (64%) or that they did not know want more effective alternatives. enough to answer (20%). Their replies The survey asked about other possible echo the attitudes of academics and policy- policy solutions to combat gun and knife makers. The most comprehensive research crime. The table below gives the responses on the British experience of knife crime to the question “What policy solution argues that there is a large gap in under- would be effective in curbing gun and standing on the issue. And the knife crime?”. Respondents were allowed Government’s “everything but the kitchen to select multiple options. The most popu- sink” approach has not yielded results. lar remedy was increased stop-and-search This gap must be addressed before the powers – supported by 71%. The second Government can legislate effectively on most popular remedy was identification knife crime. and intervention of at-risk youths – sup- The final part of the survey asked police ported by 56%. The latter shows that PCs officers about possible solutions, including support intelligence-led policing and early whether more officers should be armed. In intervention programmes, which show the past the Police Federation has called for promise for reducing the demand side of more armed officers to provide the public gun and knife crime. and non-armed constables with protection In interviews with senior police officers, should the need arise.152 we were repeatedly told that the police However, there is no political will to service is never the first – and often the last transform the entire police service into a – to be made aware that a youth is at risk fully armed body. Police Federation of violent or gang crime. Many are not sat- members have consistently voted against isfied with the level of early identification arming all warranted officers. The argu- and intervention with youths. We believe ment is that armed police officers would that better early intervention programmes forever break the link with the commu- are crucial to the long-term reduction of nity. Guns would create a new relation- violent crime. ship with the public and would funda- In this same vein, better intelligence mentally alter the “policing by consent” sharing and improved early intervention model that Britain prides itself on. are possible with the improvement of However, increasing the number of multi-agency co-operation. However, this armed officers would offer a balance recommendation was favoured by only between greater protection of the public 36% of respondents. Perhaps this indicates and police, while maintaining the her- that the ideal of joined-up government is itage of British policing. As the view of not quite as popular at street-level as it is in the police officers surveyed demon- Whitehall and Westminster, though more strates, there is majority support for senior police officers seem to advocate the increasing the number of armed police policy. officers: 58% respondents agreed that Another issue that is often cited by
152 BBC News, “Do we need “more Police Officers should be armed”. police commanders is the level of co-oper- more armed police officers?”, Only 28 felt that there should not be ation between police and schools. The two 16th May, 2006, http://news.bbc .co.uk/1/hi/uk/4985634.stm more armed officers. could undoubtedly work together better,
38 Going Ballistic HDS 11/7/08 10:10 Page 39
Police Federation survey
but Police Federation members did not Education was identified by some think that more officers in schools would frontline officers as an important preven- make much difference: only 27% support- tive measure. However, only 7% of ed the proposal. Weapons amnesties were respondents identified increased aware- also relatively unpopular: only 19% ness in schools as a viable solution. thought they were an effective solution. Educating parents was identified by only We asked police officers a similar ques- 0.6% of respondents. Again, prevention tion in open-ended fashion, leaving them programmes that are delivered through a free to suggest what they thought would be multi-agency approach may fly below the most effective. Their suggestions were var- radar of constables and sergeants. ied, but fell into five main categories: Tackling perceived root causes like com- deterrence, empowering police, education, puter games, drugs and alcohol were not reducing supply and tackling root causes. suggested often, each being mentioned Deterrence policies centred on judicial by 1, 0.7 and 0.2% of respondents resp- changes, advocating stronger, firmer pun- ec tively. ishment for use of firearms and knives. Among those officers who suggested deter- rence policies, longer prison sentences were “ Increasing the number of armed officers would offer most often cited; 58% of respondents in a balance between greater protection of the public and the sub-group and 35% of the entire group police, while maintaining the heritage of British policing supported tougher prison sentences. Other ” policy suggestions included mandatory term prison sentences (23%), clearer sen- tencing (7%), capital punishment and/or Reducing supply was also mentioned by deportation (6%), better enforcement of a small number of officers. Greater border current laws (3%), more prisons (2%), and controls were suggested by 0.5% of financial deterrence (0.7%). respondents and a complete ban on imita- The second category, empowering tion and deactivated firearms was suggest- police, produced several suggestions for ed by 3%. increasing the effectiveness of police in The relatively low support among Police combating gun and knife crime on the Federation members for long-term policy frontline. The most popular suggestion initiatives is most likely a reflection of the was more arms (by which they meant tasers tactical nature of their work. Police consta- and other non-lethal weapons) for police; bles and sergeants want to see policies 37% of respondents within the subgroup enacted that have immediate results on the and 8% of the total supported the policy. street level. Initiatives that would not Other suggestions included more resources deliver measurable results for 5 or more for police (26% in the subgroup), more years do not appeal to the police. It is stop-and-search powers (22% in the sub- important that policymakers take on board group), greater police intelligence (11% in the concerns of frontline police, but that the subgroup), and incentives for inform- there is an adequate balance between tacti- ants (3.1% in the subgroup). cal and strategic policies.
www.policyexchange.org.uk • 39 Going Ballistic HDS 11/7/08 10:10 Page 40
6
Youth Justice System and Youth Offender Teams
Summary Youth Offending As previous research, statistics and anec- According to a recent report by the Centre for dotal evidence have reported, violent Crime and Justice Studies, Labour’s reforms offenders are becoming ever younger. Any of the youth justice system have not had a attempt to cut violent crime must start positive impact on the state of youth crime in with a focus on youth justice. In an effort England and Wales. Solving violent crime to better understand the state of youth begins with solving youth crime because crime, the following chapter looks at pri- males aged 10 to 25 are the most likely per- mary research gathered from the focal petrators.153 Moreover, the most likely victims point of the youth justice system: Youth of violent crime are males aged 16 to 24.154 Offender Teams. Our structured inter- Last year 27 teenagers were killed in London views with Youth Offending Team man- in a wave of gang and youth violence but that agers provide a national picture of the state record figure is set to be surpassed.155 of frontline youth justice and an indication of violent crime trends for young offend- Youth Justice System ers. The responses were as varied as the Youth offending teams have been the main- YOTs themselves, with reports that violent stay of youth justice in England and Wales crime had increased, decreased and since the late 1990s. A YOT is a multi- remained stagnant in almost equal propor- agency team (police, probation service, social tion. The interviews were most useful for services, health and education services, as understanding how YOTs work on a daily well as other specialist workers like housing basis, their shortcomings, limitations and officers and substance abuse counsellors) co- ideas for improving youth justice. Many ordinated by a local authority and overseen YOT managers felt they were not able to by the Youth Justice Board. Each has a man- implement prevention work due to ager who is responsible for co-ordinating the resource constraints. work of the youth justice system within their The young offender survey gave the local authority. Every local authority in
153 Tackling Violence Action research team a window into how young England and Wales has a dedicated YOT. Plan, Home Office; see offenders feel about gun and knife crime, YOTs incorporate representatives from a www.homeoffice.gov.uk/docume nts/violent-crime-action-plan- their experiences with illegal weapons and wide range of services, allowing them to 08/violent-crime-action- their perceptions of public safety. The survey respond to the needs of young people who eia?view=Binary revealed that pluralities of young offenders have offended, or are at risk of doing so, in 154 Ibid believe that the police are unable to protect a variety of ways. Assessment is crucial in 155 "School girl murdered", The Daily Mail, 3rd June 2008; see them from violent crime; crime in general curbing reoffending, as it identifies which www.dailymail.co.uk/news/articl has gone up in their area; and knife crime programme the young offender is most e-1023708/Girl-14-latest-teenag- er-die-vicious-stabbing.html has become more prevalent where they live. likely to benefit from.
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Youth justice system and youth offender teams
Development of YOTs The work undertaken by YOTs is The principal aim of the youth justice sys- explained in section 38 of the Crime and tem is to curb reoffending. If a young Disorder Act 1998 and is set out in the offender enters the criminal justice cycle, national standards for youth justice pro- the youth justice system’s primary goal is to duced by the Youth Justice Board. First keep them from ever being in it again. and foremost, YOTs are responsible for Section 37 of the Crime and Disorder Act preventing young people from offending 1998 outlines the purpose of the youth jus- in the first instance, through the co-ordi- tice system as “preventing offending by chil- nation of a range of targeted programmes. dren and young people”. This is accom- However, YOT workers told us that this plished through the following actions:156 statutory obligation is not being carried out as envisioned because they are often the swift administration of justice so too understaffed and burdened by case that every young person accused of loads to carry out prevention work. breaking the law has the matter When young offenders are referred to a resolved without delay; YOT through the courts, the team is confronting young offenders with the responsible for carrying out a standardised consequences of their offending, for assessment using Asset (a structured assess- themselves and their family, their vic- ment tool produced by the Youth Justice tims and their community, and helping Board). Asset helps YOT workers to deter- them to develop a sense of personal mine why the young person has offended, responsibility; what their family and lifestyle circum- intervention which tackles the particu- stances are, whether they have specific lar factors (personal, family, social, edu- mental health or drug and/or alcohol-relat- cational or health) that put the young ed problems, if they are engaged in learn- person at risk of offending and which ing and what level of risk they pose to strengthens protective factors; themselves and others.157 punishment proportionate to the seri- YOTs are also responsible for delivering ousness and persistence of offending; intervention programmes for those who encouraging reparation to victims by have received a final warning from the young offenders; police. These aim to tackle the causes of reinforcing the responsibilities of parents. the offending (as identified through Asset), confront the consequences and carry out The Act gave clarity of purpose to the youth some form of reparation. Young offenders justice system and set the groundwork for are referred through several different chan- the creation of YOTs. In Section 40, the Act nels as outlined in the diagram below. creates a statutory obligation for local When a young offender is referred to a authorities, in consultation with their part- YOT, he or she is given a supervising offi- nership agencies, to create an annual youth cer who must develop a plan to address the justice plan. The plan outlines the nature offending behaviour and identify the fac- and scale of youth crime in their area and tors associated with offending through the programmes available to tackle it. The Asset. The supervising officer will make Act requires the plan to cover how local use of colleagues from other agencies with youth justice services are to be structured specialist knowledge as appropriate. The 156 Smith R, Youth Justice: and funded. This requirement eventually plan must address education, training or Ideas, Policy, Practice, Willan gave rise to the youth offending team as employment, any history of substance mis- Publishing, 2007 local authorities needed a body to co-ordi- use, healthcare needs, parental or primary 157 Youth Justice Annual Statistics 2005-06, Youth Justice nate youth justice efforts across agencies. carer involvement, work on offending Board, 2006
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behaviour, work to address experience of ers, 12 seasonal workers, 10 administra- discrimination or any discriminatory atti- tors, 6 managers, and 2 students/trainees. tudes or behaviour and, if necessary, plans The majority of staff were women (66%). to reduce risk of harm to himself or oth- Income for YOTs is derived almost entirely ers.158 Intervention may include anger from local authority funding. In 2005-06 the management and life skills, or parenting total core budget provided by statutory agen- courses for the young person’s carers. The cies was £195 million.161 The Youth Justice plan will also cover direct or indirect repa- Board contributed an additional £50.4 mil- ration to the victims of the crime. lion or 20% of total YOT funding. (Further YOTs are also required to provide a funding provided by the YJB for targeted pro- supervising officer for those young people grammes, such as the intensive supervision receiving a custodial sentence (detention and surveillance programme, is not included and training orders/section 91 sentences), in the £50.4 million of core funding.) who will work with the secure establish- The chart below gives the average level ment to draw up a training plan.159 As with of sources of funding for YOTs for 2005- other interventions, the training pro- 06. Apart from funding from the YJB, all gramme focuses on the factors that drive other resources are from local budgets. young offenders’ behaviour and seeks to Since 2000-01, as Youth Offending address gaps in their education, mental Teams were being rolled out across health and well-being, and housing needs. England and Wales, spending on youth justice has increased by 45% in real terms.162 The total funding contributed by YOT Structure statutory agencies, local authorities and There were a total of 18,013 people work- the Youth Justice Board was £648.5 mil- ing for YOTs in England and Wales in lion for 2006-07. Of this, 64% was spent some capacity for the financial year 2005- on purchasing custodial places for chil- 06.160 There were also over 450 vacant dren. This amounts to more than ten posts. The average YOT in England and times the amount spent on prevention, Wales was staffed by 48 volunteers, 32 full- which accounts for only 5% of the YJB time practitioners, 6 part-time practition- budget.163
Figure 15: Total Partnership Funding for YOTs
158 Connexions, Youth Justice Total YOT Funding Board, 2001; see 30 )
www.connexions.gov.uk/partner s n o
ships/publications/uploads/cp/C i l l
i 25 onnex_Youth_Justice.pdf m
£ ( 159 Working Together and g 20 n Connexions, Youth Justice i d n
Board, 2001 u f
15 e
160 Youth Justice Annual g a t
Statistics 2005/06, Youth Justice n 10 e c
Board, 2006 r e p
l 5
161 Ibid a t o 162 Solomon E and Garside R, T 0 Ten Years of Labour’s Youth Justice Reforms: an independent 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 audit, Centre for Crime and Financial year Justice Studies, London, 2008
163 Ibid
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Youth justice system and youth offender teams
The State of Youth Crime When the Government undertook youth Figure 16: Offences resulting in a justice reforms in the Crime Reduction Act disposal 1998, the Youth Justice Board established
two primary targets for reducing youth r 31 e ) 0 b
0 30 m
crime. The first set of targets was built 0 u , 0
N 29
1 f (
around self-reporting of youth crime, as o
s 28 e e g c a measured by the annual MORI Youth n 27 t e f n f e
o 26 c
f
Survey of 11 to 16 year-olds in mainstream r e o 25 P education. The goal was to reduce self- 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06
reported offending to below 26% by 2006. Year According to a 2006 MORI Youth Survey self-reported offending is 27%. Vehicle crime, burglary, and robbery are the subject of the second set of targets. The Structured Interviews aim is to reduce the number of young people In the structured interviews, the majority who are “usually resident in the YOT’” and of respondents said that their YOT had who receive a substantive outcome for each seen an increase in young offenders of the three offences.164 Unlike the self-report- involved in knife crime; 60% said that ed offending target, the YJB has met targets there had not been an increase in gun on robbery, burglary, and vehicle crime, crime among young offenders; and 21% although youth offending appears to be said that gun crime has never been an issue increasing, as shown by the number of in their YOT. Of those not reporting an offences resulting in a “disposal” (sentences increase in gun crime, 64% said it had and pre-court decisions made by police). The been an issue in their YOT, but that it had trend has been rising over the past four years not increased over the past five years and as the total number of offences has grown by 36% said it had never been an issue. 11.4% from 2002-03 to 2005-06.165, 166 The Looking at the YOTs described as urban, chart below plots the rising trend. 58% reported an increase in gun crime, The most worrying trend associated compared to only 7% of rural YOTs. with rising youth offending, and the focus The second question asked respondents of this report, is the rise in offences record- about trends in knife crime among young ed as violence against the person. Although offenders. Based on anecdotal evidence we the targets have been met on volume expected knife crime to be more common crime, violent offending has risen signifi- than firearms offences. This was confirmed cantly from 2002 to 2006. For 2002-03, in the interviews. The majority said that violence against the person offences stood their YOT had experienced an increase in at 35,000, rising to 54,661 in 2005-06. young offenders involved in knife crime. The increase of violence over four years 61% of respondents reported an increase 167 164 Youth Justice Annual from 2002 is over 50%. in instances of knife crime among young Statistics 2002/03, Youth Justice The increase in violent crime among offenders; 35% reported no rise in knife Board, 2004 young offenders calls into question the tar- offending, while 4% said they did not 165 Youth Justice Annual Statistics 2005/06, Youth Justice gets on which the Youth Justice Board is know if there had been an increase in knife Board, 2007
judged. The target culture that has plagued crime. 166 Solomon E and Garside R, police forces has permeated the youth jus- The urban/rural divide was much more op cit 167 Youth Justice Annual tice system, as the most destructive crimes, interesting for the knife offences than for Statistics 2005/06, Youth Justice involving violence against the person, have firearms. As expected, urban YOTs reported Board, 2007 risen unabated.168 more increases in knife crime than rural ones, 168 Ibid
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Going Ballistic
but the difference was not pronounced: 67% Funding for any government organisa- of urban and 55% of rural YOTs reported an tion is always a contentious issue and increase in knife crime incidents among YOTs are no different. Given that so young offenders. This suggests that the phe- much of YOT funding goes into buying nomenon is spreading from urban centres to custodial places for young offenders, less densely populated areas. many workers feel there is little left over YOT workers were also asked about for case work, and even less for preventive trends in gang-related offending, one of the measures. YOTs are not meant to exist as main drivers of youth violence and involve- ad hoc bodies that interact with youths ment in gun and knife crime. A majority only once they have been referred by the felt that it had increased: 52% reported a courts. On the contrary, they are designed rise in gang offending. However, some to curb both reoffending and first-time respondents were quick to stress that “group offending through prevention pro- offending” is often categorised as gang grammes. (Section 38 of the Crime offending. The distinction may not be easy Reduction Act 1998 makes it an obliga- to make since gangs have become more tion for YOTs to engage in prevention.) chaotic and leaderless. An offence that may Yet many respondents felt they did not appear to be an instance of impulsive group have the resources needed to run effective offending could indeed be a gang offence. prevention programmes. As a result of Again, the urban/rural divide illustrates under-funding, and target priorities, the spread of gang culture from major urban YOTs are unable to fulfil the main reason centres outwards to suburban and rural for their existence. areas. 58% of urban YOTs reported a rise in The structured interview asked each gang-related offending, compared to 39% of respondent whether or not they felt their rural YOTs. But since this has traditionally YOT was adequately resourced. The been confined to major urban centres, it was majority of YOT workers felt that they surprising to see so many rural YOTs report were not given the resources they required an increase. This could be the sign of a spill- to carry out all of their duties to the best of over effect. England and Wales are still fortu- their ability. 73% of interviewees said that nate, in that gang culture has not yet reached their YOT was not adequately resourced, the level of US cities, but if prompt action is while 27% felt that their YOT was given not taken gang offending will continue to the resources and funding needed to per- grow in the areas where it has taken root. form as it should. Almost all those YOTs that reported The qualitative responses to the ques- knife crime was stable still considered it was tion were extremely varied. Some YOTs an issue. We asked respondents what rea- were perfectly happy with the funding they sons young offenders give for carrying a received, while others felt that a lack of knife. The overwhelming majority (83%) funding kept them from meeting their reported that young offenders carry knives national targets. One said: “There has out of “fear and/or protection”. The remain- never been enough funding, but now we ing 17% said that young offenders carry are facing cuts, and the first thing to go knives for fashion or as a status symbol, will be our prevention work.”169 Other while a very small number said that some respondents felt that they were given young offenders do actually admit to carry- enough, but that a little more would go a ing a knife with the intent of using it. There long way. “We could always use and do 169 Telephone interview with was no discernible difference between urban more, if we had the resources. We are given YOT manager, March 2008 and rural YOTs in reasons young offenders adequate [resources], yes, but it’s not gen- 170 Telephone interview with YOT manager, March 2008 gave for carrying a weapon. erous or great.”170
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Youth justice system and youth offender teams
The urban/rural divide appeared again mainstay of Policy Exchange reform argu- when looking at perceptions of resources. ments. The inability to reconcile targets 92% of urban YOT workers felt that they and prevention efforts was identified by were not given an adequate level of fund- several interviewees. YJB targets are based ing compared with 58% of rural workers. on self-reports of offending and statistics The reasons for discontent among YOT on court disposals for burglary, robbery workers regarding funding are varied. The and vehicle crime; they have yet to incor- most commonly cited frustration was the porate measurements for any prevention impact on prevention work. Interviewees efforts. As a result, targets tend to skew also identified the short-term nature of YOT priorities. Even though team man- grants from the YJB or central govern- agers recognise the benefits of prevention ment. Others suggested ring-fenced fund- work in reducing violent youth offending, ing for YOTs as a possible solution. the current performance regime does not Because funding for YOTs comes from encourage it. Given the constraints of both both local council budgets and a national funding and performance targets, it is dif- level grant, there are significant variations ficult for YOT managers to balance pre- in funding for individual YOTs. vention work with their case loads. Several respondents felt that greater partnership with, and more work from, the charitable Solutions from practitioners sector could close the gap in prevention The structured interviews were intended to programmes offered, although there was gain insights from those on the frontline of not much detail on how this would look in youth justice who are charged with the task reality. of cutting offending and reoffending. We asked YOT workers what they would do to make their team more effective in curbing Respondents were asked if they felt the police were gun and knife crime. Several key reforms “ able to protect them from violent crime. Only 25% felt that emerged that would improve the effective- the police were capable of doing so ness of YOTs and affect the amount of vio- ” lent crime committed by young offenders. YOT reforms revolved primarily around funding. Because of the discrepancies in Finally, a number of interviewees said YOT funding, one respondent argued that that not enough was done to spread best a national funding formula (perhaps simi- practice between YOTs. One also thought lar to the one used for the policing grant) that the outcomes of prevention pro- would be an effective tool for supplement- grammes had not been sufficiently evaluat- ing the budgets of YOTs that are most in ed. There is no lack of research coming need. 92% of YOT workers in urban areas from central government agencies, but feel that they are under-resourced, which is there is obviously a problem with dissemi- likely to be a result of local authority budg- nating this information to practitioners. ets already being stretched to fund other public services. By establishing a national funding formula, those YOTs that are least Young Offenders’ Survey well resourced would have an opportunity The YOT interviews were effectively ran- to deliver better services. dom: we contacted all 155 YOTs in Combating the target culture that England and Wales, and our sample com- weighs down much of the criminal justice prises a self-selecting group who agreed to system in England and Wales has been a participate. In a similar way, the survey
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administered to young offenders was ran- knife. Strangely, 36% of respondents who domly selected, based on 16 YOTs that said they did not need to carry a weapon to were willing to distribute it. However, as feel safe also said they had previously been we were warned by YOT managers threatened at knife point. The survey results responses were difficult to get and a total of reflect findings in previous research.171 eight YOTs sent back responses. Respondents were asked if they felt the The survey distributed to young police were able to protect them from vio- offenders asked 12 multiple choice ques- lent crime. Only 25% felt that the police tions and two questions on demograph- were capable of doing so. Another 25% ics. The multiple choice questions were said they did not know. Half (50%) said designed to discover how often young they did not believe the police were able to people may carry a weapon, come in con- protect them from violent crime in their tact with one and have one used against area. 67% of respondents who felt the them. The survey also inquired about police were unable to protect them had young offenders’ attitudes towards police, previously been threatened with a knife. their perceptions of safety and their The majority of respondents were white, of thoughts on crime trends in their area. British background, but only 50% of The respondents had an average age of 15 respondents who felt unprotected by the years 6 months, and the majority (60%) police were white, meaning respondents were white-British. The youngest was 9 who felt unprotected by police were dis- years-old and the oldest 18. proportionately non-white. The first question asked if respondents In terms of perceptions of crime, the felt they needed to carry a weapon to feel majority (59%) felt that crime had risen safe. A small majority (52%) said that they over the last two years in their area. 19% did not feel they had to carry a weapon to said they did not believe crime had risen in feel safe; 27% said they did not know; and their area, while 22% did not know if 21% said they did feel the need to carry a crime had risen in their area. weapon. Of those who said either they When asked specifically about trends in needed to carry a weapon or did not know, knife crime, respondents were less than pos- 65% had been previously threatened with a itive. A plurality (40%) of young offenders
Figure 17: “The police cannot protect me from violent crime”
35%
s 30% t n a
d 25% n o p s
e 20% r
f o
e 15% g a t
n 10% e c r e
P 5%
0% Strongly Agree Agree Don’t Know Disagree Strongly Disagree 171 Ginsburg K, “Youth Violence: If we are not active in prevention efforts, who will be?”, Response Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, vol 152, 1998, pp 527-530
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Figure 18: “Crime has gone up in my area in the last two years”
40% 35% s t n
a 30% d n o
p 25% s e r
f 20% o
e
g 15% a t n
e 10% c r e
P 5% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Don’t Know Disagree Strongly Disagree
Response
felt that knife crime had gone up in their cy reveals how much more common the use area over the past two years; 29% of respon- of knives than guns is among young offend- dents said they did not know, and 31% dis- ers. 13% said they believed knife crime had agreed with the idea of gun crime increasing become worse in their area over the past two over the last two years. Of the respondents years. The plurality of respondents (44%) reporting a rise in knife crime, 56% had felt that gun crime had not worsened in previously been threatened with a knife. their area and 42% did not know. The survey also asked whether respon- Despite only 13% of respondents dents felt gun crime had increased in their believing that there is more gun crime in area over the past two years. The results for their area, half (50%) said they know this question were far more encouraging someone who has carried a gun at some than for knife crime, though the discrepan- time; 7% of respondents said they did not
Figure 19: “There is more knife crime in my area than two years ago”
35%
s 30% t n a d
n 25% o p s
e 20% r
f o
e 15% g a t
n 10% e c r e
P 5%
0% Strongly Agree Agree Don’t Know Disagree Strongly Disagree
Response
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Figure 20: “Has anyone ever used or threatened to use a knife against you?”
60% s
t 50% n a d n
o 40% p s e r
f 30% o
e g a
t 20% n e c r
e 10% P
0% Yes No
Response
know if they had known someone who had they have negative attitudes towards the carried a gun; 44% said no, they had not police service’s ability to protect them or feel known someone who had carried a gun. the need to arm themselves to feel safe. The fact that a small majority of randomly selected young offenders have had contact with someone in possession of a gun is a Statistics frightening figure. To support our findings from both the The survey asked young offenders if they structured interviews with YOT workers had ever been threatened with a knife; 50% and the young offender surveys, we looked said they had been. Given that half of sur- at figures and statistics for the 16 YOTs vey respondents had been victims of knife that agreed to administer the youth survey. crimes themselves, it is not surprising that The figures, reported by the Youth Justice
Figure 21: Total Offences for Violence Against the Person
Total of 15 YOTs 7000
6000
5000 s e c n
e 4000 f f O
l
a 3000 t o T 2000
1000
0 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
Year
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Figure 22: Offences for Violence Against the Person Recorded by YOT
Board, corroborate YOT workers’ assess- a trend towards more violent offending ment of trends in gun and knife crime being committed by young people. Youth among youths. Offender Teams are the organisations best The rural/urban distribution of the placed to combat this trend, so it is impor- YOTs participating in our survey was tant that they are empowered to do so. biased towards urban teams; 12 of the 16 YOT workers are dedicated and talented were categorised as urban. However, the people working under difficult conditions; YOTs are a random reflection of areas a shift in priorities, targets and resources across the country, covering London, the could bring long-term improvements. Midlands, the North, Wales and the South One of the most important aspects of West. prevention is that different agencies should The YJB data for the 16 YOTs reveals a share the responsibility of risk manage- definite trend upwards in youth offenders ment; the police are rarely the first state committing acts of violent crime. agency to discover that someone is at risk Unfortunately the data does not explicitly of offending.172 YOTs are well placed to be record gun and knife crime – all violent a focal point through their engagement offences are put under the same category as with schools – not always easy as some “violence against the person”. schools are more co-operative than others. The Government needs a nationally planned or cohesive approach to the pre- Lessons vention of violence among young people, The information garnered from the YOT including funding earmarked for preven- worker interviews, young offender surveys tion-only programmes and performance 172 Interview with Chief Superintendent Dave Keller, and Youth Justice Board statistics indicate targets based on best practice. Manchester, April 2008
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7
Manchester case study
Summary have serious implications for the eco- Gang shootings caused four deaths and nomic infrastructure, community cohe- 18 injuries in Manchester alone last year sion and confidence. This case study and cost Greater Manchester Police £6 explores the work of the XCalibre task- million.173 Despite setbacks, the Greater force and describes the life of a gang Manchester Police (GMP) has worked member. with other agencies to take robust action to tackle gangs and gun crime. In partic- ular they have built partnerships with Background other agencies, improved community The research team spent several days on relations and increased community confi- a site visit focusing on the GMP dence in the police service. The struc- Metropolitan Basic Command Unit, tures that sustain gang culture and activ- which includes the Moss Side area of ity have shifted significantly in the past Manchester, a huge contributor both to decade; from organised crime syndicates volume crime and firearms discharges.174 to more fluid, autonomous and chaotic Both the Metropolitan BCU and neigh- groups. Gun and knife crime takes a mas- bouring Trafford BCU are receiving sive toll on society, from deaths and seri- extra funding under the Government’s ous injuries to the psychological impact tackling gangs action programme on individuals, families and communi- (TGAP), which was launched in ties. High levels of violent crime can also September 2007 after the murder of 11-
Figure 23: Firearms discharges in GMP and Met. division
Metropolitan Division Firearms Discharges (Moss Side) 160 GMP Total
s 140 e g r
a 120 h c s i
d 100
m r
a 80 e r fi
f 60 o
r e
b 40 m u
N 20 173 Interview with Ralph 0 Corrigan, MMAGS, Manchester, 2003/2004 2004/2005 2005/2006 2006/2007 2007/2008 April 2008
174 Interview with Chief Year Superintendent Dave Keller, Manchester, April 2008
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Figure 24: Volume of types of crime in GMP and Met. division
2007/2008
3500 Monthly
3000 s
e 2500 c n e f f 2000 o
f o
r
e 1500 b m
u 1000 N 500
0 Burglary Robbery VAP Vehicle Crime
Types of offence
year-old Rhys Jones in a Croxteth which is now spreading into parts of Old carpark.175 Trafford and Stretford.176 Historically, The Metropolitan BCU has an ethni- there have been two primary contributors cally diverse population: 130 different to the gang conflict, the Gooch and languages are spoken in the area. Many of Doddington gangs. To a lesser extent, a the 145,000 residents live in large hous- third gang, the Longsight Crew have been ing estates. There are also 70,000 stu- active for many years. In the past decade dents. Unemployment is high and so is the number of gangs has increased expo- crime. About a third of firearms dis- nentially. Today there are more than a charges in the Greater Manchester Police hundred splinter gangs, all of which claim district take place in this small area. Moss their own identity but still align them- Side also has a history of gang activity, selves to one of the three main groups.
Figure 25: Firearms discharges 2007-08, April
Rochdale Division Bury Bolton Division Division
Oldham Division
Wigan Division North Manchester Division Salford Division Tameside Division
Metropolitan Division 175 Hansard, Column 286W, 7th Trafford South Division January 2008; see www.parlia Manchester Division Stockport ment.the-stationery-office.co.uk Division /pa/cm200708/cmhansrd/cm080 107/text/80107w0058.htm Airport Division 176 Interview with Detective Inspector Darren Shepton, Manchester, April 2008
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Xcalibre Schools: school-based liaison officers Greater Manchester Police established and the Manchester multi-agency Operation Xcalibre (also known as the gang strategy (MMAGS) often receive Xcalibre Task force or XTF) in September information regarding tensions in 2006 to tackle gun crime among gangs. schools and problems between gang The team, comprising a detective superin- members; tendent, a detective inspector, two ser- Probation officers: requesting and shar- geants, 14 constables and an intelligence ing information about clients will high- officer, concentrates on intelligence, light the allegiances given to them by enforcement and prevention. their clients. Street-level intelligence gathering, espe- cially in the Moss Side area, continues to be Principles of Combating Violent the best method of identifying and tracking Gang Crime the movements of gang members and this is Much of Xcalibre’s early success is rooted the focus of XTF work. One XTF officer in the three-pronged strategy of intelli- said: “We are able to see them in their ter- gence, enforcement and prevention. The ritory, associating with other gang mem- combination of intelligence and enforce- bers, carrying out incursions into opposing ment is the best short to medium-term gang territory and ultimately arrest them strategy the police have for stamping out for offences.”177 They can establish who are gang violence. The long-term strategy is the most active gang members, who are prevention work, carried out primarily taking the biggest risks and who are most through improving police-community likely to commit violent offences.178 relations and empowering affected com- Older gang members are far more dis- munities. creet than younger ones, perhaps because they are more feared and respected and Intelligence and Surveillance thus have less to prove or, as one officer A solid foundation of police intelligence is suggested, “perhaps they have just learnt essential to restricting both the demand from experience”179 Younger gang mem- and the supply sides of gun crime. The bers, however, will frequently travel in Greater Manchester Police approach com- large groups into opposition territory, bines the street-level work of Xcalibre with knowing that they risk violent reprisals. As Level 2 and 3 operations run by its armed another officer told us: “…the need for crime unit. Covert surveillance is expensive excitement and to prove themselves is very in terms of manpower and bureaucratic strong”.180 barriers make Level 2 surveillance more Xcalibre also receives information from: difficult than it should be to gather vital intelligence. For XTF officers to track Agencies: such as the Manchester multi- intelligence on the 20 most wanted offend- agency gang strategy team; ers will add about £13,000 a month to Prisons: inmates on arrival will declare normal policing costs. Initial government gang allegiances to ensure that they are funding under TGAP for Greater not put at risk on a wing with members Manchester Police was £140,000 (supple- of an opposing gang; mented in January 2008 by £50,000 for Housing officers: Xcalibre will be con- community confidence and trust building 177 Interview with XTF police officer, Manchester, April 2008 tacted by housing officers if a gang activities); the first £85,000 was chan-
178 Ibid member requests a move away from nelled to wide reaching community opera-
179 Ibid areas he is at risk, having declared tions and the remaining £55,000 to covert 180 Ibid him/herself as involved in a gang; activity.
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Enforcement gence, and a contingent from the tactical Automatic Number Plate Recognition aid unit to act as an enforcement team.184 Operation In addition to the increased police pres- The TGAP funding was used to run a ence at street level, the force aeroplane was series of high-profile, automated number deployed to monitor gang activity covertly. plate recognition operations on the Old Finally, to support officers on the ground, Trafford and Moss Side border in two police dogs and four mounted officers December and March 2008. This opera- were deployed daily. The operation has run tion cost approximately £5,000 and led to for nearly three months between the hours two arrests, 46 stop-and-searches and 33 of 1600 and 0400.185 In total there have offences being reported. been 24 deployments. When Operation Cougar was first launched, the tension Policing at Schools between rival gangs was so high that the Secondary schools in areas with high-levels whole of the Greater Manchester Police of gang activity (Manchester Academy, was on official alert. There has been a sharp Stretford High and Trinity High) were iden- reduction in firearms discharges by gangs tified as vulnerable since the majority of in the Metropolitan BCU since it began. children in the area attend one or the other Such has been the success of Operation of them. The “policing at schools” initiative Cougar in preventing further shootings – was primarily a public reassurance exercise and indeed murders – that considerably but it also deterred gang members from more TGAP funding than originally pro- hanging around school premises and jected has been used in this area (£5,000). improved police relationships with teach- This has been supplemented by force ers.181 Since then the schools have invited funding. Operation Cougar resulted in the XTF officers in to discuss gang issues, which serving of five acceptable behaviour con- some had previously been reluctant to do tracts (ABCs), seven ASBOs, 26 letters to for fear of negative publicity. The cost of persons “at risk” (see below), 26 referrals to this operation was £2,300.182 MMAGS and one juvenile removed from custody.186 High visibility patrols One of the main purposes of Operation Neighbourhood policing delivers a visible Cougar is to identify juveniles at risk from police presence and is vital to building gang activity. They, and their parents, are community confidence. £I0,000 was allo- issued with a letter of concern, which high- cated for increased street patrols in the lights the risks of the individual’s behav- evenings along the Moss Side and Old iour and involvement in gang activity.187 Trafford border (an area within the Police then explain the details and services 181 Unpublished TGAP Report, Metropolitan BCU). These additional offered under MMAGS and children’s Manchester Police, 2008 182 Number of arrests: 1; num- patrols led to three arrests, and garnered 68 services. If juveniles persist in endangering ber of stop/searches: 28; num- intelligence reports from officers interact- themselves, they may be removed from the ber of hours deployed 80. ing with the public, from October 2007 to street and taken home. As a last resort, 183 Unpublished TGAP Report, Manchester Police, 2008 March 2008.183 police may take a juvenile into police pro- 184 Interview with Chief tection and to a place of safety (see case Superintendent Dave Keller, Targeting Offenders study: Boy A). Such action may seem dras- Manchester, April 2008 185 Unpublished TGAP Report, There were two fatal gang shootings in tic, but it has been praised by both parents Manchester: Manchester Police, Manchester in January 2008. Operation and partnership agencies. 2008 Cougar, launched the following month, The practice follows the “gold strategy” 186 Ibid deployed plain-clothes Xcalibre officers to championed by Chief Superintendent 187 Unpublished TGAP Report, Manchester: Manchester Police, act as spotters collecting real-time intelli- Dave Keller, commander of the 2008
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Metropolitan BCU. This proactively iden- From the start of the TGAP initiative in tifies young persons who by their behav- September 2007 up to March 2008, the iour or location at time of day (for exam- unit’s surveillance and covert action direct- ple, out on the street in the early hours) ly linked to gang activity has resulted in 31 may risk being the victim of gun crime. arrests, the recovery of 19 firearms and The police aim to remove such individuals 2,307 rounds of ammunition and the dis- to “a place of safety” by returning them ruption of 77 firearms transfers. direct to their homes and families or into the care of social services (Emergency Police Protection Order Proceedings). The Enforcement legal foundation for this strategy is Article Building on police intelligence work, 2 of the Human Rights Act (Right to enforcement uses legislation to restrict the Life).188 The fact that police are now will- movements and activities of gang mem- ing to go to such lengths has not escaped bers. As well as the measures described young gang members. The word has spread under Operation Cougar, police try to use that the police will “lock you up” for being Anti-Social Behaviour Orders (ASBOs). openly involved in a gang. However, these are not always appropriate for typical gang behaviour and courts have been reluctant to impose them. According to XTF officers, gang members spend most According to XTF officers, gang members spend most “ of their time indoors where they do not of their time indoors where they do not indulge in any indulge in any obvious antisocial behav- obvious antisocial behaviour. However, once on the street, iour. However, once on the street, one text one text message could mobilise an entire gang message could mobilise an entire gang, ” sparking a conflict between rival factions, but this is not what is normally understood by antisocial behaviour.190 Level 2 Covert Activity Police efforts to disrupt the supply side of firearms centre on surveillance and eventu- Multi-agency work al disruption of illegal dealers. However, The Manchester multi-agency gang strate- surveillance operations require a great deal gy (MMAGS), which was introduced in of manpower and often compete for 2001, remains the only crime and disorder resources with other priorities, such as ter- reduction partnership (CDRP) in England rorism. and Wales that works solely on gangs and The armed crime unit (ACU), part of their use of firearms. It defines a gang as “a the serious and organised crime group group of three or more people who have a within GMP, is charged with investigating distinct identity (eg a name or and disrupting illegal arms dealers. The badge/emblem), which commits general ACU’s efforts are long-term, ongoing oper- criminal or anti-social behaviour as part of ations. The unit targets firearms supplies, that identity, and uses (or is reasonably sus- and Level 2 organised crime and gang pected of using) firearms or the threat of 188 Unpublished Manchester Police Strategy Document, criminality with support from the force firearms in the commission of offences”. A Manchester Police, February 2008. intelligence bureau and the Serious gang member is someone who has identi-
189 Unpublished TGAP Report, Organised Crime Agency. Their covert fied himself through “verbal statements, Manchester Police, 2008 operations are subject to regular review, tattoos, graffiti etc, and this is corroborat- 190 Interview with Chief ensuring that coverage and intelligence ed by police, partner agencies or commu- Superintendent Dave Keller, April 189 2008 flows are appropriate and targeted. nity intelligence”.
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Direct interventions include one-on- police dialogue had been lacking. The one work with gang members, providing effort made by police to engage better with them with an exit strategy if they are will- the community was evident after a large- ing. It runs a series of school days educat- scale police search for firearms ended with ing young people on the risks of gangs and residents applauding police as they left the guns. Follow-up sessions are aimed at those area.193 deemed most at risk. Its workload is a heavy one, with over 80 active cases at present. In the three months from Community Engagement February to May 2008 it had direct con- Much of Manchester’s success in combat- tact with 130 individuals, mostly under 18 ing gang violence stems from concerted years. Only one client has been convicted efforts toward better community engage- for a firearms offence while with the pro- ment. The Metropolitan division benefits gramme. There were 23 gang homicides in greatly from some excellent community the five years before MMAGS was set up leaders and the police have harnessed (1997 to October 2001) compared to 20 their abilities through the development of in the seven and half years after (October the Greater Manchester Police independ- 2001 to April 2008). ent advisory group (IAG), which deals with gun crime and the impact of police Operation Eagle operations. The IAG is consulted during One of the first actions under the policing operations and its members act Government’s TGAP was Operation Eagle as observers. It comprises 12 volunteers on 28th November 2007: 105 firearms who meet officers on a regular basis to search warrants were executed; 21 searches discuss policing issues and offer a com- of gang members’ homes carried out; 84 munity perspective. The group advises on searches of sheds/gardens and wasteland how best to respond to certain incidents; surrounding gang addresses; and 25 people assists with the development and delivery were arrested, nine for firearms offences of training; helps with festivals and and four firearms seizures. At the same events; scrutinises new policies and acts as time Greater Manchester Police held a day a link between the community and the of action (there were similar operations in police.194 other forces throughout the country).191 Evident in the Metropolitan division’s Many different agencies were involved, community outreach work for prevention including MMAGS, Manchester and and communicating new policies, is a Trafford councils, housing associations, desire to display sensitivity to community social services, community groups and concerns. When police increased the use of independent advisory groups working in stop-and-search in the Moss Side area, the partnership with GMP; 250 police staff police produced a DVD explaining why took part in the operation.192 The and how it worked. This was supported by Metropolitan BCU distributed 1,500 special training for police officers by a 191 Unpublished TGAP Report, Manchester: Manchester Police, leaflets to addresses affected by gun crime. member of the IAG on stop-and-search 2008
The leaflets explained how to access sup- procedure; complaints and mediation pro- 192 Ibid
port services and gave details of confiden- cedures; a media marketing strategy and a 193 Interview with Chief tial police hot lines, as well as information series of community events. Superintendent Dave Keller, Manchester April 2008 on witness support. The local council 194 Greater Manchester Police, removed gang graffiti. Community feed- Project Reclaim Local Initiatives: Independent back was an integral part of the operation, The project was established with £3,600 of Advisory Group, 13 March 2008, www.gmp.police.uk/division05/p particularly in areas where community- TGAP funding and organised by Urbis – ages/iag.htm
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an exhibition centre based in Manchester the current structure of performance targets that focuses on city living. It also had the for the police skews priorities. The current support of a number of corporate spon- performance targets are aimed primarily at sors.195 The aim of the project was to build volume crime rather than high-impact civic responsibility and active citizenship crimes like a shooting. This diverts resources among young men. The participants from gangs and guns because “what gets worked collectively to define eight princi- measured gets done”. There are also no tar- ples that they considered to be acceptable gets to reflect successful efforts at preven- behaviour for all Moss Side residents and tion: if the police are able to stamp out an that became the basis for the Moss Side escalation of gang violence through Manifesto; 3,000 copies were printed and increased patrols, this will not be reflected in distributed throughout the area by its any targets or key performance indicators. authors. Part of the project involved 45 This problem was also identified for YOTs. young black men from Moss Side, identi- There need to be sweeping changes to tar- fied by police as being vulnerable to gang gets for the whole criminal justice system to activity, attending a four-day conference reflect the importance of prevention work. with black and minority ethnic speakers There are also issues around funding. A who emphasised that you can make posi- great deal of supplementary funding, for tive choices regardless of where you live.196 example TGAP funding, is one-off or short term. Effective preventive measures cannot Dodge the Bullet Campaign be carried out with piecemeal short-term The campaign was launched in November funding. Planning long-term prevention 2007 by a local pressure group, Mothers requires long-term funding. Against Violence, and advises youths who are The Metropolitan BCU has benefited either mixed up in gang culture, in danger of immensely from better community engage- becoming so, or who have relatives/friends ment. Chief Superintendent Dave Keller who are. It is run by young people local to the has made excellent use of a strong IAG, and Moss Side area; it received £500 to transport built community confidence in the police youths to the launch at the City of Manchester service with their help. Engaging the com- Stadium and £3,000 for the project. munity begins with empowering those best placed within it to lead. By doing exactly Witness confidence initiative that, the Metropolitan BCU has established GMP has had a additional DVD produced a better relationship between police and the outlining the witness protection and other community and increased social capital in special measures that are available to allow the area. witnesses to provide evidence in this difficult Better support for intelligence officers is area. The DVD emphasises the ability of courts crucial to curbing the supply of illegal to receive anonymous evidence, inclu ding the firearms in cities. Intelligence officers in use of voice distortion. Practical demonstra- the GMP armed crime unit highlighted tions will be given at community presentations. the difficulty of dealing with cross-border flows of firearms and the time taken to obtain intelligence streams, such as phone Lessons tap warrants, which must be signed for 195 The University of After spending time on site at GMP’s personally by the Home Secretary. The Manchester, Manchester Metropolitan University, Britannia Metropolitan Division, the research team subsequent delay is unacceptable because Building Society, The Co-op, identified a number of problems that hinder police miss opportunities to seize on Abbey National Building Society police efforts to tackle violent gang crime. firearms smugglers and arms dealers, 196 Unpublished TGAP Report, Manchester Police, 2008 As Policy Exchange has previously argued, allowing more guns onto the streets.
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Manchester case study
Responsibility for risk management youths. As a last resort, police need the should be shared by all local authority freedom and flexibility to use civil injunc- agencies. By default, most of this responsi- tions, ASBOs and even the Human Rights bility is shouldered by the police, but other Act to protect young people who pose a agencies are also likely to identify at-risk risk to themselves and others.
Boy A: a case study
Boy A, born on 30th July 1992, lived on Moss Side with his mother and younger brother. He first came to the attention of local police aged 13 in October 2005 following an allegation of criminal damage at a local school. Shortly afterwards he was arrested in connection with 18 separate offences, predominantly street robberies carried out with friends, and was convicted of three of them. In 2006 he was identified as a member of a splinter gang called M.S.B, which has attracted the attention of XTF officers because of their young age and rates of offending. Boy A is believed to have been present when a 14-year-old friend of his was shot dead in 2006. In May 2007 he was shot in the leg during a gang drive-by shooting. He relished the attention his wound brought him and refused to assist the police in any way with their investigation. To take him away from the gang lifestyle and protect his life, MMAGS arranged for Boy A to be rehoused in another area with his mother and brother, but he soon reappeared in Moss Side. Boy A was then put into a placement for children who have been excluded from school, but this education was sporadic and away from mainstream. Because he had to travel through rival gang ter- ritory, a taxi was paid for daily to transport him safely to his place of education. He was also taken away on breaks by agencies working with gang members, but on one of these he got into a fight with another boy and was sent home. In June 2007 he was arrested for threatening to shoot a police community support officer. His bail con- ditions excluded him from areas of gang activity and set a curfew. The following month he was formally registered as a child at risk given his mother’s inability to rein in his dangerous behaviour. Although there is no doubt that he broke the conditions of his bail many times, the fact that the police were prepared to enforce them ensured that he kept a relatively low profile and didn’t put himself on the frontline. In August 2007 he committed a section 18 assault when he set a dog upon a girl, and he was later arrested while attempting to intimidate the victim as she was giving evidence against him. In January 2008, he was convicted and given a 12-month supervision order. Unfortunately the bail exclusion and curfew were not part of the order and the police lost the only means of enforcement that had worked in their efforts to safeguard him. Boy A began to reappear on Moss Side associating with active gang members and joining gang attacks. On 15th February 2008, Xcalibre officers saw him in a park, which was notorious for gun inci- dents and the scene of a recent murder, at a large gathering of gang members. For his own protection the officers took him into custody under an emergency police protection order and contacted social services. (His mother had already agreed to such a course of action.) Eventually it was decided that a place of safety was at home with mother, where he was returned. This pattern was repeated in April. Boy A has consistently refused to accept any offers of help to move away from the gang lifestyle. He often returns to Moss Side and frequents situations that will attract gang attacks with firearms. The local police and XTF fully intend to continue using emergency police protection orders to pro- tect him, though Boy A himself sees them as a means of police enforcement rather than for his own protection. Police and partner agencies are currently attempting to find evidence of recent antisocial behaviour; if successful they may be able to obtain an ASBO that would exclude him from gang areas and prohibit him from associating with gang members.
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Birmingham Case Study
Summary based in Handsworth and Johnson Crew in Violent gang crime in Birmingham has Aston and New Town. They had a stable evolved from a citywide struggle for con- form of organisation, and a great deal of trol of the narcotics trade, to a fragmented their activity revolved around the drugs and volatile landscape of more than a hun- trade. But as gang culture spread among dred splinter groups willing to engage in greater numbers of youths in Birmingham, violent acts with no apparent motive. The its organisational structure began to unravel. city’s method of dealing with this challenge Evidence from police in Birmingham has centred on a multi-agency approach to reveals a challenging landscape. There is a the management of offenders and gang localised problem of guns and gangs in the member exit strategy (relocating and sup- city – reflecting trends in England and porting reformed gang members), a medi- Wales. Although crime involving firearms ation programme for warring gangs and a has been reduced, the problem is not going system for documenting and targeting the away: 72% of residents are likely to report members most at risk. The police have that gangs are a problem in their area.197 A used civil injunctions under Section 222 of significant proportion of crime is commit- the Local Government Act 1972 to stop ted by young people and violent offenders known gang members from operating in appear to be getting younger. In 2008, the areas where they are likely to offend. typical age is between 16 and 20, consider- ably younger than 15 years ago.198 (The peak age of victims is 20 to 24.) Most vio- Background lent crime is concentrated in four wards: We spent several days on site with mem- Lozells and East Handsworth, Soho, Aston bers of West Midlands police based in and Sparkbrook and it is expensive – for Birmingham. Gang activity in areas of example, “juvenile wounding cost the city’s Birmingham poses a constant challenge to economy in excess of £50m per annum.”199 the West Midlands police force. It was on Illicit drugs, especially cocaine, are the pri- their patch in Aston that Leitia mary source of income for gang members. Shakespeare and Charlene Ellis died in the The relationship between gangs and the crossfire of a shoot-out on New Year’s Eve class A drugs trade in Birmingham is far 2002. stronger than in Manchester, where gang
197 See www.homeoffice.gov. members mostly deal in class C drugs. As uk/violent-crime-action-plan- gangs look to expand and protect drug 18020 Birmingham’s gangs trading, territory becomes very important 198 Interview with Detective Inspector Paul Etchells, April, Birmingham’s experience of gangs has and violence is often used to protect it. 2008 grown substantially since the 1970s and However, drug dealing is only one of 199 Unpublished Birmingham Police Strategy Document, West 1980s. At the beginning two gangs domi- many causes behind gang violence. And Midlands Police, 2008 nated the city’s underworld: Burger Bar violence over territory is not always about
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protecting drug trade. Drug dealing still include Russian-made Baikal handguns, underpins the criminal economy and the 9mm submachine guns and a small num- non availability of legal conflict resolution ber of MAC-10 machine pistols. means that firearms offer ultimate protec- tion and empowerment.200 Gangs by their nature are extremely territorial. Some- Birmingham’s Approach to Gangs times the wrong person crossing the Besides enforcement, the approach of West wrong street is enough to start a serious Midlands police is based on intervention, violent conflict between two gangs. The harm reduction, offender management diagram below shows a map of northwest and real co-operation with the local Crime Birmingham and the areas controlled by and Disorder Reduction Partnership different gangs. (CDRP). According to Chief Superintendent Tom Coughlin, there are between 400 Gun Supply and 500 persons actively involved in In Birmingham one to two guns are dis- gang violence across the city. To combat charged on average every day.201 Although the problem on such a scale, the number of firearms homicides in Birmingham police co-ordinate a multi- Birmingham has been falling since 2002- agency group – the Birmingham 03, the number of firearms discharges has Reducing Gang Violence or BRGV – not fallen in the same way. (One of the comprising the police, Birmingham City most popular explanations for the drop in Council, Birmingham Safer Partnership homicides is the poor quality of illegal and community groups. It aims to handguns used.) Birmingham police have reduce harm in the short term through recovered a number of decommissioned mediation, intervention and enforce- but reactivated weapons and converted ment, and in the long term through replicas. These are easy to get hold of and offender management education, and police believe they are the most prevalent building community capacity to con- among gang members.202 Other firearms tribute to crime reduction.
Figure 26: Gang Territory in Birmingham
B21 B6 F3 OCU Boundary “The Frontline” 200 Squires P, Gun Crime: A Villa Rd ‘Burger Bar’ area review of evidence and policy, B19 ‘Johnson’ Area Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, London, 2008 B16 & B6 Postcode Area 201 Interview with Chief B21 Postcode Area Superintendent Tom Coughlin, April 2008
202 Interview with Paul Etchells, April 2008
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Multi-agency Work There are sufficient numbers of peo- The strategic approach taken by the part- ple within the local community nership has three key elements: affected by the nuisance behaviour to constitute a “class of the public”. It is Offender management (police led); not necessary to prove that every Building community resilience and member of the class has been affect- engagement (city council led); ed: a representative cross-section will Independent advisory group – over- be enough; sight and scrutiny (community led). It is within the proper action of a local authority to put an end to all public nuisances to protect and promote the Civil Injunctions and Restriction interests of the inhabitants of their Orders area. BRGV has developed swiftly over the past 12 months and focuses on produc- West Midlands police were able to use ing tangible results that build communi- Section 222 to exclude dangerous indi- ty confidence in the police, as well as viduals from certain areas so that they social capital within the community. Its could no longer exert influence, trade recent success is the result of using both drugs or intimidate residents there. It the criminal and civil justice systems, allowed them to control dangerous gang through the use of ASBOs and civil members by enforcing non-association or injunctions. restraining orders, exclusion zones around West Midlands police have been effective- certain areas (barring known gang mem- ly applying existing legislation for public bers from the area in which their gang protection, through Section 222 of the Local operates) and specific exclusions (buses or Government Act 1972. As written, a local parks). council can use section 222 to obtain a A similar strategy is built around the county court order to prohibit a person from enforcement of ASBOs. If the police are continuing to cause a public nuisance. The able to identify and target a high-risk gang wording of the Act is somewhat ambiguous member, and are able to successfully pros- and this has allowed West Midland police to ecute them with an ASBO, then they can use it creatively in the interest of public safe- establish exclusion zones and seriously ty. The Act provides that: limit the individual’s ability to pursue gang Where a local authority considers it activity. expedient for the promotion or protection ASBOs were introduced under Section of the interests of the inhabitants of the 1 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 area, it may prosecute. To be successful, it and first used in 1999. The use of civil must be able to prove that:203 law procedures and the broad scope of authority granted to courts to impose The behaviour of the person in ques- restrictions and conditions on individuals tion materially affects residents in the were necessary and welcomed by local area; authorities. After receiving an ASBO, The reasonable comfort and conven- some gang members in Birmingham have 203 "Respect", Home Office, ience of life of a class of Her Majesty’s entered gang exit programmes. 30th April, 2007; see www.respect.gov.uk/members/ar subjects is negatively impacted; According to Chief Superintendent Tom ticle.aspx?id=7940 The area affected by the nuisance Coughlin, one gang member who 204 Interview with Chief behaviour can be described as “the received an ASBO later told police, “This Superintendent Tom Coughlin, 204 Birmingham, May 2008 neighbourhood”; ASBO saved my life”.
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The Police Reform Act 2002 contains members in their jurisdiction. Moreover, five important changes regarding the risk matrix gives an element of ASBOs:205 accountability and oversight. Should any questions be raised over the methods used, Courts may decide that an ASBO will Birmingham police can produce clear doc- be valid throughout the country; umentation outlining the reasons behind It will be possible to apply for interim any action taken. ASBOs; The first section of the risk matrix is Registered social landlords and the based on intelligence about illegal use of British Transport Police will be able to firearms. It covers intelligence only and is apply for ASBOs; not cross-referenced against offences or It will be possible for a court to impose charges. This section also includes intelli- an order at the same time as passing gence from police observations, forensic sentence for a criminal conviction; evidence, etc, indicating that the subject County courts will be able to impose has access to firearms but has not yet been orders under certain circumstances. arrested or charged for offences. The second section consists of informa- ASBOs are another example of police cre- tion on possible drugs offences. Again, this atively using the law to combat escalating covers intelligence only and is not cross- gang related violence. However, existing referenced against offences or charges. legislation is simply not fit for purpose. However, it does include arrests for The use of both section 222 and ASBOs is offences where the subject has been bailed a testament to the ingenuity and resource- from a police station for further enquiries. fulness of top police officers, but both face As revenue from drug sales fuels a great legal challenges. In January 2008, a high deal of gang activity, this intelligence is court judge ruled that use of section 222 extremely relevant to identifying the most was unlawful and consequently stripped active gang members. the Birmingham police of a valuable tool Geography is a significant factor in pat- against gang violence. Since this ruling, terns of gang crime. Gangs are extremely gang violence has risen sharply.206 Clearly, territorial in nature; they are known to the police require new powers to defuse dominate the areas in which they are active imminently violent situations. through witness intimidation, threatening violence or simply through peer pressure. When gang members commit criminal Intelligence-led Policing and Risk offences, they are most likely to do so in a Management specific area. As a result, geographic infor- Rather than targeting gangs as a whole, mation on offending is the third part of the police in the West Midlands, most specifi- risk matrix. This covers intelligence about cally in Birmingham, focus their efforts on offences that are committed by the subject, a well-documented, intelligence-led system and where they are committed. of targeting dangerous individuals known The fourth section includes instances of to be a risk to themselves and others. previous arrests or public disruptions, 205 "Crime Reduction", Home Office, 23rd August 2007; see Intelligence officers in the F3 operational whether the subject is wanted for offences www.crimereduction.homeoffice. command unit of West Midlands Police by the police, is on police or court bail, or gov.uk/asbos/asbos9.htm have developed a rigorous system or “risk on licence from prison. Additionally, it 206 O’Neill S, “Police say loss of banning orders to blame for rise matrix” for doing so. It means they can be assesses whether the subject appears to in gun crime”, The Times, 22 sure that they are focusing resources on the enjoy an expensive lifestyle but with no May 2008; see www.timesonline .co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article3 most dangerous and most at-risk gang source of documented, legal income. 981082.ece
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Finally, if the subject is currently serving dealt with by regional forces and even by a custodial sentence, then intelligence local Basic Command Units. about activities in prison are incorporated The most effective weapon against into the risk matrix. It is important that firearm trafficking is surveillance. Police both police and probation services keep surveillance can be used against both gun close tabs on any intelligence coming out traffickers and potential firearms offenders. of prison. Gang activity is known to per- However, there are procedural barriers to meate prison culture. both that make it difficult for police to use After taking accounting of these various surveillance effectively. Interviews with intelligence streams, each subject receives a West Midlands police intelligence officers risk rating: red, amber or green. At present, revealed that there is not enough surveil- Birmingham police have identified approx- lance capacity to deal with illegal firearms imately 10 category red individuals, 20-25 supply.207 Moreover, as found by Man- amber and more than 30 green. The main chester police, there are significant delays purpose of the matrix is to identify which in getting phone taps, which need to be gang members are the most dangerous, signed off by the Home Secretary. based on available intelligence. West On a local level, when the police have Midlands Police were the first force to gathered enough evidence to place a target- develop a system to track and document ed individual under surveillance for possi- the specific targeting of dangerous individ- ble firearms crimes, there is an overriding uals and remain the sole operators of such protocol that must be observed: if there is a system. any suspicion that a subject under surveil- lance may be in possession of a firearm, then an entire armed response vehicle team Surveillance (ARV) needs to be present. This policy Crime in England and Wales is often clas- drains resources as there are a limited num- sified on Levels 1, 2 or 3. Level 1 deals with ber of available ARVs. It should be amend- local volume crime such as burglary, crim- ed to have an ARV team on stand-by or to inal damage and/or assault. Level 2 crime have one firearms officer accompany a sur- is that which crosses police force bound- veillance team. Surveillance policy needs to aries, and usually involves serious offences be more flexible in its approach to dealing such as murder, armed robbery and/or with firearms crime. organised crime. Level 3 crime is serious crime that crosses international bound- aries, such as organised crime networks Offender Management and terrorism. West Midlands Police, and specifically Gun crime is extremely difficult to elim- police in Birmingham, have made signifi- inate for many reasons. Chief among them cant strides in improving offender manage- is the fact that it is pervasive in all three ment for known gang members. levels of crime. Police must deal simultane- Birmingham’s gang exit programme puts a ously with both the demand and supply heavy emphasis on bringing offenders who side of gun crime, as they strive towards have finished serving a custodial sentence harm reduction. Although gun trafficking out of gangs. Leaving a gang sounds simple belongs in Levels 2 and 3, the conse- – just walk away from the area and refuse quences of illegal gun trafficking affect to associate with gang members – but in Level 1 crime as well. Combating gun traf- practice it is fraught with difficulty and
207 Interview with Paul Etchells, ficking requires national border control, often requires support from a number of Birmingham, May 2008 but the movement and sales of firearms are agencies, as well as relocation to another
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city. To support gang offenders who want a Midlands. The majority of these offences way out of their former lifestyle, involved either young men being shot or Birmingham has developed a programme young men shooting their peers and rivals. adapted from the multi-agency public pro- tection arrangements (MAPPA). MAPPA was created by the Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000 – orig- “ According to XTF officers, gang members spend most inally to protect the public when a violent of their time indoors where they do not indulge in any or sex offender was released back into soci- obvious antisocial behaviour. However, once on the street, ety. In 2005 the National Offender one text message could mobilise an entire gang Management Service (NOMS) realised that ” there was a gap in the management of gang members who wanted to leave the gangster life behind on release. NOMS worked with Following a series of high-profile shoot- police in Birmingham to tailor the MAPPA ings, Birmingham found itself the subject system for them as well. The programme of unsavoury headlines and an unwel- offers housing, counselling and employ- comed media spotlight that led to a defen- ment support. Although still in a very early sive posture and some much needed think- stage, the response has been positive and ing on how to approach gun crime and recidivism rates for clients are significantly gang violence. The West Midlands media- lower than for non-members. tion and transformation service was one response. It found inspiration in the prin- ciples of the Good Friday Agreement in Mediation Northern Ireland, as it sought to unite dis- The third pillar of Birmingham’s gang strat- parate and fractured groups that were egy that has proved both innovative and locked in a cycle of violence. successful is the independent mediation The mediation process first brings disaf- provided by the West Midlands Mediation fected parties together to talk – though this and Transformation Service (WMMTS), is almost always done through an interme- brainchild of two former Birmingham diary. Once they have established contact, police officers who have extensive experi- the service looks to work through and ence dealing with gang crime in the city. beyond conflict, towards a structural break The impact of the mediation service can with cycles of violence. Essentially, the best be illustrated by an overview of gang mediation process is driving towards two violence during the past five years. distinct phases of social cohesion. The first In 2002 alone, there were 27 gang mur- phase is making peace between the two ders costing police roughly £37 million. In groups. This entails framing the dispute, the past four years combined, there have identifying the grievance, establishing rela- been 11 gang murders costing just over tionships and building the confidence to £15 million.208 According to Chief take risks. The second phase is keeping the Superintendent Coughlin, the number of peace, which entails working with parties to murders is falling, though injuries are remove normal barriers to co-operation and increasing. disarmament. It also entails creative think- ing and introducing structural relationship Development of the Service changes – leading to transformation. The WMMTS was established in 2004, in The mediation service built upon this 208 Figures from interview with response to an escalating and chaotic wave twin structure to access communities and Kirk Dawes of WMMTS, of firearms offences across the West groups that were aggrieved but lacked the Birmingham, May 2008
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confidence to resolve matters. Early efforts example, a younger gang member might from the mediation service were met with disrespect an “elder”. According to West success. These consolidated efforts were Midlands police intelligence officers, many then used on a number of occasions to violent offences involving gangs are seem- identify and resolve pockets of conflict ingly motiveless and not susceptible to across Birmingham and the West mediation. Midlands. The annual budget for the WMMTS is One of the most important characteris- roughly £500,000, but this sum is quickly tics of the mediation service is its neutral- depleted by salaries. Moreover, the short- ity and independence from the police. term nature of its funding is not conducive Although there is a degree of information to a programme with long-term goals. sharing, it is mostly a one-way stream: Staff turnover is another issue. The from the police to the mediation service. WMMTS employs a senior management WMMTS maintains a good standing team of 15 mediators who work at full within communities, so much so that stretch at all times. Because they are highly community leaders seek it out to assist in trained, they make attractive candidates for defusing tensions within and between other schemes and are easily poached. gangs. It has become a de facto agent of There is also the risk of mediators suffering cohesion, recognised by community lead- from burnout following an intense round ers, local politicians, public authorities of mediation between gangs when lives and even key individuals connected to may be at risk. gangs. WMMTS has to meet the challenge of achieving short-term results while keeping What the Mediation Service Does a focus on long-term sustainable gains. The mediation programme in the West Balancing expectations can be difficult: Midlands currently has the most effective some community stakeholders have unre- harm reduction potential in the country. alistic expectations of the service. It is The WMMTS delivers four main services. important to define what the programme The first is information dissemination, for can and cannot do. example giving communities early warning At times there has been a failure to of mounting tension between two conflict- respond quickly enough to clients’ requests ing gangs. The second is bringing people for help in exiting the gang and gun cul- together and promoting creative social ture. If gang members come forward ask- thinking. This allows the programme to ing for assistance through an exit pro- deliver on its third service – facilitating the gramme and that help is not delivered, it community, police and even gangs them- can lead to serious damage to the pro- selves to act to quell rising potential for gramme’s credibility within the wider com- violence between groups. Finally, it helps munity. to keep the peace through monitoring and the transformation of gang attitudes and relationships. Lessons In theory, the WMMTS is a near perfect Birmingham’s efforts to reduce gang vio- model for curbing gang violence, but there lence boast three innovative approaches are several issues that hinder its perform- that have shown a great deal of promise. ance. The mediation is voluntary so the However, there is little evidence that its opposing parties must be willing to come success has been spread as best practice to forward. A growing number of acts of vio- other police forces that face the challenges lent retribution occur within gangs. For of gang violence.
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The city’s success in curbing gun, knife the use of civil injunctions. Since their use and gang crime is built on its commitment was overturned in the high court, gang vio- to intelligence-led targeting of dangerous lence has surged.209 gang members, the use of mediation serv- The loss of Section 222 should be a cat- ices in the face of conflict escalation, a alyst for new legislation that gives police multi-agency gang exit strategy and cre- and local authorities clear power to use ative use of Section 222 of the Local civil injunctions against offenders posing Government Act 1972 and Anti-Social an imminent threat to others in the com- Behaviour Orders. munity. As the Birmingham and Man- Birmingham has had success in reducing chester case studies have shown, effective gang violence by co-ordinating multi- management of violent offending is only agency work, offender management, medi- possible through a comprehensive ation, gang exit strategies and effective use approach that encompasses both long-term of civil injunctions. However, the removal strategies aimed at tackling the causes of of Section 222 from the police tool kit has violent crime, and short-term tactics aimed been a devastating blow. Although at immediate harm reduction. If police do Birmingham has made strides to combat not have every opportunity to execute both 209 O’Neill S, “Police say loss of banning orders to blame for rise gang violence through all of the above short-term and long-term measures, vio- in gun crime”, The Times, 22 mentioned initiatives, the cornerstone of lent crime will remain embedded within May 2008 see www.timesonline. co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article3 its strategy was harm reduction through our society. 981082.ece
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Conclusion
This research makes no claim to be an all tion, which is misleading. The Home embracing analysis of the problem of gun Office Statistical Bulletin, Homicides, and knife crime. We have adopted a bot- Firearms Offences and Intimate Violence tom-up approach and have looked at the 2006-07, will show that gun offences perceptions and experience of those closest declined by 14% from 2006 to 2007. to the reality – the public and frontline However, in the year to December 2007 practitioners; we have taken account of there were provisionally 9,967 firearms current policy and practice; and we have offences – an increase of 4% compared identified areas where policy intervention with the 12 months ending December could be improved. These recomendations 2006. A further dimension is presented by will be developed and fully costed for the the most recently available detailed analysis second book in this series, to be published of figures. The 2005-06 figures show a rise in Autumn 2008. over the previous year of 23% (from 78 to 96) in the number of serious (firearms) Principles injuries in the 10-19 year-old age range. Based on our research, four clear principles Young people are increasingly involved in have emerged that provide the context for impulsive firearms crime – 42% of the policy recommendations that follow. firearms crime involved criminal damage, These principles are: 54% involved violence and robbery. Knife crime was not separately identi- 1. The long-term trends with respect to both fied in the annual data until April 2007. gun and knife represent a real and devel- However, the long-term trend in murder oping problem in society using a knife is worrying, notwithstand- ing a decrease in 2005-06. Long-term We have commented in depth on the trends are more significant – as any nature and extent of the problem, and the informed follower of the stock market context and limitations of the British will testify. Crime Survey and recorded crime data. This data can be and is used to present a 2. These issues cannot be addressed by a partial and misleading picture. The BCS is crime control approach alone – a compre- often cited to demonstrate a fall in overall hensive, cross-departmental and long- violence (31% since 1997) for example; term preventive strategy that addresses the however, its figures exclude offences by underlying causes as well as the symptoms young people under 16. The authors wel- is also required come the plan to pilot the inclusion of under 16s in the BCS We have outlined in our analysis what we Minor variations in recorded crime from have described as an epidemiological one year to another are sometimes used to approach: the effectiveness or otherwise of present a picture of an improving situa- criminal laws on public health vis-à-vis
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injury and death rates. In so doing we Recommendations have drawn on research that sets out the risk factors involved, including poor edu- Information and funding cational achievement, erratic or harsh Recommendation 1 parental discipline, parental conflict or Relevant agencies should agree to separation, low socioeconomc status, share information especially about delinquent or violent peers and disorgan- individuals posing a risk of violence, ised neighbourhoods. individuals at risk and potentially dan- gerous locations. This sharing should 3. Serious policy responses need appropriate be required by law in order to over- prioritisation and resources over the long come differences in workplace culture term and ethics.
We have identified the problematic impact Recommendation 2 of performance management and the Central government should collate and development, from April 2008, of the publish recorded crime figures much assessments of policing and the communi- faster than it does now, ideally every ty safety regime. The principle promoted quarter, so that emerging trends can be here is that police and community safety identified promptly. priorities should be locally derived and locally relevant within the broad context of Recommendation 3 national targets. The Government should fund the The youth offender team research National Ballistics Intelligence System undertaken for this study demonstrated and National Firearms Intelligence Cell how prevention, even when enshrined in centrally to ensure their future and statute, gets lost when practitioners are continuity. faced with the day-to-day reality of serving the criminal justice system with limited Recommendation 4 capacity and resources. The benefits of the The National Ballistics Intelligence TGAP initiative in Manchester were brief System should be extended to include in terms of central funding support. In the Scotland and Northern Ireland to absence of continuing central government ensure a more comprehensive and funding the National Ballistics Intelligence effective intelligence framework. Programme, for example, had to be paid for from local police force budgets. Recommendation 5 The performance targets of the police 4. There is a need to recognise and build on and other agencies should include pre- effective and promising existing initiatives vention of gun and knife crime. They should reflect long-term prevention We have commented favourably on some and management of risk as well as short of the emerging best practice in the case term responses. examples reviewed in Manchester (through TGAP), and in Birmingham (mediation). Recommendation 6 At a more strategic level, the Violent Departmental and agency resources Crime Strategy 2008-11 seeks to address should be allocated, and ring-fenced, these issues in a cross-departmental way over the long term to enable the with central direction and impetus from a effective delivery of a preventive ministerial action group. strategy.
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Supply that prompts many young people to Recommendation 7 carry weapons; and guidance should be The UK Border Agency, supported by given to schools and parents on gangs, Revenue and Customs, should do more guns, and knives. to detect the importation of firearms and component parts, ammunition Recommendation 13 and related material. Ensure that all agencies have access to examples of best practice in multi- Recomendation 8 agency intervention. A new procedure should be designed so that phone taps can be authorised more Recommendation 14 quickly. Subject to independent evaluation, dis- seminate the Birmingham mediation Recommendation 9 approach with respect to gangs as Deactivated weapons should be classi- “good practice” through the National fied as imitation firearms under the Police Improvement Agency and other Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006, relevant agencies. and their ownership should be prohib- ited without a firearms certificate Recomendation 15 Implement a system for spreading best Recommendation 10 practice, especially in risk management, Intelligence-led operations under across youth offender teams. Section 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, which allows Recommendation 16 police to stop and search without sus- Develop community engagement and picion in anticipation of violence, and overt community action. screening equipment, should be implemented consistently. The scope Recommendation 17 of Section 60 should be extended to Develop the risk matrix approach for cover incidents of recent serious vio- indentifying individuals who pose a lence. risk of violent crime.
Demand Criminal Justice Recommendation 11 Recommendation 18 Develop an early intervention strategy The legislation affecting both knife and based around the Sure Start pro- gun crime should be subject to a thor- gramme. An effective response to gun oughgoing review with the object of and knife crime needs to address the simplification and clarification. wider social and economic causes of interpersonal violence. Early interven- Recommendation 19 tion for children at risk, aged 0 to 5, is Mandatory jail sentences with respect the best hope of having a long term to gun and knife crime offending effect on violent crime trends. should be applied as intended.
Recommendation 12 Recommendation 20 An education strategy should be devel- Civil law remedies, such as ASBOs, oped to address issues such as the fear should be developed further to underpin and perceived need for self-protection prevention and management of risk.
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Recommendation 21 for young people on release from cus- Contact with the criminal justice sys- tody. tem for those involved in gang, knife and gun crime should be used as an Recommendation 22 opportunity to tackle the causes of Witness protection and support schemes offending, engage other services and should be improved given the danger of the provide intensive continuing support criminality involved in gun and knife crime.
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Glossary
ACPO: Association of Chief Police Officers authority departments, legal agencies and is a professional police association repre- voluntary agencies, that is required to gen- senting members of chief officer teams: erate strategies for its area. chief constables, deputy chief constables and assistant chief constables. Community safety partnerships: partner- ships between local agencies to identify ACU: Armed Crime Unit is part of the and respond to crime and disorder within serious and organised crime group in their local authority area. police forces and is charged with investi- gating and disrupting illegal arms sales. COT: Chief officer team a team of officers at the force level, comprising chief consta- APACS: Assessment of Community Safety ble, deputy chief constable, and assistant indicators are used by Central Government chief constables. (to track performance in local areas and include a focus on serious crime and pro- CPS: Crown Prosecution Service is tection, reflecting public service agree- responsible for prosecuting criminal cases. ments (PSAs) agreed between government departments and the treasury Crime Levels: Level 1: local, high-volume crime characterized by antisocial behav- ARVs: Armed Response Vehicle is the term iour, vandalism and petty theft. Level 2: generally used to define a patrolling vehicle more serious crime such as murder or which contains firearms, usually in a secure organised crime. Level 2 crime often oper- armoury. The vehicle is crewed by at least ates across police force borders. Level 3: two police officers suitably trained in the terrorism and international crime that use of weapons and equipment to be carried transcends national borders. in the vehicle, which provides immediate armed response to appropriate incidents. CSR: Comprehensive Spending Review is a governmental process in the United BCS: British Crime Survey measures the Kingdom carried out by HM Treasury to amount of crime in England and Wales by set three-year departmental expenditure asking people about crimes they have expe- limits and, through public service agree- rienced in the last year. The BCS includes ments, defines the improvements that the crimes which are not reported to the police, public can expect from these resources. serving as an alternative to police records. HMIC: Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of BCU: Basic Command Unit is the main Constabulary examines and improves the operating unit of police forces. There are efficiency of the police service in England 228 of them in England and Wales. A force and Wales. will divide its territorial area into a number of BCUs, each having its own complement IAG: Police Independent Advisory Group of officers and staff comprises members of the community who provide the police with independent CDRP: Crime and disorder reduction advice on a range of issues, including partnership is an alliance of organisations, developing the plans and policies which including police, fire service, NHS, local will shape the way communities are
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Glossary
policed in the future. The IAG also liaise Wales. NIM identifies patterns of crime between police officials and the communi- and promotes a co-operative approach to ty, keeping a two-way stream of communi- policing, which requires the participation cation open. of other agencies and bodies.
LAAs: Local Area Agreements set out the NPI: Neighbourhood policing initiative is priorities for a local area agreed between cen- a programme aimed at putting more police tral government and a local area (the local officers out on patrol to increase police vis- authority and Local Strategic Partnership) ibility and tackle quality-of-life issues that and other key partners at the local level. often cause distress, such as graffiti, rowdy neighbours, vandalism, offroad motorcy- MAPPA: Multi Agency Public Protection cling, speeding and littering. Arrangements are exist to deal with the risks that are presented by some released NOMS: National Offender Management offenders who are thought to pose a risk to Service was created in 2004 and is the sys- society or to themselves. tem through which correctional services are commissioned and provided. MMAGS: The Manchester Multi-Agency Gang Strategy (MMAGS), which was NPIA: National Policing Improvement introduced in 2001, remains the UK's only Agency is new agency created to support Crime and Disorder Reduction self-improvement across the police service Partnership (CDRP) team working solely and to drive forward programmes outlined to tackle the problems of street gangs in the national community safety plan. involved in firearms use. OCJS: Offending, Crime and Justice Survey NABIS: The National Ballistics is a nationally representative, longitudinal, Intelligence Programme deliver a new data- self-report survey which asks young people base providing, for the first time, a nation- in England and Wales about their attitudes al database for all recovered firearms and towards and experiences of offending. ballistic material such as complete rounds of ammunition, shell cases and projectiles. PA: Police Authority is an independent body The database will also link those ballistics with responsibility for the appointment of items to tactical intelligence recorded by chief officers, managing finance and moni- the Police forces and other UK Law toring the performance of the force. enforcement agencies. PCSOs: Police community support offi- NCRS: National Crime Recording Stan- cers are civilian members of staff who dards was adopted by all police forces in wear a police-style uniform. Their main England and Wales in April 2002 (some functions are to provide a highly visible had adopted the Standard earlier) in an police presence in public areas and to deal effort to improve the consistency of police with low-level nuisance and antisocial recording and to better reflect the demands behaviour. made on the police by victims of crime. Police Federation: The Police Federation NIM: National Intelligence Model is an of England and Wales is the representative information-based deployment system and body to which all police officers up to and cornerstone for the management of law including the rank of Chief Inspector enforcement operations in England and belong.
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Going Ballistic
PPAF: Police Performance Assessment WMMTS: West Midlands Mediation Framework is an initiative led by the Home and Transformation Service is an inde- Office, with the support of Her Majesty’s pendent non-profit service that works Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC), the with Birmingham police to mediate Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) between different gangs when conflicts and the Association of Police Authorities escalate. The programme is based on the (APA), which establishes policing targets Northern Ireland model of conflict medi- throughout England and Wales. ation.
PSA: Public Service Agreements are per- Xcalibre: Is the dedicated police task force formance commitments agreed between created to gather intelligence and combat government departments and the treasury gang related gun crime in Manchester. on a national departmental level. YOT: Youth Offending Teams exist in TGAP: Tackling Gangs Action Prog ra- every local authority in England and mme which the Home Secretary launched Wales. They comprise representatives in September as the focus of renewed from the police, probation service, social action to tackle gun crime and serious vio- services, health, education, drugs and lence amongst young people. The Tackling alcohol misuse and housing officers. Gangs Action Programme is overseen by a YOTs are responsible for young offender central Ministerial Taskforce on guns and management and preventing youth gangs, chaired by the Home Secretary. offending.
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Murders involving knives and firearms never fail to grab the headlines, yet they are relatively rare. Gun crime, for example, represents only 0.4% of all recorded crime in England and Wales. The public are often sceptical, however, when they read figures such as this – and they have reason to be so. The evidence collected for this report suggests that chaotic, street- on Ballistic Going level firearms offences, often associated with young people, have risen.
The research team, led by former Assistant Chief Constable Dr Bob Golding, have built a report around primary research taken Going from interviews and surveys with police constables and sergeants, Youth Offending Team Managers, young offenders, public polling and case studies in Manchester and Birmingham. Ballistic The report shows that the nature of the threat from gangs, guns and knives is changing, and the Government must change its approach if communities are to stem the tide of youth violence.
rBbGligadJnta clr dtdb ai Lockhart Gavin by Edited McClory Jonathan and Golding Bob Dr Dealing with guns, gangs and knives The research findings support four primary arguments: that official crime figures do not reflect the experiences of many communities in England and Wales; that information and intelligence sharing between agencies is lacking; that early intervention and prevention work needs to be targeted and expanded and that the relevant legislation governing gun and knife crime is a mess.
Dr Bob Golding and Jonathan McClory Edited by Gavin Lockhart
£10.00 ISBN: 978-1-906097-29-5 oiyExchange Policy Policy Exchange Clutha House 10 Storey’s Gate London SW1P 3AY
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